IT Tools and Applications

By
CONTENTS
Topics Page No.
1. Definition of Computer 1
2. History and Evolution Of Computer 2
3. Application Of Computer 4
4. Anatomy of Computer 6
5. Input - Output Devices 8
6. Memory 21
7. Computer Software & Hardware 27
8. Number System and Representation 29
9. Language And Software 37
10. Disk Operating System 42
11. Windows 75
12. Linux 87
13. Microsoft Word 164
14. Microsoft Excel 165
15. Microsoft Power Point 189
16. Internet Application 229
IT TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS – APPRECIATION
COMPUTER APPRECIATION
Definition of Computer
A
Computer is a device that accepts information and manipulates it for some result
based on a program or sequence of instructions on how data is to be processed.
The word computer comes from the word compute, which means to calculate.
Hence, a computer is normally considered to be a calculating device, which can perform
arithmetic operation at enormous speed.
More accurately, a computer may be defined as a device, which operates upon data. Data
can be any thing like marks obtained by various students in various subjects when the
computer is used to prepare various results.
The activity of processing data using a computer is called data processing. Data
processing consists of three sub activities: capturing the input data, manipulating the data
and managing the output results. As used in data processing, information is data arranged
in an order and form, which is useful to people who receive it. Hence, data processing
and information is the processed data obtained as the output of data processing.
CHARACTERISTIC OF COMPUTER:
AUTOMATIC: - A machine is said to be automatic, if it works by itself without

human intervention. Computer is machines because once started on a job, they
carry on, until the job is finished, normally without any human assistance.
SPEED: - A computer is very fast device. It can perform in a few seconds, the
amount of work that human begin can do in an entire year-if he worked day and
night and did nothing else.
ACCURACY: - In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. The
accuracy of a particular computer depends upon its design.
DILIGENCE: - Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony,
tiredness and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for hours, without
creating any error and without grumbling.
VERSATILITY: - Versatility is one of the most wonderful things about the
computer. One moment, it is preparing the results of an examination, the next
moment, it is busy preparing electricity bills, and in between, it may be helping an
office secretary to trace an important letter in seconds.
POWER OF REMEMBERING: - As a human being acquires new knowledge,
the brain subconsciously select what it feels to be important and worth retaining
in its memory, and relegates unimportant details to the back of the mind or just
forgets them.
NO I.Q. :- A computer is not a magical device. It possesses no intelligence of its
own. Its I.Q. is zero.
NO FEELINGS: - Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feelings and
no instincts because they are machines.
TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 1

HISTORY OF COMPUTER
The history of computers will not only give the basic information about the
technological development trends in computer in the past but also its projections in the
future. The knowledge of history are essential to give us the feel of how much work and
efforts has been done to get the computer in this present shape.
Use of tools for calculation is very old. The first use of instrument for calculation was
made by Chinese nearly 5 thousands years ago. The name of instrument is "abacus". It is
made with a wooden or metal frame on which there are several rows of strings.
The ancestors of modern age computer were the mechanical and electro-mechanical
devices. This ancestry can be traced back in 17th century, when first machine capable of
performing four mathematical operations addition, subtraction, division and
multiplication. The very first attempt towards this computing was made by Blaise Pascal
in 1642 which consisted of lots of gears and chains and used to perform repeated addition
and subtractions. The device was called pascaline. Prof. Charles Babbage- the
grandfather of modern computer. In 1833 Babbage began work on an Analytical Engine"
which perform any mathematical operation automatically. Most of today's computer
designs are based on concepts developed by John von Neumann known as von Neumann
architecture.
THE EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
First Generation: In 1945 ENIAC first designed a general-

purpose computer. The ENIAC ushered in the era of what is
known as First Generation Computer. Here the vacuum tubes are
used in electronic circuit. For storage magnetic drums are used.
Input/output was slow due to use of punched card and tape. Due to
use of vacuum tube, the size of the machine is great and a great
amount of electricity and emitted excessive heat.

Second Generation: - The second-generation computers started
with the advent of transistor. Here in the electronic circuit
transistor and diodes are used. In the primary internal storage
magnetic core are used. Thus increasing the main storage capacity.
Input/output was faster. It is cheaper, smaller and heat generation
is less. The second-generation computers were more advanced in
terms of arithmetic and logic unit and control unit than first
generation computers. It was used for billing, payroll processing
and updating inventory files. IBM 1601, Honeywell 400,CDC
1604, IBM 1602 are some of the second-generation computers.
Third Generation The use of Integrated circuit(IC) in the

computer defines the third generation computers. Because due to
use of densely packed Ics, the cost is low, greater operating speed,
there is a reduction in power and cooling requirement. These
computers not only small but their performance and reliability are
also great. This computers are used in airline system, market
forecasting, credit-card billing.
IBM system/360,370,NCR 395,ICL 1900.
Fourth Generation With the growth of micro-electronics, the IC
technology evolved rapidly producing very large scale integration
(VLSI) where thousands of transistors can be integrated on a
single chip. The VLSI-based computer architecture is referred to
as fourth generation computers. Here the storage capacity and
speed are also increased. The use of microprocessor and micro
computer started in this generation. Many sophisticated
application program and networking facilities can be done through
these computers.
CATEGORY OF COMPUTER
The digital computers are of the following four main classes.

1. Micro computer
2. Mini computer
3. Mainframe computer
4. Super computer
Micro Computer: A micro-computer's CPU is a microprocessor. The microcomputer

originated in late 1970s. The first micro computers were built around 8-bit
microprocessor chips i.e. the chip can retrieve instructions/data from storage manipulate
and process an 8 bit data a time or we can say that the chip has a built in 8-bit data
transfer path. In 1980 8 bit chip is replaced by 16 bit namely 8086 and 8088 produced by
Intel Corporation. Personal computer is the types of microcomputer based on their
processor. These computers used in school, colleges, and offices and even in home are of
this type. PCs are generally named as Desktop, Laptop, Home computer. In 1981 first
introduce the personal computer. There are two types of personal computer based on the
use of processor.
1. PC/XT (Personal Computer/Extended Technology): This type of micro computer
works with the 8088 processor.
2. PC/XT (Personal Computer/Advanced Technology): This type of PC works with
the following processor.
i) 80286 ii) 80386 iii) 80486 iv) Pentium Pro v) Pentium II vi) Pentium III vi)
Pentium IV.
Mini Computer: The term mini computer originated in 1960s when it was realized that
many computing tasks do not require an expensive contemporary mainframe computer
but can be solved by a small, inexpensive computer.
Later, microcomputer is replaced by 32-bit mini computer, which is also called super
mini computer, which had more peripheral devices, large memory and could support
more users working simultaneously on the computer.
Mainframe Computer: Mainframe computers are generally 32-bit machines or on the

higher side. These are suited to big organizations, to manage high volume applications.
80 terminals can be connected with mainframe computers; so 80 persons can work at a
time. Popular mainframe series are MEDHA, SPERRY, DEC, ICL. Mainframe computer
are used in libraries for their large scale work.
Super Computer: The upper end of the state of the art mainframe machine is the super
computer. These are the fastest machines in terms of processing speed and use
multiprocessing techniques. Here a number of processors are used to solve a problem.
Here 200 terminals can be connected and so 200 persons can work at a time.
A number of companies dominate in the field of super computers; these are CRAY-2,
ETA-20 and IBM 3090 and HITACHI. The super computers are reaching up to speeds
well over 25000 million arithmetic operations per second. India has also in the line of
preparing super computer. Super computer are mainly used for weather forecasting,
computational fluid dynamics, remote sensing, image processing, bio-medical
applications. India has a mainframe super computer system CRAY XMP-14 which is at
present being used by meteorological department.
APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
There are lots of uses of computers. In fact, in our everyday life it is used in almost every
step. Some of the places where it is used is listed below:
Airlines: Booking now you can book your ticket for a flight leaving. New York while
sitting in Melbourne. All the airlines are interconnected through computers.
Banks: Computers in Banks have made it possible that you can get your account
information while sitting at home only. For this your bank must be an e-bank, which most
of them are. ATM is another computer application of bank.

Business: For most of the companies, all the work relating to accounts is now done
on computers, for accuracy and speed ness. You can even have your correspondence on
it.
Cartoons: There are various programs available in computers which allow you to
create animations. By learning about them you can become an expert animator. You may
even make a movie of your own.
Cinema: Now a day’s computers do most of the film editing. You can add and delete
film clips at a snap using computer. In fact, some movies are totally made using
computers. Films like Toy Story are made using computers.
Defense: America has used the computers in defense for the fullest with pin pointing
the position of enemy targets. Most of the missiles these days are computer controlled.
DTP: It has revolutionized how composing for printing used to done. Now every
book for printing is composed on computer since it is very easy to edit and read on
screen.
Education: Computers can help in teaching too. In fact this books on computers was
created using computers. Most of the schools now use computers for accounting, students
record management, papers preparations and even results compilation.
Home: At home it has become an additional entertainment media. You can use it for
playing games, watching movies, listening to songs, writing letters, creating your own
database of friends.
Library Maintaining: the records in library manually used to be very cumbersome

method. Computers have dramatically changed the way the cataloging is done in
libraries.
Medicine: Lots of research in medicine is done using computers. Doctors now a days
can see the complete inside of the human beings using the computer.
Space Technology: All the movements of the satellite are controlled using the
computer.
Weather: Using computers and satellites you can predict the weather for the next few
days. In fact, the biggest computer in India is with the Meteorological Department of
India, at New Delhi.

ANATOMY OF COMPUTER
Computer consists of three (3) main parts. They are:
Input Unit
Output Unit
Central Processing Unit
Input unit - Data and instruction are entered into computer with the help of a unit, called
Input unit. Input unit turns data and instructions into binary form (either 0 or 1) to make
them comprehensible to computers. Generally, as a primary input device, keyboard is
used.
In short, the following functions are performed by an Input unit:
1. It accepts (or reads) the instructions and data from the outside worlds.
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form.
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.
Output Unit – The job of an output unit is just the reverse of that of an input unit. It
supplies the information obtained from data processing to the outside world. Monitor,
also known as Visual Display Unit (VDU) is primarily used as an output unit.

In short, the following functions are performed by an Output unit:
1. It accepts the results produced by the computer, which are the coded form,
and hence, cannot be easily understood by us.
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
3. It supplies the converted results to the outside world.
Central Processing Unit - Central processing unit (CPU) is referred to as the ‘brain of
computer’. In a human body, all major decisions are taken by the brain, and the other
parts of the body functions as directed by the brain. Similarly, in a computer system, all
major calculation and comparisons are made inside the CPU and the CPU is responsible
for activating and controlling the operation of other units of the computer system. It
mainly executes the data and instruction provided by the users.
It consists of three (3) main units:
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

Storage unit ( Main memory Unit / Primary Storage)
Control Unit (CU)
Arithmetic Logic Unit: The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the
place, where the actual execution of the instruction takes place, during the processing
operation. To be more precise, calculations are performed, and all comparisons are made
in the ALU. The arithmetic operations like +, - , * and / are performed here. The logical
operations like <, >, =. <=, >= and <> are also performed here. In most of the arithmetic

operations the result is in numerical form while in the case of logical operations the result
can be YES / NO or TRUE / FALSE.
Control Unit: This unit controls the flow and manipulation of data and information.
It also controls the flow of data from input devices to memory and from memory to
output devices.
Storage Unit: The data and instructions, which are entered into the computer system
through input units, have to be stored inside the computer, before the actual processing
starts. Similarly, the result produced by the computer after processing, must also be kept
somewhere inside the computer system, before being passed on to the output units. More
over, the intermediate results produced by the computer, must also be preserved for
ongoing processing. The storage unit of a computer system is designed for all these
purpose.
In short, the specific functions of the storage unit are to store :
1. The data and instructions required for processing (received from input devices)
2. Intermediate results of processing.
3. Final results of processing, before these results are released to an output device
The storage unit of all computers is comprised of the following two (2) types of storage:
1. Primary storage: The primary storage, also known as main memory. It is also
called primary memory and it is Memory is one of the most wonderful features on
computer. It is one of the most important parts of this system. Details discuss later.
2. Secondary storage: The secondary storage, also known as auxiliary storage, is

used to take care of limitation of the primary storage. It is used to supplement the limited
storage capacity and the volatile characteristic of primary storage. Details discuss later.
INPUT - OUTPUT DEVICES

A computer system can be useful, only when it is able to communicate with its external
environment. In the following figure, the input-output devices (abbreviated I/O devices)
provide the means of communication between the computer and outside world. They are
also known as peripheral devices. Input devices are used to enter data from the outside
world into primary storage. Input devices are used to enter data from the outside world
into primary storage and output devices supply the results of processing from the primary
storage to the users. A wide variety of I/O devices are now available.
Input CPU Input

data from Input And Output data from
external Devices Input data Memory Devices external
Processed data
world coded in in internal world
internal form form
Figure : Illustrating the role of I/O devices in a computer system

INPUT DEVICES
A device that converts our information to a form which computer understands is

known as Input Device. An input device is an electromechanical device, which accepts
data from the outside world, and translates them into a form, which the computer can
interrupt. A keyboard terminal is the most common input device. Several input devices
are available today. They can be broadly classified into the following categories.
1. Keyboard devices 4. Electronic cards based devices

2. Point- and – draw devices 5. Voice recognition devices
3. Data scanning devices 6. Vision based devices
The various types of input devices along with their typical applications are
described below.
1. Keyboard Devices: Keyboard is the most commonly used input devices today.
This is the only input device, which works using characters or symbols. Keyboards are
referred to as Character User Interface (CUI).
It’s structure is similar to that of a typewriter and works also almost in the same way. But
it has certain advantages over the type writer, such as:
(a) It has function keys (F! to F12) which is programmable

(b) Almost all the keys are dual function keys.
WE can also classify the keys of keyboard in four types as –

The alphanumeric keys
The numeric keypad
The function keys
Special Purpose keys
The Alphanumeric keys

The alphanumeric keys are centrally located in a keyboard quite like you see in a
traditional manual typewriter. The alphanumeric keys include alphabet ( A –Z or a – z ) ,
numeric characters (0 –9), special symbols (~!@#$%^&*()_+|\)). The special symbols
can be used by holding Shift and numeric keys.
The Numeric Keypad

The numeric keypad includes a set of 17 keys containing 0-9 digits, mathematical
operators, arrow keys and some special keys (Home, Pg Up, Pg Dn, End, Ins, Enter and
Del).
The Function Keys:

On the upper side of the there are 12 Function keys denoted by F1, F2… F12. These keys
let you use commands in a short cut manner.
Special purpose keys:

With the advent of advanced software, keyboards have been equipped with special keys
which work accordingly to new programs in operating system. These are
The most popular keyboard used today is the 101- keys QWERTY keyboard.
2. Point- and – Draw Devices : These input devices have made computers a much
more easily usable tool, and have established the computer as a versatile tool for graphic
designers. It was realized that many of these devices, like mouse and light pen, could also
be very effectively used to create graphic elements on the screen such as lines, curves,
and freehand shapes. With this new ability, these devices came to be known as point-and-
draw devices. Some of the most commonly used point-and-draw devices are described
below:
a) Mouse: Mouse is the most popular point-and-draw device. It is an online input

device which can be used by single hand. By moving a mouse on a plane surface, a ball
inside the mouse rolls which in turn moves the rollers in-built in the mouse. The graphics
cursor, which is used to point and draw, is displayed on the screen as variety of symbols,
such as arrow ( ) , a wrist with a pointing finger ( ) etc.
Mouse has two or more buttons. Left hand side button is most in use while right hand
side button is used in special cases. By the way, you can change it with the help of the
options available in the operating system software. ON pressing the button of mouse we
can select the icons on the screen. The pressing of button of mouse by finger is called
“clicking”.

There are three (3) types of mouse:-
Mechanical Mouse
Optical Mouse
Cordless Mouse
Mechanical Mouse: Most of the mice we see today are mechanical mouse. This type
of mouse, commonly used on personal computer, has a small rubber ball inside the case
and can roll in all direction.
Optical Mouse: Optical mouse is a new type of non-mechanical mouse. It is quicker

but more expensive than the mechanical one. It emits a beam of light from its underside.
It detects the distance, direction and speed of mouse with its reflection.
Cordless Mouse: Cordless mouse being the most advanced technology, relieves you
from botheration of wires. It uses radio frequency to communicate information to your
computer.

Figure : Types of Mouse
b) TRACK BALL :
A trackball is a pointing device that works like a mouse. It has an exposed ball on its
upper surface and buttons. While operating in, your thumb is positioned on its ball and
other fingers are on its different buttons. Unlike mouse, trackball is fixed and hence it
occupies less space. Track ball became popular with the of Laptop computers as you can
use laptop anywhere as per your choice and needs.
Track ball is available in several models. It is available in both big and small balls.
Models with two buttons and three buttons for left handed and right handed users are also
available.
c) JOYSTICK
Joystick is a pointing device, which works on the same principle as a track ball. It is
generally used for playing video games. It has a handle which can help us in navigating
the turtle or graphics on the screen. This generally is used to play games by children and
hence is a good medium to create interest of children in computers. Although all the
computer games can also be played by keyboard but a joystick provides speed and
convenience in these games.
d) ELECTRONIC PEN
Another point-and-draw device is an electronic pen. In a pen based system, you hold the
pen in your hand and directly point with it on the screen to select menu items or icons;
directly draw graphics on the screen with it ; or write with it on a special pad for direct
input of the written information to the system.
e) TOUCH SCREEN
Touch screen is the most simple and easiest to learn of all input devices. A touch screen
enables the users to choose from available options by simply touching with their finger
the desired icon or menu item displayed on the computer screen.
Figure : Touch Screen

Touch screen are the most preferred human-computer interface devices used in
information kiosks. An information kiosk is an unattended system. For example,
information kiosks may be located
1. At an airport or a railway station to provide information to arriving passengers

about hotels, tourists spot etc in the city.
2. In large museums or zoos to guide the visitors to the location of various
attraction and facilities.
3. DATA SCANNING DEVICES

Data scanning devices are input devices, which are used for direct data entry into the
computer system from source documents. Some of the data scanning devices are also
capable of recognizing marks of characters
Data scanning devices are of many types. These are:

Image Scanner
Optical Mark Reader ( OMR)
Optical Character Recognition Device / Optical Character Reader (OCR)
Bar Code Reader
Magnetic Ink Character Reader
♦ IMAGE SCANNER
An image scanner is an input device, which translates paper
documents into an electronic format, which can be stored in
a computer. The input documents may be typed text,
pictures, graphics or even handwritten materials. They are
capable of entering information directly into the computer.
The main advantage of direct entry of information is that
users do not have to key in the information. This provides
faster and more accurate data entry. This input device has
been found to be very useful in preserving paper documents in electronic form.
Image scanners come in various shaped and sizes. The two commonly used types are

1) Flatbed scanner
2) Hand-held scanner
♦ Optical Mark Reader (OMR )
It is popularly used for evaluating objective-answer scripts in examinations. In the

answer-scripts, the answer is marked by filling up circular, square or oval areas with
pencil marks. While evaluating the scripts with an OMR, light is made incident on the
script, some of which is reflected off by the highly reflective pencil marks and is picked
up by a sensor. Then the computer cross matches the co-ordinates of the answer given by
an examinee with the correct ones.
♦ Optical Character Reader (OCR )
It is special types of scanner which is popularly used for scanning alphabetic, numeric
and alpha-numeric symbols written using normal ink on plain paper. It may be hand held
scanner or a page scanner to detect light reflected from a line or from a page of the text.
The change in the reflected light is converted to binary data which is sent to the
processor. The light is absorbed by the dark areas while the light is reflected from the
lighted areas. OCR can scan several thousands of printed or type written characters per
second. So optical character readers are used in large volume applications .This avoids
data mis-entry and errors that may occur due to normal entry. It is popularly used in
banks for reading the current status of passbook.
♦ Bar- Code Reader
Data coded in the form of small lines (known as bars) are known as bar codes. Bar codes
represent alphanumeric data by a combination of adjacent vertical lines (bars) by varying
their width and spacing between them to indicate the desired information. They are
particularly used for unique identification of all types of goods, books, postal packages
etc.
A bar-code reader is a device, which is used for reading (decoding) bar-coded data. It
may be hand held scanner. It scans bar-code image and converts it into an alphanumeric
value, which is then fed to the computer to which the bar-code reader is connected.
A bar-code reader uses a laser beam scanning technology. The laser beam is stroked
across the pattern of bars of a bar code. Different bar codes, having different patterns of
bars, reflect the beam in different ways, which is sensed by a light sensitive detector.
Reflected light patterns are converted into electrical pulses.
The most commonly used bar code is Universal Product Code (UPC), which now
appears on almost all retail packages in USA. The UPC code uses a series of vertical bars
of varying widths. These bars are detected as ten digits. The first five digits identify the
supplier or manufacturer of the item. The second five digits identify individual product.

♦ Magnetic- Ink Character Reader (MICR)
Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR) is widely used in banking where one has to deal
with a great number of cheques. MICR known in short is a method of machine reading
characters made of ink containing magnetized particles. A special purpose machine
known as a reader/ sorter reads characters made of ink containing magnetized particles.
The MICR system contains 14 globally approved characters by banking sector.
The method is fast, accurate and automatic. Moreover, the chances of error are negligible.
4. Electronic – Card Reader
Electronic Cards and their associated readers offer another means of direct data entry into
a computer system. Electronic cards are small plastic cards having encoded data, which
are appropriate for the application for which they are used. Electronic cards are often
used by banks and issued to the customers for use in automatic teller machines (ATM).
Electronic card Reader nowadays is used to read smart cards. It is also called smart card
reader. Smart card is a device like debit card and credit Card., in which there is an
electronic memory and is used for different functions. Smart cards used in big hotels are
functioning as key for room locks.
Card reader reads the stored information in the card. Today, card reader also helps in safe
online shopping.
5. Voice Recognition Device
Voice recognition devices are input devices, which allow a person to input data to
computer system by speaking to it. Hence, they computers are much easier to use.
However, as a data input device, currently voice recognition systems have limited
success, because correct interpretation by a machine of the large of words in the
vocabulary of a language is difficult.
Although in its infancy, voice recognition systems are already being used for a wide
range of application. Some of its typical applications are as follows:
1) For Example, doctors in an operation room can request certain information about
a patient while operating.
2) For authentication of a user by a computer system based on voice input.

OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device is an electromechanical device, which accepts data from a computer and
translates them into a form, which is suitable for use by the outside world. (the users).
Several output devices are available today. They can be broadly classified into the
following categories:
1. Monitors
2. Printers
3. Plotters
4. Screen Image Projector
5. Voice Response System
Output devices generate computer output, which can be broadly classified into the
following two (2) types
1. Soft–Copy Output: A soft-copy output is an output, which is not produced on a

paper or some material, which can be touched or carried for being shown to
others. They are temporary in nature and vanish after use.
For example, output displayed on a terminal screen or spoken out by a voice
response system are soft-copy output.
2. Hard–Copy Output: A hard-copy output is an output, which is produced on a

paper or some material, which can be touched and carried for being shown to
others. They are permanent in nature and can be kept in paper files or can be
looked later, when the person is not using the computer.
For example, output produced by printers or plotters on paper are hard-copy
output.
1. Monitors
Monitor is an output device, where you can get your output on a TV- like screen. It is
commonly classified as – Monochrome, Gray-Scale and Color Monitor based on the
colors they display.
Monochrome is derived from “Mono” which means single and

“Chrome” means “color”; which means single color. Monochrome
monitors are single color monitor like a black and white screen.
Gray- Scale monitors are special types of monitors for displaying

output in different gray shades. These monitors in flat-panel are
commonly used in handy computers.

Color monitors can give output as a combination of RGB (Red-Green-

Blue) radiations. Due to RGB concept, they are capable of presenting
graphics in a higher resolution.
According to the technology monitors are classified in to following categories:
CRT Monitors
Almost monitors are based on “Picture Tube Element” as same as a television set. This
tube is known as “Cathode Ray Tube” or CRT in short. CRT technology is cheaper and
capable of presenting high quality colored output.
FLAT-PANEL Monitors
Recently a new technology in the display devices has been developed. In this technology,
charged chemical gases adopt various chemical configurations to create images on the
screen. These are called Flat Panel Display. This device is mainly used in laptop
computers.
Flat panel monitors also have LCD technology which means Liquid Crystal Display. The
flat panel monitors are thinner and lighter.
PLASMA Monitors

Plasma monitor is quite thin that is manufactured using a special type of gas between two
glass sheets. This special type of gas is neon or xenon. When gas is electrified through a
grid of small electrodes, it shines.
Plasma Monitor
2. Printers
Printers are the most commonly used output devices today for producing hard-copy
output.
The printers have two (2) basis of classification:
A. Classification based on the basis of printing technology, they are

mainly categorized in two classes.
Impact Printers: In this type, the printer’s head physically

touches the paper surface to produce the output. The head,
always being in contact with the paper while printing, produces
high friction thus making it noisy. Graphical outputs are of low
quality in the case of impact printers.
Non-impact printers: In this type, the printer’s head does not

physically touch the paper to produce the impression. Generally,
in this case, a fine jet of ink is spread over the paper surface. Due
to no contact between the printer head and paper, the friction
generated i9s very low, making it virtually noiseless. More over,
multicolored output is possible. Graphics out generated is also of
high quality here.
B. Classification based on speed of printing : Here the various types of

printers are classified as :
Low Speed printers: It is also called serial or character printer.

It can print one character at a time. It is slowest and the cheapest

form of printers. Its speed is measured in characters per second.
(CPS).
High speed printer, which print output as single line or whole
page at a time. It has following two types:
• Line printer: It can print one line at output at a

time. Its speed is measured in lines per minute
(LPM).
• Page printer: Here, the printer can generate one

page of output at a time. It is the fastest but the
costliest of printers. Its speed is measured in pages
per minute (PPM).
The various types of common printers in use today are described below.
Dot Matrix Printer
It is an impact printer. It is also character printer, which print one character at a time.
They form characters and all kinds of images as a pattern of dot. So, it is called Dot-
matrix printer. In this printer there is a print head, which has a matrix of pins in it. Each
pin when strikes with ribbon make a dot on a paper. Many dots constitute a character.
Dot matrix printers are normally slow with speeds usually ranging between 30 to 600
characters per second. However, they are cheap in terms of both initial cost and cost of
operation. Hence, they are preferred by individuals and organizations for generating
printed outputs, if the speed and quality of printing are not important factors. Many dot
matrix printers can print lines from left to right as well as from right to left. They are also
used for applications, which require multi copy output.
Inkjet Printer
Inkjet printers are character printers, which form character and all kinds of images by
spraying small drops of ink on to the paper. The print head of an inkjet printer contains
up to 64 tiny nozzles. TO print a character, the printer selectively heats the appropriate
set of nozzles as the print head moves horizontally.
Inkjet printers produce higher quality output than dot-matrix printers, because they form
characters by very tiny ink dots.
Inkjet printers are non-impact printer, because they print by spraying ink on the paper.
Hence, they are quiet in operation.
Inkjet printers are slower than dot-matrix printer with speeds usually ranging between 40
to 300 characters per second. The ink, which can be of various colors, is absorbed into
the paper and dries instantly. Typically, an inkjet printer is more expensive than a dot-
matrix printer.
Laser Printer
Laser printers are page printers, which print one page at a time. Laser printer produces
characters and other images on paper by directing a laser beam at a mirror, which
bounces the beam onto drum. The laser leaves a negative charge on the drum, to which
positively charged black tones powder will stick. As paper rolls by the drum the toner is
transferred to the paper. A hot roller then bonds the toner to the paper.
Laser printers produce very high quality output, because they form characters by very
tiny ink particles. The most common laser printers have resolution of 600 dpi(dots per
inch). Because, of their high resolution, these printers give excellent graphics art quality.
Laser printers are non-impact printers, because they do not have hammers striking on an
inked ribbon or paper. Hence, they are very quiet in operation.
Laser printers are faster in printing speed than other printers. Low speed laser printer can
print 4 to 12 pages per minute. Very high speed laser printers are also available, which
can print 500 to 1000 pages per minute. Because of their better print quality and printing
speed, laser printers are more expensive than other printers.
3. Plotter
The growth of computer aided design and drafting has created a demand for device that
can produce high quality graphics in multiple colors. A plotter produces drawing using
pens that are attached to movable arms and are directed across the surface of a stationary
piece of paper. Many plotters, however, combine a movable pen armed with paper that
can also roll back and forth to make the drawing.
Plotter applications are not limited to computer aided design (CAD). High quality bar
graphs and pie charts created with plotter can add interest and meaning to business
presentations. One can print charts, drawing, maps and three dimensional illustrations
with plotter. Generally, plotter is of two types
• Drum pen plotter
• Flat bed plotter

4. Screen Image Projector
Screen image projector is an output device, which is used to project information from a
computer on to a large screen (such as a cloth screen or a wall), so that it can be
simultaneously viewed by a large group of people. This output device is very useful for
making presentation to a group of people with the direct use of a computer. Special
marker pens had to be used for marking certain portions of the contents on the
transparency sheets during the presentation. A screen image projector greatly simplifies
this job.
Screen image projectors have become common presentation equipment today. They are
commonly used with portable notebook computers to quickly setup a modern
presentation facility at any place with great ease.
5. Voice Response System
Just as a voice recognition system allows a user to talk to a computer, similarly, a voice
response system enables a computer to talk to a user. A voice response system has an
audio-response device, which produces audio output. Obviously, the output is temporary,
soft-copy output.
Voice response systems are of two (2) types –
1) Voice Reproduction System

2) Speech Synthesizer
MEMORY
INTRODUCTION
Computer structure is not different for the human anatomy. Our entire body works like a
computer. We memories works we do and its duration and size depend upon our
individual capacity. Computer also avails the facility of memory that helps us remember
our work. Computer memory is more efficient and more reliable than human memory.
WHAT IS MAIN MEMORY?
Memory is the working storage of computer. This is a very important part of computer
which stores data temporarily or permanently for future use. Memory is also called
primary memory or main memory. Memory uses several spaces for storage that are
definite in number called capacity or size of memory. The unit, that measures capacity of
memory called byte.
Memory Capacity
Memory capacity is defined in terms of the number of bytes a computer system can store.

