FluidandThermdSystems

( | BE
J GTIVES
T h ef o c u so f t h i s c h a p t e ri s o n m o d e l i n fgl u i d a n d t h e r m asl y s t e m sa, n d t h e m a i n
addressed topicsare
" F l u i d( l i q u i da n d p n e u m a t i ce)l e m e n t s - i n e r t a n ccea, p a c i t a n c e
r e, s i s r a n c a
en,o
f l u i de n e r g ys o u r c e s .
'n Thermalcapacitance and resistance elements.
" Mathematic al modelingof fluid systemsand formulation of the naturaland
forcedresponses.
', Mathematical modelingof thermalsystemforceoresponse.
" U s eo f M A T L A Bi@ n s y m b o r iac n d n u m e r i c acra r c u r a t i o nasn, d i n e v a r u a t i oonf
fluidsystemseigenvalues and eigenvectors.
" ' A p p l i c a t i oonf s i m u l i n k @
t o g r a p h i c a l lm
y o d e la n d p l o tt h e t i m e r e s p o n soef
f o r c e df l u i ds y s t e m w
s i t h l i n e a ra n d n o n l i n e apr r o p e r t i e s .

INTR(lDUCTION
This chapter is dedicatedto modeling the dynamics of fluid (liquid
and pneumatic)
systemsas well as thermal systems.These systemsare modeled
using elements
similar to those for mechanical and electrical systems:inertance, capacitance,
and
resistance. Systemmodelsarederivedwhen thesecomponentsarecoupledin various
systems.In caseonly inertance and capacitanceproperti", ur" p."r"nt
and no resis-
tive lossesoccur,the naturalresponseof fluid systemsis studied.In
many applica-
tions, the inertia properties of liquids and gasescan be neglected,and
the resulting
mathematicalmodels are basedon only the capacitive and resistive properties
used
to formulate the forced responseof fluid and thermal first-order systerns.
The use of
MATLAB@and Simulink@in solving for the natural and forced responses
of fluid and
thermalsystemsis illustrated by severalsolved examples.
152 5 FluidandThermal
CHAPTER Svstems

S-XLIOUID MODELING
SYSTEMS
In liquid (or hydraulic) systems,the medium of energy transmissionis a liquid. We
review a few basic liquid laws first, such as Bernoulli's law and the law of mass con-
servation.Next, we discussthe basic liquid elementsof inertance,capacitance,and
resistance,together with the sourcesgeneratingliquid system motion. You will learn
how to formulate the natural (free) responseof inertance-capacitance liquid systems
as well as the forced responseof liquid systemscontaining capacitanceand resistance
components.
The notion of flow rate is utilized in liquid and pneumatic systemswith different
meanings.Inliquid systems,thevolumeflowrate is employed,which is denotedhere
by qu; whereaspneumatic systemsuse the massflow rate, denotedby 4.. The two
amounts are connectedby meansof the mass density:

LV L,m
LxA = v A ) Q . = E AY =
Q,= = Q QQ, (s.1)
N: A, *
where V is volume, m is mass,v is the fluid velocity, x is distanceffavelled by fluid, and
A is areaperpendicularon flow direction.

LawandtheLawof MassConservation
$"3.'gBernoulli's
An important instrument in modeling liquid dynamics is Bernoulli's law. For a
conservative liquid (with no energy losses or gains) flowing in a pipe and when
the liquid is consideredincompressible(and therefore its mass density is constant),
Bernoulli's law statesthat
pvT pv?
Pzr l- QBhz = Pt +j l- QBht (s.2)
z z

which is based on Figure 5.1, and where p is the static pressure, ft is the vertical
distance (also named head) from a referenceline, and v is the liquid velocity at the
center point of a cross-section.When lossesare accountedfor (of a viscous nature)
and energy is input into the system (such as by pumps or hydraulic actuators),
Eq. (5.2) changesto

u,* + * psh,= prt +. t sw- e7hr

e7hr (5.3)

where w is the specific work produced by a hydraulic source (it is energy per unit
mass, being measuredin N-m-kg-t in SI) and hy is the lost head (it is due mainly
to viscous friction). Equations (5.2) and (5.3) are the pressure-form equations of
Bernoulli's law.
The law of volume/massconservation statesthat, if there is no accumulation or
loss of liquid between points I and2 of Figure 5.1, then the volume flow rate will
not chanse:

Qr : Q,z (s.4)
 Modeling 153
5.1 LiquidSystems

5.I
TIGURE
column
Liquid through
Traveling cross-Section
Variable Plane.
Pipein a Vertical

on Eq.(5.1)
or,based

vrA, = vrA, (s.s)

Fora pipeof lengthl, thelost headis calculatedas

lf ,,2
7r" = - : 7 X ^ (s.6)
cl. zP

where/is the Moody friction factor and dn is the hydraulic diameter, which is cal-
culatedas

a" n4 4= (s.1)
E

with P, being the wetted perimeter of the pipe internal cross-section.For laminar
flow (which is defined shortly), the Moody friction factor is determinedas

r"-6R4e (s.8)

The Reynolds number, Re, is the ratio of the inertia to viscous friction effects
associatedwith the relative motion between a solid and a fluid' The mathematical
expressionof the Reynolds number is

avd, vd,
R":-p.=f (s.e)
154 CHAPTER
5 FluidandThermal
Svsrems

where dn is the hydraulic diameter (for a spheremoving in a fluid, dnis thediameter;

similarly, for fluid flowing in a pipe, dn is the pipe innir diameter), p is rtre
dynamic
viscosity, and v is the kinematic viscosity.Laminarflow has a smooth, linear char-
acter and is defined by generally paraltel streamlines. rt is charactenzed by large
viscosity effects and small inertia properties and occurs for low Reynolds numbers,
for instance,the flow in a pipe is consideredlaminar when Re < 2000. For very small
Reynolds number, such as Re < 1, the flow is known as creep or Stokesflow. On the
contrary, turbulentflow has a nonlinear characterand is defined by a chaotic motion
containing vortices and eddies. In pipelines, turbulent flow occurs for Reynolds
numbers larger than 4000 and where inertia effects are predominant. When 2000 <
Re < 4000, the flow is consideredto be of a transition nature, becauseit combines
laminar and turbulent traits.

Example5.1
A pump is usedto send iiquidverticaliy througha pipe of circularcross-section with
innerdiameterd = 0.02 m. Assumethe pipe,whoseheightis / = 6 m, is openat itsend
opposite to the pump;alsoassumetheflowis laminarandthe incompressible liquidhasa
massdensityp = 1000kglm3and dynamicviscosity p = 0.00001N-s/m2.Knownalsois
the inputvolumeflowrategvi= 0.0001m3/s.Calculate the specificworkof the pump w
thatis necessary to sendliquidto thetopof the pipeby considering
thefrictionlosses.The
pressure at the pumpintakeand at the pipe'sfreeend is atmospheric.