Memory capacity of a computer system is normally stated in terms of Kilobytes (KB) ,
Megabytes (MB) , Gigabytes (GB).
Unit Size Description

Bit One Binary Digit Stores either a binary 0 or 1
Byte Eight bits One character
Kilobyte (KB) 210 bytes About one page
Megabytes (MB) 220 bytes About the size of a short book
Gigabyte (GB) 230 bytes 1,000 short book
Classification of Memory
Memory classification has been shown as under the chart
Memory
Primary Cache Secondary

Memory Memory Memory
Analog Digital
Memory Memory Sequential Access Direct Access
Device Device
RAM ROM Magnetic

Tape
Magnetic Disk Optical Disk
(Random (Read Only
Access Memory
Memory
Floppy Disk Hard Disk
SRAM DRAM
(Static RAM) (Dynamic RAM)
CD - ROM WORM Disk
EPROM EEPROM
PROM (Erasable (Electronically
Cache Memory
(Programmable
Programmable Erasable
ROM)
ROM) Programmable

(i) PRIMARY MEMORY

Primary memory is a part of the CPU whereas the secondary memory is the external to
the CPU. The secondary memory stores the data and keeps it even when the electricity to
the PC is cut off whereas the primary looses its contents immediately.
(ii) SECONDARY MEMORY
All computers except very small systems contain both semiconductor as well as magnetic
memory. This semiconductor memory is employed is employed as the main memory ( or
primary memory) of the computer . It stores programs and data which are currently
needed by the CPU. The magnetic memory is used as secondary (or auxiliary memory).
The secondary memory is employed for bulk storage (mass storage) of programs, data
and other information. It has much larger capacity than the main memory. It stores
system software, assemblers, compilers, useful packages, large data files etc. The
secondary memory is non-volatile in nature.
(iii) Cache Memory
Cache Memory is a high speed storage unit. It is much faster than main memory. Cache
storage is extremely expensive compared to main memory. The characteristics of cache
memory compared to main memory are as under
(i) Access time is less (ii) Access speed is more.
TYPES OF PRIMARY MEMORY

Primary Memory is basically used for doing the computer’s internal task. Primary is of
two types from the technology point of view. These are:
(a) Analog Memory

(b) Digital Memory
Based on its working methodology, it can be classified as follows:
1. Random Access Memory (RAM): It is the part of the primary memory which is used
by the computer for performing all jobs supplied by the user. Generally, all data stored
here is based on charge, and hence is power dependent. In this case, the user has both
read and write permission. At power off condition, the Ram looses all its contents
permanently. Basically, RAM comes into use when the user uses the computer.
Based on its functioning, Ram is of two types
(i) Static Random Access Memory (SRAM): It is faster and hence costlier.
For this reason, it is available in limited amount in the computer. (SRAM
comprises only about 10% of total RAM).
(ii) Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM): This part of RAM is
Capacitor based and hence it needs to be recharged at frequent intervals of
time to retain the information. This extra activity makes it comparatively

slower than S-RAM. For this same reason, it is cheaper and is available in
large amount in the computer.
2. Read Only Memory (ROM): This part of the memory is circuit based and all the
instructions stores here use logic gates rather electric charge. This makes ROM non
volatile and hence its contents are not erased due to power shutdown or due to human
manipulation. The contents of ROM remain unchanged through its life. Generally, ROM
stores instruction necessary for ensuring proper working of the computer. These
instructions are never changed and are stored using hardware circuits. These instructions
are called FIRMWARE.
Types of ROM:
(i) Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)
(ii) Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)
(iii) Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)
TYPES OF SECONDARY MEMORY
Secondary memory is generally used by the users for storing large amount of
information. Based on the methods of accessing information, secondary memory can be
of two types
(1) SEQUENTIAL ACCESS STORAGE DEVICE :

In this type of storage device, the access time varies according to storage location
because here information’s are accessed sequentially. . It finds its application in
preparation of telephone bills etc.
MAGNETIC TAPE:
Magnetic tape is the most popular storage medium for large data, which are sequentially
accessed and processed.
The magnetic tape medium is a plastic ribbon, which is usually ½ inch or ¼ inch wide,
and 50 to 2400 feet long. It is located with a magnetically recording material, such as iron
oxide or chromium oxide.

Like audio or videotape, the magnetic tape used in computer systems can also be erased
and reused indefinitely.
(2) DIRECT ACCESS STORAGE DEVICE

This type of storage device is used in those applications where information has to be
accessed at random or directly. In this type of device, accessing of any information takes
same time irrespective of its position. This type of device is used in reservation system.
MAGNETIC DISK :
Magnetic Disk is the most popular storage medium for direct access secondary storage.
Due to their random access capability, magnetic disks are the most popular on line
storage device.
A magnetic disk is a thin, circular plate/ platter made of metal or plastic, which is usually
coated on the both sides with a magnetizable recording material. The disk itself is stored
in a specially designed protective envelope or cartridge.
Types of Magnetic Disk :
(a) Floppy Disk : Floppy disks are made of thin , flexible plastic material. Here a
read write head is available for each surface and the head physically touches the
surface reading data. Floppy disks are portable, quite cheap, but have less storage
capacity. Floppy disks are basically of the following types :
(i) Single Sided Single Density (SSSD)
(ii) Single Sided Double Density (SSDD)
(iii) Double Sided Single Density (DSSD)
(iv) Double Sided Double Density (DSDD)
The most commonly used variety of floppy disk is DSDD having a capacity of 1.44 MB

b) Hard Disk : Hard disks are thin circular disks made of a rigid metallic material
and coated with magnetic oxide. A read and write head is available for each of its
surfaces but to avoid friction, the head does not physically touch the surface of the
hard disk. Because of their extremely high capacity and high speed, hard disks are
costlier. For protection, hard disk is permanently housed inside the computer in a
protective metallic jacket and for this it is also known as ‘fixed disk’. Generally, hard
disks have capacities in the range of gigabytes.
OPTICAL DISK
Optical disk or optical media are mass storage devices with huge capacity. The advent of
compact disk (CD) , anon erasable optical disk, made it possible to develop a new low
cost storage technology.
An optical disk storage system consists of a rotating disk which is coated with a thin
metal or some other material that is highly reflective. Laser beam technology is used for
recording / reading of data on the disk. Due to use of laser beam technology, optical disks
are also known as laser disks or optical laser disk.
Compact Disk (CD) :
Compact Disks have got extremely high capacity of data storage and works very fast. It
has got a long life , provided that it is used properly . Generally, compact disks are used
to store extremely important software. Here, data is stored optically on spiral tracks. At
the time of recording some information in the CD, laser beam of very high intensity is
made incident on the spinning disk.

Three types of CD are available :
(a) CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) :

The original, standard CD, CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc, Read-Only
Memory. What this means is that you can only read information from a CD-
ROM; you can’t add new information in a way.
(b) CD-R :
If you have a CD-RW drive you can permanently store information on a CD-R
(Compact Disc Record able) disc. The information you write or burn to a CD-R is
permanent and can’t be changed or erased. You can also use CD-r discs to create
musical CD’s that you can listen to in a stereo system.
You can read from it, but you can’t write to it.
(c) CD –RW :
Unlike CD-R discs, a CD-RW (Compact Disc-ReWritable) disc can be written too
many times. You can also modify and erase information on a CD-RW disc – if
you have a CD-RW drive, of course.
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
INTRODUCTION
Two basic things make up a computer: hardware and software. You simply can’t
one without the other.
COMPUTER HARDWARE
Mechanical, electrical and electronic parts of a computer are called computer
hardware. In other words, the parts of a computer system that we can touch and
see are hardware. Input, Output, Storage, processing and control devices of a
computer system are called hardware.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
The software is the programs that are required to control the several devices.
Without software the system can not be initialized or controlled and all the
hardware components still machine.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE
SOFTWARE
SYSTEM SOFTWARE APPLICATION SOFTWARE UTILITY PROGRAM
Operating System Language Translator Disk fragmenetor Virus Scanner Virus remover
User application software Application package

Number System and Representation
Binary Number System
We have already mentioned that computer can handle with two types of signals,
therefore, to represent any information in computer; we have to take help of these two
signals. These two signals correspond to two levels of electrical signals, and symbolically
we represent them as 0 and 1.
In our day to day activities for arithmetic, we use the Decimal Number System. The
decimal number system is said to be of base, or radix 10, because it uses ten digits and
the coefficients are multiplied by power of 10.
A decimal number such as 5273 represents a quantity equal to 5 thousands plus 2

hundreds, plus 7 tens, plus 3 units. The thousands, hundreds, etc. are powers of 10
implied by the position of the coefficients. To be more precise, 5273 should be written as:
However, the convention is to write only the coefficient and from their position deduce
the necessary power of 10.
In decimal number system, we need 10 different symbols. But in computer we have
provision to represent only two symbols. So directly we can not use decimal number
system in computer arithmetic.
For computer arithmetic we use binary number system. The binary number system uses
two symbols to represent the number and these two symbols are 0 and 1.
The binary number system is said to be of base 2 or radix 2, because it uses two digits
and the coefficients are multiplied by power of 2.
The binary number 110011 represents the quantity equal to:
(in decimal)
We can use binary number system for computer arithmetic.
Decimal Number Systems
The Decimal Number System uses base 10. It includes the digits from 0 through 9. The
weighted values for each position are as follows:
10^4 10^3 10^2 10^1 10^0 10^-1 10^-2 10^-3
10000 1000 100 10 1 .1 .01 .001
You have been using the decimal (base 10) numbering system for so long that you often
take it for granted. When you see a number like "123", you don't think about the value

123. Instead, you generate a mental image of how many items this value represents. In
reality, however, the number 123 represents:
1 * 10^2 + 2 * 10^1 + 3 * 10^0 =
1 * 100 + 2 * 10 + 3 * 1 =
100 + 20 + 3 =
123
Each digit appearing to the left of the decimal point represents a value between zero and
nine times power of ten represented by its position in the number. Digits appearing to the
right of the decimal point represent a value between zero and nine times an increasing
negative power of ten. For example, the value 725.194 is represented as follows:
7 * 10^2 + 2 * 10^1 + 5 * 10^0 + 1 * 10^-1 + 9 * 10^-2 + 4 * 10^-3 =
7 * 100 + 2 * 10 + 5 * 1 + 1 * 0.1 + 9 * 0.01 + 4 * 0.001 =
700 + 20 + 5 + 0.1 + 0.09 + 0.004 =
725.194
Hexadecimal number: The hexadecimal number system is said to be of base, or

radix 16, because it uses 16 symbols and the coefficients are multiplied by power of 16.
Sixteen digits used in hexadecimal system are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E
and F.
Octal Number: The octal number system is said to be of base, or radix 8, because it
uses 8 digits and the coefficients are multiplied by power of 8.
Eight digits used in octal system are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

Method for conversion from Binary to Decimal
Conversion from base-2 to base-10 proceeds by applying the preceding algorithm, so to

speak, in reverse. The bits of the binary number are used one by one, starting with the
most significant bit. Beginning with the value 0, repeatedly double the prior value and
add the next bit to produce the next value. This can be organized in a multi-column table.
For example to convert 100101011012 to decimal:
Prior value × 2 + Next Bit Next value

=0
0 ×2+ 1 =1
1 ×2+ 0 =2
2 ×2+ 0 =4
4 ×2+ 1 =9
9 ×2+ 0 = 18
18 ×2+ 1 = 37
37 ×2+ 0 = 74
74 ×2+ 1 = 149
149 ×2+ 1 = 299
299 ×2+ 0 = 598
598 ×2+ 1 = 1197
The result is 119710. This method is an application of the Horner scheme.
Bin: 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
Dec: 1×2^10 + 0×2^9 + 0×2^8 + 1×2^7 + 0×2^6 + 1×2^5 + 0×2^4 + 1×2^3 + 1×2^2 + 0×2^1
+ 1×2^0 = 1197
The fractional parts of a number are converted with similar methods. They are again
based on the equivalence of shifting with doubling or halving.
In a fractional binary number such as .110101101012, the first digit is , the

second , etc. So if there is a 1 in the first place after the decimal, then the
number is at least , and vice versa. Double that number is at least 1. This suggests the
algorithm: Repeatedly double the number to be converted, record if the result is at least 1,
and then throw away the integer part.

For example, 10, in binary, is:
Converting Result
0.
0.0
0.01
0.010
0.0101
Thus the repeating decimal fraction 0.3... is equivalent to the repeating binary fraction
0.01... .
Or for example, 0.110, in binary, is:
Converting Result
0.1 0.
0.1 × 2 = 0.2 < 1 0.0
0.2 × 2 = 0.4 < 1 0.00
0.4 × 2 = 0.8 < 1 0.000
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 ≥ 1 0.0001
0.6 × 2 = 1.2 ≥ 1 0.00011
0.2 × 2 = 0.4 < 1 0.000110
0.4 × 2 = 0.8 < 1 0.0001100
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 ≥ 1 0.00011001
0.6 × 2 = 1.2 ≥ 1 0.000110011
0.2 × 2 = 0.4 < 1 0.0001100110
This is also a repeating binary fraction 0.000110011... . It may come as a surprise that
terminating decimal fractions can have repeating expansions in binary. It is for this
reason that many are surprised to discover that 0.1 + ... + 0.1, (10 additions) differs from
1 in floating point arithmetic. In fact, the only binary fractions with terminating
expansions are of the form of an integer divided by a power of 2, which 1/10 is not.
The final conversion is from binary to decimal fractions. The only difficulty arises with
repeating fractions, but otherwise the method is to shift the fraction to an integer, convert
it as above, and then divide by the appropriate power of two in the decimal base. For
example:

x = 1100 .101110011100...
= 1100101110 .0111001110...
= 11001 .0111001110...
= 1100010101
x = (789/62)10
Method for conversion from Binary to Hexadecimal
To convert a binary number into its hexadecimal equivalent, divide it into groups of four
bits. If the number of bits isn't a multiple of four, simply insert extra 0 bits at the left
(called padding). For example:
10100102 = 0101 0010 grouped with padding = 5216
110111012 = 1101 1101 grouped = DD16
Method for conversion from Binary to Octal
The process is the reverse of previous algorithm. The binary digits are grouped by threes,
starting from the decimal point and proceeding to the left and to the right. (Add leading
or trailing 0s to fill out the last group of 3 if necessary.) Then replace each trio with the
equivalent octal digit.
For instance, convert binary 1010111100 to octal:
001 010 111 100

1 2 7 4
Thus 10101111002 = 12748
Method for conversion from Decimal to Binary
Let's convert the decimal number 15610 to binary. Write the decimal number as the
dividend inside an upside-down "long division" symbol. Write the base of the destination
system (in our case, "2" for binary) as the divisor outside the curve of the division symbol.
2)156
1. Write the integer answer (quotient) under the long division symbol, and write the
remainder (0 or 1) to the right of the dividend.
2)156 0
78
2. Continue downwards, dividing each new quotient by two and writing the remainders
to the right of each dividend. Stop when the quotient is 1.
2)156 0
2)78 0

2)39 1
2)19 1
2)9 1
2)4 0
2)2 0
2)1 1
2)0 0
3. Starting with the bottom 1, read the sequence of 1's and 0's upwards to the top. You
should have 10011100. This is the binary equivalent of the decimal number 156. Or,
written with base subscripts: 15610 = 100111002
Method for conversion from Hexadecimal to Binary
Binary may be converted to and from hexadecimal somewhat more easily. This is because
the radix of the hexadecimal system (16) is a power of the radix of the binary system (2).
More specifically, 16 = 24, so it takes four digits of binary to represent one digit of
hexadecimal.
The following table shows each hexadecimal digit along with the equivalent decimal value
and four-digit binary sequence:
Hex Dec Binary

0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
A 10 1010
B 11 1011
C 12 1100
D 13 1101
E 14 1110
F 15 1111
To convert a hexadecimal number into its binary equivalent, simply substitute the
corresponding binary digits:
3A16 = 0011 10102

E716 = 1110 01112
Method for conversion from Octal to Binary
To convert octal to binary, replace each octal digit by its binary representation.
Example: Convert 518 to binary:
58 = 1012
18 = 0012
Thus: 518 = 101 0012
Binary-coded decimal (BCD)
In computing and electronic systems, binary-coded decimal (BCD) (sometimes

called natural binary-coded decimal, NBCD) is an encoding for decimal numbers in
which each digit is represented by its own binary sequence. Its main virtue is that it
allows easy conversion to decimal digits for printing or display and faster decimal
calculations. Its drawbacks are the increased complexity of circuits needed to implement
mathematical operations and a relatively inefficient encoding—it occupies more space
than a pure binary representation.
In BCD, a digit is usually represented by four bits which, in general, represent the
values/digits/characters 0–9. Other bit combinations are sometimes used for a sign or
other indications.
Although BCD is not as widely used as it once was, decimal fixed-point and floating-
point are still important and continue to be used in financial, commercial, and industrial
computing. Modern decimal floating-point representations use base-10 exponents, but not
BCD encodings. Current hardware implementations, however, convert the compressed
decimal encodings to BCD internally before carrying out computations. Software
implementations use BCD or some other 10n base, depending on the operation.
To BCD-encode decimal number using the common encoding, each decimal digit is
stored in a four-bit nibble.
Decimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
BCD: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001
Thus, the BCD encoding for the number 127 would be:
0001 0010 0111
Since most computers store data in eight-bit bytes, there are two common ways of storing
four-bit BCD digits in those bytes:
• each digit is stored in one nibble of a byte, with the other nibble being set to all
zeros, all ones (as in the EBCDIC code), or to 0011 (as in the ASCII code)
• two digits are stored in each byte.

Unlike binary-encoded numbers, BCD-encoded numbers can easily be displayed by
mapping each of the nibbles to a different character. Converting a binary-encoded
number to decimal for display is much harder, as this generally involves integer
multiplication or divides operations. BCD also avoids problems where fractions that can
be represented exactly in decimal cannot be in binary (e.g. one-tenth).
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), is a character-encoding

scheme based on the ordering of the English alphabet. ASCII codes represent text in
computers, communications equipment, and other devices that work with text. Most
modern character-encoding schemes—which support many more characters than did the
original—have a historical basis in ASCII.
Historically, ASCII developed from telegraphic codes. Its first commercial use was as a
seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on ASCII formally
began October 6, 1960, with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's
subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published in 1963 a major revision in
1967 and the most recent update in 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the
proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e.,
alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters.
ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters: 33 are non-printing control characters
(now mostly obsolete) that affect how text is processed:94 are printable characters, and
the space is considered an invisible graphic. The most commonly used character
encoding on the World Wide Web was US-ASCII until 2008, when it was surpassed by
UTF-8.

IT TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS – LANGUAGE AND SOFTWARE
LANGUAGE AND SOFTWARE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous lesson we discussed about the different parts and configurations of
computer. It has been mentioned that programs or instructions have to be fed to the
computer to do specific task. So it is necessary to provide sequence of instructions so that
your work can be done. We can divide the computer components into two major areas,
namely, hardware and software. Hardware is the machine itself and its various individual
equipment. It includes all mechanical, electronic and magnetic devices such as monitor,
printer, electronic circuit, floppy and hard disk. In this lesson we will discuss about the
other part, namely, software.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this lesson you will be able to
• explain the concept of software
• distinguish between different types of software
• differentiate application software from system software
• define a language
• differentiate between different types of language
• distinguish between compiler and interpreter
3.3 WHAT IS SOFTWARE?

As you know computer cannot do anything without instructions from the user. In order to
do any specific job you have to give a sequence of instructions to the computer. This set
of instructions is called a computer program. Software refers to the set of computer
programs, procedures that describe the programs, how they are to be used. We can say
that it is the collection of programs, which increase the capabilities of the hardware.
Software guides the computer at every step where to start and stop during a particular job.
The process of software development is called programming.
You should keep in mind that software and hardware are complementary to each other.
Both have to work together to produce meaningful result. Another important point you
should know that producing software is difficult and expensive.
3.4 SOFTWARE TYPES

Computer software is normally classified into two broad categories.
• Application Software
• System software
Application Software: Application Software is a set of programs to carry out operations

for a specific application. For example, payroll is an application software for an
organization to produce pay slips as an output. Application software is useful for word

processing, billing system, accounting, producing statistical report, analysis of numerous

data in research, weather forecasting, etc. In later modules you will learn about MS
WORD, Lotus 1-2-3 and dBASE III Plus. All these are application softwares.
Another example of application software is programming language. Among the

programming languages COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) is more
suitable for business application whereas FORTRAN (Formula Translation) is useful for
scientific application. We will discuss about languages in next section.
System Software: You know that an instruction is a set of programs that has to be fed to
the computer for operation of computer system as a whole. When you switch on the
computer the programs written in ROM is executed which activates different units of
your computer and makes it ready for you to work on it. This set of program can be
called system software. Therefore system software may be defined as a set of one or more
programs designed to control the operation of computer system.
System software are general programs designed for performing tasks such as controlling
all operations required to move data into and out of the computer. It communicates with
printers, card reader, disk, tapes etc. monitor the use of various hardware like memory,
CPU etc. Also system software are essential for the development of applications
software. System Software allows application packages to be run on the computer with
less time and effort. Remember that it is not possible to run application software without
system software.
Development of system software is a complex task and it requires extensive knowledge

of computer technology. Due to its complexity it is not developed in house. Computer
manufactures build and supply this system software with the computer system. DOS,
UNIX and WINDOWS are some of the widely used system software. Out of these UNIX
is a multi-user operating system whereas DOS and WINDOWS are PC-based. We will
discuss in detail about DOS and WINDOWS in the next module.
3.5 WHAT IS LANGUAGE?

You are aware with the term language. It is a system of communication between you and
me. Some of the basic natural languages that we are familiar with are English, Hindi,
Oriya etc. These are the languages used to communicate among various categories of
persons. But how you will communicate with your computer. Your computer will not
understand any of these natural languages for transfer of data and instruction. So there are
programming languages specially developed so that you could pass your data and
instructions to the computer to do specific job. You must have heard names like
FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL etc. These are programming languages. So instructions or
programs are written in a particular language based on the type of job. As an example, for
scientific application FORTRAN and C languages are used. On the other hand COBOL is
used for business applications.

3.5.1 Programming Languages

There are two major types of programming languages. These are Low Level Languages
and High Level Languages. Low Level languages are further divided in to Machine
language and Assembly language.
3.5.2 Low Level Languages

The term low level means closeness to the way in which the machine has been built. Low
level languages are machine oriented and require extensive knowledge of computer
hardware and its configuration.
(a) Machine Language

Machine Language is the only language that is directly understood by the computer. It
does not needs any translator program. We also call it machine code and it is written as
strings of 1's (one) and 0’s (zero). When this sequence of codes is fed to the computer, it
recognizes the codes and converts it in to electrical signals needed to run it. For example,
a program instruction may look like this:
1011000111101
It is not an easy language for you to learn because of its difficult to understand. It is
efficient for the computer but very inefficient for programmers. It is considered to the
first generation language. It is also difficult to debug the program written in this
language.
Advantage
The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast because no
translation program is required for the CPU.
Disadvantages
1. It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer has to know
details of hardware to write program.
2. The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program which results in
program errors.
3. It is difficult to debug the program.

(b) Assembly Language

It is the first step to improve the programming structure. You should know that computer
can handle numbers and letter. Therefore some combination of letters can be used to
substitute for number of machine codes.
The set of symbols and letters forms the Assembly Language and a translator program is
required to translate the Assembly Language to machine language. This translator
program is called Àssembler'. It is considered to be a second-generation language.
Advantages:
1. The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to understand and saves
a lot of time and effort of the programmer.
2. It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.
3. Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the machine level
language. Because this is one-to-one translator between assembly language program and
its corresponding machine language program.
Disadvantages:
1. One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is machine dependent. A
program written for one computer might not run in other computers with different
hardware configuration.
3.6 HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

You know that assembly language and machine level language require deep knowledge
of computer hardware where as in higher language you have to know only the
instructions in English words and logic of the problem irrespective of the type of
computer you are using.
Higher level languages are simple languages that use English and mathematical symbols
like +, -, %, / etc. for its program construction.
You should know that any higher level language has to be converted to machine language
for the computer to understand.
Higher level languages are problem-oriented languages because the instructions are
suitable for solving a particular problem. For example COBOL (Common Business
Oriented Language) is mostly suitable for business oriented language where there is very
little processing and huge output. There are mathematical oriented languages like
FORTRAN (Formula Translation) and BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code) where very large processing is required.

Thus a problem oriented language designed in such a way that its instruction may be
written more like the language of the problem. For example, businessmen use business
term and scientists use scientific terms in their respective languages.
Advantages of High Level Languages

Higher level languages have a major advantage over machine and assembly languages
that higher level languages are easy to learn and use. It is because that they are similar to
the languages used by us in our day to day life.
3.6.1 Compiler
It is a program translator that translates the instruction of a higher level language to
machine language. It is called compiler because it compiles machine language
instructions for every program instructions of higher level language. Thus compiler is a
program translator like assembler but more sophisticated. It scans the entire program first
and then translates it into machine code.
The programs written by the programmer in higher level language is called source
program. After this program is converted to machine languages by the compiler it is
called object program.
A compiler can translate only those source programs, which have been written, in that
language for which the compiler is meant for. For example FORTRAN compiler will
not compile source code written in COBOL language.
Object program generated by compiler is machine dependent. It means programs

compiled for one type of machine will not run in another type. Therefore every type of
machine must have its personal compiler for a particular language. Machine
independence is achieved by using one higher level language in different machines.
3.6.2 Interpreter
An interpreter is another type of program translator used for translating higher level
language into machine language. It takes one statement of higher level languages,
translate it into machine language and immediately execute it. Translation and execution
are carried out for each statement. It differs from compiler, which translate the entire
source program into machine code and does involve in its execution.
.
The advantage of interpreter compared to compiler is its fast response to changes in
source program. It eliminates the need for a separate compilation after changes to each
program. Interpreters are easy to write and do not require large memory in computer. The
disadvantage of interpreter is that it is time consuming method because each time a
statement in a program is executed then it is first translated. Thus compiled machine
language program runs much faster than an interpreted program.

IT TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS – DOS
Disk Operating System

The Operating System
Most Personal Computers run under the MSDOS Operating System. MSDOS being the
Microsoft Disk Operating System. It is estimated that almost 10 million machines run
under the MSDOS Operating System and some 20,000 or more end-user applications
have been published to run with it.
The Operating System is the program which provides organized services to the computer
user and the application programs that they wish to use. These services consist mainly of
access to the hardware resources such as the disk drives, keyboard, etc.
The Operating System has three main constituents:-
The system files which are hidden. Their function is to perform such basic tasks as
reading the keyboard, displaying characters on the screen, opening and closing files etc.
The command interrupter, COMMAND.COM which reads commands typed at the

keyboard and attempts to obey them. COMMAND.COM has some simple commands
built in - these are known as internal commands.
A series of utility programs covering functions not handled by the internal commands.
There are approximately 52 of these commands, the exact number varies between
different versions of MSDOS , ranging from COPY to copy files to EDIT the text editor,
and many more
Disks and Drives
Because most of your computers Memory (RAM) is temporary, its contents are erased
when you switch off the power. You need a place to store the Operating System,
application programs and your work. That's where disks come in, you store any
information you want to keep onto disks.
There are two types of disk: Floppy disks & Hard disks.
Floppy disks (Diskettes)
A disk is a magnetically coated disk of thin plastic, inside a rigid plastic cover.
You can use Floppy disks to:
Transfer information from one computer to another.
Store the Operating System, or application program and your work, if you don't have a
Hard disk.

Keep a copy of information that you have on your Hard disk (Backup).
You need only format a disk once. After that, you can use the disk again and again
without having to reformat it. Formatting a disk you have previously used erases any data
on the disk, so only reformat a disk if you are sure you don't need any of the data on it.
Choosing disks
Diskettes come in various forms, so it is important to choose diskettes that match the type
of diskette drive installed in your computer. Several different types are available :
5.25inch 360 Kbyte - Very rarely used now
5.25inch 1.2 Mbyte - Uncommon but still in use
3.5inch 720 Kbyte - Getting less common, still in use
3.5inch 1.44 Mbyte - The standard in most modern computers.
It should be noted that :-
A 720 Kbyte drive can only read and write to a 720 Kbyte diskette
A 1.44 Mbyte drive can read and write to both 720 Kbyte and 1.44 Mbyte diskettes.
However you must use special formatting instructions to format a 720 Kbyte diskette in a
1.44 Mbyte drive.
The visible difference between a 720 Kbyte diskette and a 1.44 Mbyte diskette is that
there is no extra notch on a 720 Kbyte diskette.
Hard disks
A Hard disk is a disk that is enclosed in a permanently sealed metal housing. Hard disks
are better than Floppy diskettes in two main respects:
You can store much more information on a Hard disk than on a diskette. For example, a
40 Mbyte Hard disk holds the equivalent of almost twenty nine 1.44 Mbyte Floppy
diskettes.
They are up to 600 times faster at finding and loading information into the computers
Memory .

What is Booting?
To run DOS on a computer, it should be the first program to be executed when the
computer is switched on. This led to a problem for the designers: "How can DOS be
loaded and executed when there is no DOS program running to load and execute
*it*??!!". Well, just as the fictional Baron Munchausen managed to pull himself up by his
own bootstraps, the computer manages this seemingly impossible trick, and the term
"bootstrapping", or "booting up" is applied to this process.
How do you communicate with DOS?
DOS is an entirely text based system. All it provides for the user is a prompt: "C:>" or
"A:>", where the user can type in commands from the keyboard. The system is entirely
case insensitive: so either "Format C:" or "format c:" would erase your hard disk...
The latter example is of course a small warning: with DOS comes power, you can very
easily mess up your system if you use powerful commands in the wrong way. The
commands you should be careful of are: "Format", "Recover", and "Del". All of these
perform useful functions, when used correctly, and all the others are pretty much safe to
use.
How are files named?
While newer versions of DOS support longer filenames, the standard DOS filename
format remains: 1-8 letter name, period, 3 letter extension eg:
PROGRAM.EXE
DATA.DAT
LETTER.DOC
The extension to a file's name is there to allow files of a similar type to be grouped
together. I.e. all word processor files might have the extension .DOC, while all picture
files might have the extension .PIC While these extensions can be specified by the user,
many programs have used them to differentiate between formats, and so they have
gradually become standardized. For example you would expect a ".TXT" file to be a file
containing unformatted text, or a ".BMP" file to be in a bit mapped graphics file format.
To completely specify a file on your computer you must specify its drive and directory
path, and its filename. However a file does not always have to be specified in this
complete form: If it is in the current directory, then you can just enter its filename.

How are directories named?

Every disk drive has a root directory which can have subdirectories which are named in
the same format as filenames, (though generally without any extension). The
subdirectories can have subdirectories and so on. Eg: a floppy disk might contain the
following directory structure:
PICTURES
HOLIDAY
ITALY
FRANCE
FAMILY
PETS
TEXT
LETTERS
EMAIL
A directory path name includes the disk drive and all subdirectories needed to specify a
directory on a disk. The disk drive is specified by a single letter. Eg: The floppy disk
drive is A and the hard disk drive is C.
The drive letter, is followed by a colon, the directory path names are separated by
backward slashes (\), (*Not* forward slashes like internet addresses). Eg. In the above
example "A:\PICTURES\HOLIDAY\FRANCE" would be more than likely to contain
pictures of a few baguettes and onions.
How is DOS used?
When you type anything at the DOS prompt, and press enter, you are telling DOS to run
a program.
It will first look to see if there is an internal command program which has that name,
and if it does not find one, then it will look to see if there is a file on disk with that name.
If it finds an external file with the extension .COM (command), or .EXE (executable),
then the program is loaded and run. At this point DOS looses control of the computer
until the program has ended. However parts of it are still used by the programs as they are
running, e.g. to load and save files etc.
MS-DOS Commands.
A command is the name of a special program that makes your computer carry out a task.
There are two types of MS-DOS commands - internal and external.