Solution
Figure5.2 showsschematically the pumpandverticalpipesystem, wherepoint0 is at the
intake(input)to the pump,point1 is at the outtake(output)of the pump,and point2 is at
theendof theverticalpipesegment.
Application law betweenpoints0 and 1, whichare assumedat the same
of Bernoulli's
hpioht lp:elc tn

^.,2
, Qv2, = P o t Pro
?r+ ^z + p w (s.10)
2
gives
The lawof massconservation

qr,: v6A : vtA (s.1 )

whichassumedthatthe pumpintakeand outtakeareasare identical;

the resultis

4e,t
ro= vr: 6.12)
;i
Becausevo= vr, Eq.(5.10)simplifies
to

P1: Pn-t Pw (s.13)

 SystemModeling
5.1 Liquid s 155

Pipe cross-section

Pipe segment

5.2
TIGURE
PipeSegment.
PumpwithVertical

il

1 lawis nowappliedbetweenpoints1 and 2:

Bernoulli's
pv: pv,,
) p,* + pgl : p, + - p7h.r or pgl : Qw - QBhr (5.14)
; ;

Thefrictionheadis found,usingEqs.(5"6)
sinceyz = y1becauseof massconservation.
through(5.9),as

, 321tlv, (s.1s)
o '1
pgd'
II
whichtakesinto consideration that the hydraulicdiameteris equalto the actualinner
I
E q s .( 5 . 1 2 )(, 5 . 1 3 )(, 5 . 1 4 )a, n d ( 5 . 1 5 )t,h e s p e c i f i w
p i p ed i a m e t edr . c o m b i n i n g c o r ko f
r
I t h eo u m oi s

h , , 1281t"1q,,
l/ W=gt -r ,
15 l6\
Ttpd."

workis w = 58'8m2ls2'
valueofthepumpspecific
Thenumerical I

.*"
W :, : Liquid
Elements
Similar to mechanicalor electrical systems,which are formed of elementswith iner-
tia, storagecapacity,losses,and energy input, liquid systemscan be defined by such
elements.Inertanceelementsportray liquid inertia effects, whereascapacitancesand
resistancescharacteizeliquid storageand loss features,respectively.The pressureor
the differenceof level (head) among various componentsof a liquid systemrepresent
sourceelementsthat set the liquid into motion. As a consequenceof the dual manner
of generatingliquid motion, the elements'definitions can be provided by either using
1.56 e["{AP"R"E,R
S Fjuidand Therrrral
Systems

[ t r l cP l - c s s t l lor 'll' t h c ] t c a c i{l r i u l t l ; i i o r r[ o o t l r c r i r i ] l ( r . u ] { s

o X ' i n t c r . e s t . ' i ' hscu S s c r . i i r t 1 i r .
lr
l ) r o s s t l l l ro)l ' i i ( l i r r i t c a t l ) a c e o l t l l t r t r t idchs cI c t I c l ' 1 ( s r l l n r i i i rl i l:r I i c ; u i r l i)n I l r c l o r l l g w i i r g .

Inertansp
n h t : i t r c t ' l t t r r ( ct ; t r l l l t l i l i c sl h c i n e r " t i l cl t r l c c l r r r r
iirluirl svstcn)ti rrrtlis pis-tie6Nllr.iy
l l l l l l 0 l ' 1 ; t l il l{l t o r l l lc t t l l t i t l i [ :s; t t c l ll l s
P i p c s .l l o r - l l r r r r i n l l l - f t r o v r ' ai lr]utl" l r . j r ]gst rp r - c s s a l . c .
I h c i l l c ll l l l t c c ( w l l i e t r irs ' - i c l t o t e rht ly / ) l s t i c f i l r c t {
l l s r t r r cp r t r s s u r cr j i t r { c ' r c r l r]cr x e c * i s ; r r . !
1 o f r ' ( i r i r ! c {l l. ru n i { e l l i u i r r ci n { h c r . u t co l ' c h a r l g co l
l i r c v q l r r r p r 1, l . w * l t r - . :

l\rr Ao Altrlt
{,.,,-
{lj (ttll dq, { 5 .i 7 )
tlt
'I'irc'5i
r n r i l o l ' / r . r ,i s N s ' l r r . ( o l . l i 1 ,u l r . ) .{'hc
hclrrl n'trlilcr-iillr.',r.1;1r;(-"g
rfc/iniIiorr is
s i l l r i l l r ' t al lrl a to t r ' I r l (. 5 .t r 7 ) :

, _ A/r l\fi Alrtli

i1, tlt1, ( - 1 I. f i )
tlt1,
tlt
'i'ht.
S I u n i { o 1 ' / 7 .i7s ,l i g l t { ] r (ol.sr
irr
').
[ ] y { l r l , i l l gi n { o l r c c o r r r r[[l l r { u s I l n t r c
s u l r :c { i l ' { i : l - c , ti-s' cc ' l l r r c e . i c. rrIlrl rr I l l c ltn.r-:s-
{ r c u cci l i l . { c l . c l r e c ; r s

A/, 1tt'l,lr r...l{)1

i { n o l l , o w :{ ;h l r {t l l r I w ( ) i i r c l . t u l j r cr t r c f i n i t i o n s
o X . r, tr 1 s(.- 5 ]. 7 ) l l l r i t (r - 5 . l g )l n . ct . t ] u [ r ] ( X
il
ft,,-li,1lr.r,
(.5.10)
'n-lrc:
hircIic orcrgy trilir crl'r-cs'.rrris
r' ircrrllrcc ls r,,cr.ysi'rirar. I o t l l c
c r c r g y , i ' i l r c c h u r i c u l l r r r {c l c c . t r - i c u l iiiili:{ie
s y s { c ' 1 s .l l,e r i r c t i r r s

,. ,: io ,,lrlLl(l)lr
: ._,u,4,!,,,,:
),,,,,,: ( - 5 . 2) 1

T i r e' r c s s u r e - t r c f i r i l i r ' ' 1 ' E q( '- 5 . 2 r )

i s k c p t r L e r i - ' ( r v h .sr Is eu l l i {i s . r * r r d - r i l ) "
hcrttlclclirlctlellelllyresilhsirl a clu.nti{y usthc
ul-,,,, in'r., ac[u'lilva' crerlry(the i'tcrcs{ecl
t'eatlcr ririghfwftltt1.ocl-reck tlle unitsoi' 7,,,= ,./.(Al,/4,)r:i1.

A n r i c r o c h a n nuesl e d r n a m i c r o l l u i d i c
a p p l i c a t i o rnr a si h e s h a p ea n d r i i n r e n s i o n s
i n d i c a t erdn f - i g u r 5
e 3 c a l c u l a tteh e p r e s s u r e - d e f i n e d
i n e r l a n coef l h e l i q r , r rt h
d a riii o w s
t n r o u g ht h i sc h a n n esr e g m e n tc,o n s i d e r i n g
t h a , k n o r , r an r e t h e e n d w i d , r s w r a t l d
t h e t h i c k n e shs, t h e r - ' n g t h a n dt h e w),
1 l i q u i dm a s sd e n s i t p y . o b t a i nt h e i n e r t a n cteo r i h e
partrcula d re s i g nw i l h w 1: * . , .
 Modeling 157
5.1 LiquidSystems

5.3
FIGURE
TaperedRectangular PipewithLaminarFlow:(a)Three-Dimensional
Cross-Section View;
(b)SideView.

Solution
ThewidihwofFigure interms
canbeexpressed
5.3(b) ofxas
Wz- wt
w = w ( x ) : w , *' t+ x (s.22)

Theinertanceofanelementaryparallelepiped
ofwidthr,v,
thicknessh,andlen$hdxisfirst
determined. iscalculated
Thetotalinertance bysumming
afteruvard allsimilar
elementary
prisms(whichmeansintegrationoverthetaperedpipelength/). Newton'ssecondlawof
motionis usedforthe prismatic
element of lenghdx byexpressingtheexternalforceas
areatimespressuredifference:

,dv
dm:; - A(x)Vt(x)- p(x + dx)l = A(x)d(x) (5.23)
dt

whereit has beenconsideredthat p(x) = p(x-t dx)+ dp\). Knowingthat in = Aldv(t)/

dfl,Eq.(5.23)enablesexpressingthe inertance of the elementas

dv(t\ dv(t\
dp(x) d*i oA(x)dx-6' pdx pdx
.- (s.24)
--'t'P
urt - -
A(x) w(x)h
a' A@)'zlg Aa'49
dt dt

MATLAB@'s Symbolic is usedto integrate

MathToolboxrM inertance
the elementary of
Eq.(5.24)usingthefollowing
code:

> > s y m sw l w 2 h I x r h o
)) w: w1+(w2-wl)/l*x;
)) r'n:limit(int(1/w,x),x,1,' lefl' )-lt'mit(int(1/w,x),
x , 0 , ' r " ig h t ' ) :
) ) i n e r t a n c e: r h o / h * in
158 CHAPTER Systems
5 FluidandThermal

commandin the previous

The lastMATLAB@ sequencereturns:

al wc
T,,,= =-Xln;: /5 r5\
Ia,,.o n\w2- wt) fvl

It can be seenthatthe variablex is integrated betweenthe limitsof 0 and / in twosteps:

firstthe indefinite integral of 7lw(x)is calculated, thenthe definiteintegralis evaluated as
the dlfference between the upperand lowerlimitsof the indefinite integral; on attempting
t o d i r e c t lcya l c u l a tteh e d e f i n i t ien t e g r abl y m e a n so f t h e c o m m a n di n t ( 1 / w , x , 0 ' I ) ,
an errormessage is returned,as MATLAB@ cannotdeterminewhethert,v(x)is between
the limits0 and /.
Forw1= w2= w,thetrapezoidal prismbecomes a parallelepiped withan inertance of

.olo1
f - '
-t.P (s.26)
hw A

w h i c hi so b t a i n euds i n g t hM
eA T L A B co@m m a nIdi m it ( i n er t a n c e , w 1 , w 2 , ' 1e f t ' ) -
thiscommandcalculates the limitof /i.,whenwr reachesw2fromthe left"Thefull MATLAB@
codecan be foundon the companion website.Equation (5.26),whereA is the innercross-
sectional area,is validfor anyconstantcross-section pipe. I

Capacitance
The capacitance in the liquid domain reflects the storage capacity by a tank-type
device.The capacitancecan be definedin terms of static pressureas the ratio between
the volume flow rate and the rate of pressurevariation:

dv(t) .
-dt
I
q,(t\ q,ft)dt clt dv (5.27)
" t'P dp(t) dp
dp(t) dp(t\
dt

In the International System (SI) of units system, the pressure-definedliquid

capacitanceis measuredin m5-N-r (or ma-s2-kg-r).In terms of head, the capaci-
tance quantifiesthe volume flow rate necessaryto changethe head rate variation
by one unit:

dv(t) .
q,(t) q,U)dt o'
^ =- d, dv
"Lh dhu) dh(t) dhu) dh (s.28)
dt
 Modeling 159
5.1 LiquidSystems

Due to the connection between head and static pressure,Eq. (5.19),the

two
of Eqs. (5.27) and(5.28) are relatedas
capacitances

Ctn : QBCt,p (s,29)

The SI unit of Or is m2.

the
Similar to springs in mechanicalsystemsand capacitorsin electrical systems,
liquid capacitanceis incorporatedinto potential pressure-formenergy as

I .. (5.30)
u,,o=lc,.o1Lp1'2
#= |tnntnrr
The hydraulic energy,according to Eq. (5.30), is measuredin N-m'

5.3
Example
a. Determine the capacitance of the variable cross-section cylindrical vesselsketchedin
Figure5.4(a).
b . U s et h e r e s u l t o c a l c u l a tteh e c a p a c i t a n coef t h e c o n i c asl e g m e not f F i g u r e5 ' 4 ( b ) '
Knownare the end diametersdt and dz,the heighth, as well as the liquid mass
densityp and the gravitational acceleration g.

A1

(a)
FIGURE5.4
(a)Variable
Cross-Section VerticalTank'
VerticalTank;(b) Conical-Segment
160 CHAPTER
5 FluidandThermal
Systems

Solution
a. Thepressure-defined
capacitance
canbeexpresseo
as

dv
dv dh
u,--T-T (s.31)
dp dp
dh

Thepressure
at the bottomof the tank is

p:pgh (5.32)

Thevolumeoccupiedbythe liquidin a variable tankwitha head(height)

cross-section
of h is calculated
as

V = lAu\dx /5 ??\
J
0

whereA(x)is thetankvariablecross-sectionalareaar a distancex measured

from
thebottomof thetank.Bytakingderivatives
of p and t/in Eqs.(5.32)and(5.33)with
respect
to h andsubstituting
thesederivativesintoEq.(5.31),the pressure-defined
and head-defined
capacitances
become

4 io,*,0*
c,,=#, ff =Ti cn=fri o,.tor (s.34)

b" The diameterdefiningthe variableareaA(x) is the one givenin Eq. (5.22)with d

insteadof wand h insteadof /. Thetankvolumeis therefore
expressed
as

-rn,*)'o,
, : XiQ,*o' =ffta;+dd,+
d7)
Calculating
the derivatjve
of l/with respectto h in Eq. (5.35)and substituting
it into
Eqs.(5.34)yields

x(a|+d,d"+d1\ r(ai + dd2+ d3)

C,.r= --l2W i Cr.n= (s.36)
I2

tankwith dt = dz = d, Eqs.(5.36)changeto
Fora cylindrical

c,,=#tc,o:# (5.37)

I
 Modeling 161
5.1 LiquidSYstems

I
tl
ll
I ""lF
+\1
-----------,>l

l- "'l=
(a)

5.5
TIGURE
(b) Parallel'
in (a)Series;
Uqrd Swtg. T-ks Connected
il

way as
in seriesand in parallel in the same
Liquid capacitancescan be connected
I
I
of the
website Chapter 5 gives the derivation
In electricalcapacitances'ftt" totp*ion
on Figure 5'5:
th ffiut"nt siries and parallel capacitances'based
)o
[1 l1
-- '
-,LJ--
(s.38)
Cu C,r'
1c,' = CnI Cn
lc,,
r)
I
Resistance from changesin
or co^nduitsencountersresistance
,'d The liquid motion through pipes which act as
of valves' or other constrictions'
the conduit direction, ttt-ee*istence
action-isquantified by meansof resistances'vety
energydissipaters.The dissipative with a valve
5.6 shows the portion of apipeline
similar to electrical ,yr,;;r:Fi;rre pressuredrop
flow and the net result of it is a
on it. The valve change; ;" a;" of
tt"Tro;?#ucary,
ratio of rhe pressuredrop to rhe
the liquid resistanceis defined as the
volumeflow rate:

Lp Pt- Pz (s.3e)
Rr,o=-qr=-q:

the liquid
is N-s-m-s (or kg-s-t-m-a)' In terms of equivalenthead'
The SI unit for R7,o
resistanceis defined as

(s.40)
n,.n=
*
162 CHAPTER
5 FluidandThermal
Svstems

^ Valve
y1 p2
R,
+ --l-
Qv

FIGURE
5.6
Pipeline
withValveand Pressure
Drop.

Laminar Turbulent
(linear) (nonlinear)

6(AP,) (q, Lp)

LPn

6eu,,
FIGURE
5.7
Laminar-
andTurbulent-Regime
Relationships
between
Pressure
DropandVolume
FlowRate.

Rr,r,is measuredin s-m-2in SI units. Again, when the static pressure-headrelation-

ship is considered,the two resistancesofEqs. (5.39) and (5.40) are connectedas

Lp pph
R,.r=
q,=;;=eiRln
(5.41)

Both definitions assumea linear relationship between pressure(or head) varia-

tion and volume flow rate. While this linearity covers the laminar flow domain, for
turbulent flow, the relationship between these variables becomesnonlinear and it is
acceptedthat pressurevaries with the squareof the volume flow rate:

Lp = kq?, (\ 4)\

where k is a constant determined experimentally. Figure 5.7 shows the variation of

the pressurein terms of volume flow rate for the laminar and turbulent regimes.
Assuming the pressurevaries nonlinearly with the volume flow rate, this rela-
tionship can be linearized using a Taylor series expansion about a given nominal
(or operational) point, such as the one indicated with the letter n in Figure 5.7. The
Taylor seriesexpansioncan keep the first two (linear) terms:

a d(Ap) I
Lp = Lp, + -r_: | @,- q,,^\ (s.43)
oQ, Ia,=a,.,,
 Modeling 153
5.1 LiquidSystems

As seenin Figure 5.7,

LP,= b(AP,); Q,- Q,.n= E4u,n (5'44)

LP -
consequence,
representsmall variations in pressure and volume flow rate. As a
Eq. (5.a3)can be written as

d(Ap) | (5'45)
D(Ap,)= :- I bq",,
oe, ln,=r,.,
point is
Equation(5.45) suggeststhe linearizedresistanceaboutthe nominal

dtAp) (s.46)
R.,, ,, = ^-
dQ,

of a small
Equation(5.46) indicatesthat the linearizedliquid resistanceis the ratio
variation to the small variation of the volume flow rate and
variationof the pressure
partial derivative of the pressure variation in terms of the
can be calculated as the
nominal point. By taking into account Eq. (5.42), the linear-
volume flow rate at the
izedresistancedefinedin Eq. (5.46)becomes

=ryl^=,,.,
R,,, ='(+),,=,,,
=2ke',n (s.41)

the liquid
In other words, the linearized liquid resistancefor turbulent flow is twice
resistanceof laminar (linear) flow.