Internal commands
Internal commands are built into the operating system as part of a file called
COMMAND.COM . They are loaded into memory whenever you switch on your
computer. When you type an internal command, MS-DOS performs it immediately. The
MS-DOS internal commands are listed below. The synonyms of some command names
which you can use in place of their official names are shown in brackets.
BREAK, DEL (ERASE), PATH, SHIFT,

CALL, DIR, PAUSE, TIME,
CHCP, ECHO, PROMPT, TYPE,
CHDIR (CD), EXIT, REM, VER,
CLS, FOR, REN(RENAME), VERIFY,
COPY, GOTO, RMDIR (RD), VOL,
CTTY, IF, SET,
DATE, MKDIR(MD).
External Commands
Files with extension COM or EXE are external commands. Because these commands are
files, they are not built into the operating system ( these are the commands that alter
between versions of MS-DOS) . The MS-DOS external commands may contain SOME
or all of the following,
APPEND, EDLIN, KEYB, RESTORE,

ASSIGN, EXE2BIN, KEYBXX, SETVER,
ATTRIB, FASTOPEN, LABEL, SHARE,
BACKUP, FC, MODE, SORT,
CHKDSK, FDISK, MORE, SUBST,
COMMAND, FIND, NLSFUNC, SYS,
COMP, FORMAT, PRINT, TREE,
DELTREE, GRAFTABL, RECOVER, XCOPY,
DISKCOMP, GRAPHICS, REPLACE,
DISKCOPY, JOIN.
When you type an external command, MS-DOS looks for the command in the current
directory. If it is not there, you must guide MS-DOS to the relevant directory with the
PATH command.
Adding Parameters to a command
A parameter is a letter typed after a command, that tells the command to carry out an
extra task.
For instance, a command that you will find later in this section is the COPY command.
This command copies files from one disk to another. The command with a parameter
might look like this:
COPY A:MEMO.TXT C:\ /v

This part Tells MS-DOS to
COPY Make a copy ...
A:MEMO.TXT .. of the file MEMO.TXT on drive A: ...
C:\ ... and put it on drive C:
/v and at the same time verify that
the file is recorded correctly on C:
Most parameters are optional, however you will discover, over time, ones that you use
frequently.
The Command Prompt
When you first turn on your computer, you will see some cryptic information flash by.
MS-DOS displays this information to let you know how it is configuring your computer.
You can ignore it for now. When the information stops scrolling past, you'll see the
following:
C:\>
This is called the command prompt or DOS prompt. The flashing underscore next to the
command prompt is called the cursor. The cursor shows where the command you type
will appear.
If your command prompt looks like the sample command prompt above, skip to the
following section, "Typing a Command."
If your command prompt does not look like the example, type the following at the
command prompt, and then press ENTER:
cd \
Note that the slash leans backward, not forward. You will learn more about the cd
command later in the tutorial. If your command prompt still doesn't look like the example,
type the following at the command prompt, and then press ENTER:
prompt $p$g
Your command prompt should now look like the example.

Typing a Command
This section explains how to type a command at the command prompt and
demonstrates the "Bad command or file name" message.
• To type a command at the command prompt
1. Type the following at the command prompt (you can type the command in
either uppercase or lowercase letters):
nul
If you make a typing mistake, press the BACKSPACE key to erase the
mistake, and then try again.
2. Press
ENTER.
You must press ENTER after every command you type.
The following message appears:
Bad command or file name
The "Bad command or file name" message appears when you type
something that MS-DOS does not recognize. Because nul is not a valid
MS-DOS command, MS-DOS displays the "Bad command or file name"
message.
3. Now, type the following command at the command prompt:
ver
The following message appears on your screen:
MS-DOS version 6.22
The ver command displays the version number of MS-DOS.
Continue to the next section, where you will use the dir command to view
the contents of a directory.
Viewing the Contents of a Directory
In this section, you will view the contents of a directory by using the dir
command. The dir command stands for "directory."

• To view the contents of a directory
1. Type the following at the command prompt:
dir
A list similar to the following appears:
Volume in drive C is MS-DOS_6.22

Volume Serial Number is lE49-15E2
Directory of C:\
WINDOWS <DIR> 09-08-92 10:27p

TEMP <DIR> 05-15-92 12:09p
CONFIG SYS 278 09-23-92 10:50a
COMMAND COM 53014 09-18-92 6:00a
WINA20 386 9349 11-11-91 5:00a
DOS <DIR> 09-02-92 4:23p
AUTOEXEC BAT 290 09-23-92 10:54a
7 file(s) 62931 bytes

8732672 bytes free
This is called a directory list. A directory list is a list of all the files and
subdirectories that a directory contains. In this case, you see all the files
and directories in the main or root directory of your drive. All the files and
directories on your drive are stored in the root directory.
Changing Directories
Look at the list on your screen. All the names that have <DIR> beside
them are directories. You can see a list of the files in another directory by
changing to that directory, and then using the dir command again. In this
case, you will change to the DOS directory.
Before you begin this section, make sure you have a directory named DOS
by carrying out the following procedure.
o To make sure you have a directory named DOS
1. Look through the directory list on your screen for a line that looks
similar to the following:
DOS <DIR> 09-02-92 4:23p
2. If you see a line like this, you have a directory named DOS. Skip to
the next procedure, "To change from the root directory to the DOS
directory."

If you do not see a line in the directory list indicating that you have a
directory named DOS, type the following at the command prompt:
dir /s memmaker.exe
You will see a message that includes a line such as the following:
Directory of C:\DIRNAME
If the name that appears in place of DIRNAME is DOS, you have a DOS
directory. Skip to the next procedure.
If the name that appears in place of DIRNAME is not DOS, substitute the
name that appears for DOS throughout this tutorial. For example, if the
name that appears in place of DIRNAME is MSDOS, type msdos
whenever you are instructed to type dos.
o To change from the root directory to the DOS directory
To change directories, you will use the cd command. The cd command

stands for "change directory."
cd dos
The command prompt changes. It should now look like the following:
C:\DOS>
The command prompt shows which directory you are in. In this case, you
know you successfully changed to the DOS directory because the
command prompt displays the directory's name. Now the current directory
is DOS.
Next, you will use the dir command to view a list of the files in the DOS
directory.
o To view a list of the files in the DOS directory
dir
A list of the files in the DOS directory appears, but scrolls by too quickly
to read. You can modify the dir command so that it displays only one
screen of information at a time.

o To view the contents of a directory one screen at a time
dir /p
One screen of information appears. At the bottom of the screen, you will
see the following message:
Press any key to continue . . .
2. To view the next screen of information, press any key on your keyboard.
Repeat this step until the command prompt appears at the bottom of your
screen.
When you typed the dir command this time, you included the /p switch
after the command. A switch modifies the way MS-DOS carries out a
command. Generally, a switch consists of a forward slash (/) that is
followed by one or more letters or numbers. When you used the /p switch
with the dir command, you specified that MS-DOS should pause after it
displays each screen of directory list information. The p actually stands for
"page"
Another helpful switch you can use with the dir command is the /w switch.
The /w switch indicates that MS-DOS should show a wide version of the
directory list.
o To view the contents of a directory in wide format
dir /w
The directory list appears, with the filenames listed in wide format. Note
that only filenames are listed. No information about the files' size or date
and time of creation appears.
2. If the directory contains more files than will fit on one screen, you can
combine the /p and /w switches as follows:
dir /w /p
Changing Back to the Root Directory
Next, you will change from the DOS directory to the root directory. The
root directory is the directory you were in before you changed to the DOS

directory. Before you begin this section, make sure your command prompt
looks like the following:
C:\DOS>
o To change to the root directory
cd \
Note that the slash you type in this command is a backslash (\), not a
forward slash (/).
No matter which directory you are in, this command always returns you to
the root directory of a drive. The root directory does not have a name. It is
simply referred to by a backslash (\).
The command prompt should now look like the following:
C:\>
When your command prompt appears similar to this---that is, when it does
not contain the name of a directory---you are in the root directory.
Creating a Directory
In this section, you will create two directories. Creating a directory is

helpful if you want to organize related files into groups to make them easy
to find. Before you begin this section, make sure the command prompt
C:\>
To create a directory, you will use the md command. The md command

stands for "make directory."
o To create and change to a directory named FRUIT
md fruit
You have now created a directory named FRUIT. You won't see the new
FRUIT directory until you carry out the dir command in the next step.

2. To confirm that you successfully created the FRUIT directory, type the
following at the command prompt:
dir
or
dir /p
Look through the directory list. A new entry somewhere in the list should
look similar to the following:
FRUIT <DIR> 09-25-93 12:09p
3. To change to the new FRUIT directory, type the following at the

command prompt:
cd fruit
C:\FRUIT>
You will now create a directory within the FRUIT directory, named
GRAPES.
o To create and work with a directory named GRAPES
md grapes
You will not see the new GRAPES directory until you carry out the dir
command in the next step.
2. To confirm that you successfully created the GRAPES directory, type the
dir
Volume in drive C is MS-DOS-6

Directory of C:\FRUIT
. <DIR> 09-25-93 12:08p

.. <DIR> 09-25-93 12:08p
GRAPES <DIR> 09-25-93 12:10p

3 file(s) 0 bytes
11534336 bytes free
Note that there are three entries in the FRUIT directory. One is the
GRAPES directory that you just created. There are two other entries---one
looks like a single period (.) and the other looks like a double period (..).
These directory entries are important to MS-DOS, but you can ignore
them. They appear in every directory and contain information relation to
the directory structure.
The GRAPES directory is a subdirectory of the FRUIT directory. A

subdirectory is a directory within another directory. Subdirectories are
useful if you want to further subdivide information.
3. To change to the GRAPES directory, type the following at the command

prompt:
cd grapes
C:\FRUIT\GRAPES>
4. To switch back to the FRUIT directory, type the following:
cd ..
C:\FRUIT>
When the cd command is followed by two periods (..), MS-DOS moves up

one level in the directory structure. In this case, you moved up one level
from the GRAPES directory to the FRUIT directory.
Deleting a Directory
If you no longer use a particular directory, you may want to delete it to

simplify your directory structure. Deleting a directory is also useful if you
type the wrong name when you are creating a directory and you want to
delete the incorrect directory before creating a new one.
In this section, you will delete the GRAPES directory. Before you begin
this section, make sure the command prompt looks like the following:
C:\FRUIT>

To delete a directory, use the rd command. The rd command stands for

"remove directory."
o To delete the GRAPES directory
rd grapes
2. To confirm that you successfully deleted the GRAPES directory, type the
dir
The GRAPES directory should no longer appear in the directory list.
Note You cannot delete a directory if you are in it. Before you can delete
a directory, you must make the directory that is one level higher the
current directory. To do this, type cd.. at the command prompt.
Changing Drives
This section describes how to change drives. Changing drives is useful if

you want to work with files that are on a different drive.
So far, you have been working with drive C. You have other drives you
can use to store information. For example, drive A is your first floppy disk
drive. The files and directories on drive A are located on the floppy disk in
the drive. (You might also have a drive B, which contains the files and
directories stored on the floppy disk in that drive.)
Before you begin this section, make sure your command prompt looks like
the following:
C:\FRUIT>
o To change to and view files on a different drive
Insert a 3.5" floppy disk in drive A label- side up. Make sure the disk
clicks into the drive.
a:
Note that the command prompt changed to the following:

A:\>
This message may appear:
Not ready reading drive A
Abort, Retry, Fail?
If you see this message, the disk may not be inserted properly. Place the
disk label-side up in the disk drive, and make sure the disk clicks into the
disk drive. Then, type r for Retry. If this message appears again, press F
for Fail, and then type b: at the command prompt. If you no longer see this
message, type b: instead of a: throughout the rest of the tutorial.
There must be a floppy disk in the drive that you want to change to.
2. To view a list of the files on the floppy disk in drive A, type the following
at the command prompt:
dir
A list of the files on the disk appears.
3. Change back to drive C by typing the following at the command prompt:
c:
Your command prompt should return to the following:
C:\FRUIT>
When you type a drive letter followed by a colon, you change to that drive.
The drive letter that appears in the command prompt shows which drive is
the current drive. Unless you specify otherwise, any commands you type
are carried out on the current drive and in the current directory.
So far, all the commands you typed were carried out on the current drive
and in the current directory. You can also carry out a command on a drive
that isn't current. For example, you can view the files on a disk in drive A
without switching to drive A by following this procedure.
o To view files on drive A when drive C is current
dir a:

A list of the files on the floppy disk in drive A appears, even though your
command prompt indicates that drive C is current.
By specifying a: after the dir command, you are giving MS-DOS

additional information. You are indicating that you want the dir command
to show the list of files and directories on drive A instead of drive C. The a:
you typed after the dir command is called a parameter. A parameter
specifies what a command should act on. In the previous example, the
parameter you used indicated which directory list you want to view.
The following procedure presents another example of using a parameter.
o To view the contents of the DOS directory on drive C
dir c:\dos
A list of the files in the DOS directory on drive C should scroll past on
your screen.
The c:\dos parameter specifies that you want MS-DOS to display the
contents of the DOS directory on drive C, even though your command
prompt indicates that the FRUIT directory is current.
Copying Files
This section describes how to copy a single file and a group of files. Copying files
creates a duplicate of the original file and does not remove the original file. This is
useful for many reasons. For example, if you want to work on a document at home,
you can copy it from your computer at work to a floppy disk and then take the floppy
disk home.
To copy a file, you will use the copy command. When you use the copy command,
you must include two parameters. The first is the location and name of the file you
want to copy, or the source. The second is the location to which you want to copy the
file, or the destination. You separate the source and destination with a space. The
copy command follows this pattern:
copy source destination
• Copying a Single File
In this section, you will copy the EDIT.HLP and EDIT.COM files from the DOS
directory to the FRUIT directory. You will specify the source and destination of these
files in two different ways. The difference between the two methods is explained at
the end of this section.

Before you begin this section, make sure the command prompt looks like the
following:
C:\FRUIT>
To copy the EDIT.HLP and EDIT.COM files from the DOS directory to the FRUIT
directory
1. Return to the root directory by typing the following at the command prompt:
cd\
C:\>
Change to the DOS directory by typing the following at the command prompt:
cd dos
C:\DOS>
2. Make sure the file you are going to copy, EDIT.COM, is located in the DOS
directory by using the dir command followed by a filename. To see if the
EDIT.COM file is in the DOS directory, type the following at the command
prompt:
dir edit.com
Volume in drive C is MS-DOS-6
Directory of C:\DOS
EDIT Com 413 03-25-93 5:00a
1 file(s) 413 bytes 11999232 bytes free
This shows that the EDIT.COM file is located in the DOS directory. You just
specified another parameter with the dir command, one that directs MS-DOS to
list only the files that match the filename you specified in the command. Since

only one file in the DOS directory can be named EDIT.COM, the directory list
includes only that file.
3. To copy the EDIT.COM file from the DOS directory to the FRUIT directory, type
the following at the command prompt:
copy c:\dos\edit.com c:\fruit
1 file(s) copied
The command you just typed copied the file from its source to its destination. By
specifying C:\DOS\EDIT.COM as the source, you indicated that MS-DOS would
find the source file EDIT.COM on drive C in the DOS directory. By specifying
C:\FRUIT as the destination, you indicated that MS-DOS should place the copy
of EDIT.COM on drive C in the FRUIT directory.
4. Next, you will copy the EDIT.HLP file to the FRUIT directory. To confirm that
the EDIT.HLP file is in the DOS directory, type the following at the command
prompt:
dir edit.hlp
5. To copy the EDIT.HLP file from the DOS directory to the FRUIT directory, type
copy edit.hlp \fruit
1 file(s) copied
If you forgot to leave a space before typing fruit, the following message will
appear:
Access denied
If this message appears, type the command again and leave a space before fruit.
6. To confirm that you copied the files successfully, view the contents of the FRUIT
directory by typing the following at the command prompt:
dir \fruit
You should see the two files listed in the FRUIT directory.

Note that you specified the source and destination in the two copy commands differently.
In the command you typed in step 4, you specified the source file as C:\DOS\EDIT.COM
and the destination directory as C:\FRUIT. Both C:\DOS\EDIT.COM and C:\FRUIT are
called full paths because you specified the drive and directory where these files are
located. Specifying the full path is the safest way to copy files, because you provide all
the information about which file you want to copy and which directory you want to copy
it to.
In the copy command you typed in step 6, you specified EDIT.HLP for the source file
and FRUIT for the destination directory. These are relative paths. A relative path
specifies only the difference between the current drive and directory and the destination
of the files you are copying. The following illustration shows how the DOS directory and
the FRUIT directory are related:
When you typed the second copy command, you specified the source filename as
EDIT.HLP instead of C:\DOS\EDIT.HLP. This is because drive C is the current drive, so
you did not have to repeat C: in the path. The DOS directory is the current directory, so
you did not have to repeat DOS in the path. You had to specify only the filename.
For the destination directory, you specified the relative path as FRUIT instead of
C:\FRUIT. Again, you did not need to specify drive C, because drive C is current.
However, the FRUIT directory is not current. To access the FRUIT directory from the
current directory, DOS, MS-DOS must first return to the root directory (), and then
switch to the FRUIT directory, before copying the file to its new location. Therefore, you
typed the path MS-DOS must take to switch between the current directory and the FRUIT
directory, or \FRUIT.
Copying a Group of Files
In this section, you will use wildcards to copy a group of files from the DOS directory to
the FRUIT directory. In a card game, a wildcard matches any card in the deck. In MS-
DOS, the asterisk (*) wildcard matches any character in that position and all the other
positions that follow it. If you want to copy a group of files with similar names, using
wildcards is easier than copying each file individually.

In this section, you will first view a group of files by using wildcards, and then copy the
files using wildcards. Before you begin this section, make sure your command prompt
C:\DOS>
To list all files ending with the extension TXT and copy them from the DOS directory to
the FRUIT directory by using wildcards
1. View all the files in the DOS directory that end with the extension TXT by typing
dir *.txt
Note that there is a space before the asterisk (*), but not after it.
This command directs MS-DOS to list all files and subdirectories in the current
directory that end with the extension JXT. The asterisk matches the first character
of the filename and all other characters that follow it, up to the period () that
separates the name from the TXT extension. A list similar to the following
appears:
Volume in drive C is MS-DOS_6
Volume Serial Number is lE49-15E2 Directory of C:\DOS
NETWORKS TXT 8369 11-11-93 5:00a
OS2 TXT 4587 11-11-93 5:00a
README TXT 10858 11-11-93 5:00a
MS-DOS lists all the files that end with a TXT extension. The wildcard in your
command specified that MS-DOS should ignore the very different beginnings of
the files and focus only on the extensions.
Next, you will copy all the files with a TXT extension to the FRUIT directory by
using wildcards.
2. To copy the files with a TXT extension to the FRUIT directory, type the
copy *.txt \fruit

This command copies all the files that have the TXT extension from the current
directory (DOS) to the FRUIT directory.
3. To confirm that you copied the files successfully, change to the FRUIT directory
by typing the following at the command prompt:
cd \fruit
4. To view a list of all the files in the FRUIT directory, type the following at the
command prompt:
dir
Volume in drive C is MS-DOS_6
Volume Serial Number is lE49-15E2 Directory of

C:\FRUIT
. <DIR> 09-27-93 11:11p
.. <DIR> 09-27-93 11:11p
EDIT COM 413 11-11-93 5:00a
EDIT HLP 17898 11-11-93 5:00a
NETWORKS TXT 8369 11-11-93 5:00a
OS2 TXT 4587 11-11-93 5:00a
README TXT 10858 11-11-93 5:00a
40652800 bytes
free
The EDIT.COM and EDIT.HLP files are the files you copied by following the procedure
in the previous section. The files with TXT extensions are the ones you just copied by
using wildcards.

Renaming Files
This section explains how to rename files. You may want to rename a file if the
information in it changes or if you decide you prefer another name.
To rename a file, you will use the ren command. The ren command stands for "rename."
When you use the ren command, you must include two parameters.
The first is the file you want to rename, and the second is the new name for the file. You
separate the two names with a space. The ren command follows this pattern:
ren oldname newname
• Renaming a File
In this section, you will rename the README.TXT file.
Before you begin this section, make sure your command prompt looks like the following:
C:\FRUIT>
1. To rename the README.TXT file to PEACH.TXT, type the following at the

command prompt:
ren readme.txt peach.txt
2. To confirm that you renamed the file successfully, type the following at the
command prompt:
dir
The name PEACH.TXT should appear instead of the name README.TXT. It is the
same file, but now has a different name.
Renaming a Group of Files
You also can use wildcards to rename a group of files. If you want to rename a group of
files that have similar names, using wildcards is easier than renaming the files
individually. In this section, you will rename a group of files by using wildcards.
Before beginning this section, make sure your command prompt looks like the following:
C:\FRUIT>

• To rename the files whose names begin with EDIT by using wildcards
1. List the files in the FRUIT directory that begin with EDIT by typing the following
at the command prompt:
dir edit.*
A list of the files in the FRUIT directory that begin with EDIT appears.
2. To rename the files that begin with EDIT to the new name PEAR, type the
following command:
ren edit.* pear.*
This command specifies that all the files that begin with EDIT should be renamed
PEAR, but should keep their original extensions.
3. To confirm that you renamed the files successfully, type the following at the
command prompt:
dir pear.*
When the files were renamed, their extensions remained the same. For example,
EDIT.COM became PEAR.COM, and EDIT.HLP became PEAR.HLP.
You can also rename extensions this way. For example, suppose you want to
indicate that a group of files ending with a TXT extension are old. You can use
wildcards to rename the files so they have the extension OLD.
• To rename all the files in the current directory whose names end with the extension.TXT
1. View a list of all the files in the current directory with the extension TXT by
typing the following command:
dir *.txt
2. To rename all files in the current directory that end with the extension TXT to end
with the extension OLD, type the following command:
ren *.txt *.old
3. To confirm that you renamed the files successfully, type the following at the
command prompt:
dir

The files that had the extension TXT now have the extension OLD.
Deleting Files
This section explains how to delete, or remove, a file that you no longer want on your
disk. If you don’t have very much disk space, deleting files you no longer use is essential.
To delete a file, you will use the del command. The del command stands for "delete."
• Deleting a File
In this section, you will delete two files using the del command.
Before you begin, make sure your command prompt looks like the following:
C:\FRUIT>
To delete the PEARCOM and PEAR.HLP files
1. Delete the PEAR.COM file by typing the following at the command prompt:
del pear.com
2. Delete the PEAR.HLP file by typing the following at the command prompt:
del pear.hlp
3. To confirm that you deleted the files successfully, type the following at the
command prompt:
dir
The PEAR.COM and PEAR.HLP files should no longer appear in the list.
• Deleting a Group of Files
In this section, you will use wildcards to delete a group of files.
Before you begin this section, make sure your command prompt looks like the
following:
C:\FRUIT>
To delete files in the current directory that end with the extension OLD by using
wildcards

1. View all files that end with the extension OLD by typing the following at the
command prompt:
dir *.old
A list of all the files that end with the extension OLD appears. Make sure that
these are the files you want to delete. When you are deleting files by using
wildcards, this step is very important. It will prevent you from deleting files
accidentally.
2. Delete all files ending with OLD by typing the following at the command prompt:
del *.old
3. To confirm that all the files with the extension OLD have been deleted, type the
dir
The FRUIT directory should contain no files.
Now that the FRUIT directory is empty, you can delete it by using the rd (remove
directory) command that you learned to use in "Deleting a Directory" earlier in this
chapter.
• To delete the FRUIT directory
1. Return to the root directory by typing the following at the command prompt:
cd \
2. You can see the FRUIT directory in the directory list by typing the following at
the command prompt:
dir or dir /p
3. Remove the FRUIT directory by typing the following at the command prompt:
rd fruit
4. To verify that the FRUIT directory has been removed, type the following at the
command prompt:
dir or dir /p
The FRUIT directory should not appear in the directory list.

Formatting a Floppy Disk
When you purchase new floppy disks, you may be required to format them before you
can use them. Practice formatting a floppy disk now.
Caution The data on the disk you format will be erased, so make sure you select a disk
that does not contain information you may need later.
• To format a floppy disk
format a:
This command specifies that you want to format the disk in drive A. When you
press ENTER, the following message appears:
Insert new diskette for drive A:
and press ENTER when ready ...
2. Insert the disk you want to format in drive A label-side up. Then close the drive
door or make sure the disk clicks into the drive. When you are ready, press
ENTER. The following message appears:
Checking existing disk format
Saving UNFORMAT information
As it formats the disk, MS-DOS displays the percentage of the disk that has been
formatted. When the format is complete, the following message appears:
Volume label (11 characters, ENTER for none)?
3. A volume label is a name for your disk. You can give your disk any name you
like, as long as it has 11 or fewer characters. For this exercise, type practice and
then press ENTER. Information similar to the following appears:
1213952 bytes total disk space
1213952 bytes available on disk
512 bytes in each allocation unit.
2371 allocation units available on disk.

Volume Serial Number is lE49-15E2 Format

another (Y/N)?
4. If you have another disk to format, press Y. If not, press N.
Checking the Condition of a Disk
You use the CHKDSK command to:

Check a disk to see how much space there is available, and how much is in use.
Fix some disk errors, such as files that show a non-zero size but that really have no
data in them
Display information about the disk, including the total disk space, the number and
size of files.
Display how much Random Access Memory (RAM) is available to MS-DOS. ( This
is NOT the total memory in your computer!!)
Run CHKDSK occasionally on all your disks to check for errors.
The command:
CHKDSK A: /F {ENTER}
Checks the disk in drive A: for errors and fixes any errors it can.
If CHKDSK finds no errors it displays a report like this:
1213952 bytes total disk space

87040 bytes in 3 hidden files
4608 bytes in 6 directories
1078784 bytes in 97 user files
43520 bytes available on disk
655360 bytes total memory

588480 bytes free
If the CHKDSK command reports any errors on the disk, it displays a message such as:
xxxlost clusters found in xxx chains
and asks you whether you want to correct the errors.

Type Y (for yes) and the press the {ENTER} key.
NOTE:-This procedure can cause you to lose some of the information on your disk,
however, not fixing the disk can cause you to lose even more!!

MS-DOS Config.sys & Autoexec.bat
On Boot-up the computer reads two very important files CONFIG.SYS and
AUTOEXEC.BAT both of which should be on the root directory of your boot drive.
Usually the hard disk C:
NOTE:- Before we go any further copy C:\CONFIG.SYS to A:\CONFIG.TXT and

C:\AUTOEXEC.BAT to A:\AUTOEXEC.TXT DO IT NOW!
From now on we will work on the .TXT copies on drive A: so log on to drive A:
Type the command:
EDIT A:\CONFIG.TXT {ENTER}
The above command and parameter will invoke the MS-DOS text editor window, with
CONFIG.TXT loaded and ready for editing.
For example:
DEVICE=C:\DOS\HIMEM.SYS
DEVICE=C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE RAM
DOS=HIGH,UMB
BUFFERS=10,0
FILES=40
LASTDRIVE=E
FCBS=4,0
STACKS=9,256
COUNTRY=044,,C:\DOS\COUNTRY.SYS
DEVICEHIGH /L:2,15792 =C:\DOS\DISPLAY.SYS CON=(EGA,850,2)
DEVICEHIGH /L:1,4560 =C:\WINDOWS\IFSHLP.SYS
SHELL=C:\COMMAND.COM C:\ /P /E:1024
Do not worry if your CONFIG.TXT does not have exactly the same commands, this is
just a general example, but should cover most of the commands found.
Starting with the first line DEVICE = C:\DOS\HIMEM.SYS this allows MS-DOS to
access some memory just above the 1Mb area called HIGH MEMORY.
Next DEVICE = C:\DOS\EMM386.EXE RAM this allows MS-DOS to access the some
memory between the 640Kb and 1Mb called UPPER MEMORY BLOCKS and also to
address and designate the type of memory available above 1Mb. In this example it gives
access to EXPANDED memory and UMBs. If the NOEMS switch had been used instead
of the RAM switch it would have given access to EXTENDED memory and UMBs.
DOS = HIGH,UMB is the command that moves most of the MS-DOS

COMMAND.COM above the 1Mb area into HIGH MEMORY. This is in conjunction
with HIMEM.SYS. It also maps out some of the 360Kb of UPPER MEMORY for use by

TSR (Terminate and Stay Resident ) programs, for example DISPLAY.SYS if they are
loaded into it.
The next five lines deal with BUFFERS - the number of disk segments that MS-DOS
reads ahead.
FILES - the number of files MS-DOS can open at one time.

LASTDRIVE - the last drive letter that MS-DOS
recognises (default =E, max. =Z)
FCBS - File Control BlockS contain details of a file
STACKS - internal areas of memory that MS-DOS uses
to keep track of things.
COUNTRY = 044,,C:\DOS\COUNTRY.SYS tells MS-DOS what country you are from,

each major country except the USA has its own code number, usually tied in with the
international telephone code for that country.
DEVICEHIGH /L:2,15792 = C:\DOS\DISPLAY.SYS CON(EGA,850,2) tells MS- DOS

to load into an Upper Memory Block the display system TSR configured for EGA display.
The /L: switch and numbers have been inserted by MEMMAKER a MS-DOS V6.x
program that optimises the use of UMBs automatically. The DISPLAY command enables
you to display international character sets on your monitor, in this example your system
defaults to set 850 (English) and one other (the 2).
This TSR is virtually redundant with modern software so can usually be disabled without
penalty. To disable this, or any, line in a text type file you use the REM command,
followed by a space, to turn the line into a REMark. For example:
REM DEVICEHIGH = C:\DOS\DISPLAY.SYS CON(EGA,850,2)
would disable the line, on the next and subsequent Boot-ups.
DEVICEHIGH /L:1,4560 =C:\WINDOWS\IFSHLP.SYS is used by Windows for

Workgroups and again has been loaded into upper memory.
SHELL=C:\COMMAND.COM C:\ /P /E:1024 the /E: sets an environment for

COMMAND.COM of 1024 bytes (the default is 256 bytes). The /P makes the
environment permanent i.e. you can't use the EXIT command as from a Windows DOS
box.
Type the command:
EDIT A:\AUTOEXEC.TXT
The above command and parameter will invoke the MS-DOS text editor window, with
AUTOEXEC.TXT loaded and ready for editing.

For example
@ECHO OFF
SET LMOUSE=C:\MOUSE
SET TEMP=C:\TEMP
PATH C:\;C:\DOS;C:\TC\BIN;C:\WINDOWS
LH KEYB UK,,C:\DOS\KEYBOARD.SYS
PROMPT DOS V6.22$p$g
LH /L:0;2,45488 /S C:\DOS\SMARTDRV.EXE /X 512 128
LH /L:0;2,25808 /S C:\MOUSE\MOUSE
CLS
VER
WIN
Do not worry if your AUTOEXEC.TXT does not have exactly the same commands, this
is just a general example, but should cover most of the commands found.
Starting with the first line @ECHO OFF the command ECHO is used to echo instructions
to the screen, by default MS-DOS would echo to the screen all instructions in a BATch
file (which is what this really is). So we issue the command to turn it OFF, but so that
even this line is not displayed on the screen we prefix it with the @ symbol, which will
suppress that line. So it would also be possible to miss this line out of the file and prefix
all the other lines with the @ symbol.
SET LMOUSE = C:\MOUSE next we SET an environmental variable called LMOUSE

to point to the directory where the Mouse Driver program is kept. This is so Windows
knows where to look for the appropriate driver software to run your non- standard mouse
or trackball. This setting is not required if you have a standard type mouse.
SET TEMP=C:\TEMP this sets the environmental variable TEMP, and points it to the
TEMP directory on drive C: This allows Windows and MS-DOS to store TEMPary files
in a known area of your Hard Disk. (i.e. the TEMP directory) If this is not set, TEMPary
files may be stored anywhere and everywhere on your Disk (and they WILL be) making
it very difficult to DELETE any that are taking up Disk space unnecessarily.
Next is the PATH command PATH C:\;C:\DOS\;C:\TC\BIN;C:WINDOWS this sets the

list of directories that MS-DOS will look in to find a program if it is not in the current
directory. In the above case it will look until it finds your program or command, first in
the current directory, then at the ROOT directory of C: , then in the DOS directory, then
in the BIN subdirectory of TC, and finally in the WINDOWS directory. If by this stage it
has NOT found your program it gives up!!
LH KEYB UK,,C:\DOS\KEYBOARD.SYS Loads High (into Upper Memory Blocks) the

program KEYB with the parameter UK . this tells MS-DOS that your keyboard is set out
for the United Kingdom . The two comma's are there to insert a Page Frame Number
between, empty as they are indicates that the default for the UK ( 850 or 437) will be
used. Then the program KEYBOARD.SYS in the DOS directory will be loaded to enable
MS-DOS to 'talk' to your keyboard.

PROMPT DOS V6.22 $p$g sets the DOS prompt you see on the screen with the words
DOS V6.22 then the $p and $g add the directory backslash and the right pointed arrow to
give DOS V6.22 C:\ >
LH /L:0;2,45488 /S C:\DOS\SMARTDRV.EXE /X 512 128 is the command to

LOADHIGH the MS-DOS disk cache command SMARTDRIVE, the numbers after the
/L: have been put there by MEMMAKER, which is a program in MS-DOS V6 or above
and need not concern us at the moment. The SMARTDRIVE program uses a part of
memory to CACHE (store) the next sectors on the Disk, as a file is read into memory. It
can also be used to hold a file in memory before saving to disk, waiting until the CPU is
not busy, and returning control of the computer to the user earlier than otherwise would
be possible. The numbers at the end of the command line tell SMARTDRIVE to use a
CACHE of 512 Bytes when MS-DOS is running, but only use a CACHE of 128 Bytes
when Windows is in control.
LH /L:0,2,25808 /S C:\MOUSE\MOUSE Loads high the MOUSE driver, for use with
MS-DOS programs. Note:- Windows has its own mouse driver, so if you NEVER run a
DOS program that uses a mouse you do not need to load this driver. Again the numbers
are not relevant at the moment.
CLS is the MS-DOS internal command to CLear the Screen, and is used to tidy up any
output on the screen.
VER again is an internal MS-DOS command which displays the DOS version number on
the screen.
WIN is the command to start Windows, without this your computer will leave you at the
C:\> prompt.
MS-DOS Batch Commands
A batch file is a file containing a sequence of MS-DOS commands. If you find that you
are typing one sequence of commands repeatedly, you can save a lot of time by placing
the commands in a batch file. Then, by simply typing the name of the batch file, you can
make MS-DOS carry out the command sequence, one command at a time, until the end
of the batch file.
Creating and running a batch file
One way to create a batch file is to use the COPY command, another is to use EDIT, or
any word processing program that lets you save files as ASCII text.
The examples below show you both methods of creating the same file. Suppose for
example, you want to create a batch file that:-

FORMAT s a blank diskette
Copies all the files in the current directory onto that diskette
Lists the files copied onto the diskette.
Using COPY
1. At the MS-DOS prompt type:-

COPY CON COPYFILE.BAT {ENTER}
This command tells MS-DOS to copy information you type in at the keyboard
(the CONsole) into a new file called COPYFILE.BAT
2. Type the following lines:-
FORMAT A: {ENTER}
COPY C:\*.* A:\ {ENTER}
DIR A: {ENTER}
After the last line, hold down the CTRL key and press the Z key. Then press
{ENTER} to save the file. MS-DOS displays the message ' 1 File (s) copied '
to show that it has saved the file.
OR
1. At the MS-DOS prompt type:-

EDIT COPYFILE.BAT {ENTER}
2. Type in the following lines:-
FORMAT A: {ENTER}
COPY C:\*.* A:\ {ENTER}
DIR A: {ENTER}
3. From the File drop down menu choose Save
4. From the File drop down menu choose Exit to close the EDIT program.

To run the file Type:-
COPYFILE {ENTER}
NOTE:- there is no need to type the extension for MS-DOS to run a file with a BAT,
EXE or COM extension.
Points to remember about Batch files
MS-DOS may still ask you some questions as it runs the batch file.
The filename must have a BAT extension, so that MS-DOS recognizes it as a batch file.
You can put any MS-DOS commands into a batch file
Each command in the file must be on a separate line
You can stop a running batch file by holding down the CRTL key and pressing the C key.
MS-DOS displays this message,
Terminate batch job (Y/N)?
If you type Y, the rest of the commands are ignored and the MS-DOS prompt appears.
A List of extra Batch file commands
• REM Makes the following text a REMark and not a command

• ECHO Puts or suppresses output to the screen
• PAUSE Pauses the file and waits for a key to be pressed
• CALL Allows you to CALL and run another batch file from within a batch file
• FOR Used with IN and DO commands IF Used to test IF an input/parameter is
equal or not equal to a given quantity.
• SHIFT Used to SHIFT though a list of given parameters GOTO Used to jump to a
given place in a batch file, usually used with the IF command.
• @ Used to stop MS-DOS outputting the command line to the screen, valid for one
line only.
• %1 The value of a parameter added to the batch file name when it was called.

IT TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS – WINDOWS
WINDOWS
MICROSOFT WINDOWS (MS-WINDOWS)
MS-DOS is an operating system which has textual Interface. In this operating system, with a view to
end the inconvenience of typing the commands, Microsoft has developed a new program, which was
named Windows. This program provides GUI facility and displays the commands as picture-symbols
while various application programs are presented in rectangular boxes which are called Windows. In
this interface all the programs are displayed as windows on the screen, hence it is called windows.
MICROSOFT WINDOWS AND ITS VERSIONS
In the beginning Microsoft developed a program for GUI run by Operating System. These were further
developed into MS-Windows 3.1 and MS-Windows 3.11 versions conducted by MS-DOS operating
system. In 1995, Microsoft company brought a radical change in the field of computers and created an
operating system in GUI, MS-Windows 95. For executing this program now MS-DOS was not needed
because it has in-built operating system. This GUI has all the characteristics of operating system on
account of which it helps run the application program in GUI stage. After that in 1998 and 2000, new
versions MS-windows 98 and MS-Windows 2000 were developed. In each new version GUI is being
made easier.
ICONS
Icon is a graphic presentation of a window element. Icons are of four types which are as follows.
Disk Drive Icons

These type of icons represents the Drives of the computer. For example Floppy Disk Drive, Hard Disk
Drive, CD Drive.
Application Icons
Application Icon means the software package which is used to run various programs. For Example:
MS-Office, MS-Word, MS-Excel, MS-Access, PageMaker, CorelDraw.
Shortcut Icons
Shortcut Icons are created by using the option from Desktop/New/Shortcut.
Document Icons
You can crate a graphical representation of any document.
STARTING MICROSOFT WINDOWS

When you switch on your computer, you will see Microsoft Windows after a short while. As soon as
Microsoft windows opens, you se the first thing is called desktop. Desktop appears on the screen. You
will see some icons here and at the bottom a bar appears. At the left most of the bar start button
appears. This bar is called task bar.
You start any program in windows using this bar. To start any program do the following steps:-
Click Start button
Point to Programs
Click the program as desired.

COMPONENTS OF DESKTOP
EXPLORING THE TASKBAR
It is the bottom key line on the desktop. Starting with the right most corner. Date and Time It shows
you the date and time of the system Task Scheduler It shows the tasks which you have scheduled for
running at deferent times. Quick Launch Toolbar Various icons here are the ones used for launching
different programs. You have an option to put these icons here for the programs which you often use.
MY COMPUTER
DRIVE A: It will show the contents of the floppy drive.

DRIVE C: It will show the contents of the hard disk.
DRIVE D: It will show the contents of drive.
CONTROL PANEL It will show the contents of the control panel.
PRINTERS It will show the number of printers installed.
SCHEDULED TASKS
It will show you the tasks which you have scheduled to be performed at a particular time.
Dial-up Networking It will dial the network for you.
Web Folders It will show you the various web folders.
RECYCLE BIN
It is like a dust bin of the computer. All the deleted files are transferred here. You can in fact open this
folder to see the files present in it. If you want at any stage to retrace any file, you can do it, if it is
present in the Recycle Bin. However, if you choose to empty the recycle bin and delete the files
altogether, then you cannot restore any of the file.
Running Tasks
When you have a program running in your system, its name will be reflected here on this taskbar to
show that this program is open.

RUNNING AN APPLICATION
An application can be run under Windows by various methods. They are

By Icon
Clicking at the icon of the application at the desktop.
From Windows Explorer
Click at the file/icon of the application in Windows Explore.
From Start Menu
Click at Program and then the program name from its sub-menu. For example, for running Paintbrush,
you will have to go to programs, Accessories and the Paint.
WORKING ON WINDOWS
MINIMIZING THE WINDOWS
You can work on more than one application at the same time under windows. For this you have to
minimize one application at the same time under windows. For this you have to minimize one
application, which is done by using Minimize button. Once you are though with the other application
you can minimize that and come back to this application.
Restoring the windows
If you have minimize an application, then there must be some button to restore it. Using this button
you the centre here.
Maximizing the Windows
Using this button, you can make the full use of Windows screen.

Closing of Windows
Using this button you can close the running application. However, if the running application is not
saved, then it will be pointed out.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A WINDOW
Title bar This bar is displayed at the top of the window. It displays the name of the currently
active document.
Menu bar
This bar is just below the title bar. When you select a key word on the Menu bar, a list falls down.
Some of the items will be gray in color, which shows that they cannot be used at this stage. Select one
of the available item to perform some operation.
Scroll bar
There are two types of scroll bars; the horizontal and the vertical scroll bar. When there is insufficient
space available, these scroll bars appears automatically. We can scroll either by clicking on the arrow
marks or by dragging the little bar with the help of the mouse.
Status bar
This bar displays the information about the active document or the task that user is currently working
on.
Closing
Minimize
button
button
Menu bar
Title bar Restoring
button
Scroll bar
Status
bar
WINDOWS ACCESSORIES
Accessories play a major part in Windows. They are so called additional programs which are there
along with the main program called windows. These are small program which you would need while
working under windows.
CALCULATOR
Calculator is used for performing calculations as in traditional type of calculators. Windows make two
types of calculators available.
Standard Calculator
Scientific Calculator
Standard calculator is used perform simple calculations like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division and so on. This by default appears when you start calculator first time using the following
ways
Click Start button
Point to Programs, point to Accessories and select Calculator.
In case, you are working with scientific calculator and want to switch over to standard calculator click
View->Standard.

Scientific Calculator
Scientific calculator is used when you need perform quite complex calculations like Number System
Conversion and so on. To start this, use the same way as you did to display standard calculator and
select View->Scientific from the menu bar.
NOTEPAD
Notepad is specially used when you need create and edit small files that require no formatting and
must be smaller than 64 kilobytes. Notepad opens and stores text in ASCII format. Notepad does not
support files created in other word processing programs like MS-WORD and Page Maker.
STARTING NOTEPAD
To start Notepad, do the followings
Click Start button
Point to Programs.
Then, point to Accessories.
And then, click Notepad.
MENU BAR OF NOTEPAD

Notepad displays the following menu in the menu bar:
File–This menu keeps command pertaining to file management in Notepad programs.
Edit–Edit menu contains commands or menus with you can edit your text in Notepad.
Search–Search menu lists commands or menus that let you find text in the Notepad documents.
Help-Help menu presents commands that let users know much more about Notepad.
MS PAINT

We can create documents in computer using as well as draw pictures, shapes and maps using different
software available. Paint is such a drawing program of the Accessories group that helps you draw
pictures in different colours using mouse.
Starting Paint involves the following steps:-
Click Start menu
Point to Programs and then select Accessories.
Click Paint. After that, Paint window appears like one
TOOLS OF TOOLBOX
Toolbox is the most frequently used part of Paint. It displays various drawing tools as follows-
Free Form Select Click this to select a rectangular area and then drag the pointer diagonally across
the area.
Eraser/Color Eraser Click this and drag the pointer over the area you want to erase. For this select
the background and foreground colours by clicking right and left in the color box respectively.
Fill With Color Click this to fill an area or object with color. However if the shape being filled has
any breaks in its border, the filling color leaks through to the rest of the drawing area. You can
select foreground and background by clicking and right-clicking respectively.
Pick Color Click this to copy from one area or object to another.
Magnifier Click to zoom in or out of a picture.
Pencil Click this to draw a free form line.
Brush Click this to paint an object. Using this you can paint in different shapes and sizes too.
Airbrush Click this to create an airbrush effect in the object.
Text Click this to type and format text.
Line Click this to drag a straight line. You can select the line width at the bottom of the toolbox.
Curve Select this to draw a curve.
Rectangle Select this to draw a rectangle or square.
Polygon Select this to draw a polygon. To use only 45 and 90 degree angles. Hold down SHIFT
while dragging.
Ellipse Select this to draw an ellipse or circle. To draw a perfect circle holds down SHIFT while
you drag.
Rounded Rectangle Select this to draw a round-cornered shape.
WORDPAD

WordPad is a text editor for short document. You can format documents in WordPad with various font
and paragraph styles.
Starting WordPad
To start WordPad do the following
Click Start button
Point to Programs and select Accessories.
Click WordPad.
WINDOWS EXPLORER
It offers you the easiest way of viewing folders, files and other resources located on your machine.
The default Explorer is two-pane window. When you click on an item in the left window pane, the
right pane displays the contents.
You can choose different viewing options from the View menu. For moving files from one folder to
another, you can open more than one window of the Windows Explorer and then drag& drop.
Folder A folder is like a directory where all the relative files are kept.

Creating a Folder.
For creation of a new folder, you will have to go either My Computer or Windows Explorer.
For that follow the following steps
1. Start My Computer from the desktop
2. Right click the mouse to get the following menu.
3. Click at New and then Folder to get a new blank folder on the screen
4. By clicking at its name you can type the name you want for the folder.
5. After typing press Enter to have the folder.
Windows Explorer views

Views control how Windows Explorer displays information in the right pane. Windows Explorer
provides you with the following choices: Large Icons, Small Icons, List, and Details. Large Icons and
Small Icons, as their names imply, determine the size of the icon. List displays all of the files and
folders without supplying the size, type, or date modified. Details display the size, type, and date
modified. To change the view:
1. Right-click on any free area in the right pane. A context menu will appear.
2. Highlight View.
3. Select the view you want from the drop-down menu.
Deleting a file or folder

To delete a file or folder:
1. Right-click on the file or folder you want to delete. A context menu will appear.
2. Click on Delete. Window Explorer will ask, "Are sure you want to send this object to the
recycle bin?"
3. Click on "Yes."
Coping a file or folder

To copy a file or folder:
1. Right-click on the file or folder you want to copy. A context menu will appear.
2. Click on Copy. The file or folder should now be on the Clipboard.

Cutting a file or folder

To cut a file or folder:
1. Right-click on the file or folder you want to cut. A context menu will appear.
2. Click on Cut. The file or folder should now be on the Clipboard.
Note: Cutting differs from deleting. When you cut a file, the file is placed on the Clipboard. When you
delete a file, the file is sent to the Recycle Bin.
Pasting a file or folder

To paste a file or folder:
1. After cutting or copying the file, right-click on the object or in the right pane of the folder to
which you want to paste. A context menu will appear.
2. Click on Paste.
Renaming a file or folder

To rename a file or folder:
1. Right-click on the file or folder. A context menu will appear.
2. Click on Rename.
3. Type the new name.
Screen Saver
Computer monitors display images by firing electron beams at a phosphor-coated screen. If the same
image stays on the screen for too long, there is a danger that the image will leave a permanent imprint
on the screen. Screen savers help prevent this possibility by providing a constantly changing image.
Selecting a screen saver

To select a screen saver:
1. Right-click anywhere on the Windows desktop. A menu will appear.
2. Select Active Desktop.
3. Click on Customize My Desktop.
4. Click on the Screen Saver tab.
5. The Screen Saver field provides the list of available screen savers. Select the screen saver you
want from the list.
6. Click on Settings to set the display options associated with the screen saver.
7. Checkmark Password Protected to set a password for your screen saver. Password protection
prevents the screen saver from being turned off unless a password is entered.
8. Click on Change to set the password.
9. Set the number of minutes of activity before the screen saver starts in the wait field.
10. Click on OK.
Disk Cleanup
Disk Cleanup is a computer maintenance utility included in Microsoft Windows designed to free up
disk space on computer users' hard drive. The cleanup process firstly involves searching and analyzing
the hard drive for files that are no longer of any use. It then proceeds to remove the unnecessary files,
freeing up disk space on the hard drive.
To Start Disk Cleanup:
1. Open Windows Explorer or My Computer
2. Right-click the disk you want to free space on, and then click Properties

3. On the General tab, click Disk Cleanup
4. Click the unnecessary files you want to remove, and click OK
You can read a description of each file type in the Description area under the list
Disk Defragmenter
Disk Defragmenter is a computer program included in Microsoft Windows designed to increase access
speed by rearranging files stored on a disk to occupy contiguous storage locations, a technique
commonly known as defragmenting. The purpose is to optimize the time it takes to read and write files
to/from the disk by minimizing head travel time and maximizing the transfer rate. In other words, it
automatically adapts to your usage patterns, under the assumption that the programs you run most are
the ones you want to get priority.
To Start Disk Defragmenter:
5. Open Windows Explorer or My Computer
6. Right-click the disk you want to free space on, and then click Properties
7. On the General tab, click Disk Defragmenter.
8. Select the drive and click OK


IT TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS – LINUX
LINUX
Overview of the Linux file system
Files
General
A simple description of the UNIX system, also applicable to Linux, is this:
"On a UNIX system, everything is a file; if something is not a file, it is a process."
This statement is true because there are special files that are more than just files (named
pipes and sockets, for instance), but to keep things simple, saying that everything is a file
is an acceptable generalization. A Linux system, just like UNIX, makes no difference
between a file and a directory, since a directory is just a file containing names of other
files. Programs, services, texts, images, and so forth, are all files. Input and output
devices, and generally all devices, are considered to be files, according to the system.
In order to manage all those files in an orderly fashion, man likes to think of them in an
ordered tree-like structure on the hard disk, as we know from MS-DOS(Disk Operating
System) for instance. The large branches contain more branches, and the branches at the
end contain the tree's leaves or normal files. For now we will use this image of the tree,
but we will find out later why this is not a fully accurate image.
Sorts of files
Most files are just files, called regular files; they contain normal data, for example text
files, executable files or programs, input for or output from a program and so on.
While it is reasonably safe to suppose that everything you encounter on a Linux system is
a file, there are some exceptions.
• Directories: files that are lists of other files.

• Special files: the mechanism used for input and output. Most special files are
in /dev, we will discuss them later.
• Links: a system to make a file or directory visible in multiple parts of the system's
file tree. We will talk about links in detail.
• (Domain) sockets: a special file type, similar to TCP/IP sockets, providing inter-
process networking protected by the file system's access control.
• Named pipes: act more or less like sockets and form a way for processes to
communicate with each other, without using network socket semantics.
The -l option to ls displays the file type, using the first character of each input line:

linux:~/Documents> ls -l
total 80
-rw-rw-r-- 1 jaime jaime 31744 Feb 21 17:56 intro Linux.doc
-rw-rw-r-- 1 jaime jaime 41472 Feb 21 17:56 Linux.doc
drwxrwxr-x 2 jaime jaime 4096 Feb 25 11:50 course
This table gives an overview of the characters determining the file type:
File types in a long list
Symbol Meaning
- Regular file
d Directory
l Link
c Special file
s Socket
p Named pipe
b Block device
In order not to always have to perform a long listing for seeing the file type, a lot of
systems by default don't issue just ls, but ls -F, which suffixes file names with one of the
characters "/=*|@" to indicate the file type. To make it extra easy on the beginning user,
both the -F and --color options are usually combined. We will use ls -F throughout this
document for better readability.
As a user, you only need to deal directly with plain files, executable files, directories and
links. The special file types are there for making your system do what you demand from
it and are dealt with by system administrators and programmers.
Now, before we look at the important files and directories, we need to know more about
partitions.
About partitioning
Why partition?
Most people have a vague knowledge of what partitions are, since every operating system
has the ability to create or remove them. It may seem strange that Linux uses more than
one partition on the same disk, even when using the standard installation procedure, so
some explanation is called for.

One of the goals of having different partitions is to achieve higher data security in case of
disaster. By dividing the hard disk in partitions, data can be grouped and separated. When
an accident occurs, only the data in the partition that got the hit will be damaged, while
the data on the other partitions will most likely survive.
This principle dates from the days when Linux didn't have journaled file systems and
power failures might have lead to disaster. The use of partitions remains for security and
robustness reasons, so a breach on one part of the system doesn't automatically mean that
the whole computer is in danger. This is currently the most important reason for
partitioning. A simple example: a user creates a script, a program or a web application
that starts filling up the disk. If the disk contains only one big partition, the entire system
will stop functioning if the disk is full. If the user stores the data on a separate partition,
then only that (data) partition will be affected, while the system partitions and possible
other data partitions keep functioning.
Mind that having a journaled file system only provides data security in case of power
failure and sudden disconnection of storage devices. This does not protect your data
against bad blocks and logical errors in the file system. In those cases, you should use a
RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) solution.
Partition layout and types
There are two kinds of major partitions on a Linux system:
• data partition: normal Linux system data, including the root partition containing
all the data to start up and run the system; and
• swap partition: expansion of the computer's physical memory, extra memory on
hard disk.
Most systems contain a root partition, one or more data partitions and one or more swap
partitions. Systems in mixed environments may contain partitions for other system data,
such as a partition with a FAT or VFAT file system for MS Windows data.
Most Linux systems use fdisk at installation time to set the partition type. As you may
have noticed during the exercise from Chapter 1, this usually happens automatically. On
some occasions, however, you may not be so lucky. In such cases, you will need to select
the partition type manually and even manually do the actual partitioning. The standard
Linux partitions have number 82 for swap and 83 for data, which can be journaled (ext3)
or normal (ext2, on older systems). The fdisk utility has built-in help, should you forget
these values.
Apart from these two, Linux supports a variety of other file system types, such as the
relatively new Reiser file system, JFS, NFS, FATxx and many other file systems natively
available on other (proprietary) operating systems.

The standard root partition (indicated with a single forward slash, /) is about 100-500 MB,
and contains the system configuration files, most basic commands and server programs,
system libraries, some temporary space and the home directory of the administrative user.
A standard installation requires about 250 MB for the root partition.
Swap space (indicated with swap) is only accessible for the system itself, and is hidden
from view during normal operation. Swap is the system that ensures, like on normal
UNIX systems, that you can keep on working, whatever happens. On Linux, you will
virtually never see irritating messages like Out of memory, please close some
applications first and try again, because of this extra memory. The swap or virtual
memory procedure has long been adopted by operating systems outside the UNIX world
by now.
Using memory on a hard disk is naturally slower than using the real memory chips of a
computer, but having this little extra is a great comfort.
Linux generally counts on having twice the amount of physical memory in the form of
swap space on the hard disk. When installing a system, you have to know how you are
going to do this. An example on a system with 512 MB of RAM:
• 1st possibility: one swap partition of 1 GB

• 2nd possibility: two swap partitions of 512 MB
• 3rd possibility: with two hard disks: 1 partition of 512 MB on each disk.
The last option will give the best results when a lot of I/O is to be expected.
Read the software documentation for specific guidelines. Some applications, such as
databases, might require more swap space. Others, such as some handheld systems, might
not have any swap at all by lack of a hard disk. Swap space may also depend on your
kernel version.
The kernel is on a separate partition as well in many distributions, because it is the most
important file of your system. If this is the case, you will find that you also have
a /boot partition, holding your kernel(s) and accompanying data files.
The rest of the hard disk(s) is generally divided in data partitions, although it may be that
all of the non-system critical data resides on one partition, for example when you perform
a standard workstation installation. When non-critical data is separated on different
partitions, it usually happens following a set pattern:
• a partition for user programs (/usr)

• a partition containing the users' personal data (/home)
• a partition to store temporary data like print- and mail-queues (/var)
• a partition for third party and extra software (/opt)

Once the partitions are made, you can only add more. Changing sizes or properties of
existing partitions is possible but not advisable.
The division of hard disks into partitions is determined by the system administrator. On
larger systems, he or she may even spread one partition over several hard disks, using the
appropriate software. Most distributions allow for standard setups optimized for
workstations (average users) and for general server purposes, but also accept customized
partitions. During the installation process you can define your own partition layout using
either your distribution specific tool, which is usually a straight forward graphical
interface, or fdisk, a text-based tool for creating partitions and setting their properties.
A workstation or client installation is for use by mainly one and the same person. The
selected software for installation reflects this and the stress is on common user packages,
such as nice desktop themes, development tools, client programs for E-mail, multimedia
software, web and other services. Everything is put together on one large partition, swap
space twice the amount of RAM is added and your generic workstation is complete,
providing the largest amount of disk space possible for personal use, but with the
disadvantage of possible data integrity loss during problem situations.
On a server, system data tends to be separate from user data. Programs that offer services
are kept in a different place than the data handled by this service. Different partitions will
be created on such systems:
• a partition with all data necessary to boot the machine

• a partition with configuration data and server programs
• one or more partitions containing the server data such as database tables, user
mails, an ftp archive etc.
• a partition with user programs and applications
• one or more partitions for the user specific files (home directories)
• one or more swap partitions (virtual memory)
Servers usually have more memory and thus more swap space. Certain server processes,
such as databases, may require more swap space than usual; see the specific
documentation for detailed information. For better performance, swap is often divided
into different swap partitions.
Mount points
All partitions are attached to the system via a mount point. The mount point defines the
place of a particular data set in the file system. Usually, all partitions are connected
through the root partition. On this partition, which is indicated with the slash (/),
directories are created. These empty directories will be the starting point of the partitions
that are attached to them. An example: given a partition that holds the following
directories:

videos/ cd-images/ pictures/
We want to attach this partition in the filesystem in a directory called /opt/media. In

order to do this, the system administrator has to make sure that the
directory/opt/media exists on the system. Preferably, it should be an empty directory.
How this is done is explained later in this chapter. Then, using the mount command, the
administrator can attach the partition to the system. When you look at the content of the
formerly empty directory /opt/media, it will contain the files and directories that are on
the mounted medium (hard disk or partition of a hard disk, CD, DVD, flash card, USB or
other storage device).
During system startup, all the partitions are thus mounted, as described in the
file /etc/fstab. Some partitions are not mounted by default, for instance if they are not
constantly connected to the system, such like the storage used by your digital camera. If
well configured, the device will be mounted as soon as the system notices that it is
connected, or it can be user-mountable, i.e. you don't need to be system administrator to
attach and detach the device to and from the system.
On a running system, information about the partitions and their mount points can be
displayed using the df command (which stands for disk full or disk free). In Linux, df is
the GNU version, and supports the -h or human readable option which greatly improves
readability. Note that commercial UNIX machines commonly have their own versions
of df and many other commands. Their behavior is usually the same, though GNU
versions of common tools often have more and better features.
The df command only displays information about active non-swap partitions. These can
include partitions from other networked systems, like in the example below where the
home directories are mounted from a file server on the network, a situation often
encountered in corporate environments.
linux:~> df -h
Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on
/dev/hda8 496M 183M 288M 39% /
/dev/hda1 124M 8.4M 109M 8% /boot
/dev/hda5 19G 15G 2.7G 85% /opt
/dev/hda6 7.0G 5.4G 1.2G 81% /usr
/dev/hda7 7G 2.7G 867M 77% /var
fs1:/home 8.9G 7G 4.7G 44% /.automount/fs1/root/home

More file system layout

Visual
For convenience, the Linux file system is usually thought of in a tree structure. On a
standard Linux system you will find the layout generally follows the scheme presented
below.
Linux file system layout

This is a layout from a RedHat system. Depending on the system admin, the operating
system and the mission of the UNIX machine, the structure may vary, and directories
may be left out or added at will. The names are not even required; they are only a
convention.
The tree of the file system starts at the trunk or slash, indicated by a forward slash (/).
This directory, containing all underlying directories and files, is also called the root
directory or "the root" of the file system.
Directories that are only one level below the root directory are often preceded by a slash,
to indicate their position and prevent confusion with other directories that could have the
same name. When starting with a new system, it is always a good idea to take a look in
the root directory. Let's see what you could run into:
linux:~> cd /
linux:/> ls
bin/ dev/ home/ lib/ misc/ opt/ root/ tmp/ var/
boot/ etc/ initrd/ lost+found/ mnt/ proc/ sbin/ usr/
Subdirectories of the root directory
Directory Content
Common programs, shared by the system, the system administrator and the
/bin
users.
The startup files and the kernel, vmlinuz. In some recent distributions
/boot also grub data. Grub is the GRand Unified Boot loader and is an attempt to
get rid of the many different boot-loaders we know today.
Contains references to all the CPU peripheral hardware, which are
/dev
represented as files with special properties.
Most important system configuration files are in /etc, this directory contains
/etc
data similar to those in the Control Panel in Windows
/home Home directories of the common users.
/initrd (on some distributions) Information for booting. Do not remove!
Library files, includes files for all kinds of programs needed by the system
/lib
and the users.
Every partition has a lost+found in its upper directory. Files that were
/lost+found
saved during failures are here.
/misc For miscellaneous purposes.
Standard mount point for external file systems, e.g. a CD-ROM or a digital
/mnt
camera.
/net Standard mount point for entire remote file systems
/opt Typically contains extra and third party software.