5.4
Example
Thepressure in a pipewithturbulentliquidflowis expressed
variation in termsof volume
flowrateas Ap = q,+ 3q?. Compare the linearizedhydraulic resistance corresponding
to the linear resistance,which can be defined as R,,r= Lp/q, by
to this relationship
=
ratioin termsof gu.calculatethis ratiofor q, 0.01 m3/sand
plotting thetwo-resistance
=
Qv 2 m3ls-
Solution
According hydraulic
to Eq.(5.47),the linearized as
is obtained
resistance

0tApl (s.48)
RL,, P. = - * = l * 6 4 ,
dq,

as
Rip is calculated
Atthesametime,the resistance

Ln (s.4e)
Rio- - -
'-I
| * 3q,
4,
164 CHAPTER Systems
5 FluidandThermal

1.9

1.8
1a

l.o

a,rtr1 . 5

1.4

t.\t

1.2

1.1
'l
81012 14 to 18 1V

qu1m3/s)
FIGURE
5.8
Resistance
Hydraulic
Linear-to-Nonlinear of VolumeFlowRate.
Ratioas a Function

of Eqs.(5.48)and (5.49):
ratiocan be usedto comparethe resistances
Thefollowing

R,., l*6q, ^ I
'*: (s.s0)
n*= t*^-z- l+3q.,

which indicatesthe linearizedresistanceis almosttwice the resistancedefinedin

Eq.(5.49).Equation (5.50)alsoshowsthatthe ratioincreases volume
withthe increasing
flowrate.andthe limitis

=
c^,*u* , (5.s1)
Ii*r*:
ratioof Eq.(5.50)dfecp: 1.029for qu: 0.01m3/s
valuesofthe resistance
Thenumerical
= =
and cp 1.857for e, 2 m3ls.Figure5.8 is the plotof cnas a functionof qu. I

In the companion website Chapter 5, the Hagen-Poiseuille equation is dem-

onstrated, which gives the resistanceof a cylindrical pipe of length I and internal
diameter d for laminar flow as

Lp l28ul
R,.o= q,: (s.s2)
*^
 Modeling 155
5.t LiquidSYstems

E x a m p l e5 . 5
Determine the hydraulic resistance of a taperedpipehavinga len$h of /and end diame-
dz,as indicated in Figure5.9.Consider lamlnarflowandcalculate the resis-
tersof dr and
= =
p 0'001 s/m'z'
N -
t a n c en u m e r i c av la l u ef o r d r = O 5 m , d z = O ' 3m , / 1 0 m , a n d

Solution
portion
portionof lengthdxof the taperedpipeis studied,the respective
lf an elementary
isapproximate|yacy|inderofdiameterd,asshowninFigure5.9;therefore,itspressure
differenceis givenby the Hagen-Poiseuille as
equation

128udx /5 <?\
d(Lp) = --a q,
7td

The diameterd is expressedgeometricallyin terms of x as

.,t-x (s.54)
d = dz-l (dr- dr)-----
-I

of Eq.(5.54)intoEq.(5.53)and integration
substitution betweenthe limitsof 0 and /with
to x yieldsthe pressure
respect between
difference the inputandthe outputof the pipe:

dl,+ d:)
rz8pt(di+
= q, (s.ss)
P,- Pz= 6P = [a1LP) zttd3,d)

of the taperedpipeof Figure5'8 is

thatthe fluid resistance
whichindicates

tzspt(di+ dld,+ dl) (s.s6)

R,,, =
3nd3,dl

obviously,when dr = dz, andtherefore the taperis zero(thetaperedpipe becomesa

one),Eq.(5.56)reducesto the classical
cylindrical equationresistance'
Hagen-Poiseuille
cross-section
to a constant pipe.Thesolution
cylindrical to
Eq.(5.52),whichcorresponds
MATLAB@ Symbollc Math ToolboxTM;the code
thisproblemhasbeenobtainedusingthe
website.Forthenumericalparameters of thisexample,the
is includedin the companion
=
ls Rlp 19'72N-s/ms I
hydraulicresistance

systems,
Similar to dampers in mechanical systems and resistors in electrical
and this loss can be in
expressed pressure
energyis lost through liquid resistances,
form as

=iY = Iorn.
u*:!n,,oar
166 CHAPTER Systems
5 FluidandThermal

Qv
_-____--->

5.9
FIGURE
PiPewithLaminarFlow.
Tapered

.-------->

(a) (b)

F I G U R5E
.10
(b) Parallel
in (a)Series;
Connected
LiquidResistances

power: The pressurets

It should be mentionedthat Eq. (5'57) actually expresses
N-s/ms' and therefore the unit
measuredin N/m', hydraulic resistanceis measuredin
of Uaris N-m/s, which is the unit for power'
(as shown in Figure 5.10(a))or in
Liquid resistancescan be connectedin series
resistancesR," and R12'
pu.utt"i (as illustratedin Figure 5.10(b)),and the equivalent
which are derived in the companion website Chapter 5' are

= R 1 1* R p
[^^
ll ll
(s.s8)
t& R,, R,,

5.6
Example
c a l c u l a t teh ee q u i v a l e nhty d r a u -
A m l c r o f l u i dci ch a n n esl y s t e mi s s h o w ni n F i g u r e5 . i 1 .
lic resistance betweenpoints1 and2by considering thatthe liquidlossesare produced
t h e p o w e rl o s tl n t h e m i c r o -
a c c o r d i ntgo t h e H a g e n - P o i s e uei lql eu a t i o nA. l s oc a l c u l a t e
= 20 pm (pipediameter)'and
system.Kno*n rr" / = 100 u.m,p = 0'0005 N-s/m2'd
Lp = pr - p2 = 103N/m2.
 5.1 LiquidSystems
Modeling 157

FIGURE
5.11
Six-Component
Pipeline
System
withFlowing
Liquid.

Pt ,!r-
---2<l-- Pz
_;

(b)
FIGURE
5,12
(a)ActualMicrochannel
System
withLiquidResistances;
(b) Equivalent,
On"_n"rlrtu*
Liquid
Svstem.

Solution
Figure5.12(a)showsthe microchannel system of Figure
5.11withthe corresponorng
hydraulic
resistances,
whichareidentical.
Theaimistoobtain theequivalent,
one-resrstance
systemof Flgure5.12(b).Toachieve that,the resistance,
whichis equivalent
to thefour
actual
resistances
inthemiddle ofthesystem of Figure5.12(a),
canbecalculated bycom_
in parallel
bining twogroups of series
connected resistances,
whichvields

o,,=ffiffi=*, (s.5e)
Theequivalent
resistanceis formedby connecting in seriesthe end resistances
of the
original
systemof Figure5.r2(a)to the middleresistanceof Eq.(5.59):
Ru: Rr + Rrl + Rr (s.60)
Eq.(5.59)intoEq.(5.60)yietds
Substituting

R,"=3R,=3xn8fi=3844 (5.61)
158 5 FluidandThermalSystems
CHAPTER

valuesof thisexample,
Withthe numerical the equivalent is foundto be Rr"=
reslstance
Equation
3.8Ig7 x 1013N-s/m5. the powerdissipated
(5.57)is usedto calculate through
the pipeline
sYstem:

r (Ap)'z (s.62)
U u , =i - i ,

poweris lJar= I'3I x 10 BW

the dissipated
Numerically,
I

EnergY
of HYdraulic
Sources
motion is
For liquicl-levelsystems,as is discussedshortly in this chapter,the liquid
g"n".ut"d throughthe headdifferenceamongvariouscomponents, such as tanks and
piping.Hydraulicactuatorsarecomponentsthatconverthighinputfluidpressure
into kinetic energy at the output.
In many liquid applications,the energy necessa"ry to generateflow in a liquid net-
liquid
work is providedbyp umps,whtchtransfotmthe input electricenergyinto output
can be of several
work, glnerally manifesiedas flow rate or equivalenthead' Pumps
appli-
configurations,suchas centrifugal,axial, rotary,or reciprocatingin regular-scale
cations'aswellasdiaphragm(ormembrane)inmicro.andnano.applications.The
head varia-
characteristiccentrifugal pump, a widely used configuration, shows the
nonlinear, as sketchedin
tion as a function of the flow rate at the output is generally
F i g u r e5 . 1 3 .I t se q u a t i o ins

h = hr- Koql, (s.63)

pump pro-
where lzr, the geometric head, is the maximum head-type energy a
lost through friction and Kn is a coefficient related to
duces when no energy is
point along the characteristic curve indicates that a speci-
the energeticlosses.A
a given value of the volume flow rate and that, as the
fied head /z correspondsto
(together with the corresponding losses), the head of the pump
flow rate increases

F I G U R5E
.13
of a Generic
RateCharacteristic
Head-Flow Pump'
Centrifugal
 Modeling 159
5.1 LiquidSystems

decreases.An equation similar to Eq. (5.63) can be written when using pressure
insteadof head:

p = po- Koaj (5.64)

wherepo is the maximum attainablepressureat zeto flow rate and Ko is a constant

dependingon the pump construction.

W m.x.sLiquidSystems
Assembling severalof the liquid elementspresentedthus far in this section leads to
the formation of liquid systems.When only inertance and capacitancesare present
in a liquid system and no forcing source is considered,the natural responsecan be
formulated similarly to mechanical and electrical systems.When external action or
energyis applied in any form in a liquid system,the responseis forced. Both liquid
systemresponsesare studied next.

NaturalResponse
We study the natural responseof free losslessliquid systemsthat are describedby
one single variable (single-DOF systems) as well as for systems whose response
needsto be formulated in terms of more than one liquid-system variable (multiple-
DOF systems).The natural frequenciesand correspondingmodes (eigenvectors)of
multiple-DOF systemscan be calculated analytically or by MATLAB@, as shown in
previouschapters.

LiquidSystems
Conservative
Single-DOF
Considera lumped-parameterliquid systemthat is definedby inertanceI and capaci-
tanceCt. This systempossessesa natural frequency,which can easily be found using
the energymethod, similar to the modality usedto determinethe natural frequencies
of single-DOF mechanicalor electrical systems.The demonstrationof the following
naturalfrequency

I (s.65)
,[Le,
is given in the companion website Chapter 5. This natural frequency is very similar
to the natural frequency of an electrical system formed of an impedance L and a
capacitanceC, as discussedin Chapter 4. It can be checkedthat o, of Eq. (5.65) is
measuredin s-1, which is identical to rad-s-r, the unit of natural frequency'

5.7
Example
pipesegmentof givenlength/ and innerdiameterd throughwhicha liquid
A lossless
of known flowsneedsits hydraulicnaturalfrequencyreducedby 20%. What
properties
designchanges be madeto achievethatgoal?
can
l7O CHAPTER
5 FluidandThermal
Svsrems

Solution
Based on Eqs.(5.26)and(5.37),
thepressure-defined
liquidinertance
andcapacitance
(where p hasbeendropped)
thesubscript are

, pL 4pt
-1
A rd2
(5.66)
wt- n
+pg

Eqs.(5.66)intoEq.(5.65),the hydraulic
By substituting natural of the pipe
frequency
segmentbecomes

,,=
ts (5.6i)
| j
As a side note,the particular
naturalfrequencyof Eq. (5.67)is identicalto the natural
frequency of a simplependulumof length/ underthe actionof gravity.
Equation (5.67)indicates
that changesin the naturalfrequencycan be operatedby
usinglengthalterations.Therequirement is thatthe newnaturalfrequencvbe

,lin- 0.2an:0.8t0,
(s.68)
w h i c h ,b a s e do n E q .( 5 . 6 7 )i,s

"n 4/ ,+
(5.6e)
vt

of Eqs.(5,67),(5,68),and (5.69)yieldsthe newtength:

A combination

."t
| = 1.561 (s.70)
0S+:

which showsthat an increaseof 56% in the pipe lengthis necessary

to producea
reduction
of 20% in the naturalfrequency. I

Multiple-DOF
Conservative
Liquid Systems
The natural responseof multiple-DoF conservativeliquid systemsis studiedemploy-
ing the analytical approachand MATLAB@. Schematicliquid circuits can be drawn
and analyzed similarly to electrical systems,as shown in the following example. It
should be mentioned that, while relative agreementexists in terms of the symbols
usedfor hydraulic elementssuch as pumps, actuators,or resistances,there is no con-
sensuson the graphical representationof liquid inertancesand capacitances.Due to
the similitude between electrical and hydraulic systems,the symbol used for electri-
cal inductancesis used for hydraulic inertances,whereashydraulic caDacitancesare
symbolized similar to electrical capacitances.
 Modeling 17l
5.1 LiquidSystems

AnalyticalApproachTheanalyticalapproachto findingthenaturalfrequencyof
multiple-DOFliquid systemsis similarto the approachusedfor mechanicaland
electricalsystemsin Chapters3 and4 andis illustratedby an example.

5.8
Example
Utilizethe energymethodto derivethe mathematicalmodelfor the liquid system
whosecircuitis sketchedin Figure5.14. Calculateits naturalfrequencies and deter-
m i n et h e c o r r e s p o n d i nmgo d e s( e i g e n v e c t o rbsy) t h e a n a l y t i c aal p p r o a c hc. o n s i d e r
l n = l B = l r = 2 X 1 0 6k g l m aa n d C n = C P = C t= 3 X 1 0 - 8 m 4 - S 2 - k g - 1 '

Solution
Usingthevolumeflows 5.14andbased
inFigure
indicated Eq.(5.21)
ontheenergy and
Eq.(5.30), corresponding
thetotalenergy is
components
tothefourliquid

n,=|ru;,1.
W * +,i
+ lr,,;,i (5.71)

volume(notto be confounded
withy indicating withtranslatory whichusesthe
velocity,
samesymbol). Thisenergyisconstant, iszero,whichleadsto
itstimederivative
therefore

;,, * [t,,- ";]+ ;,,1r,v,* vr)+ o (s.72)

[r,,i;, *rr,- *",]=
(5.72)needsto be satisfied
Eouation at alltimes,and sincethe volumeflowratescannot
bezeroat alltimes,the onlywayof validatingEq.(5.72)is when

* o
[t,u'+,,-*r,= (s.73)
*),,=o
I,,r,-*,,*(+.
to Eq.(5.73)is harmonic:
Thesolution
= Vrsin(tor)
[rt (s.74)
[v, = Vrsin(to/)