Directory Content
A virtual file system containing information about system resources. More
information about the meaning of the files in proc is obtained by entering
/proc
the command man proc in a terminal window. The file proc.txt discusses
the virtual file system in detail.
The administrative user's home directory. Mind the difference between /, the
/root
root directory and /root, the home directory of the root user.
/sbin Programs for use by the system and the system administrator.
Temporary space for use by the system, cleaned upon reboot, so don't use
/tmp
this for saving any work!
/usr Programs, libraries, documentation etc. for all user-related programs.
Storage for all variable files and temporary files created by users, such as log
files, the mail queue, the print spooler area, space for temporary storage of
/var
files downloaded from the Internet, or to keep an image of a CD before
burning it.
How can you find out which partition a directory is on? Using the df command with a dot
(.) as an option shows the partition the current directory belongs to, and informs about the
amount of space used on this partition:
linux:/lib> df -h .
Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on
/dev/hda7 980M 163M 767M 18% /
As a general rule, every directory under the root directory is on the root partition, unless
it has a separate entry in the full listing from df (or df -h with no other options).
Read more in man hier.
The file system in reality
For most users and for most common system administration tasks, it is enough to accept
that files and directories are ordered in a tree-like structure. The computer, however,
doesn't understand a thing about trees or tree-structures.
Every partition has its own file system. By imagining all those file systems together, we
can form an idea of the tree-structure of the entire system, but it is not as simple as that.
In a file system, a file is represented by an inode, a kind of serial number containing
information about the actual data that makes up the file: to whom this file belongs, and
where is it located on the hard disk.
Every partition has its own set of inodes; throughout a system with multiple partitions,
files with the same inode number can exist.

Each inode describes a data structure on the hard disk, storing the properties of a file,
including the physical location of the file data. When a hard disk is initialized to accept
data storage, usually during the initial system installation process or when adding extra
disks to an existing system, a fixed number of inodes per partition is created. This
number will be the maximum amount of files, of all types (including directories, special
files, links etc.) that can exist at the same time on the partition. We typically count on
having 1 inode per 2 to 8 kilobytes of storage.
At the time a new file is created, it gets a free inode. In that inode is the following
information:
• Owner and group owner of the file.

• File type (regular, directory, ...)
• Permissions on the file
• Date and time of creation, last read and change.
• Date and time this information has been changed in the inode.
• Number of links to this file (see later in this chapter).
• File size
• An address defining the actual location of the file data.
The only information not included in an inode, is the file name and directory. These are
stored in the special directory files. By comparing file names and inode numbers, the
system can make up a tree-structure that the user understands. Users can display inode
numbers using the -i option to ls. The inodes have their own separate space on the disk.
The kernel
The kernel is the heart of the system. It manages the communication between the
underlying hardware and the peripherals. The kernel also makes sure that processes and
daemons (server processes) are started and stopped at the exact right times. The kernel
has a lot of other important tasks, so many that there is a special kernel-development
mailing list on this subject only, where huge amounts of information are shared. It would
lead us too far to discuss the kernel in detail. For now it suffices to know that the kernel is
the most important file on the system.
The shell
What is a shell?
When I was looking for an appropriate explanation on the concept of a shell, it gave me
more trouble than I expected. All kinds of definitions are available, ranging from the
simple comparison that "the shell is the steering wheel of the car", to the vague definition
in the Bash manual which says that "bash is a sh-compatible command language
interpreter," or an even more obscure expression, "a shell manages the interaction
between the system and its users". A shell is much more than that.

A shell can best be compared with a way of talking to the computer, a language. Most
users do know that other language, the point-and-click language of the desktop. But in
that language the computer is leading the conversation, while the user has the passive role
of picking tasks from the ones presented. It is very difficult for a programmer to include
all options and possible uses of a command in the GUI-format. Thus, GUIs are almost
always less capable than the command or commands that form the backend.
The shell, on the other hand, is an advanced way of communicating with the system,
because it allows for two-way conversation and taking initiative. Both partners in the
communication are equal, so new ideas can be tested. The shell allows the user to handle
a system in a very flexible way. An additional asset is that the shell allows for task
automation.
Shell types
Just like people know different languages and dialects, the computer knows different
shell types:
• sh or Bourne Shell: the original shell still used on UNIX systems and in UNIX
related environments. This is the basic shell, a small program with few features.
When in POSIX-compatible mode, bash will emulate this shell.
• bash or Bourne Again SHell: the standard GNU shell, intuitive and flexible.
Probably most advisable for beginning users while being at the same time a
powerful tool for the advanced and professional user. On Linux, bash is the
standard shell for common users. This shell is a so-called superset of the Bourne
shell, a set of add-ons and plug-ins. This means that the Bourne Again SHell is
compatible with the Bourne shell: commands that work in sh, also work inbash.
However, the reverse is not always the case. All examples and exercises in this
book use bash.
• csh or C Shell: the syntax of this shell resembles that of the C programming
language. Sometimes asked for by programmers.
• tcsh or Turbo C Shell: a superset of the common C Shell, enhancing user-
friendliness and speed.
• ksh or the Korn shell: sometimes appreciated by people with a UNIX background.
A superset of the Bourne shell; with standard configuration a nightmare for
beginning users.
The file /etc/shells gives an overview of known shells on a Linux system:
linux:~> cat /etc/shells

/bin/bash
/bin/sh
/bin/tcsh
/bin/csh
Your default shell is set in the /etc/passwd file, like this line for user mia:

To switch from one shell to another, just enter the name of the new shell in the active
terminal. The system finds the directory where the name occurs using the PATH settings,
and since a shell is an executable file (program), the current shell activates it and it gets
executed. A new prompt is usually shown, because each shell has its typical appearance:
linux:~> tcsh
[mia@post21 ~]$
Which shell am I using?
If you don't know which shell you are using, either check the line for your account
in /etc/passwd or type the command
echo $SHELL
Your home directory
Your home directory is your default destination when connecting to the system. In most
cases it is a subdirectory of /home, though this may vary. Your home directory may be
located on the hard disk of a remote file server; in that case your home directory may be
found in /nethome/your_user_name. In another case the system administrator may have
opted for a less comprehensible layout and your home directory may be
on /disk6/HU/07/jgillard.
Whatever the path to your home directory, you don't have to worry too much about it.
The correct path to your home directory is stored in the HOME environment variable, in
case some program needs it. With the echo command you can display the content of this
variable:
linux:~> echo $HOME

/nethome/orlando
You can do whatever you like in your home directory. You can put as many files in as
many directories as you want, although the total amount of data and files is naturally
limited because of the hardware and size of the partitions, and sometimes because the
system administrator has applied a quota system. Limiting disk usage was common
practice when hard disk space was still expensive. Nowadays, limits are almost
exclusively applied in large environments. You can see for yourself if a limit is set using
the quota command:
Manipulating files
Viewing file properties

Ls Command
Besides the name of the file, ls can give a lot of other information, such as the file type,
as we already discussed. It can also show permissions on a file, file size, inode number,
creation date and time, owners and amount of links to the file. With the -a option to ls,
files that are normally hidden from view can be displayed as well. These are files that
have a name starting with a dot. A couple of typical examples include the configuration
files in your home directory. When you've worked with a certain system for a while, you
will notice that tens of files and directories have been created that are not automatically
listed in a directory index. Next to that, every directory contains a file named just dot (.)
and one with two dots (..), which are used in combination with their inode number to
determine the directory's position in the file system's tree structure.
You should really read the Info pages about ls, since it is a very common command with
a lot of useful options. Options can be combined, as is the case with most UNIX
commands and their options. A common combination is ls -al; it shows a long list of
files and their properties as well as the destinations that any symbolic links point to. ls -
latr displays the same files, only now in reversed order of the last change, so that the
file changed most recently occurs at the bottom of the list. Here are a couple of examples:
linux:~/mp3> ls
Albums/ Radio/ Singles/ gene/ index.html
linux:~/mp3> ls -a
./ .thumbs Radio gene/
../ Albums/ Singles/ index.html
linux:~/mp3> ls -l Radio/
total 8
drwxr-xr-x 2 krissie krissie 4096 Oct 30 1999 Carolina/
drwxr-xr-x 2 krissie krissie 4096 Sep 24 1999 Slashdot/
linux:~/mp3> ls -ld Radio/

drwxr-xr-x 4 krissie krissie 4096 Oct 30 1999 Radio/
linux:~/mp3> ls -ltr
total 20
drwxr-xr-x 4 krissie krissie 4096 Oct 30 1999 Radio/
-rw-r--r-- 1 krissie krissie 453 Jan 7 2001 index.html
drwxrwxr-x 30 krissie krissie 4096 Oct 20 17:32 Singles/
drwxr-xr-x 2 krissie krissie 4096 Dec 4 23:22 gene/
drwxrwxr-x 13 krissie krissie 4096 Dec 21 11:40 Albums/

Creating and deleting files and directories
Creating directories
A way of keeping things in place is to give certain files specific default locations by
creating directories and subdirectories (or folders and sub-folders if you wish). This is
done with the mkdir command:
linux:~> mkdir archive
linux:~> ls -ld archive

drwxrwxrwx 2 richard richard 4096 Jan 13 14:09 archive/
Creating directories and subdirectories in one step is done using the -p option:
linux:~> cd archive
linux:~/archive> mkdir 1999 2000 2001
linux:~/archive> ls
1999/ 2000/ 2001/
linux:~/archive> mkdir 2001/reports/Restaurants-Michelin/

mkdir: cannot create directory `2001/reports/Restaurants-Michelin/':
No such file or directory
linux:~/archive> mkdir -p 2001/reports/Restaurants-Michelin/
linux:~/archive> ls 2001/reports/
Restaurants-Michelin/
If the new file needs other permissions than the default file creation permissions, the new
access rights can be set in one move, still using the mkdir command, see the Info pages
for more. We are going to discuss access modes in the next section on file security.
The name of a directory has to comply with the same rules as those applied on regular
file names. One of the most important restrictions is that you can't have two files with the
same name in one directory (but keep in mind that Linux is, like UNIX, a case sensitive
operating system). There are virtually no limits on the length of a file name, but it is
usually kept shorter than 80 characters, so it can fit on one line of a terminal. You can use
any character you want in a file name, although it is advised to exclude characters that
have a special meaning to the shell.
Moving files
Now that we have properly structured our home directory, it is time to clean up
unclassified files using the mv command:

linux:~/archive> mv ../report[1-4].doc reports/Restaurants-Michelin/
This command is also applicable when renaming files:
linux:~> ls To_Do
-rw-rw-r-- 1 richard richard 2534 Jan 15 12:39 To_Do
linux:~> mv To_Do done
linux:~> ls -l done
-rw-rw-r-- 1 richard richard 2534 Jan 15 12:39 done
It is clear that only the name of the file changes. All other properties remain the same.
Detailed information about the syntax and features of the mv command can be found in
the man or Info pages. The use of this documentation should always be your first reflex
when confronted with a problem. The answer to your problem is likely to be in the
system documentation. Even experienced users read man pages every day, so beginning
users should read them all the time. After a while, you will get to know the most common
options to the common commands, but you will still need the documentation as a primary
source of information. Note that the information contained in the HOWTOs, FAQs, man
pages and other sources is slowly being merged into the Info pages, which are today the
most up-to-date source of online (as in readily available on the system) documentation.
Copying files
Copying files and directories is done with the cp command. A useful option is recursive
copy (copy all underlying files and subdirectories), using the -R option to cp. The general
syntax is
cp [-R] fromfile tofile
As an example the case of user newguy, who wants the same Gnome desktop settings
user oldguy has. One way to solve the problem is to copy the settings ofoldguy to the
home directory of newguy:
linux:~> cp -R ../oldguy/.gnome/ .
This gives some errors involving file permissions, but all the errors have to do with
private files that newguy doesn't need anyway. We will discuss in the next part how to
change these permissions in case they really are a problem.
Removing files
Use the rm command to remove single files, rmdir to remove empty directories.
(Use ls -a to check whether a directory is empty or not). The rm command also has

options for removing non-empty directories with all their subdirectories, read the Info
pages for these rather dangerous options.
How empty can a directory be?
It is normal that the directories. (dot) and .. (dot-dot) can't be removed, since they are also
necessary in an empty directory to determine the directories ranking in the file system
hierarchy.
On Linux, just like on UNIX, there is no garbage can - at least not for the shell, although
there are plenty of solutions for graphical use. So once removed, a file is really gone, and
there is generally no way to get it back unless you have backups, or you are really fast
and have a real good system administrator. To protect the beginning user from this malice,
the interactive behavior of the rm, cp and mv commands can be activated using the -
i option. In that case the system won't immediately act upon request. Instead it will ask
for confirmation, so it takes an additional click on the Enter key to inflict the damage:
linux:~> rm -ri archive/

rm: descend into directory àrchive'? y
rm: descend into directory àrchive/reports'? y
rm: remove directory àrchive/reports'? y
rm: descend into directory àrchive/backup'? y
rm: remove àrchive/backup/sysbup200112.tar'? y
rm: remove directory àrchive/backup'? y
rm: remove directory àrchive'? y
Creating and viewing files

The cat Command
cat is one of the most frequently used commands on Unix-like operating systems. It has
three related functions with regard to text files: displaying them, combining copies of
them and creating new ones.
cat's general syntax is
cat [options] [filenames] [-] [filenames]
The square brackets indicate that the enclosed items are optional.
Reading Files
The most common use of cat is to read the contents of files, and cat is often the most
convenient program for this purpose. All that is necessary to open a text file for viewing
on the display monitor is to type the word cat followed by a space and the name of the

file and then press the ENTER key. For example, the following will display the contents
of a file named file1:
cat file1
The standard output (i.e., default destination of the output) for cat, as is generally the
case for other command line (i.e., all-text mode) programs, is the monitor screen.
However, it can be redirected from the screen, for example, to another file to be written
to that file or to another command to use as the input for that command.
In the following example, the standard output of cat is redirected using the output
redirection operator (which is represented by a rightward pointing angular bracket)
to file2:
cat file1 > file2
That is, the output from cat is written to file2 instead of being displayed on the monitor
screen.
The standard output could instead be redirected using a pipe (represented by a vertical bar)
to a filter (i.e., a program that transforms data in some meaningful way) for further
processing. For example, if the file is too large for all of the text to fit on the monitor
screen simultaneously, as is frequently the case, the text will scroll down the screen at
high speed and be very difficult to read. This problem is easily solved by piping the
output to the filter less, i.e.,
cat file1 | less
This allows the user to advance the contents of the file one screenful at a time by pressing
the space bar and to move backwards by pressing the b key. The user can exit from less
by pressing the q key.
The standard input (i.e., the default source of input data) for cat, as is generally the case
for other commands on Unix-like systems, is the keyboard. That is, if no file is specified
for it to open, cat will read whatever is typed in on the keyboard.
Typing the command cat followed by the output redirection operator and a file name on
the same line, pressing ENTER to move to the next line, then typing some text and finally
pressing ENTER again causes the text to be written to that file. Thus, in the following
example the text that is typed on the second line will be written to a file named felines:
cat > felines

This is not about a feline.
The program is terminated and the normal command prompt is restored by pressing the
CONTROL and d keys simultaneously.

Repeating the above example without using a redirection operator and specifying a
destination file, i.e.,
cat
This is not about a feline.
causes the text to be sent to standard output, i.e., to be repeated on the monitor screen.
Concatenation
The second role of cat is concatenation (i.e., stringing together) of copies of the contents
of files. (This is the source of cat's curious name.) Because the concatenation occurs only
to the copies, there is no effect on the original files.
For example, the following command will concatenate copies of the contents of the three
files file1, file2 and file3:
cat file1 file2 file3
The contents of each file will be displayed on the monitor screen (which, again, is
standard output, and thus the destination of the output in the absence of redirection)
starting on a new line and in the order that the file names appear in the command. This
output could just as easily be redirected using the output redirection operator to another
file, such as file4, using the following:
cat file1 file2 file3 > file4
In the next example, the output of cat is piped to the sort filter in order to alphabetize the
lines of text after concatenation and prior to writing to file4:
cat file1 file2 file3 | sort > file4
File Creation
The third use for cat is file creation. For small files this is often easier than
using vi, gedit or other text editors. It is accomplished by typing cat followed by the
output redirection operator and the name of the file to be created, then pressing ENTER
and finally simultaneously pressing the CONTROL and d keys. For example, a new file
named file1 can be created by typing
cat > file1
then pressing the ENTER key and finally simultaneously pressing the CONTROL
and d keys.
If a file named file1 already exists, it will be overwritten (i.e., all of its contents will be
erased) by the new, empty file with the same name. Thus the cautious user might prefer

to instead use the append operator (represented by two successive rightward pointing
angular brackets) in order to prevent unintended erasure. That is,
cat >> file1
That is, if an attempt is made to create a file by using cat and the append operator, and the
new file has the same name as an existing file, the existing file is, in fact, preserved rather
than overwritten, and any new text is added to the end of the existing file.
Text can be entered at the time of file creation by typing it in after pressing the ENTER
key. Any amount of text can be typed, including text on multiple lines.
cat can also be used to simultaneously create a new file and transfer to it the data from an
existing file. This is accomplished by typing cat, the name of the file from which the
output will come, the output redirection operator and the name of the file to be created.
Then pressing ENTER causes the new file to be created and written to. For example,
typing the following and then pressing ENTER creates a new file named file2 that
contains a copy of the contents of file1:
cat file1 > file2
There is no effect on the contents of file1. (The same thing can, of course, be
accomplished just as easily using cp command, which is used to copy files, i.e., cp file1
file2, but the above example does illustrate the great versatility of cat.)
A slight modification to the above procedure makes it possible to create a new file and
write text into it from both another file and the keyboard. A hyphen surrounded by spaces
is added before the input file if the typed-in text is to come before the text from the input
file, and it is added after the input file if the typed-in text is to go after the text from the
input file. Thus, for example, to create a new file file6 that consists of text typed in from
the keyboard followed by the contents of file5, first enter the following:
cat - file5 > file6
Or to create a new file file8 that consists of the contents of file7 followed by text typed in
from the keyboard, first enter the following:
cat file7 - > file8
In either case, then press ENTER to move to a new line and type the desired text on any
number of lines. Finally press ENTER once more followed by pressing the CONTROL
and d keys simultaneously to execute (i.e., run) the command.
An example of a practical application for this use of cat is the creation of form letters (or
other documents) for which only the top parts (e.g., dates and names) are customized for
each recipient.

Counting Words
The wc Command
The wc (word count) command is a very simple utility found in all Unix variants. Its
purpose is counting the number of lines, words and characters of text files. If multiple
files are specified, wc produces a count for each file, plus totals for all files.
When used without options wc prints the number of lines, words and characters, in that
order. A word is a sequence of one or more characters delimited by whitespace. If we
want fewer than the three counts, we use options to select what is to be printed: -l to print
lines, -w to print words and -c to print characters. The GNU version of wc found in Linux
systems also supports the long options format: --chars (or --bytes), --words, --lines.
When I applied wc to an earlier version of the LaTeX source file with this text, I received
the following information from wc:
wc wc.tex
98 760 4269 wc.tex
This line means that the file had 98 lines, 760 words and 4269 characters (bytes).
Actually, I seldom use wc alone. Due to its simplicity wc is mostly useful when used in
combination with other Linux commands.
Finding files
Find and locate
These are the real tools, used when searching other paths beside those listed in the search
path. The find tool, known from UNIX, is very powerful, which may be the cause of a
somewhat more difficult syntax. GNU find, however, deals with the syntax problems.
This command not only allows you to search file names, it can also accept file size, date
of last change and other file properties as criteria for a search. The most common use is
for finding file names:
find <path> -name <searchstring>
This can be interpreted as "Look in all files and subdirectories contained in a given path,
and print the names of the files containing the search string in their name" (not in their
content).
Another application of find is for searching files of a certain size, as in the example
below, where user peter wants to find all files in the current directory or one of its
subdirectories, that are bigger than 5 MB:

linux:~> find . -size +5000k psychotic_chaos.mp3
If you dig in the man pages, you will see that find can also perform operations on the
found files. A common example is removing files. It is best to first test without the -exec
option that the correct files are selected, after that the command can be rerun to delete the
selected files. Below, we search for files ending in .tmp:
linux:~> find . -name "*.tmp" -exec rm {} \;
Implementing Access rights:

Linux's first line of defense
The Linux security model is based on the one used on UNIX systems, and is as rigid as
the UNIX security model (and sometimes even more), which is already quite robust. On a
Linux system, every file is owned by a user and a group user. There is also a third
category of users, those that are not the user owner and don't belong to the group owning
the file. For each category of users, read, write and execute permissions can be granted or
denied.
We already used the long option to list files using the ls -l command, though for other
reasons. This command also displays file permissions for these three user categories; they
are indicated by the nine characters that follow the first character, which is the file type
indicator at the beginning of the file properties line. As seen in the examples below, the
first three characters in this series of nine display access rights for the actual user that
owns the file. The next three are for the group owner of the file, the last three for other
users. The permissions are always in the same order: read, write, execute for the user, the
group and the others. Some examples:
linux:~> ls -l To_Do
-rw-rw-r-- 1 marise users 5 Jan 15 12:39 To_Do
linux:~> ls -l /bin/ls
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 45948 Aug 9 15:01 /bin/ls*
The first file is a regular file (first dash). Users with user name marise or users belonging
to the group users can read and write (change/move/delete) the file, but they can't execute
it (second and third dash). All other users are only allowed to read this file, but they can't
write or execute it (fourth and fifth dash).
The second example is an executable file, the difference: everybody can run this program,
but you need to be root to change it.
The Info pages explain how the ls command handles display of access rights in detail, see
the section What information is listed.

For easy use with commands, both access rights or modes and user groups have a code.
See the tables below.
Access mode codes
Code Meaning
0 or - The access right that is supposed to be on this place is not granted.
4 or r read access is granted to the user category defined in this place
2 or w write permission is granted to the user category defined in this place
1 or x execute permission is granted to the user category defined in this place
User group codes
Code Meaning
u user permissions
g group permissions
o permissions for others
This straight forward scheme is applied very strictly, which allows a high level of
security even without network security. Among other functions, the security scheme
takes care of user access to programs, it can serve files on a need-to-know basis and
protect sensitive data such as home directories and system configuration files.
The chmod command
A normal consequence of applying strict file permissions, and sometimes a nuisance, is

that access rights will need to be changed for all kinds of reasons. We use the chmod
command to do this, and eventually to chmod has become an almost acceptable English
verb, meaning the changing of the access mode of a file. The chmod command can be
used with alphanumeric or numeric options, whatever you like best.
The example below uses alphanumeric options in order to solve a problem that
commonly occurs with new users:
linux:~> ls -l hello
-rw-rw-r-- 1 asim asim 32 Jan 15 16:29 hello
linux:~> chmod u+x hello
-rwxrw-r-- 1 asim asim 32 Jan 15 16:29 hello*
The + and - operators are used to grant or deny a given right to a given group.
Combinations separated by commas are allowed. The Info and man pages contain useful
examples. Here's another one, which makes the file from the previous example a private
file to user asim:
linux:~> chmod u+rwx,go-rwx hello
-rwx------ 1 asim asim 32 Jan 15 16:29 hello*
The kind of problem resulting in an error message saying that permission is denied
somewhere is usually a problem with access rights in most cases. Also, comments like,
"It worked yesterday," and "When I run this as root it works," are most likely caused by
the wrong file permissions.
When using chmod with numeric arguments, the values for each granted access right
have to be counted together per group. Thus we get a 3-digit number, which is the
symbolic value for the settings chmod has to make. The following table lists the most
common combinations:
File protection with chmod
Command Meaning
chmod 400 file To protect a file against accidental overwriting.
To protect yourself from accidentally removing, renaming or
chmod 500 directory
moving files from this directory.
A private file only changeable by the user who entered this
chmod 600 file
command.
A publicly readable file that can only be changed by the issuing
chmod 644 file
user.
Users belonging to your group can change this file; others don't
chmod 660 file
have any access to it at all.
Protects a file against any access from other users, while the
chmod 700 file
issuing user still has full access.
For files that should be readable and executable by others, but
chmod 755 directory
only changeable by the issuing user.
chmod 775 file Standard file sharing mode for a group.
chmod 777 file Everybody can do everything to this file.
If you enter a number with less than three digits as an argument to chmod, omitted
characters are replaced with zeros starting from the left. There is actually a fourth digit on
Linux systems that precedes the first three and sets special access modes. Everything
about these and many more are located in the Info pages.

More useful commands

The more Command
The more command reads files and displays the text one screen at a time. The command
pauses after each screen and prints the word More at the bottom of the screen. If you then
press a carriage return, the more command displays an additional line. If you press the
space bar, the more command displays another full screen of text.
Note: On some terminal models, the more command clears the screen, instead of
scrolling.
Instead of naming files to read, you can either redirect or pipe standard output, such as a
long directory listing, to the more command. The command adds a % (percent sign) to its
prompt when reading from a file rather than a pipe. This provides the percentage of the
file (in characters, not lines) that the more command has read.
The more command sets the terminal to NOECHO mode so the output can be continuous.
With the exception of the / and ! subcommands, commands that are typed do not
normally show up on the terminal. If the standard output is not a terminal,
the more command will act just like the cat command, except that a header will be
printed before each file in a series.
Options
-num: This option specifies an integer which is the screen size (in lines).
-d: more will prompt the user with the message "[Press space to continue, 'q' to
quit.]" and will display "[Press 'h' for instructions.]" instead of ringing the bell
when an illegal key is pressed.
-l: more usually treats ^L (form feed) as a special character, and will pause after
any line that contains a form feed. The -l option will prevent this behavior.
-f: Causes more to count logical, rather than screen lines (i.e., long lines are not
folded).
-p: Do not scroll. Instead, clear the whole screen and then display the text.
-c: Do not scroll. Instead, paint each screen from the top, clearing the remainder
of each line as it is displayed.
-s: Squeeze multiple blank lines into one.
-u: Suppress underlining.
+/: The +/ option specifies a string that will be searched for before each file is
displayed. (Ex.: more +/Preamble gpl.txt)
+num: Start at line number num.
The VI Editor

The default editor that comes with the UNIX operating system is called vi (visual editor).
[Alternate editors for UNIX environments include pico and emacs, a product of GNU.]
The UNIX vi editor is a full screen editor and has two modes of operation:
1. Command mode commands which cause action to be taken on the file, and
2. Insert mode in which entered text is inserted into the file.
In the command mode, every character typed is a command that does something to the
text file being edited; a character typed in the command mode may even cause
the vi editor to enter the insert mode. In the insert mode, every character typed is added
to the text in the file; pressing the <Esc> (Escape) key turns off the Insert mode.
While there are a number of vi commands, just a handful of these is usually sufficient for
beginning vi users. To assist such users, this Web page contains a sampling of
basic vi commands. The most basic and useful commands are marked with an asterisk
(* or star) in the tables below. With practice, these commands should become automatic.
To Start vi
To use vi on a file, type in vi filename. If the file named filename exists, then
the first page (or screen) of the file will be displayed; if the file does not exist,
then an empty file and screen are created into which you may enter text.
* vi filename edit filename starting at line 1
vi -r filename recover filename that was being edited when system crashed
To Exit vi
Usually the new or modified file is saved when you leave vi. However, it is also
possible to quit vi without saving the file.
Note: The cursor moves to bottom of screen whenever a colon (:) is typed. This
type of command is completed by hitting the <Return> (or <Enter>) key.
* :x<Return> quit vi, writing out modified file to file named in original invocation
:wq<Return> quit vi, writing out modified file to file named in original invocation
:q<Return> quit (or exit) vi
* :q!<Return> quit vi even though latest changes have not been saved for this vi call

Moving the Cursor

Unlike many of the PC and MacIntosh editors, the mouse does not move the
cursor within the vi editor screen (or window). You must use the the key
commands listed below. On some UNIX platforms, the arrow keys may be used
as well; however, since vi was designed with the Qwerty keyboard (containing no
arrow keys) in mind, the arrow keys sometimes produce strange effects in vi and
should be avoided.
If you go back and forth between a PC environment and a UNIX environment,
you may find that this dissimilarity in methods for cursor movement is the most
frustrating difference between the two.
In the table below, the symbol ^ before a letter means that the <Ctrl> key should
be held down while the letter key is pressed.
j or <Return>
* move cursor down one line
[or down-arrow]
* k [or up-arrow] move cursor up one line
h or <Backspace>
* move cursor left one character
[or left-arrow]
l or <Space>
* move cursor right one character
[or right-arrow]
* 0 (zero) move cursor to start of current line (the one with the cursor)
*$ move cursor to end of current line
w move cursor to beginning of next word
b move cursor back to beginning of preceding word
:0<Return> or 1G move cursor to first line in file
:n<Return> or nG move cursor to line n
:$<Return> or G move cursor to last line in file
Screen Manipulation
The following commands allow the vi editor screen (or window) to move up or
down several lines and to be refreshed.
^f move forward one screen
^b move backward one screen
^d move down (forward) one half screen
û move up (back) one half screen
^l redraws the screen
^r redraws the screen, removing deleted lines

Adding, Changing, and Deleting Text
Unlike PC editors, you cannot replace or delete text by highlighting it with the
mouse. Instead use the commands in the following tables.
Perhaps the most important command is the one that allows you to back up
and undo your last action. Unfortunately, this command acts like a toggle,
undoing and redoing your most recent action. You cannot go back more than one
step.
u UNDO WHATEVER YOU JUST DID; a simple toggle
The main purpose of an editor is to create, add, or modify text for a file.
Inserting or Adding Text
The following commands allow you to insert and add text. Each of these
commands puts the vi editor into insert mode; thus, the <Esc> key must be
pressed to terminate the entry of text and to put the vi editor back into command
mode.
i insert text before cursor, until <Esc> hit
I insert text at beginning of current line, until <Esc> hit
a append text after cursor, until <Esc> hit
A append text to end of current line, until <Esc> hit
o open and put text in a new line below current line, until <Esc> hit
O open and put text in a new line above current line, until <Esc> hit
Changing Text
The following commands allow you to modify text.
r replace single character under cursor (no <Esc> needed)
R replace characters, starting with current cursor position, until <Esc> hit
cw
change the current word with new text,
starting with the character under cursor, until <Esc> hit
cNw
change N words beginning with character under cursor, until <Esc> hit;
e.g., c5w changes 5 words
C change (replace) the characters in the current line, until <Esc> hit
cc change (replace) the entire current line, stopping when <Esc> is hit
change (replace) the next N lines, starting with the current line,
Ncc or cNc
stopping when <Esc> is hit
Deleting Text
The following commands allow you to delete text.
x delete single character under cursor
Nx delete N characters, starting with character under cursor
dw delete the single word beginning with character under cursor
dNw
delete N words beginning with character under cursor;
e.g., d5w deletes 5 words

D delete the remainder of the line, starting with current cursor position
dd delete entire current line
delete N lines, beginning with the current line;
Ndd or dNd
e.g., 5dd deletes 5 lines
Cutting and Pasting Text

The following commands allow you to copy and paste text.
yy copy (yank, cut) the current line into the buffer
Nyy or yNy copy (yank, cut) the next N lines, including the current line, into the buffer
p put (paste) the line(s) in the buffer into the text after the current line
Searching Text
A common occurrence in text editing is to replace one word or phase by another.
To locate instances of particular sets of characters (or strings), use the following
commands.
/string search forward for occurrence of string in text
?string search backward for occurrence of string in text
n move to next occurrence of search string
N move to next occurrence of search string in opposite direction
Determining Line Numbers

Being able to determine the line number of the current line or the total number of
lines in the file being edited is sometimes useful.
:.= returns line number of current line at bottom of screen
:= returns the total number of lines at bottom of screen
^g
provides the current line number, along with the total number of lines,
in the file at the bottom of the screen
Saving and Reading Files
These commands permit you to input and output files other than the named file with
which you are currently working.
:r filename<Return>
read file named filename and insert after current line
(the line with cursor)
:w<Return> write current contents to file named in original vi call
:w newfile<Return> write current contents to a new file named newfile
:12,35w smallfile<Return>
write the contents of the lines numbered 12 through 35 to
a new file named smallfile
:w! prevfile<Return>
write current contents over a pre-existing file
named prevfile

IT TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS – MICROSOFT WORD
MICROSOFT WORD
MS-Word or Microsoft Word is the application software for word processing. In out day-
to-day life it is the very important application software for writing documents, letters,
notice etc. There is number of such application for creation of documents but out of
which MS-Word is the leading one. Microsoft still growing and updating the software
and hence number of versions are lunched with additional feature. The basic operation
remains unchanged. Our course includes MS-WORD 2000. So all the applications menu,
sub menu are related to that software.
Screen Layout
Menus
When you begin to explore Word 2000, you will notice a significant change in the menu
structure if you are familiar with previous versions of Word. The menus in Word 2000
display only the commands you have recently used. To view all options in each menu,
you must click the double arrows at the bottom of the menu. The images below show the
Format menu collapsed (left) and expanded (right) after the double arrows at the bottom
of the menu were clicked:

Follow the steps below to display menus similar to previous versions of Word with all the
choices listed initially:
• Select View>Toolbars>Customize from the menu bar.