5.14
FIGURE
LiquidSystem.
Conservative
Two-Mesh
L72 CHAPTER Svstems
5 FluidandThermal

s .q u a t i o n( s5 . 7 4 )a r es u b s t i t u t ei nd t oE q s .( 5 . 7 3 )
w h e r eh a n dV z a r ev o l u m ea m p l i t u d e E
and the resultis the following algebraic equations system,as sin(coD cannotbe zeroat
a l lt i m e s :

-
- ,'r,,)v,
*r,=o
As
I(+ (s.75)
V
o
l-*, . (+. +,-,'r,,)v,=
UJ

ta

fo
Thehomogeneous equationssystem(5.75)hasnontrivial in l/r and 7zwhenthe
solutions
of the syslemis zero:
delerminant

-'"" -*
l/,, l=n (s.16)

| ; 1,.+-,',,,1
w h i c h ,b y a l s ou s i n gt h e s p e c i f i cv a l u e so f t h e i n d u c t a n c easn d c a p a c i t a n c eosf t h e
p r o b l e mr,e s u l t isn t h ec h a r a c t e r i set iqcu a t i o n

-
t' cl .t o
c; z!-'+l =o (s.77)

The solutionof this equationin o provides of the hydraulic

the two naturalfrequencies
system:

Onl = (s.78)
2ILCt

Withthe numerical dataof the problem, the naturalfrequencies ?re on1= 2.5 radlsand
,Jn2
= 6.6 radls.
T h ef o l l o w i nagm p l i t u drea t i oi s o b t a i n efdr o mt h ef i r s tE q .( 5 7 5 ) :

v,: I (s.1e)
V2 l - azI,C,

) n dr e q u i r i ntgh a tt h ec o r r e s p o n d ienigg e n v e c tiosru n i t - n o r mt h, e

U s i n go t r ri n E q .( 5 . 7 9 a
f o l l o w i negq u a t i o nasr eo b t a i n e d :

{fi3 t:o= 1
(f),:,.,=+= 1e; (s.80)
 5.1 LiquidSystems
Modeting 173

Theeigenvector
corresponding
to Eqs.(5.g0)is

'" : iI,'l- {0.8s}

{v}*-.-, (5.81)
tz.l t0.53
lv J
Asseenin Eq.(5.81),the twoflowsyr and vzhave
identical
directionsand theamplitude
t{ is largerthan the ampritudevz duringthe
modarmotionat the resonantfrequency
onr.The secondnaturalfrequencyof Eq. (5.78)
is now substitutedintothe amplitude
ratioof Eq. (5.79)and a unit-normeigenvector
is againsought,which resurtsin the
following equations:

/%\ v,, -0.62;./vl+$=1

\%L=,,,= u=
v (s.82)

whosecorrespond
ingeigenvector
is

=
{v}^=,,,,
{Yt:}:{;l;i'} (5.83)

I n s p e c t i oonf E q .( 5 . 8 3 )s h o w st h a t ,d u r i n g
t h e s e c o n dm o d a rm o t i o na t o r , z t, h e t w o
f l o w sh a v eo p p o s i t ed i r e c t i o n s( t h i si s i n d i c a t e d
b y t h e m i n-uvsvs iog"n/ )u
a "n\d t h e a m p r i _
t u d e l / r i s s m a l l e rt h a n t h e a m p l i t u d et / 2 .
I
usingMATLAPto catcutate
NaturatFrequencies, probtem
theEigenvatue
to mechanicaland electrical systems,the natural Similar
responseof a murtiple-DoF hydrau_
Iic system can be formulated in vector-matrix
form as an eigenvarueproblem, and
can be employed to solve for eigenvaluesand
{Ar!fn@ eigelnv""ro.r.Th" equation
describingthe free vibrations of a multiple-boF
hydraulic ,yrt". can be written as

l4l{t} + [cJ {v} : {0} (s.84)

where [4] is the inertance matrix,
[ci] is the capacitancematrix,and {u} is the vol-
umevector.It can be shown by following a
developmentsimilar to the one applied
to mechanicalsystemsin chapter 3, that when
sinusoidalsolutionof the type
{ v} sin(ror)is soughtfor Eq. (5.g4),rhe following equationis {u} =
obtained:

[cJ - llr]) = o
der([I,]-' 15R5)

yh":: 1 : 0)2arerhe eigenvalues,[1] is the identiry matrix and

liquid dynamic matrix. [It]_t[Ci= [D7]is the
O n c e[ D 7 ]h a s b e e n d e t e r m i n et h
de, MATLAB@command
tV, Drl : ej9(Dr ),
which was utilized in chapters 3 and4,returns
the modal matrir % ,rror" columns
are the eigenvectors,and the diagonal matrix
D1, whose diagonal elements are the
eigenvalues.
174 CHAPTER
5 FluidandThermal
Svstems

Example5.9
Calculate
theeigenvalues
andtheeigenvectors
corresponding
to thehydraulic
system
of
Example
5.8usingtheeigenvalue
methodandMATLAB@.
Solution
Equations(5.75)canbearranged of Eq.(5.84)with
in thematrix-vectorform
111 -c"
= !,,];rct=
r1,r C I (s.86)
[t
I

- l I 1l
c,, 1- c"l
By takingintoconsideration
thatthe inertancesare identicaland the conductances
are
alsoidentical,
the dynamicmatrixis calculated
usingMATLAB@ symboliccalculation:
r r 1 _l l
l D , l = V , j - ' [ c Ju=, l _ , ;l (s.87)
As expected,the eigenvalues returnedby MATLAB@
are the squaresof the naiural
of Eqs.(5.78)and the eigenvectors
frequencies are

: {-3.!i};
{v}.=,., ={;l;T}
{v},=,., (s.88)

w h i c ha r e e s s e n t i a ltlhy e e i g e n v e c t oor sb t a i n e di n E x a m p l e5 . 8 ( t h e m i n u ss i g n si n
the first eigenvector of Eq. (5.88)showsthat the two componentsmovein the same
direction), I

ForcedResponse
of Liquid-Level
Systems
As mentioned previously in this chapter, one modality of generating the forced
responseof liquid systemsis by meansof tanks, where flow connectsin and out with
pipe lines,for instance.Often, in suchliquid systems,known as liquid-levelsystems,
hydraulic calculationscan be performed without considering the inertia effects; as a
consequence, suchsystemsconsistofonly capacitances and resistances.

Example
5.10
A liquid-level
systemis formedof a tank of capacitance0 communicating with a pipe
segmentequippedwitha valveof resistance Rr,as sketchedin Figure5.15.
a. Derivea mathematical modelfor thissystemby connecting the output(eitherthe flow
raleqoorthe headh) to the inputflow rateqi. Assumethatthe pressure at the input
and outputportsis zero.
b. Fora unit rampinput,find the solution9,(f)and plotit againsttime considering that
R r , : 5 x 1 0 4N - s / m sa n d C 1 , r =2 x 1 0 - 6 m 5 / NT
. h es l o p eo f t h e r a m pi n p u ti s Q =
10 a m3/s.
 Modeling L75
5.1 LiquidSYstems

I I G U R5E. 1 5
Liquid-Level withTankandValve'
System

Solution the fol|owing

and capacltances,
definitionsof resistances
a.lf we usethe Pressure
canbewritten:
equations
= R,.rq.(t)
[nO (s.89)
I dp(t)
-,
I q,lt)- q,,(t\= C,.,,
'' al
t"

w h e r e t h e p r e s s u r e i s a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e t a n k j u s t b e f o r e t h e v athe
|ve.Takingthetime
the resistance is constant, fo||ow-
derivative of the firstEq.(5.89)and considering
ingequation results:

dp(t) dq"(t) (s.90)

= ^x'''-dt
d'

intothe secondEq (5 89)' produces

whlch,substituted

( s.el)
n,.rcrr#*q,,(t)=1iQ)

Equation(5.91)representsthemathematica|mode|ofthe|iquid-Ieve|systemof
Figure5.i5,whereqiistheinputandgoistheoutput.SincetheorderofthedifferentiaI
one'
systemis a first-order
is one,the physical
equation
modelcan be obtained by that the pressurebeforethe
considering
An alternate
resistancetsactuallY
ri Q?)
pft\ = Pgh(t)

It is simPleto seethat
dp(t)
= Pg
dh(t) (s.e3)
dt dt
176 5 Fluidand ThermalSystems
CHAPTER

Equations with Eq.(5.89)to obtainthe first-

(5.92)and(5.93)are usedin conjunction l-
:
eouation
orderdifferential Exa
Der
R,.o ino tl
^ dh(r) . (5.94)
R,.,C,r; * h{D =
7f ot?'t is th
Solt
which represents model,wherethe outputis the headh and the
anothermathematical
Bas
inputistheflowrateqi.
theI
qi = Qf(whereQ is a constant),
b. Whenthe inputflowrateis of a rampform,namely, the
Eq.(5.91)is
solutionto the differential

| / r \l
q , , ( t ) =L r + \ r - . - l ) r l Q (5.95)

M A T L A B @ c o m mdasnodl v e , a s i n t r o d u c ei n
w h i c hc a nb e f o u n du s i n g t h e dC h a p t e r 4 .
Thetime constant, r = RpA,p has a value of 0.1 s for the numerical values of thisexam-
ple.Dueto itsrampnature,the inputflowrategrowsto infinitywhentimegoesto infinity,
Th
andthisis shownin the plotof Figure5.16.Thefollowing codegenerates Eq.(5.95):

) ) d s o l v e ( ' R * C * D q o+ Q O: q * t ' , ' q o ( 0 ) = 0')

afterdefiningthe symbolicvariables. I
wl

x 1 03

th

0.8

o
o
+c 0.6

0.4

0.2

012345678910
Time (sec)
F I G U R5E
.16
of Time.
OutoutFlowRateas a Function
 5 . 1 L i q u i dS y s t e mM
s odeling 177

E x a m p l e5 . 1 1
e a t h e m a t i cm
D e r i v e t hm s k e t c h e idn F i g u r e5 . 1 7b y c o n s i d e r -
a lo d eol f t h e l i q u i ds y s t e m
ingtheinputsto the systemarethe pressure pr and the flowrateq2,whereasthe output
istheflow rale qo.

Solution
Based on the hydraulic
capacitanceand resistance as wellas on Figure5.17,
definitions,
thefollowing can be formulated:
relationships

o,(t\- p.ft) pr(t)-pt(t) ^ p,(t)-p"

R',' , = - * \Rn --./\rr--
q,(tl q,(t) q,(rl
q , ( t )- q ' ( t ) qlt)+ qr(t)- q,,(t)
L I
"
-
iCn (s.e6)
dp)\tl dPr(t)
dt dt

ThethirdEq.(5.96)allowsexpressing
p as

h(t):R,.q,,(t)*P,, (s.e7)

whichcan be usedto obtainqr fromthe fifth Eq.(5.96),

da (t)
q t G ' t= R , r C , r t d r t * q , , ( t l- q z ( t ) (5.98)

C o m b i n i nngo wt h e s e c o n dE q .( 5 . 9 6 )w i t h E q s .( 5 . 9 7 )a n d ( 5 . 9 8 )e n a b l e e
s xpressing
thepressure p:

dq.,(r)
pzftl = Rt2Rt3Ct2; + ( R , t - l R , r ) q , , ( t-) R , t q r ( t )* p " r 5 qq'\

lr"
V

Pt Rn Pz Ps Rrs Pa

Pump-n- --------->
no

f l G U R5E
.17
Liquid-Level withPump,TwoTanks,andThreeValves
System
178 CHAPTER Systems
5 FluidandThermal

ThefirstEq.(5.96)and Eq.(5.99)yield

- R t 2 R t 3dq,(t) - p"l (s.100)

q"(t)+ n,rqr(t)
c t 2 - (R,, * R,r)
Q i u=)f i [ o ' , u dt

withEqs.(5.98)and( 5 . 1 0 0 ) t o
thefourthEq.(5.96)is usedin conjunction
Eventually,
produce second-order
thefollowing equation:
differential

d'zq^(t) | Rt)Rt.Cr2 ^ ^ldq,,(tl

Rt2Rr3C^C,r:il+ + -ftf
+ R/i)C/r + R'.cn]i
[(R,, (s.101)
. R , , * R i 2+ R i r dqr(t) R / r + R / 2^ , . , , p t ( l )
*-ffq .(t) =R,c,,:it +
Pu
- R-
R- q,( l) + &

for qo, is the mathematical

Equation(5.101),whlch can be solvedindependently
modelof the liquidsystemof Figure5.i7. I

MODELING
SYSTEMS
S-trPNEUMATIC
In pneumatic systems,the motion agent is a gas,most often air. Gasesare compress-
ible, particularly at large velocities; therefore,pneumatic systemsproduce responses
that are slower than liquid systems,but for velocities that are smaller than the sound
velocity, they are nearly incompressible. We discuss some basic gas laws then
introduce the pneumatic elementsand modeling of pneumatic systems.

S"#.TGaslaws
Gas laws describeeither the state or the transformation Qtrocess)between different
statesof a gaseoussubstance.The perfect (or ideal) gas law postulatesthat, for a
given gas statethat is defined by pressurep, volume % and absolute (Kelvin-scale)
temperature0, the following relationship applies for a gas mass of m:

pv= #Re (s.102)

where R isthe universalgas constant and M is the gas molecular mass.If the
gas constantRru,is used,which is defined as Rr: RlM,the perfect gas law of
Eq. (5.102)becomes

pV : mRrQ (5.103)

Equations(5.102)and (5.103)allow expressingthe gas massdensityas

mPMP (5.104)
'-
fl=-
v R0 Rro
 Modeling 179
SYstems
5.2 Pneumatic

Transformationor processgas laws connect two statesusing specific conditions'

Thepolytropic transformatior is defined by the equation

lmY (s.10s)
p = a p" ' = o \ n
)

wherea is a constantand n is thepolytropic exponent.Severalparticular transforma-

poly-
tions, relating to actual physical conditions, can be derived from the general
the gas
tropic transformation, each defined by a specific exponent n. All assume
rurg12 is constant.The adiabatic transformation, which considersno heat exchange
betweenthe gas and its sunoundings, has an exponentdefined as
cp
n=; (s.106)

wherecois the constant-pressurespecific heat andcuis the constant-volumespecific

tem-
heat.Tiespecific heat is defined as the heat (energy) Q necessaryto raise the
peratureof the massunit by one degree:

-f = -
o (5.107)
mLj

and
Transformationsthat keep the temperature constant are called isothermal,
the exponent is n = 1. That can easily be checked as follows:
for such processes,
(5.105)
Eq. (5.t6lZ)showsthatpV = constant,a condition that also resultsfrom Eq.
satisfy
when n = l. Constant-pressure transformations (also called isobarlc)
the ralio VlT is a constant, as it results from Eq' (5'102)' This
the condition that
exponent needs to be n = 0, as can be checked in Eq' (5.105).
meansthe polytropic
p/0 =
Eventually;,inrtint-rotume transformations rcsult in equations of the type
constant,u* ,""n in Eq. (5.102).It can alsobe checkedout that suchprocessesimply
-+ oo, Eq' (5'105)'
n'+ @ becauseV = constantwhen n

Elements
5.*.2Pneumatic
iner-
Thepneumaticelementsare defined similarly to liquid systems,particularly the
introduction to this chapter, the
tanci and the resistance,but as mentioned in the
rate that operatesfor liquids' The
massflow rate is used instead of the volume flow
pneumaticcapacitanceis discussedin terms of the specific gas transformation.