• Click on the Options tab.
• Uncheck the Menus show recently used commands first check box.

Shortcut Menus
These features allow you to access various Word commands faster than using the options
on the menu bar. View shortcut menus by right-clicking with the mouse. The options on
this menu will vary depending on the element that was right-clicked. For example, the
shortcut menu below is produced by right-clicking on a bulleted list.
Actions such as "Decrease Indent" and "Increase Indent" are only applicable to lists and
therefore only appear on the list shortcut menu. The shortcut menus are helpful because
they only display the options that can be applied to the item that was right-clicked and,
therefore, prevent searching through the many menu options.
Toolbars
Many toolbars displaying shortcut buttons are also available to make editing and
formatting quicker and easier. Select View>Toolbars from the menu bar to select the
toolbars. The toolbars that are already displayed on the screen are checked. Add a toolbar
simply by clicking on the name.

Customizing Toolbars
There may be certain actions on a toolbar that you do not use and there may also be
commands that you execute often but that are not located on any toolbar. Word toolbars
can be customized so these commands can be added and deleted.

• Select View>Toolbars>Customize and click the Commands tab.
• By highlighting the command categories in the Categories box, the choices will
change in the Commands box to the right.
• Select the command you would like to add to the toolbar by selecting it in
the Commands box.
• Drag the command with the mouse to the desired location on the toolbar and
release the mouse button.
• Remove a button from the toolbar by clicking and dragging the button off the
toolbar.
Creating and Opening Documents
There are several ways to create new documents, open existing documents, and save
documents in Word:
Create a New Document
• Click the New Document button on the menu bar.

• Choose File>New from the menu bar.
• Press CTRL+N (depress the CTRL key while pressing "N") on the keyboard.
Open an Existing Document
• Click the Open File button on the menu bar.

• Choose File|Open from the menu bar.
• Press CTRL+O on the keyboard.

Each method will show the Open dialog box. Choose the file and click
the Open button.
Save a Document
• Click the Save button on the menu bar.

• Select File>Save from the menu bar.
• Press CTRL+S on the keyboard.
Renaming Documents
To rename a Word document while using the program, select File>Open and find the file
you want to rename. Right-click on the document name with the mouse and
select Rename from the shortcut menu. Type the new name for the file and press
the ENTER key.

Working on Multiple Documents
Several documents can be opened simultaneously if you are typing or editing multiple
documents at once. All open documents are listed under the Window menu as shown
below. The current document has a checkmark beside the file name. Select another name
to view another open document or click the button on the Windows taskbar at the bottom
of the screen.
Close a Document
Close the current document by selecting File>Close or click the Close icon if it's visible
on the Standard Toolbar.

Typing and Inserting Text
To enter text, just start typing! The text will appear where the blinking cursor is located.
Move the cursor by using the arrow buttons on the keyboard or positioning the mouse
and clicking the left button. The keyboard shortcuts listed below are also helpful when
moving through the text of a document:
Move Action Keystroke

Beginning of the line HOME
End of the line END
Top of the document CTRL+HOME
End of the document CTRL+END
Selecting Text
To change any attributes of text it must be highlighted first. Select the text by dragging
the mouse over the desired text while keeping the left mouse button depressed, or hold
down the SHIFT key on the keyboard while using the arrow buttons to highlight the text.
The following table contains shortcuts for selecting a portion of the text:
Selection Technique
Whole word double-click within the word
Whole paragraph triple-click within the paragraph
Several words or drag the mouse over the words, or hold
lines down SHIFT while using the arrow keys
Entire document choose Edit>Select All from the menu bar, or
press CTRL+A
Deselect the text by clicking anywhere outside of the selection on the page or press an
arrow key on the keyboard.
Deleting Text
Use the BACKSPACE and DELETE keys on the keyboard to delete text. Backspace will
delete text to the left of the cursor and Delete will erase text to the right. To delete a large
selection of text, highlight it using any of the methods outlined above and press
the DELETE key.
Formatting Text
The formatting toolbar is the easiest way to change many attributes of text. If the toolbar
as shown below isn't displayed on the screen, select View>Toolbars and
choose Formatting.

Style Menu - Styles are explained in detail later in this tutorial.

Font Face - Click the arrowhead to the right of the font name box to view the list
of fonts available. Scroll down to the font you want and select it by clicking on
the name once with the mouse. A serif font (one with "feet" circled in the
illustration below) is recommended for paragraphs of text that will be printed on
paper as they are most readable. The following graphic demonstrates the
difference between serif (Times New Roman on the left) and sans-serif ("no feet",
Arial on the right) fonts.
Font Size - Click on the white part of the font size box to enter a value for the
font size or click the arrowhead to the right of the box to view a list of font sizes
available. Select a size by clicking on it once. A font size of 10 or 12 is best for
paragraphs of text.
• Font Style - Use these buttons to bold, italicize, and underline text.
• Alignment - Text can be aligned to the left, center, or right side of the page or
it can be justified across the page.
• Numbered and Bulleted Lists - Lists are explained in detail later in this
tutorial.
• Increase/Decrease Indent - Change the indentation of a paragraph in relation
to the side of the page.
• Outside Border - Add a border around a text selection.
• Highlight Color - Use this option to change the color behind a text selection.
The color shown on the button is the last color used. To select a different
color, click the arrowhead next to the image on the button.
• Text Color - This option changes the color of the text. The color shown on
the button is the last color chosen. Click the arrowhead next to the button
image to select another color.
The Font dialog box allows you to choose from a larger selection of formatting options.
Select Format>Font from the menu bar to access the box.

Format Painter
A handy feature for formatting text is the Format Painter located on the standard toolbar.
For example, if you have formatting a paragraph heading with a certain font face, size,
and style and you want to format another heading the same way, you do not need to
manually add each attribute to the new headline. Instead, use the Format Painter by
following these steps:
• Place the cursor within the text that contains the formatting you want to copy.
• Click the Format Painter button in the standard toolbar. Notice that your
pointer now has a paintbrush beside it.
• Highlight the text you want to add the same format to with the mouse and
release the mouse button.
To add the formatting to multiple selections of text, double-click the Format

Painter button instead of clicking once. The format painter then stays active until you
press the ESC key to turn it off.

Undo
Feel free to experiment with various text styles. You can always undo your last action by
clicking the Undo button on the standard toolbar or selecting Edit>Undo... from the menu
bar. Click the Redo button on the standard toolbar or select Edit>Redo... to erase the
undo action.
Paragraph Attributes
Format a paragraph by placing the cursor within the paragraph and

selecting Format>Paragraph from the menu bar.
Moving (Cutting) Text
Highlight the text that will be moved and select Edit>Cut from the menu bar, click
the Cut button on the standard tool bar, or press CTRL+X at once. This will move the
text to a clipboard.
To move a small amount of text a short distance, the drag-and-drop method may be
quicker. Highlight the text you want to move, click the selection with the mouse, drag the
selection to the new location, and release the mouse button.

Copying Text
To copy text, choose Edit>Copy, click the Copy button on the standard toolbar, or
press CTRL+C to copy the text to the clipboard.
Paste Text
To paste cut or copied text, move the cursor to the location you want to move the text to
and select Edit>Paste from the menu bar, click the Paste button on the standard toolbar,
or press CTRL+V.
The Clipboard
The last 12 elements that were cut or copied are placed onto Word's clipboard. You can
view the elements on the clipboard by selecting View>Toolbars>Clipboard from the
menu bar.
Place the mouse arrow over each element in the clipboard to view the contents of each
item and click on an element to add its contents to the document. Click Paste All to add
all of the items to the document at once. Click the Clear Clipboard button (the icon with
an "X" over the clipboard image) to clear the contents of the clipboard.
Columns
To quickly place text in a column format, click the Columns button on the standard
toolbar and select the number of columns by dragging the mouse over the diagram.
For more column options, select Format>Columns from the menu bar.
The Columns dialog box allows you to choose the properties of the columns. Select the
number and width of the columns from the dialog box.

Drop Caps
A drop cap is a large letter that begins a paragraph and drops through several lines of text
as shown below.
Add a drop cap to a paragraph by following these steps:
• Place the cursor within the paragraph whose first letter will be dropped.
• Select Format>Drop Cap from the menu bar.
• The Drop Cap dialog box allows you to select the position of the drop cap, the
font, the number of lines to drop, and the distance from the body text.

• Click OK when all selections have been made.

• To modify a drop cap, select Format>Drop Cap again to change the attributes,
or click on the letter and use the handles to move and resize the letter.
Styles
The use of styles in Word will allow you to quickly format a document with a consistent
and professional look. Paragraph and character styles can be saved for use in many
documents.
Applying a Style
• Place the cursor in the paragraph where the style will be applied.
• Click the Style drop-down menu on the Formatting toolbar and select a style
by clicking on it.
• To apply the same style to multiple paragraphs, double click the Format
Painter button on the standard toolbar and click in all the paragraphs that
the style should be applied to. Press the ESC key to disable the Format
Painter.
Apply a Style from the Style Dialog Box
Choose from a larger selection of styles from the Style dialog box.

• Click in the paragraph you want to add a style to.

• Select Format>Style... from the menu bar.
• From the List drop-down menu, choose All styles to view all the styles
available.
• The styles are displayed in the Styles list. Preview each style by clicking once
on the name. Paragraph styles are preceded by the paragraph symbol ( ) and
character styles are preceded by an "a" icon ( ). A pointer arrow is located
next to the current style. Highlight the style you want to apply to the
paragraph and click Apply.
Create a New Style from a Model
To create a style from text that is already formatted in a document, follow these steps:
• Place the cursor in the paragraph you would like to set as a new style.

• Click the Style box on the formatting toolbar so the style name is highlighted.
• Delete the text in the field and type the name of the new style.
• Press the ENTER key to save the new style.
Create a Simple Style from the Style Dialog Box
• Select Format>Style... from the menu bar and click the New button on
the Style dialog box to access the New Style dialog box.
• Type the name for the new style in the Name field.
• Select "Paragraph" or "Character" from the Style type drop-down menu.
• Click the Format button at the bottom of the window and choose the
paragraph element that will be formatted for the style. Continue to make
changes from the options from the Format button menu, making changes to
the dialog boxes for each element you choose.

• Click OK to set the style and close the New Style dialog box.
• Click Apply on the Style dialog box to apply the new style to the current
paragraph.
Modify or Rename a Style
An existing style can be changed from the Style dialog box.
• Select Format>Style... from the menu bar.

• Highlight the style from the Styles list that you want to modify and click
the Modify button.
• Use the same methods to modify the style from the Modify Style dialog box
that were used for the New Style box.
• To only rename the style, type a new name in the Name field.
• Click OK when you are finished making modifications.
• Click Apply to update the style in the document.
Delete a Style
Preset styles created by Word cannot be deleted, but to delete a style you have made,
follow these steps:
• Select Format>Style... from the menu bar

• Highlight the style from the Styles list that you want to delete.
• Click the Delete button.

• You will be asked if you really want to delete the style. Click Yes.
• Click Close on the dialog box.
Lists
To create a bulleted or numbered list, use the list features provided by Word.
Bulleted and Numbered Lists
• Click the Bulleted List button or Numbered List button on the

formatting toolbar.
• Type the first entry and press ENTER. This will create a new bullet or
number on the next line. If you want to start a new line without adding another
bullet or number, hold down the SHIFT key while pressing ENTER.
• Continue to typing entries and press ENTER twice when you are finished
typing to end the list.
Use the Increase Indent and Decrease Indent buttons on the formatting toolbar to
create lists of multiple levels.
NOTE: You can also type the text first, highlight the section, and press the Bulleted
List or Numbered List buttons to add the bullets or numbers.
Nested Lists
To create a nested list, such as a numbered list inside of a bulleted list, follow these steps:
• Type the list and increase the indentation of the items that will make up the
nested list by clicking the Increase Indent button for each item.
• Highlight the items and click the Numbered List button on the formatting
toolbar.
Formatting Lists
The bullet image and numbering format can be changed by using the Bullets and
Numbering dialog box.

• Highlight the entire list to change all the bullets or numbers, or

Place the cursor on one line within the list to change a single bullet.
• Access the dialog box by selecting Format>Bullets and Numbering from the
menu bar or by right-clicking within the list and selecting Bullets and
Numbering from the shortcut menu.
• Select the list style from one of the seven choices given, or click
the Picture... button to choose a different icon. Click the Numbered tab to
choose a numbered list style.
• Click OK when finished.
Tables
Tables are used to display data and there are several ways to build them in Word. Begin
by placing the cursor where you want the table to appear in the document and choose one
of the following methods.
Insert a Table
There are two ways to add a table to the document using the Insert feature:

• Click the Insert Table button on the standard toolbar. Drag the mouse along
the grid, highlighting the number of rows and columns for the table.
• Or, select Table>Insert>Table from the menu bar. Select the number of rows
and columns for the table and click OK.
Draw the Table
A table can also be drawn onto the document:
• Draw the table by selecting Table>Draw Table from the menu bar. The cursor
is now the image of a pencil and the Tables and Borders toolbar has appeared.

• Draw the cells of the table with the mouse. If you make a mistake, click
the Eraser button and drag the mouse over the area to be deleted.
• To draw more cells, click on the Draw Table button .
Inserting Rows and Columns
Once the table is drawn, insert additional rows by placing the cursor in the row you want
to be adjacent to. Select Table>Insert>Rows Above or Rows Below. Or, select an entire
row and right-click with the mouse. Choose Insert Rows from the shortcut menu.
Much like inserting a row, add a new column by placing the cursor in a cell adjacent to
where the new column will be added. Select Table>Insert>Columns to the
Left or Columns to the Right. Or, select the column, right-click with the mouse, and
select Insert Columns.
Moving and Resizing a Table
A four-sided moving arrow and open box resizing handle will appear on the corners of
the table if the mouse is placed over the table. Click and drag the four-ended arrow to
move the table and release the mouse button when the table is positioned where you want
it. Click and drag the open box handle to resize the table. Change the column widths and
row heights by clicking the cell dividers and dragging them with the mouse.
Tables and Borders Toolbar
The Tables and Borders toolbar allows you to add border styles, shading, text effects,
alignment, and more options to your table. Access the toolbar by clicking Table>Draw
Table or View>Toolbars>Tables and Borders.
You will need to highlight the cells of the table you want to format. Click and drag the
mouse over the cells, or use the following shortcuts:
Selection Menu Method Mouse Method

Click the bottom, left corner of
One cell Table>Select>Cell
the cell when a black arrow

appears
Click outside the table to the left
One row Table>Select>Row
of the row
Click outside the table above the
One column Table>Select>Column column when a black arrow
appears
Click outside the table to the left
Several
(none) of the row and drag the mouse
rows
down
Several Click outside the table above the
(none)
columns column
Entire table Table>Select>Table Triple-click to the left of the table
Table Properties
Use the Table Properties dialog box to modify the alignment of the table with the body
text and the text within the table. Access the box by selecting Tables>Table Properties.
• Size - Check the Preferred width box and enter a value if the table should be
an exact width.
• Alignment - Highlight the illustration that represents the alignment of the
table in relation to the text of the document.

• Text wrapping - Highlight "None" if the table should appear on a separate
line from the text or choose "Around" if the text should wrap around the table.
• Borders and Shading - Select from a number of border styles, colors, and
widths. Click the Shading tab to change the background color and pattern.
Options - Click the Options button on the Table Properties window. To change
the spacing between the document text and the table borders under Default cell
margins. Check the Allow spacing between cells box and enter a value to add
space between the table cells.

Graphics
Adding Clip Art
To add a clip art image from the Microsoft library to a document, follow these steps:
• Select Insert>Picture>Clip Art from the menu bar.
• To find an image, click in the white box following Search for clips. Delete the
words "Type one or more words. . ." and enter keywords describing the image
you want to use.
- OR -
Click one of the category icons.
• Click once on the image you want to add to the document and the following
popup menu will appear:
• Insert Clip to add the image to the document.

• Preview Clip to view the image full-size before adding it to the
document. Drag the bottom, right corner of the preview window to
resize the image and click the "x" close button to end the
preview.
• Add Clip to Favorites will add the selected image to your favorites
directory that can be chosen from the Insert ClipArt dialog box.
• Find Similar Clips will retrieve images similar to the one you have
chosen.
• Continue selecting images to add to the document and click the Close button
in the top, right corner of the Insert ClipArt window to stop adding clip art to
the document.
Add An Image from a File
Follow these steps to add a photo or graphic from an existing file:
• Select Insert>Picture>From File on the menu bar.

• Click the down arrow button on the right of the Look in: window to find the
image on your computer.

• Highlight the file name from the list and click the Insert button.
Editing A Graphic
Activate the image you wish to edit by clicking on it once with the mouse. Nine handles
will appear around the graphic. Click and drag these handles to resize the image. The
handles on the corners will resize proportionally while the handles on the straight lines
will stretch the image. More picture effects can be changed using the Picture toolbar.
The Picture toolbar should appear when you click on the image. Otherwise,
select View>Toolbars>Picture from the menu bar to activate it.
• Insert Picture will display the image selection window and allows you to
change the image.
• Image Control allow to make the image grayscale, black and white, or a
watermark.

• More/Less Contrast modifies the contrast between the colors of the image.
• More/Less Brightness will darken or brighten the image.
• Click Crop and drag the handles on the activated image to delete outer
portions of the image.
• Line Style will add a variety of borders to the graphic.
• Text Wrapping will modify the way the document text wraps around the
graphic.
• Format Picture displays all the image properties in a separate window.
• Reset Picture will delete all the modifications made to the image.
Auto Shapes
The AutoShapes toolbar will allow you to draw many different geometrical shapes,
arrows, flow chart symbols, stars, and banners on the document. Activate the AutoShapes
toolbar by selecting Insert>Picture>AutoShapes or View>Toolbars>AutoShapes from the
menu bar, or clicking the AutoShapes button on the Drawing toolbar. Click each button
on the toolbar to view the options for drawing the shape.
• Lines - After clicking the Lines button on the AutoShapes toolbar, draw
a straight line, arrow, or double-ended arrow from the first row of options by
clicking the respective button. Click in the document where you would like
the line to begin and click again where it should end. To draw a curved
line or freeform shape, select curved lines from the menu (first and second
buttons of second row), click in the document where the line should appear,
and click the mouse every time a curve should begin. End creating the graphic
by clicking on the starting end or pressing the ESC key. To scribble, click the
last button in the second row, click the mouse in the document and hold down
the left button while you draw the design. Let go of the mouse button to stop
drawing.
• Basic Shapes - Click the Basic Shapes button on the AutoShapes toolbar to
select from many two- and three-dimensional shapes, icons, braces,

and brackets. Use the drag-and-drop method to draw the shape in the
document. When the shape has been made, it can be resized using the open
box handles and other adjustments specific to each shape can be modified
using the yellow diamond handles.
• Block Arrows - Select Block Arrows to choose from many types of two- and
three-dimensional arrows. Drag-and-drop the arrow in the document and use
the open box and yellow diamond handles to adjust the arrowheads. Each
AutoShape can also be rotated by first clicking the Free Rotate button on the
drawing toolbar . Click and drag the green handles around the image to
rotate it. The tree image below was created from an arrow rotated 90 degrees.
• Flow Chart - Choose from the flow chart menu to add flow chart elements to
the document and use the line menu to draw connections between the
elements.
• Stars and Banners - Click the button to select stars, bursts, banners,
and scrolls.
• Call Outs - Select from the speech and thought bubbles, and line call outs.
Enter the call out text in the text box that is made.
• More AutoShapes - Click this button to choose from a list of clip art
categories.
Each of the submenus on the AutoShapes toolbar can become a separate toolbar. Just
click and drag the gray bar across the top of the submenus off of the toolbar and it will
become a separate floating toolbar.

Spelling and Grammar
AutoCorrect
Word automatically corrects many commonly misspelled words and punctuation marks
with the AutoCorrect feature. To view the list of words that are automatically corrected,
select Tools>AutoCorrect. This may be a hidden feature so click the double arrows at the
bottom of the Tools menu listing if the AutoCorrect choice is not listed.
Many options including the accidental capitalization of the first two letters of a word and
capitalization of the first word of the sentence can be automatically corrected from this
page. If there are words you often misspell, enter the wrong and correct spellings in
the Replace and With fields.

Spelling and Grammar Check
Word will automatically check for spelling and grammar errors as you type unless you
turn this feature off. Spelling errors are noted in the document with a red underline.
Grammar errors are indicated by a green underline. To disable this feature,
select Tools>Options from the menu bar and click the Spelling and Grammar tab on the
dialog box. Uncheck "Check spelling as you type" and "Check grammar as you type",
and click OK.
To use the spelling and grammar checker, follow these steps:
• Select Tools>Spelling and Grammar from the menu bar.

• The Spelling and Grammar dialog box will notify you of the first mistake
in the document and misspelled words will be highlighted in red.
• If the word is spelled correctly, click the Ignore button or click the Ignore
All button if the word appears more than once in the document.
• If the word is spelled incorrectly, choose one of the suggested spellings in
the Suggestions box and click the Change button or Change All button to
correct all occurrences of the word in the document. If the correct spelling
is not suggested, enter the correct spelling in the Not In Dictionary box
and click the Change button.
• If the word is spelled correctly and will appear in many documents you
type (such as your name), click the Add button to add the word to the
dictionary so it will no longer appear as a misspelled word.
As long as the Check Grammar box is checked in the Spelling and Grammar dialog box,
Word will check the grammar of the document in addition to the spelling. If you do not
want the grammar checked, remove the checkmark from this box. Otherwise, follow
these steps for correcting grammar:

• If Word finds a grammar mistake, it will be shown in the box as the

spelling errors. The mistake is highlighted in green text.
• Several suggestions may be given in the Suggestions box. Select the

correction that best applies and click Change.
• If no correction is needed (Word is often wrong more than it is right),
click the Ignore button.
Synonyms
Word 2000 has a new feature for finding synonyms. Simply right-click on the word and
select Synonyms from the shortcut menu. From the list of suggested words, highlight the
word you would like to use or click Thesaurus... for more options.

Thesaurus
To use the thesaurus, select Tools>Language>Thesaurus from the menu bar or select it
from the Synonyms shortcut menu as detailed above.
A list of meanings and synonyms are given on the windows. Double-click on the words
in the Meanings box or click the Look Up button to view similar words. Double-click
words in the Replace with Synonym box to view synonyms of those words. Highlight the
word you would like to add and click the Replace button.

Page Formatting
Page Margins
The page margins of the document can be changed using the rulers on the page and
the Page Setup window. The ruler method is discussed first:
• Move the mouse over the area where the white ruler changes to gray.
• When the cursor becomes a double-ended arrow, click with the mouse and
drag the margin indicator to the desired location.
• Release the mouse when the margin is set.
The margins can also be changed using the Page Setup dialog box:
• Select File>Page Setup and choose the Margins tab in the dialog box.
• Enter margin values in the Top, Bottom, Left, and Right boxes.
The Preview window will reflect the changes.

• If the document has Headers and/or Footers, the distance this text appears
from the edge of the page can be changed.
Page Size and Orientation
Change the orientation page within the Page Setup dialog box.
• Select File>Page Setup and choose the Paper Size tab.
• Select the proper paper size from the drop-down menu.

• Change the orientation from Portrait or Landscape by checking the
corresponding radio button.
Headers and Footers
A header is text that is added to the top margin of every page such as a document title or
page number and footer is text added to the bottom margin. Follow these steps to add or
edit headers and footers in the document:
• Select View>Header and Footer from the menu bar. The Header and
Footer toolbar will appear and the top of the page will be highlighted as
shown below.

• Type the heading in the Header box. You may use many of the standard
text formatting options such as font face, size, bold, italics, etc.
• Click the Insert AutoText button to view a list of quick options available.
• Use the other options on the toolbar to add page numbers, the current date
and time.
• To edit the footer, click the Switch Between Header and Footer button on
the toolbar.
• When you are finished adding headers and footers, click the Close
button on the toolbar.
Page Numbers
Follow these instructions for another way to add page numbers to a document.
• Select Insert>Page Numbers from the menu bar and the following dialog
box will appear.

• Select the position of the page numbers by choosing "Top of page" or

"Bottom of page" from the Position drop-down menu.
• Select the alignment of the page numbers in the Alignment drop-down
menu.
• If you do not want the page number to show on the first page (if it is a title
page, for example), uncheck the Show number of first page box.
Print Preview and Printing
Preview your document by clicking the Print Preview button on the standard toolbar or
by selecting File>Print Preview. When the document is ready to print, click the Print
button from the Print Preview screen or select File>Print.
Macros
Macros are advanced features that can speed up editing or formatting you may perform
often in a Word document. They record sequences of menu selections that you choose so
that a series of actions can be completed in one step.
Recording A Macro
To record a macro, follow these steps:
• Click Tools>Macro>Record New Macro on the menu bar.
• Name the macro in the Macro name field. This name cannot contain
spaces and or begin with a number.
• From the Store macro in drop-down box, select the document you would
like the macro to be associated with or choose "All Documents" be able to
use the macro in any document.

• Enter a description of the macro in the Description field. This is for your
reference only so you remember what the macro does.
• Click OK to begin recording.
• Select options from the drop-down menus and Word will record the
options you choose from the dialog boxes, such as changing the margins
on the Page Setup window. Select only options that modify the document.
Word will not record toggle actions such as View>Toolbars that have no
effect on the document itself.
• The recording toolbar will allow you to stop, pause, and resume recording.
• Click the Stop button the recording toolbar. The macro is now saved.
Running A Macro
To run an existing macro, follow these steps.
• Select Tools>Macro>Macros from the menu bar.

• From the Macros window, highlight the Macro name in the list and
click Run.
• If the macro is long and you want to stop it while it is running,

press BREAK (hold CTRL and press PAUSE).

Table of Contents
Word will automatically create a Table of Contents page if a document is designed using
Heading and Paragraph styles (see the Styles section). Follow the steps on this page to
create a Table of Contents.
Mark Table of Contents Entries
• Highlight a heading that you would like to appear in the Table of Contents
(TOC).
• Press ALT+SHIFT+O and the Mark Table of Contents Entry box will
appear.
• Entry - Rename the entry if you would like a different heading to appear in
the TOC.
• Table identifier - Select "C".
• Level - Choose "1" for first-level heading, "2" for second-level heading,
etc.
• Click the Mark button.
• The document will be toggled to "reveal codes" view and notice the TOC
field code. To hide all codes click the Show/Hide codes button on the
standard toolbar.
• Select another heading to add to the TOC, or click the Close button on
the Mark Table of Contents Entry dialog box.
Generate a Table of Contents
After you have marked all the headings for your TOC, follow these steps to generate the
Table of Contents.
• Place the cursor where you would like the TOC to appear in the document.
• Select Insert>Index and Tables from the menu bar.

• Customize the appearance of the TOC from the Table of Contents tab.
You may choose a preset design from the Formats drop-down menu. A
preview of each design will be shown in the Print Preview window.
• Check the Show page numbers box if you would like page numbers to
show on the TOC. Check the Right align page numbers box if the page
numbers should appear on the right side, then select the Tab
leader between the heading and the page number. Uncheck the box if the
page numbers should appear right next to the heading.
• Click OK.
Web Wizard
Word's Web Page Wizard will help you quickly create web pages for the Internet with
preset layouts and graphics. Follow these steps to create a web page using the wizard.
• Select File>New... from the menu bar.

• Click the Web Pages tab on the New dialog box.

• Highlight the Web Page Wizard icon and click OK.

• Click the Next button on the first Web Page Wizard box.
• Title and Location - Enter a title for your web site and select the location
on your computer where the files will be saved. Click Next when finished.

• Navigation - Select a navigation type for the web page. Separate page is
usually the best choice as it is the easiest to use.
• Add Pages - The next screen will list the pages currently in the web site.
Click the Add New Blank Page button to add a new page, and highlight a
page in the list and click Remove Page to delete pages from the web site.
To add a page that you have already created to the site, click the Add
Existing File... button and select the page you want to add.

Click the Add Template Page... to insert a page with a layout. Highlight
the choices in the Web Page Templates window to preview the template in
the main window. Click OK to select a template.

• Organize Pages - Reorder the pages of the web site. Highlight the name
of the page that will be moved and click the Move Up and Move
Down buttons. Click Rename to rename a page.
• Visual Theme - Select No visual theme for a blank page or select

check Add a visual theme and click Browse Themes... to select a graphical
theme.

From the Themes window, highlight the themes in the list to preview
them. Check the Vivid Colors and Active Graphics boxes to apply those
options. Uncheck the Background Image box to remove the graphic from
the background of the page. Click OK when finished.
• Click Finish to create the web site.
Creating Web Pages
The previous page explained how to create a web page using the Web Page Wizard. This
page describes creating a web page from scratch and adding elements to a page from the
wizard. When working on a web format document, view the page in web layout by
selecting View>Web Layout from the menu bar. Enter text and insert graphics just as you
would in a normal Word document.
Hyperlinks
A hyperlink is a connection between two web pages on the Internet. Hyperlinks can be
produced from text or graphics and both methods will be discussed here. Follow these
steps to create links to other web sites and pages within your site:

• Type the text you want to appear on the page as a link or add the graphic
that will be a link.
• Highlight the text or graphic and click the Insert Hyperlink button on the
standard toolbar or press CTRL+K.
• From the Insert Hyperlink dialog box, change the Text to display if
necessary.
• Type the file or Web page name in the appropriate box or select from list.
• Click OK to create the link.
Saving Web Pages
Pages on the web must be saved in a format called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)
that is readable by web browsers. Word will convert your document to HTML using
the Save as Web Page feature.
• Select File>Save as Web Page from the menu bar.