Ineftance
A column of gas moving in a duct possesseskinetic energy; therefore, its inertance
is definedas

Lp Lp r, (s.108)
Ir= - = - = - I t

A^ pA" P-I
180 CHAPTER
5 FluidunOfhurrnut
Sffi

where 4 is the pressure-defined

inertanceof the liquid
chapter.The SI unit of 1, is m-r. at the beginning of this
fire tcineiic'ei"rgy or-studied
u gu, i,

rr=*Lq'^=t*!o,ql=pr,
(s.109)
wherc Tt is the liquid kinetic energy;
the gas energy,s SI unit is kg2_m_r_s*2.
Capacitance
The pneumatic capacitanceof
a container is defined as

6- _ 4.(t) _ dm(t) - q,(t)

" dP(t) rrjpG) = PLt
dpft) (5.I 10)
dt;
where c7 is the capacitanceof
a liquid. The SI unit for gas capacitance
polytropic process,wherethe is m_s2.For a
pr"rrur" f, O"n""j as in Eq. (5.105),

ap= n
oLao (s.111)
which indicatesthe capacitance
of Eq. (5.110)can be written
for constantvolume as

=-
dm Vda rl
L
' dp
=_:
(s.112)
dp nRrT
where Eq' (5'104) has been
used.It can be seenthat, for
a constant-pressure
trans_
"""rn;;;i; n = 0,tr'"pn"u.ui"capacitance
tt:lff:T;,HH jl?j"rvtropic
capacitanceisequar;;"::1ilX1[i1trJ"#,]:'l#,;#;Jh
depends ontemperarure;
for anir"*r".,n"ii.iniro..u,ion o;t.t;;;e
ture is constant), the pneumaticcapacitancei, tempera_
and equal to
"onr,un,
C' ^ = V
R"0 (5.1l3)
The energy stored by a pneumatic
capacitive element is

u,=*c,p,=|oc,pr=rs,
(s.I l4)
and its SI unit is N-kg-m-z (or
kg2_m-r-s-2.;.

Resistance
The pneumatic resistanceis defined
in terms of pressurevariation and
massflow rateas

R,=*=#,=*o, (s.1
15)
 Modeling 18t'
Systems
5.2 Pneumatic

5.18
FIGURE
Curveof a Fan'
Characteristic

in m-r-s-l in the
liquid' Gas-resistanceis measured
whereRr is the resistanceof a pneumatic resistanceis
InternationalSystem it energy dissipatedthrough
"r,"iir. "
= QIJ (s.116)
u* = !n,o'^= | x f, o'n?, at

(s1 ftg2-111-r-3-3';'
andthe SI energy unit is N2-s-m-3

Sources EneryY
of Pneumatic systemto allow
n"tds to be suppliedto a pneumatic
Similarto liquid system*,"n"'g-f are thefi's or blowers' for which
operation. The main pneumaticenergysources this is expressed
of the aii volume;
thedeliveredpressurets a paraboliciulctiol energylosses,suchasthosedue to
includesthe
bv meansof an equationrrru,urro
impellerfriction or shock:

ou=,,(+-tl (s.1 7)

depend-
in Figure 5'18; cr arrd czareconstants'
whosecharacteristiccurve is shown
and performance'
ing on att" type of pneumatic source

SYstems
ffi g.x.gPneumatic
sYstems"is
pneumatic
of conservative yi:ry"i1::ssed next'
Thenaturalresponse of a pneumaticsystemwith
the forced
followedby an exampf"iifo't'uting "'pon'"
losses.

Natural ResPonse by only inertanceand capac-

pneumaticsystemswith no losses,thereforedefined similarlv to
in termsof their-"{T* t"tplllil
itanceproperties,can b;;;il; system'the
liquid,mechanical,or "i";;; systems'For a single-DoFpneumatic
t82 CHAPTER Systems
5 FluidandThermal

naturalfrequencyiscalculatedbymeansofanequationsimilartoEq.(5.65),where
usingEqs.(5.108)
thesubscriptg (gas),h";i;L; usedinsteadof t, for liquid.Also
system ls
and(5.110),thenaturalfrequencyof a pneumatrc
1 =
( 5 11 R )
@rJ

{ic,
therefore,asingle-DOFpneumaticsystemandasingle-DOFliquidsystemhave
identicalnaturalfreqoencies.ThecompanionwebsiteChapter5includesexamples
ofcalculatingthenaturalfrequenciesorsingle-andmultiple-DoFpneumaticsys- to that
tems using the energy ;;,h"i and MATLAST' Uot the procedure is identical
and is not pursued here' However' a
used for the natural responseof liquid systems
at end of this chapter'
iew proUtemsdedicatedto this topic are proposed

ForcedResPonse
Whenpneumaticsourcesareincludedinapneumaticsystem'thedynamicresponse
pneumatic system with resis-
is forced. We study the forced responseof a two-DOF
tance lossesand negligible inertia'

5.12
Example
AfanisusedtopressurizethecontainerofcapacitanceCgzasinFigure5.19,where
csl is connected
anothervesselof capacitance to thetargetvesselandthefan' Derivethe
systemthatconnects poto the
the outputpressure
modelof thispneumatic
mathematical
inputpressurecreatedbythefan,Pi,byalsoconsideringtheductlossesRgrandRg2'

Solution
components:
arewrittenfor the four pneumatic
equations
Thefollowing
- q^nul. q''"(t)
ptft) - p(t): p(tl - p-"(t).
R - R-,= c", = 9-,u) -r r' -- (5' I 19)
"qr q.o(t) 4P,!!)
Q^,(t) w
dt dt

intothe fourthEq' (5'119)'

The massflow rateof the secondEq.(5.119)is substituted
whichenablesexpressing p as
the pressure

- dP'(t) (5.120)
p(t)=p.ft)*RrzCsz-;-

andthis resultsin

dp(t)=dp"ft)*R,C-.44! (s.121)
'"82"82
dt dt dt'
 Modeling 183
5.3 ThermalSYstems

5E
FIGUR .19
System
Fneumatic andTwoValves
withFan,TwoContainers,

( 5 . 1 2 0 ) a n(d5 1 2 1 ) '
T h e f i r s t a n d t h e t hEi rqds(. 5 . 1 1 9 ) a r e u s iendc o n l u n c t i o n wEi tqhs .
whichyieldsthe iollowing differential equation:

d2p ,\t) : pi(t) (5'122)

C*
R*,R*rC*, + + (Rsr
(R,1csr + Rdcdry * p,,(t)
al
t l ey s o l v e dI o rp o , a n dE q .( 5 . 1 2 0 )w' h i c hc a n
E q u a t i o$n. I 2 2 ) , w h i c hc a n i n d e p e n d e n b
subsequentlybesolvedforp,formthemathematica|mode|ofthepneumaticsystemof
I
Flgure3. r:r.

THERMAL
ffi,i$ MODELING
SYSTEMS
variousstatesof a
In thermalsystems,the focus is on heatand massexchangeamong
to heatexchange'
mediumor differentmedia.The analysisin this sectionis restricted
can be learned from texts specializing in heat and mass
but more advancednotions
resistance,followed
transfer.We introduce the thermal elementsof capacitanceand
modeling of thermal systems. Since thermal inertia can safely
by the mathematical
To keep notation unitary
bl neglected,thermal systemJehave as first-order systems.
fluid, and pneumatic systems, the symbol Qrnor simply
with that used for electrical,
q is usedhere to indicate the heat flow iate, whichis defined as the time derivative of
theheatfl.ow,or thermal energyQ'.

dO(t\
q,r(tl=Sltl=i (s.r23)

is preferred to the
Another notation used here is 0 for temperature; this symbol
svmbolt, which has been reserved to denote time'

WS.i$.x Thermal
Elements
of interest afe the
As inertia effects are negligible in thermal systems,the elements
thermalcapacitance(involvedwiththermalenefgystoring)andthermalresistance
a lumped-
(responsiblefor energy losses). These amounts are assumedto be of
(current) in electrical SyStemS
p*unr"t", nature.The role of the electrical chargerate