• Click the Change Title button to add a title to the web page.

• Type the File name in the box provided.

• Be sure the Save as type is set to Web Page.
• Click Save.
Creating a Web Page from a Template
Word features several layout templates that you can add your own content to. Create a
web page from a template by following these steps:
• Select File>New... from the menu bar.

• Click the Web Pages tab on the New dialog box.

• Highlight one of the templates listed and click OK.
• The template will now appear in the main window. Replace the place holding
text with your own text by highlighting it and typing. Replace photos and
images by deleting them and adding new images.
• Save the page by selecting File>Save as Web Page from the menu bar.

Web Page Themes
The Visual Theme feature from the Web Page Wizard can be accessed for any web page.
To add a theme to a blank page or existing page, select Format>Theme... from the menu
bar. Choose a theme from the list and click OK. The page content will remain blank
unless a background image is part of the theme that was selected. The style listings,
default font, and bullet images have been changed to reflect the new theme. To change
the theme of the page, simply select Format>Theme... from the menu bar again and
choose a different theme.
Preview the Web Page
The page may look slightly different when converted to HTML and viewed on the web.
Before publishing your web page, be sure to use Word's web preview feature.
Select File>Web Page Preview to open the page in a web browser.

Keyboard Shortcuts
Keyboard shortcuts can save time and the effort of switching from the keyboard to the
mouse to execute simple commands. Print this list of Word keyboard shortcuts and keep
it by your computer for a quick reference.
Note: A plus sign indicates that the keys need to be pressed at the same time.
Action Keystroke Action Keystroke
Document actions Text Style

Open a file CTRL+O Font face CTRL+SHIFT+F
New file CTRL+N Font size CTRL+SHIFT+P
Close a file CTRL+W Bold CTRL+B
Save As F12 Italics CTRL+I
CTRL+S or Underline CTRL+U
Save
SHIFT+F12 Double underline CTRL+SHIFT+D
Print Preview CTRL+F2 Word underline CTRL+SHIFT+W
Print CTRL+P All caps CTRL+SHIFT+A
Show/Hide paragraph Change case SHIFT+F3
CTRL+*
symbols
Subscript CTRL+=
Spelling and grammar F7
Superscript CTRL+SHIFT+=
Help F1
Make web hyperlink CTRL+K
Find CTRL+F
Replace CTRL+H
Tables
Go To CTRL+G
Go to next cell Tab
Go to previous
Cursor movement SHIFT+Tab
cell
Select all - entire Go to
CTRL+A
document beginning of ALT+PageUp
Select from cursor to column
SHIFT+Home
beginning of line Highlight to
Select from cursor to beginning of ALT+SHIFT+PageUp
SHIFT+END
end of line column
Go to beginning of line HOME Go to end of
ALT+PageDown
Go to end of line END column
Go to beginning of Highlight to
CTRL+Home ALT+SHIFT+PageDown
document end of column
Go to end of document CTRL+End Go to
beginning of ALT+Home
row
Formatting
Highlight to ALT+SHIFT+Home
Cut CTRL+X

Copy CTRL+C beginning of

Paste CTRL+V row
Undo CTRL+Z Go to end of
ALT+End
row
Redo CTRL+Y
Highlight to
Format painter CTRL+SHIFT+C ALT+SHIFT+End
end of row
Left alignment CTRL+L Column break CTRL+SHIFT+Enter
Center alignment CTRL+E
Right alignment CTRL+R Miscellaneous
Justified CTRL+J Copyright symbol - © ALT+CTRL+C
Delete previous word CTRL+Backspace Date field ALT+SHIFT+D
Apply bulleted list CTRL+SHIFT+L Go to footnotes ALT+CTRL+F
Indent CTRL+M Show/Hide ¶ CTRL+SHIFT+8
Page break CTRL+Enter Thesaurus SHIFT+F7
All Shortcuts
This list shows only the most common keyboard shortcuts. To print a list of all the
shortcuts in Word, follow these steps:
• Select Tools>Macro>Macros from the menu bar.

• From the Macros In drop-down menu, select Word Commands.
• Select List Commands from the macro listing.
• Click the Run button.
• Choose Current Menu and Keyboard Settings from the popup window and
click OK.
• Word will automatically open a new document containing a table of
keystrokes. Print the document.

IT TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS – MICROSOFT EXECL
MICROSOFT EXECL
Let us now learn Microsoft Excel application program which is also known as
Spreadsheet package. A spreadsheet is a simple worksheet consisting of rows and
columns in which any data can be entered.
Use of Microsoft Excel : Excel is used for performing calculations, recalculating results
if any data stored in them is changed, creating financial reports, comparing reports etc. A
very useful feature of the spreadsheet is its ability to create groups. It helps you establish
relationship between two or more sets of data and easily understand the trends of data
changes.
The steps to open Excel Package:
1. Click on Start Button
2. Then click on Programs
3. Then click on Office Package
4. Then click on Microsoft Excel
The above steps will open the given below window which is a Excel window.
Title Bar: The top most bar of the Excel Package is called Title Bar which contains
Control Box at the left top most corner. Name of the work book on the Title Bar and also
Minimize, Maximize / Restore and Close button.

Menu Bar: The second bar is the main Menu Bar which generally contains Nine menu
like File, Edit, View, Insert, Format, Tools, Window and Help.
Standard Tool Bar: Generally the third toolbar of the window is Standard Tool Bar
which contains the frequently used menu controls Short cuts like New, Open, Save, Print
etc.
Formatting Tool Bar: Generally the fourth tool bar is the Formatting Tool Bar which
contains the Shortcuts frequently used in formatting like Style, Size, Bold, Italic,
Underline etc.
Formula Bar: Generally the fifth bar is the formula bar which contains a blank box
prefixed with “=” sign. It is the one of the main feature in the Excel. It can help us to
write formula or text in a cell.
Name Box: A rectangular shaped box in the left side of the Formula Bar is called Name
Box. It contains the name of the currently selected cell.
Environment of Excel Workbook (Document Window)

The Document window displays current workbook. The Document window includes
following elements:
1. Title Bar: The Title Bar is the top most bar located on the document window
which displays the name of the workbook name as default Microsoft Excel –
Book 1. Files in excel are called workbook and .XLS its default extension.
2. Sheet Tab: A tab near the bottom of a workbook window that displays the name
of a sheet. By default Sheet 1 is activated but clicking the sheet tab to make other
sheet active. By Default a Workbook contains Three (3) worksheet.
3. Scroll Bar: Scroll Bars, being of two types : Vertical and Horizontal are the
shaded bars along the right side and at bottom of a window respectively. To scroll
through another part of the file, drag the box or click the arrows in the scroll bar.
4. Row Headings: Each and every worksheet is a large area consisting of 65536
Rows. They are denoted in numeric like 1,2,3 to a maximum of 65536. and 256
Columns.
5. Column Headings: Each and every worksheet is a large area consisting of 256
Columns. They are denoted by alphabetical letters A to IV.
6. Cell: The intersection of each row and column is called a CELL. An active cell
displays the current position of the insertion point.
7. Name Box: Name box displays the current cell address.

Performing Operations through Menus

A menu is a list of related options that help you perform operations on the data in your
workbook. These options are arranged horizontally, just below the Title bar in the form of
a bar which is called the MENU Bar.
Through the Menu Bar options, you can perform operations like changing the width of a
column, formatting the numbers, erasing a list of cells, copying and retrieving files and
so on. Given below is a brief description of the types of work you can accomplish with
some of the Menu Bar options.
File: Helps in creating a new file; opening an existing file; setting up margins of the
worksheet; saving; printing or closing a particular file after the work has been done and
quitting Microsoft Excel. The file menu can be activated by pressing Alt+F key together
form key board.
Edit: Helps in cutting or copying or deleting a range of text, pasting the text which has
been cut or copied from different location, erasing an entire sheet and quickly moving
any sheet. The Edit menu can be activated by pressing Alt+E key together form key
board.
View: View contains sub-menus related with different displays of document in different
lay-outs. Alt +V is its shortcut.
Insert: Helps in inserting rows or columns in a worksheet and insert worksheet in a work
book. The Insert menu can be activated by pressing Alt+I key together form key board.
Format: Helps in changing the font style or size of a selected range of text, changing the
width of a particular row or a particular column. Alt+O is used as its shortcut.
Tools: Helps in checking any spelling errors in your current sheet, automatically saves
your file on a regular basis, protects your sheet, customizes your sheet according to your
specification etc. Alt+T is used for activating this menu from the keyboard.
Data: Helps you in sorting data in an ascending or a descending order, filtering data,
adding validations, summarizing data etc. Its shortcut is Alt+D.
Window: Window presents sub-menus for operation and control of different windows of
Excel. Alt+W is used to open this menu.
Help: Help provides the sub-menus pertaining to assistance in Excel. Alt+H or

F1can used for its shortcut.

Creating a new file / workbook

To creating a new document do the following things:
• Select New from File menu. Alternatively , you can click New button
on the standard tool bar or simply press Ctrl + N together from
Keyboard. By doing any of the above leads to opening a New dialog
box shown below :
• Select work book from New dialog box.

• Click OK.
Saving a File or Workbook
After opening a new document and do some work you wish it must be saved so that it can
be retrieved any moment you need it. To save your document do the following
• Select Save from file menu alternatively click Save from Standard tool bar or
Press Ctrl+S together from the key board. When you do any one of the above
a dialog box will appear shown below

• Save in : Save in lets you select folder or drive name that will keep your file
stored.
• File name: Name of the file is typed.
• Save as Type: Select the nature of file here. Select the option as required and
click save.
Opening a File:
If you want to open an Existing file just do the following and you will open it :
• Click file menu and select Open, or Press Ctrl+O together from keyboard, or
select Open
button on the standard toolbar. After that open dialog box appear as given below :
• Locate the drive and folder that contains the file you want to open.
• Then, click the right file.
• Then, click OPEN.
Entering Text or Number into a Cell :
• Select the Cell.
• Type the Text
• Press Enter Key
Note: Numeric data can be entered into the same way.

Entering Formula:
• Select the cell
• Press equal to (=) sign from keyboard
• Type the formula
• Press Enter Key
Note : Entering data into a cell is also be seen on formula bar.
Selecting a range of cells:

To select a range of cells, do the following :
Position the mouse pointer on the cell where you start the range from.
Click the mouse and drag to the last cell of the range.
To select entire column or row, click the heading of column or row respectively.
Editing the cell content
Once you type data in a cell, you can edit it any moment you wish. To edit the cell
content do this:
Select the cell you want to edit
Press F2 key or double click inside the cell.
Make changes as required and then press Enter.
Moving the cell content:
Data and formula can be moved into two ways: Drag and drop method and the method of
menu bar.
To move the cell contents using drag and drop method, do the following:
Select the range of cells or cell you want to move.
Point the mouse pointer to the selection border.
When the pointer changes to an arrow, click and drag to the new location as
needed.
Release the mouse button.
To move data using menubar do the following :
Select the range of cells or cell you want to move.
Click the Edit menu and select Cut or click cut icon to the standard tool bar or
press Ctrl+X from the keyboard.
Then, click the cell you want to copy the contents to.
Then, click Edit and select Paste or click Paste icon on the standard tool bar or
press Ctrl+V from the key board.
Copying the cell content:

The copy of the cell content also done by the above mentioned two methods.
To copy the cell contents, using drag and drop method do the following:
Select the range of cells or cell you want to copy.

Hold down the Ctrl key and move the pointer over an edge of the selection. The
pointer becomes an arrow with a plus(+) sign.
Continue holding down Ctrl key as you drag the edge of the selection to where
you want the key.
To copy cell contents, using menu bar, do this –
Select the cell or group of cells you want to copy contents from.
Click Edit and select Copy. Or click Copy icon on the Standard tool bar or press
Ctrl+C.
Now click the cell where you want to copy the contents to.
Click Edit and select Paste. Or Click Paste icon on standard toolbar or press
Ctrl+V together from the keyboard. You can paste the information at as many
places as you wish using this.
Deleting the cell content:
You can delete the text, number, formula or any kind of data as desired. For that, do the
following:
Select the cell or a range of cells.
Press Del key from key board.
Undo or canceling the previous options:
• Click Edit and select Undo or, click Undo icon on standard toolbar or press
Ctrl+Z together. You can undo several past actions until it is saved.
Redo or repeating the previous actions:
• Click Edit and select Redo or Repeat or click Redo on standard toolbar or press
Ctrl+Y together from keyboard.
Setting Cell or Column width with menu bar:
Select the cell or column you want to change the width.
Click Format menu and Point to column.
Then select width.
Type size as required.
Press OK.
Aligning Cell Content:
For Left alignment: First select the cell and the click on formatting toolbar Left
align button.
For Right alignment: First select the cell and then click on Formatting toolbar
Right align button.
For Centre alignment: First select the cell and then click on Formatting toolbar
Centre align button.
Note : For text Font size, color, style you click the appropriate option from Formatting
toolbar.
Chart option from Insert menu:
Chart is a graphical presentation of numerical data. Range of data pertaining to number is
called Data Series. Each value of Data Series is called Data point. Data series can be put
into columns and rows in Excel.
For creating a chart we do the following steps in Excel :
• First enter data series in a excel sheet.

• Select all the data series with their field name.

• Then select Chart option from Insert menu. It will appear chart wizard screen :
• Then select a chart type and select chart sub-type and then press next and it will
open the chart wizard window with step 2 of 4 options and click the next button.
• After open the window step 3 of 4 options Chart Option select desired option
from desired tab and then click next.
• At the last chart option you can choose any one option between As Object in or
As new sheet and then click finish.
The above option will create your desired chart.
To Sort data series in excel you do the following:
• First create data series and select it.
• Then select sort option from Data menu it will open a dialog box and select.
• Then select sort by Ascending and descending as you desired and click ok.
The above options will help you to Sort you records in ascending or descending order.

Recording A Macro
Macros can speed up any common editing sequence you may execute in an Excel
spreadsheet. In this example we will make a simple macro that will set all the margins on
the page to one inch.
Click Tools>Macro>Record New Macro from the menu bar.
• Name the macro in the Macro name field. The name cannot contain spaces and
must not begin with a number.
• If you would like to assign a shortcut key to the macro for easy use, enter the
letter under Shortcut key. Enter a lower case letter to make a CTRL+number
shortcut and enter an upper case letter to assign a CTRL+SHIFT+number shortcut
key. If you select a shortcut key that Excel already uses, your macro will
overwrite that function.
• Select an option from the Store macro in drop-down menu.
• Enter a description of the macro in the Description field. This is for your
reference only so you remember what the macro does.
• Click OK when you are ready to start recording.
• Select options from the drop down menus and Excel will record the options you
choose from the dialog boxes, such as changing the margins on the Page Setup
window. Select File>Page Setup and change all the margins to 1". Press OK.
Replace this step with whatever commands you want your macro to execute.
Select only options that modify the worksheet. Toggle actions such
as View>Toolbars that have no effect on the worksheet will not be recorded.
• Click the Stop button the recording toolbar. The macro is now saved.

Running A Macro
• To run a macro you have created, select Tools>Macro>Macros from the menu bar.
• From the Macros window, highlight the Macro name in the list and click Run.
• If the macro is long and you want to stop it while it is running,

press BREAK (hold CTRL and press PAUSE).
Format Cells Dialog Box

For a complete list of formatting options, right-click on the highlighted cells and
choose Format Cells from the shortcut menu or select Format>Cells from the menu bar.

• Number tab - The data type can be selected from the options on this tab.
Select General if the cell contains text and number, or another numerical category
if the cell is a number that will be included in functions or formulas.
• Alignment tab - These options allow you to change the position and alignment of
the data with the cell.
• Font tab - All of the font attributes are displayed in this tab including font face,
size, style, and effects.
• Border and Pattern tabs - These tabs allow you to add borders, shading, and
background colors to a cell.
Dates and Times

If you enter the date "January 1, 2001" into a cell on the worksheet, Excel will
automatically recognize the text as a date and change the format to "1-Jan-01". To change
the date format, select the Number tab from the Format Cells window. Select "Date" from
the Category box and choose the format for the date from the Type box. If the field is a
time, select "Time" from the Category box and select the type in the right box. Date and
time combinations are also listed. Press OK when finished.
Styles
The use of styles in Excel allow you to quickly format your worksheet, provide
consistency, and create a professional look. Select the Styles drop-down box from the
formatting toolbar (it can be added by customizing the toolbar). Excel provides several
preset styles:

• Comma - Adds commas to the number and two digits beyond a decimal point.
• Currency - Formats the number as currency with a dollar sign, commas, and two
digits beyond the decimal point.
• Normal - Reverts any changes to general number format.
• Percent - Changes the number to a percent and adds a percent sign.
Style Dialog Box

Create your own styles from the Style Dialog Box.
• Highlight the cell(s) you want to add a style to.
• Select Format|Style... from the menu bar.
• Modify the attributes by clicking the Modify button.

• Check all the items under Style includes that the style should format.
• Click Add to preview the formatting changes on the worksheet.
• Highlight the style you want to apply to the paragraph and click Apply.
Create a New Style
• Select the cell on the worksheet containing the formatting you would like to set as
a new style.

• Click the Style box on the Formatting toolbar so the style name is highlighted.
• Delete the text in the Style box and type the name of the new style.
• Press ENTER when finished.
Moving Through Cells
Use the mouse to select a cell you want to begin adding data to and use the keyboard
strokes listed in the table below to move through the cells of a worksheet.
Movement Key stroke

One cell up up arrow key
One cell down down arrow key or ENTER
One cell left left arrow key
One cell right right arrow key or TAB
Top of the worksheet (cell A1) CTRL+HOME
End of the worksheet (last cell containing
CTRL+END
data)
End of the row CTRL+right arrow key
End of the column CTRL+down arrow key
Any cell File|Go To menu bar command
Adding Worksheets, Rows, and Columns
• Worksheets - Add a worksheet to a workbook by electing Insert>Worksheet from

the menu bar.
• Row - To add a row to a worksheet, select Insert>Rows from the menu bar, or
highlight the row by clicking on the row label, right-click with the mouse, and
choose Insert.
• Column - Add a column by selecting Insert>Columns from the menu bar, or
highlight the column by click on the column label, right-click with the mouse, and
choose Insert.

Resizing Rows and Columns
There are two ways to resize rows and columns.
• Resize a row by dragging the line below the label of the row you would like to
resize. Resize a column in a similar manner by dragging the line to the right of the
label corresponding to the column you want to resize.
- OR –
• Click the row or column label and select Format>Row>Height or
Format>Column>Width from the menu bar to enter a numerical value for the
height of the row or width of the column.
Selecting Cells
Before a cell can be modified or formatted, it must first be selected (highlighted). Refer
to the table below for selecting groups of cells.
Cells to select Mouse action
One cell click once in the cell
Entire row click the row label
Entire column click the column label
Entire worksheet click the whole sheet button
drag mouse over the cells or hold down the SHIFT key while using the
Cluster of cells
arrow keys
To activate the contents of a cell, double-click on the cell or click once and press F2.
Moving and Copying Cells
Moving Cells
To cut cell contents that will be moved to another cell select Edit>Cut from the menu bar
or click the Cut button on the standard toolbar.
Copying Cells
To copy the cell contents, select Edit>Copy from the menu bar or click the Copy button
on the standard toolbar.

Pasting Cut and Copied Cells
Highlight the cell you want to paste the cut or copied content into and
select Edit>Paste from the menu bar or click the Paste button on the standard toolbar.
Drag and Drop
If you are moving the cell contents only a short distance, the drag-and-drop method may
be easier. Simply drag the highlighted border of the selected cell to the destination cell
with the mouse.
Freeze Panes
If you have a large worksheet with column and row headings, those headings will
disappear as the worksheet is scrolled. By using the Freeze Panes feature, the headings
can be visible at all times.
• Click the label of the row below the row that should remain frozen at the top of
the worksheet.
• Select Window>Freeze Panes from the menu bar.
• To remove the frozen panes, select Window>Unfreeze Panes.
Freeze panes has been added to row 1 in the image above. Notice that the row
numbers skip from 1 to 6. As the worksheet is scrolled, row 1 will remain
stationary while the remaining rows will move.
AutoFormat
Excel has many preset table formatting options. Add these styles by following these steps:

• Highlight the cells that will be formatted.
• Select Format>AutoFormat from the menu bar.

• On the AutoFormat dialog box, select the format you want to apply to the table by
clicking on it with the mouse. Use the scroll bar to view all of the formats
available.
• Click the Options... button to select the elements that the formatting will apply to.
Formulas
Formulas are entered in the worksheet cell and must begin with an equal sign "=". The
formula then includes the addresses of the cells whose values will be manipulated with
appropriate operands placed in between. After the formula is typed into the cell, the
calculation executes immediately and the formula itself is visible in the formula bar. See
the example below to view the formula for calculating the sub total for a number of
textbooks. The formula multiplies the quantity and price of each textbook and adds the
subtotal for each book.

Linking Worksheets
You may want to use the value from a cell in another worksheet within the same
workbook in a formula. For example, the value of cell A1 in the current worksheet and
cell A2 in the second worksheet can be added using the format "sheetname!celladdress".
The formula for this example would be "=A1+Sheet2!A2" where the value of cell A1 in
the current worksheet is added to the value of cell A2 in the worksheet named "Sheet2".
Relative, Absolute, and Mixed Referencing
Calling cells by just their column and row labels (such as "A1") is called relative
referencing. When a formula contains relative referencing and it is copied from one cell
to another, Excel does not create an exact copy of the formula. It will change cell
addresses relative to the row and column they are moved to. For example, if a simple
addition formula in cell C1 "=(A1+B1)" is copied to cell C2, the formula would change
to "=(A2+B2)" to reflect the new row. To prevent this change, cells must be called
by absolute referencingand this is accomplished by placing dollar signs "$" within the
cell addresses in the formula. Continuing the previous example, the formula in cell C1
would read "=($A$1+$B$1)" if the value of cell C2 should be the sum of cells A1 and B1.
Both the column and row of both cells are absolute and will not change when copied.
Mixed referencing can also be used where only the row OR column fixed. For example,
in the formula "=(A$1+$B2)", the row of cell A1 is fixed and the column of cell B2 is
fixed.

Basic Functions
Functions can be a more efficient way of performing mathematical operations than

formulas. For example, if you wanted to add the values of cells D1 through D10, you
would type the formula "=D1+D2+D3+D4+D5+D6+D7+D8+D9+D10". A shorter way
would be to use the SUM function and simply type "=SUM(D1:D10)". Several other
functions and examples are given in the table below:
Function Example Description

SUM =SUM(A1:100) finds the sum of cells A1 through A100
AVERAGE =AVERAGE(B1:B10) finds the average of cells B1 through B10
MAX =MAX(C1:C100) returns the highest number from cells C1 through C100
MIN =MIN(D1:D100) returns the lowest number from cells D1 through D100
SQRT =SQRT(D10) finds the square root of the value in cell D10
TODAY =TODAY() returns the current date (leave the parentheses empty)
Function Wizard
View all functions available in Excel by using the Function Wizard.
• Activate the cell where the function will be placed and click the Function
Wizard button on the standard toolbar.
• From the Paste Function dialog box, browse through the functions by clicking in
the Function category menu on the left and select the function from the Function
name choices on the right. As each function name is highlighted a description and
example of use is provided below the two boxes.
• Click OK to select a function.

• The next window allows you to choose the cells that will be included in the
function. In the example below, cells B4 and C4 were automatically selected for
the sum function by Excel. The cell values {2, 3} are located to the right of
the Number 1 field where the cell addresses are listed. If another set of cells, such
as B5 and C5, needed to be added to the function, those cells would be added in
the format "B5:C5" to the Number 2 field.
• Click OK when all the cells for the function have been selected.
Autosum
Use the Autosum function to add the contents of a cluster of adjacent cells.
• Select the cell that the sum will appear in that is outside the cluster of cells whose
values will be added. Cell C2 was used in this example.
• Click the Autosum button (Greek letter sigma) on the standard toolbar.
• Highlight the group of cells that will be summed (cells A2 through B2 in this
example).
• Press the ENTER key on the keyboard or click the green check mark button on
the formula bar
Page Properties and Printing
Page Breaks
To set page breaks within the worksheet, select the row you want to appear just below the
page break by clicking the row's label. Then choose Insert>Page Break from the menu

bar. You may need to click the double down arrow at the bottom of the menu list to view
this option.
Page Setup
Select File>Page Setup from the menu bar to format the page, set margins, and add
headers and footers.
• Page
Select the Orientation under the Page tab in the Page Setup window to make
the page Landscape or Portrait. The size of the worksheet on the page can also
be formatting under Scaling. To force a worksheet to print only one page wide
so all the columns appear on the same page, select Fit to 1 page(s) wide.
• Margins
Change the top, bottom, left, and right margins under the Margins tab. Enter
values in the header and footer fields to indicate how far from the edge of the
page this text should appear. Check the boxes for centering horizontally or
vertically on the page.

• Header/Footer
Add preset headers and footers to the page by clicking the drop-down menus
under the Header/Footer tab.

To modify a preset header or footer, or to make your own, click the Custom
Header and Custom Footer buttons. A new window will open allowing you to
enter text in the left, center, or right on the page.
• Format Text - Click this button after highlighting t he text to change the
font, size, and style.
• Page Number - Insert the page number of each page.
• Total Number of Pages - Use this feature along with the page number to
create strings such as "page 1 of 15".
• Date - Add the current date.
• Time - Add the current time.
• File Name - Add the name of the workbook file.
• Tab Name - Add the name of the worksheet's tab.
Sheet
Check Gridlines if you want the gridlines dividing the cells to be printed on the page.
If the worksheet is several pages long and only the first page includes titles for the
columns, select Rows to repeat at top to choose a title row that will be printed at the
top of each page.

Print Preview
Select File>Print Preview from the menu bar to view how the worksheet will print.
Click the Next and Previous buttons at the top of the window to display the pages and
click the Zoom button to view the pages closer. Make page layout modifications
needed by clicking the Page Setup button. Click Close to return to the worksheet
or Print to continue printing.
Print
To print the worksheet, select File>Print from the menu bar.
• Print Range - Select either all pages or a range of pages to print.

• Print What - Select selection of cells highlighted on the worksheet, the active
worksheet, or all the worksheets in the entire workbook.
• Copies - Choose the number of copies that should be printed. Check
the Collate box if the pages should remain in order.
Click OK to print.

Keyboard Shortcuts
mouse to execute simple commands. Print this list of Excel keyboard shortcuts and keep
it by your computer for a quick reference.
Document actions Selecting Cells

Open a file CTRL+O SHIFT+left
All cells left of current cell
New file CTRL+N arrow
Save As F12 SHIFT+right

All cells right of current cell
arrow
Save CTRL+S
Entire column CTRL+Spacebar
Print CTRL+P
Entire row SHIFT+Spacebar
Find CTRL+F
Entire worksheet CTRL+A
Replace CTRL+H
Go to F5
Text Style
Bold CTRL+B
Cursor Movement
Italics CTRL+I
One cell up up arrow
Underline CTRL+U
One cell down down arrow
Strikethrough CTRL+5
One cell right Tab
One cell left SHIFT+Tab
Formatting
Top of worksheet (cell A1) CTRL+Home
Edit active cell F2
End of worksheet
CTRL+End Format as currency with 2
(last cell with data) SHIFT+CTRL+$
decimal places
End of row Home
Format as percent with no
End of column CTRL+left arrow SHIFT+CTRL+%
decimal places
Move to next worksheet CTRL+PageDown Cut CTRL+X
Copy CTRL+C
Formulas Paste CTRL+V
Apply AutoSum ALT+= Undo CTRL+Z
Current date CTRL+; Redo CTRL+Y
Current time CTRL+: Format cells dialog box CTRL+1
Spelling F7
Help F1
Macros ALT+F8

IT TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS – MICROSOFT POWER POINT
Microsoft Power Point

Introduction: PowerPoint is a component of Microsoft Office Package which is used to
create presentation on screen, transparency, 35 mm slides, photo print etc. Let us now
learn Microsoft Power Point Excel application program which is also known as
Spreadsheet package. A spreadsheet is a simple worksheet consisting of rows and
columns in which any data can be entered.
The steps to open Power Point:
5. Click on Start Button
6. Then click on Programs
7. Then click on Office Package
8. Then click on Microsoft Power Point
The above steps will open the given below window which is a Power Point window.
AutoContent Wizard
The AutoContent Wizard provides templates and ideas for a variety of presentation types.
Page through the wizard by clicking the Next button on the bottom of each page after
making necessary choices.

Design Template
Power Point provides many templates with different backgrounds and text formatting to
begin your presentation. Preview each design by highlighting the template name on the
list. Press OK after you have chosen the design.

Blank Presentation
Select Blank Presentation to build the presentation from scratch with no preset graphics
or formatting.
Open an Existing Presentation

Select this option to open a Power Point presentation that already exists. Select the folder
the file is located in from the Look in: drop-down menu and highlight the file on the list.
Click Open to open the presentation.
AutoLayout
After selecting the presentation type, you will be prompted to choose the layout of the
new slide. These layouts include bulleted lists, graphs, and/or images. Click on each
thumbnail image and a description will be printed in the message box. Highlight the
layout you want and click OK.

Screen Layout
The Power Point screen layout in Normal View:

Views
Power Point gives you four screen layouts for constructing your presentation in addition
to the Slide Show. You can select the page view by clicking the buttons just above the
formatting toolbar and the bottom of the page.
Normal View Slide View

This screen is split into three sections showing The slide view displays each slide on the
the presentation outline on the left, the slide in screen and is helpful for adding images,
the main window, and notes at the bottom. formatting text, and adding background styles.
Outline View Slide Sorter View

The presentation outline is displayed on the A small image of each slide is displayed in
majority of the screen with small windows for Slide Sorter view. Slides can easily be ordered
the slide and notes. This view is recommended and sorted from this screen.
for editing text.
Click the Slide Show button to view the full-screen slide show.

Insert a New Slide
Follow these steps to insert a new slide into the presentation:

• In the Outline window, select the slide you want the new slide to appear after by
clicking the slide's number.
• Select Insert>New Slide from the menu bar or click the new slide button on the
standard toolbar.
• Choose the page layout from the window and press OK.
Applying a Design Template

To add a design template or changing the existing one, selection Format>Design
Template from the menu bar. Select the template and click Apply.
Changing Slide Layouts

To change the layout template of the slide select Format>Slide Layout from the menu
bar. Select one of the layout thumbnail images and click Apply.
Reordering Slides
To reorder a slide in Slide Sorter View, simply click on the slide you wish to move and
drag it to the new location. In Normal or Outline View, click the slide icon beside
the number of the slide you want to move and drag the icon to a new location.
Hide Slides
If you do not want a slide to appear during the slide show, but do not want to delete the
slide as it may be used later, the slide can be hidden by selecting Slide Show>Hide
Slide from the menu bar. To add the slide back to the slide show, select Slide Show>Hide
Slide again.

Create a Custom Slide Show
The Custom Slide Show feature allows you to select the slides you want to display in the
slide show if not all the slides should be used.
• Select Slide Show>Custom Slide Show from the menu bar.
• Click the New... button in the Custom Shows window.

• In the Define Custom Show window, type a name for the slide in the Slide show
name field.
• Add slides to the custom show by highlighting them in the Slides in

presentation window and clicking the Add >> button. Those slides will then
appear in the Slides in custom show window.
• To remove slides from the custom show, highlight their names in the Slides in
custom show window and click the Remove button.
• To reorder slides in the custom show, highlight the slide that should be moved
and click the up and down arrows to change its order in the show.
• Click the Show button on the Custom Shows window to preview the custom slide
show and click Close to exit.

Edit a Custom Slide Show
• Select Slide Show>Custom Slide Show from the menu bar.

• Edit the show by highlighting the name in the Custom shows box and clicking
the Edit... button.
• To delete a show, highlight the name and click Remove.
• Create a copy of a show by clicking the Copy button. The copy can then be
renamed by clicking the Edit... button.
• Click the Show button to preview the custom slide show and click Close to exit.
Bulleted Lists on Design Templates
Bulleted lists allow you to clearly display the main points of your presentation on slides.
The text boxes on design templates already include bulleted lists. Click the place holder
on the slide to begin adding text and press the ENTER key to return to the next line and
add a new bulleted item. To go to the next line without adding another bullet, hold down
the SHIFT key while pressing ENTER.
Bulleted List from a Text Box

If you are not creating a bulleted list from an existing placeholder on a design template,
or if you would like to add an additional bulleted list, follow these steps to create a new
list:
• In slide view, create a text box by selecting Insert>Text Box from the menu bar.
• "Draw" the text box on the slide by holding down the left mouse button while you
move the mouse until the box is the size you want it.

• Choose Format>Bullets and Numbering from the menu bar.
• Change the Size of the bullet by changing the percentage in relation to the text.
• Choose a color for the bullet from the Color menu. Click More Colors for a larger
selection.
• Select one of the seven bullet types shown and click OK.
-OR-
Click the Picture button to view the Picture Bullet window. Select one of the
bullets and click OK.
-OR –
Click the Character button to select any character from the fonts on the computer.
Select a symbol font such as Wingdings or Webdings from the Bullets from drop-
down menu for the best selection of icons. Click on the characters in the grid to
see them larger. Click OK when you have chosen the bullet you want to use.

• Click OK on the Bullets and Numbering window and use the same methods
described in the "Bulleted Lists on Design Templates" to enter text into the
bulleted list.
Bulleted Lists and New Slides from an Outline
In Normal or Outline view, text can easily be entered in the outline window and new
slides are automatically added. Follow the steps below to become familiar with adding
slide content in outline view:
• Next to the Slide 1 icon, type the title of the slide. The text you type beside the
slide icons will be the large-type titles on each slide.
• Press ENTER to type the next line. This will automatically create a new slide. To
create a bulleted list for the first slide, press the TAB key or click
the demote button on the More Buttons menu accessible by clicking the "triple
arrow" button at the end of the formatting toolbar .
- OR -
Press ALT+SHIFT+Right Arrow to demote the selection to a bulleted list item.
• Continue entering text for the bulleted list, pressing ENTER at the end of each
line to create a new bullet.
• Create a multilevel list by executing the demote action again to create a bulleted
sublist. Press the promote button on the More Buttons menu or
press ALT+SHIFT+Left Arrow to return to the original list.
• Create a new slide by executing the promote action until a new slide icon appears.
• Continue creating new slides and bulleted lists by using the demote and promote
actions until the presentation is completed. Use the formatting instructions below
to format the lists.
If there is more than one bulleted list on the slide, the lists will be designated by numbers
enclosed in black boxes. The example below shows the slide created from the outline on
the left. The bulleted list on the left side of the slide is labeled list "1" on the outline and
the list on the right is labeled list "2". When typing the outline, begin typing in the new
list by pressing CTRL+ENTER. In this example, CTRL+ENTER was pressed after
typing "Access".
Numbered List
Follow these steps to create a numbered list:
• Create a text box.

• With the text box selected, choose Format>Bullets and Numbering from the menu
bar.
• Click the Numbered tab at the top of the Bullets and Numbering window.
• Change the size of the numbers by changing the percentage in relation to the text.
• Choose a color for the numbers from the Color menu. Click More Colors for a
larger selection.
• Change the Start at value if the numbers should not begin with 1.
• Select one of the seven list types shown and click OK.
Resizing a Text Box
Select a text box by clicking on it with the mouse. A border with nine handles will appear
around the text box. The four handles on the corners will resize the length and the width
of the box at once while the handles on the sides will resize only in one direction. Click
one of the handles and drag it with the mouse. Release the mouse button when it is the
size you want it to be. Move the text box by clicking and dragging the thick, dotted
border with the mouse.
Text Box Properties

Change the colors, borders, and backgrounds of a text box from the Format
AutoShape dialog box.
• Activate the textbox by clicking on it and select Format>Colors and Lines from
the menu bar.
• Under the Colors and Lines tab, select a Fill color that will fill the background of
the text box. Check the Semitransparent box if you want the slide background to
show through the color.
• Select a Line color that will surround the box as well as a Style or Weight for the
thickness of the line and a Dashed property if the line should not be solid.

• Click the Text Box tab.
• Change the Text anchor point to reposition the text within the text box.
• Set Internal margins to the distance the text should be to the text box edges.
• Click OK to add the changes to the text box.
Delete a Text Box

To delete a text box from a template, simply click the border of the text box and press
the DELETE key on the keyboard.
Adding Notes
From Normal View, notes can be added to the slide. These notes will not be seen on your
presentation, but they can be printed out on paper along with the slide the notes refer to
by selecting Print What: Notes Pages on the Print menu.

Video
To add a video to your presentation select Insert>Movies and Sounds>Movie from File or
to insert an animation from Microsoft's gallery choose Insert>Movies and Sounds>Movie
from Gallery. Select the video file and click OK.
Audio
To add sound to your presentation select Insert>Movies and Sounds>Sound from
Gallery or Sound from File. Select a sound file and click OK.
Adding Text
If the slide layout includes text boxes, simply click on the text box to add text. To add a
text box to the slide, select Insert>Text Box from the menu bar and draw the text box
with the mouse. Set text editing options by selecting Tools>Options from the menu bar
and clicking the Edit tab.
Formatting Text
Select the text that will be formatted by highlighting the text either on the outline or on
the slide. Choose Format>Font from the menu bar or right-click on the highlighted
selection and select Font from the popup shortcut menu or. Select a font face, size, style,
effect, and color from the Font dialog box. Click the Preview button to see how the
changes will appear on the slide before making a decision.

Replace Fonts
Design templates have a preset font that you may want to change or you may want to
change the font used on for the entire presentation for a number of reasons. This can be
accomplished quickly using the Replace Fonts feature. Select Format>Replace Font from
the menu bar. Choose the font you want to Replace from the first drop-down menu and
the font it should be replaced With from the second menu, and click the Replace button.
Line Spacing
Change the amount of space between lines in a text box by selecting Format>Line
Spacing from the menu bar.
• Line spacing - Select the amount of vertical space between lines. A value of "1"
is equal to single spacing and "2" is double spacing. Values between and above
these numbers are valid as well.
• Before paragraph and After paragraph - This value will determine the amount
of vertical space before and after each paragraph in a text box.
Change Case
Change the case of the characters in a paragraph by selecting Format>Change Case from
the menu bar without having to retype the text.

• Sentence case - Capitalizes the first letter of the first word in each sentence.
• Lowercase and Uppercase - Changes the case of all the letters.
• Title case - Capitalizes the first letter of every word and reduces the rest to
lowercase.
• Toggle case - The opposite of Title case, it makes the first letter of every word
lowercase and capitalizes the remaining letters.
Spell Check
Correct the spelling in the presentation by selecting Tools>Spelling from the menu bar or
by pressing the F7key on the keyboard.
• The spell checker will prompt you to make corrections of the first word that is
spelled wrong.
• If the word is spelled correctly, click Ignore or Ignore All if the same word
appears several times during the presentation. If this word will appear in many
presentations (such as your name), click Add to add the word to the dictionary
and you won't be prompted by a misspelling again.
• If the word is spelled wrong, highlight one of the Suggestions or type your own
revision in the Change to box. Click Change to correct this occurrence of the
word or Change All to correct all occurrences of the word in the presentation.
• Click Close to abort the spelling check early.

• When the spell checker has read through the entire presentation, you will be
prompted by a window telling you that the spelling check is complete. Click OK.
Spelling Options
Select Tools>Options from the menu bar and click the Spelling and Style tab.
• Check spelling as you type - If this box is checked, Power Point will check the
spelling of every word as you type. Misspelled words will be underlined with
wavy red lines.
• Hide spelling errors in this document - Check this box to remove the wavy red
lines from words that are spelled wrong.
• Always suggest corrections - If this box is checked, suggestions for misspelled
words will appear when you activate the spell checker.
• Ignore words in UPPERCASE - Power Point recommends that you don't type
slide titles in all uppercase letters so it will treat words like this and other all-
uppercase acronyms as misspelled. Check this box to ignore this suggestion and
acronyms that are typically typed in all caps.

• Ignore words with numbers - Check to ignore words that are combinations of
letters and numbers.
The colors of pre-designed slide templates can be changed and a color scheme can be
added to blank presentations. This page explains how to add color schemes and
background images to slides.
Color Schemes
• Select Format>Slide Color Scheme from the menu bar.
• Click one of the preset color scheme thumbnail images in the Color schemes box.
• Click the Preview button to see how the scheme will appear on the slide.

• To make changes to the color scheme, click the Custom tab on the dialog box.
• Change the colors of the slide elements by selecting the color swatch beside the
name of the element and clicking the Change color button.
• Highlight one of the colors from the Text and Line Color window or select
the Custom tab to view more color choices and click OK when finished.
• When you have finished all color formatting, click Apply to All to apply the color
scheme to all the slides in the presentation or Apply to add the scheme only to the
current slide.

Backgrounds
Follow these steps to add background colors and patterns to a slide:
• Select Format>Background from the menu bar.
• Select a color from the drop-down menu below the Background fill preview or
choose More Colors...for a larger selection.
• Select Fill Effects from the drop-down menu to add gradients, texture, patterns, or
a picture to the background.

Gradient tab
• Select One color if the color chosen will fade into the background and select the
color from the Color 1 drop-down menu. Choose Two colors if the gradient will
use two colors and select those colors from the Color 1 and Color 2 drop-down
menus. Preset provides a selection of color combinations. Select one from
the Preset colors drop-down menu.
• Select the type of gradient from Shading styles.
• Click one of the four Variants of the styles chosen.
Texture tab
From the Texture window, select a repeating background by scrolling through the
thumbnail images or click Other Texture... to select an image from a file.

Pattern tab
Select a two-tone pattern by clicking one of the pattern swatches and selecting
the Foreground and Background colors.

• Picture tab
Click the Select Picture button to choose a picture from a file. After the picture is
selected, a preview and description will be shown in this window.
• Click OK to apply the changes made from the Fill Effects windows.
• Click Apply to All to add the changes to every slide or Apply to make changes
only to the current slide.
Graphics
The Drawing Toolbar provides many commands for creating and editing graphics. The
toolbar is located at the bottom of the Power Point screen or it can be activated by
selecting View>Toolbars>Drawing from the menu bar.
• Menu -
Grouping - Images can be grouped together so they become one image

and can be moved together or the same formatting changes can be applied
to both at once. Select all the images that will be grouped by holding down
the SHIFT key and clicking once on each image. Then select Group from
the Draw menu. The images can be ungrouped by selecting Ungroup from
the same menu. The rectangles in the image to the left are separate images
with their own sets of handles and they are grouped together in the image
to the right:
Order - The order of overlapping images can be changed using this

feature. In the example of two rectangles below, the green rectangle is
selected and the Send Backward command was used to move the image
below the blue rectangle. Send Backward and Bring Forward will move
elements by one layer. Send to Back and Bring to Front move the elements

to the back or top of a series of several overlapping graphics.
• Nudge - Use the nudge actions to move an object slightly in one direction.
• Align or Distribute - Select a group of objects and choose one of the the
commands from the Align or Distribute menu to change the position of the
objects in relation to one another.
• Rotate or Flip - Rotate an object 90 degrees or flip the object over its x- or y-
axis.
• Select objects - Deactivate all drawing functions.
• Free rotate - This button will place green handles on certain objects so they can
be arbitrarily rotated. Click and drag the handles to rotate the objects.
• AutoShapes menu - Click the small down arrow to the right of the "AutoShapes"
text to select a shape.
• Line and Arrow - Click and drag the mouse on the slide to add lines. Hold down
the SHIFT key to draw a straight line. Use the end points of the completed line to
stretch and reposition the line.
• Rectangle and Oval - Click and drag the mouse on the slide to add rectangles
and ovals. Hold down the SHIFT key to add squares and circles.
• Text box - Click to draw a text box on the slide.
• Word art - Click to add WordArt.
• Picture - Click to add a clip art image to the slide.
• Fill color - Choose a fill color for rectangles, ovals, and clip art.
• Line color - Select a border color for shapes and pictures.
• Font color - Highlight text on the slide and click the small down arrow next to the
Font color icon to select a color.
• Line style - Highlight a line or arrow that has been drawn and click this button to
select a thickness or style for the line.
• Dash style - Highlight a line or arrow and select a dash style.
• Arrow style - Change the arrow head style for an existing arrow or change a line
to an arrow.
• Shadow - Select a text box to add shadow to text or choose any other object on
the slide to add a drop shadow.
• 3D - Add a three-dimensional effect to text and other objects.

Adding Clip Art
To add a clip art image to a slide, follow these steps:
• Select Insert>Picture>Clip Art from the menu bar or click the Picture button on
the Drawing toolbar..
• To find an image, click in the white box following Search for clips and enter
keywords describing the image you want to find.
- OR -
Click one of the category icons.
• Click once on the image to want to add to the slide and a selection bar will appear.
• Click once on the image you want to add to the slide and the following popup
menu will appear:
• Insert Clip to add the image to the slide.

• Preview Clip to view the image full-size before adding it to the slide. Drag the
bottom, right corner of the preview window to resize the image and click the "x"

close button to end the preview.
• Add Clip to Favorites will add the selected image to your favorites directory that
can be chosen from the Insert ClipArt dialog box.
• Find Similar Clips will retrieve images similar to the one you have chosen.
• Click the Close button in the top, right corner of the Insert Clip window to stop
adding clip art to the slide.
Add An Image from a File

To add a photo or graphic from a file:
• Select Insert>Picture>From File from the menu bar.
• Click the down arrow button on the right side of the Look in: window to find the
image on your computer.
• Highlight the file name from the list and click the Insert button.

Editing A Graphic
Activate the image you wish to edit by clicking on it once with the mouse. Several
handles will appear around the graphic. Click and drag these handles to resize the image.
The handles on the corners will resize proportionally while the handles on the straight
lines will stretch the image. More picture effects can be changed using
the Picture toolbar.
Auto Shapes
The AutoShapes toolbar allows you to draw a number of geometrical shapes, arrows,
flow chart elements, stars, and other graphics on a slide. Activate the AutoShapes toolbar
by selecting Insert>Picture>AutoShapes or View>Toolbars>AutoShapes from the menu
bar. Click the buttons on the toolbar to view the options for drawing each shape.
• Lines - After clicking the Lines button on the AutoShapes toolbar, draw a straight
line, arrow, or double-ended arrow from the first row of options by clicking the
respective button. Click in the slide where you would like the line to begin and
click again where it should end. To draw a curved line or freeform shape, select
curved lines from the menu (first and second buttons of second row), click in the
slide where the line should appear, and click the mouse every time a curve should
begin. End creating the graphic by clicking on the starting end or pressing
the ESC key. To scribble, click the last button in the second row, click the mouse
in the slide and hold down the left button while you draw the design. Let go of the
mouse button to stop drawing.
• Connectors - Draw these lines to connect flow chart elements.
• Basic Shapes - Click the Basic Shapes button on the AutoShapes toolbar to select
from many two- and three-dimensional shapes, icons, braces, and brackets. Use
the drag-and-drop method to draw the shape in the slide. When the shape has been
made, it can be resized using the open box handles and other adjustments specific
to each shape can be modified using the yellow diamond handles.
• Block Arrows - Select Block Arrows to choose from many types of two- and
three-dimensional arrows. Drag-and-drop the arrow in the slide and use the open

box and yellow diamond handles to adjust the arrowheads. Each AutoShape can
also be rotated by first clicking the Free Rotate button on the drawing toolbar .
Click and drag the green handles around the image to rotate it. The tree image
below was created from an arrow rotated 90 degrees.
• Flow Chart - Choose from the flow chart menu to add flow chart elements to the
slide and use the line menu to draw connections between the elements.
• Stars and Banners - Click the button to select stars, bursts, banners, and scrolls.
• Call Outs - Select from the speech and thought bubbles, and line call outs. Enter
the call out text in the text box that is made.
• More AutoShapes - Click the More button to choose from a list of clip art
categories.
Each of the submenus on the AutoShapes toolbar can become a separate toolbar. Just
click and drag the gray bar across the top of the submenus off of the toolbar and it will
become a separate floating toolbar.
WordArt
Add headlines in striking colors and shapes to your presentation using Word Art.
• Select Insert>Picture>WordArt from the menu bar or click the Word Art button
on the Drawing toolbar.
• Choose a Word Art style from the listing and click OK.

• Enter the text in the Edit WordArt Text box and choose the font, size, and
style for the text. Click OK.
• Use the white box handles around the word art to resize it on the slide.
• Drag the yellow diamond handle to change the shape of the text. To revert
back to no shape, double-click the diamond.
Action Buttons
Use the action button toolbar to add functioning buttons to slides in a presentation.

Select Slide Show>Action Buttons from the menu bar. Click the bar across the
top of the button menu and drag it off the menu so it becomes a floating toolbar.
Click one of the button faces and draw the button on the slide using the mouse.
The Action Settings menu will then appear.
• Set the actions under either the Mouse Click or Mouse Over tabs. Actions
specified for Mouse Click will execute when the button is clicked on the slide
while actions for Mouse Over will occur when the mouse pointer hovers over the
button.
• Select an action for the button by choosing a Hyperlink to destination.
• If you want a sound to be played when the button is clicked, check the Play
sound box and choose a sound from the drop-down menu.

• The button on the slide can be resized using the white box handles and the depth
of the button can be changed by dragging the yellow diamond.
Slide Animation
Several animations for slide objects are available through the drop-down menus on the
menu bar. First, select the text box or graphic that will be animated. Select Slide
Show>Preset Animation and choose from one of the options. To select a different
animation or turn the animation off, select the appropriate choice from the same menu.
For more options, follow the procedure below:
• Select Slide Show>Custom Animation from the menu bar.

• Select the object on the slide that will be animated from the Check to animate
slide objects list.
• Under the Effects tab, select the animation type (or select "No Effect" to turn an
animation off) and direction from the drop-down menus and select a sound if you
wish.
• Select an After animation effect if the text should change colors after the
animation executes.
• Color palette - Select one of the color swatches or click More

Colors for a larger selection. The text will change to the selected
color when the mouse is clicked during the slide show.
• Don't Dim - This option erases all After Animation effects.
• Hide After Animation - Text will be immediately erased after the
animation is completed.

• Hide on Next Mouse click - The text will be erased when the mouse
is clicked.
• Choose the style of displaying the text under the Introduce text section. The drop-
down menu provides options for displaying the characters for each bulleted item.
Select "All at once" for the text to appear immediately, "by Word" for the text to
appear one word at a time, or "by Letter" for a typewriter effect that displays one
letter at a time.
• Click the Order & Timing tab to alter the order that the objects appear on the
slide. Highlight the object in the Animation order box and click the Move arrows
to move the object's position within the animation sequence. Under Start
animation, choose "On mouse click" to activate the animation by clicking the
mouse or "Automatically" for the animation to execute after a set number of
seconds.
• Click the Preview button at any time to preview the animation on the slide and
click OK when finished.
Animation Preview
Select Slide Show>Animation Preview from the menu bar to view the Animation
Preview window. Click anywhere within this window with the mouse to preview the
animations that have been set. To hide the window, click the x close button in the top,
right corner.

Slide Transitions
Add transition effects when changing slides by following these steps:
• Select Slide Show>Slide Transition from the menu bar.

• From the Effect section, choose a transition from the drop-down menu and notice
the preview after the transition is selected. Select a speed for the transition as
well.
• Under Advance, check "On mouse click" for the slide transition to occur by
clicking the mouse or using keystrokes or check "Automatically after" and a
number of seconds if the transition should occur automatically.
• Select a Sound if necessary and check the Loop until next sound if it should keep
repeating until the next sound is played.
• Click Apply to All if the transition effects should be added to every slide
or Apply if the effects should be added only to the current slide.
Slide Show Options

Select Tools>Options and click the View tab to choose from several more slide show
options.

• Popup menu on right mouse click - Check this box if you want to be able to
access the shortcut menu during a presentation.
• Show popup menu button - Check this box to activate the menu button that
appears in the bottom, left corner of the screen during a presentation.
• End with black slide - Insert a blank, black slide to the end of the presentation.
Master Slides
Slide Master
Change the style of all slides in the presentation by changing the properties on the Slide
Master. Each Design Template has its own Slide Master that can be altered. If you create
slides from scratch, a consistent style can be added to the presentation by formatting the
Slide Master.
• Select View>Master>Slide Master from the menu bar.

• Format the master slide just as you would format a regular slide by formatting
text, formatting lists, adding background patterns and effects, and setting footers.
• Click the Close button on the Master toolbar to quit editing the master slide and
return to the presentation.
Headers and Footers

Add the date and time, slide numbers, and other footer text to the master slide from the
Header and Footer window.
• Select View>Header and Footer... from the menu bar.

• Check the Date and time box to add this feature to the slide. Select Update
automatically to always display the current date and time or click Fixed and enter
a date that will not change in the text field provided.
• Check the Slide number box to add this feature to the slides.
• Click the Footer box and add other text to the footer area of the slide.
• Check the Don't show on title slide box to hide these features on the title slide of
the presentation.
• Click the Notes and Handouts tab to make the same changes to notes and
handouts pages.
• Click Apply to All to add the changes to every slide or Apply to add only to the
current slide.
Slide Numbers
To add the slide numbers in a fixed position on the slide, use the Header and
Footer window detailed above. The slide number can otherwise be added anywhere on
the slide by placing the cursor where the slide number should appear and
selecting Insert>Slide Number from the menu bar. The text of the slide number can the
formatting just as regular text style is changed.
Date and Time

A date and/or time can also be added using the Header and Footer window or anywhere
else on the slide. Place the cursor where the date and time should appear on the slide and
select Insert>Date and Time from the menu bar. Select a format from the Available

formats box and click Update automatically if this feature should always be updated to
reflect the current date and time. Click OK to finish.
Save as Web Page

Presentations can be saved by selecting File>Save from the menu bar. However, if you
want to post Power Point presentations on the Internet, you may want to save them as
web pages so students and other visitors to your web site can view the presentation even
if they do not have Power Point installed on their computers. Select File>Save As Web
Page from the menu bar. Choose your web page directory on the network from the Look
in: drop-down menu and name the file in the File name: box. Click Save to save the
presentation in web format.
Page Setup
Select File>Page Setup from the menu bar to access options for printing the presentation
slides. Select the format the printed slides will be used for from the Slides sized for drop-
down menu or enter a specific print size using the Width and Height boxes. Select the
page orientation for the slides and for other print material from the presentation in
the Orientation section.

Print
Select File>Print from the menu bar to print the presentation.
Print range - Select All to print all the slides in the presentation, Current slide to print
only the current slide, or enter slide numbers in the Slides field to print only certain
slides.
Copies - Enter the number of copies of each slide specified in Print range and check
the Collate box if necessary.

Print What -
• Slides prints a full-page slide on each page.

• Handouts prints as many slides as you designate on each page.
• Notes Page prints one slide with that slide's notes on each page
• Outline view prints the outline of the presentation
Click OK to print.

Keyboard Shortcuts
mouse to execute simple commands. Print this list of Power Point keyboard shortcuts and
keep it by your computer for a quick reference.
Document actions Formatting

Open a presentation CTRL+O Select all CTRL+A
New presentation CTRL+N Copy CTRL+C
Save As F12 Cut CTRL+X
Save CTRL+S Paste CTRL+V
Print CTRL+P Undo CTRL+Z
Help F1 Redo CTRL+Y
Bold CTRL+B
Presentation actions Italics CTRL+I
Begin slide show F5 Underline CTRL+U
ENTER or Left justified CTRL+L
Next slide Down arrow
Center justified CTRL+E
key
Right justified CTRL+R
BACKSPACE
Previous slide or ALT+SHIFT+Left
Promote list item
Up arrow key arrow
Activate pen tool CTRL+P ALT+SHIFT+Right
Demote list item
arrow or TAB
Erase pen strokes E
Deactivate pen tool CTRL+A
Editing
Show/Hide black screen B
Find CTRL+F
Show/Hide white screen W
Replace CTRL+H
Show/Hide pointer &
A Insert hyperlink CTRL+K
button
End slide show ESC New slide CTRL+M
Spell checker F7
Macros ALT+F8
Run the slide show and press the F1 key to view all keyboard shortcuts applicable when
running a slide show.

IT TOOLS AND APPLICATIONS – INTERNET APPLICATION
INTERNET APPLICATION
The Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing
before. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer, set the stage for
this unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Internet is a world-wide broadcasting
capability, a mechanism for information dissemination, and a medium for collaboration
and interaction between individuals and their computers, all in one. The Internet is like a
vast transportation system for data. The system includes and connects local, regional,
national, and international networks. The Internet represents one of the most successful
examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to research and
development of information infrastructure.
On October 24, 1995, the Federal Networking Council (FNC) unanimously passed a
resolution for defining the term "Internet." This definition was developed after consulting
the leaders of the Internet and Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Communities.
What is Internet?
The Internet is a unique phenomenon in the world of computers and communication .It
has brought about a world-wide revolution by facilitating the exchange of ideas and
information. The Internet is becoming a fundamental part of our communication
environment. It is something that affects everybody - be it a student, a business person, a
teacher, or a housewife. It’ll affect your way of working, your way of playing, and
ultimately the way you live. The main concept behind the Internet is that it was not
designed for just one application. It’s a general infrastructure on which new applications

can be conceived, whenever required. This has been proved by the emergence of the
World Wide Web. The general-purpose nature of this service makes this possible.
Who runs the Internet?

These are two common questions that usually haunt our minds. Well, the fact is that no
one really runs the Internet as a whole. The owner of that network runs each individual
network. Each user owns a slice of the Internet. There are some regulatory bodies that
define certain rules and regulations for using Internet, but these bodies do not actually run
the entire Internet. And, as far as the payment side is concerned, everyone pays his/her
own bill for using the Internet, similar to paying our phone bills. The Internet bill
depends on the volume of data and the type of access required
The Internet in India
Even before the introduction of VSNL's Internet, the Internet had been in India for many
years, in the form of ERNET (Educational Research Network). However, ERNET was
meant only for the educational and research communities.

ERNET was a joint undertaking of the Department of Electronics (DOE), the

Government of India, and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), which
provides technical assistance to developing nations. ERNET is one of the most successful
operations that UNDP has funded because it established the idea for Indians, to access the
Internet. Currently, ERNET operates through many nodes and has a 64 Kbps link to USA
via Mumbai. All major nodes of ERNET are connected to each other using 9600 bps
leased lines. Over 200 academic and R&D groups exchange e-mail with each other, using
ERNET. Over 8000 scientists and technologists have access to ERNET facilities.
International access is provided over a 64 Kbps leased line, from NCST, Mumbai, to
USA. The future plans for ERNET include the creation of a satellite communication
system, to enable ERNET to reach locations which do not have good data communication
links.
What is on the Web?

Word Wide Web or W3 or simply the Web, is one of the popular application of the
Internet. Due to the WWW technology, the Internet is capable of conveying sounds,
images and video clips. The attraction towards this technology drew many people
towards the Web. The popularity of the Internet grew exponentially, thanks to the Web.
The World Wide Web is a home to millions of Web sites, set up by businesses, agencies,
institutions and individuals. You name it and it's there on the Web. There are a very
few things for which you will not find information on the Web
Window of your company to the world

On the World Wide Web, you can display the services or product your company has
to offer. Your company’s web site having all the relevant information about the
company and its services will now be available to the entire world. Anyone, from any
corner of the world, can visit you web site and find out information about the product
and services that you company offers.

Shopping Malls on the Web

Shop and buy instantly on the Web, at the sites of individual companies or
through mall-like sites that connects you to thousands of "on-line stores.”.
Banking from your desktop computer
Now there is no need to rush to the bank for getting your work done. The Web
allows you to do your banking straight from your computer, either at home or at
office. You can find out your balance and other details of your account. You may
transfer money to some other account. You can also find out details of other
services that the bank has to offer
Latest News
You need not wait for the morning paper in order to find out what's happening in
the world. No need to switch on the television or radio also. Internet has many
news sites on the Web that are updated repeatedly throughout the day. So you can
get the latest news of the world events, sports, weather, and that too whenever you
want it.
Reference Library
The Internet provides you with access to numerous reference materials, including
the collections of many libraries, research facilities, museums, and similar
institutions. The World Wide Web acts as a friendly librarian who can help you to
search the required information You can find information which is as simple as
the definition of a word or as complex as the latest in scientific research.
Search engines
There are many search engines available, some of the popular search engines are Yahoo,
Excite, Infoseek, etc.. No search engine can keep track of all the content of the Internet.
Even the major search engines such as Excite, Infoseek, Lycos, and Yahoo, will not
provide you everything. (Some studies indicate that even the top search engines find less
than half of what's really out there!)You can ask the computer to search for the desired
information, using all the available search engines. Here, we give in brief, the
information about the some of the search engines, and how they work.
Yahoo
Excite is a hybrid search engine; it fulfils the traditional search engine definition. It is
always visiting Web sites and cataloguing them, using a software program. Excite also
has a directory, a subsection of its catalogued sites, which have been reviewed by people.

Infoseek
Infoseek's search engine has an extensive catalogue of sites. Infoseek has a directory too,
which categorizes sites according to topics, using software. Some sites have been
reviewed and are recommended.
Lycos
Like Excite and Infoseek, Lycos is a search engine with a directory, organized by subject.
You can also search the Lycos service "Top 5%," sites, considered by its reviewers to be
among the top five percent of sites on the Internet.
Yahoo
This is actually a directory rather than a search engine. Humans compile and categorized
the sites it searches. So one may get fewer results. But Yahoo! makes it easy to search for
sites by category and to continue your search using a search engine, if you want to.

Metacrawler
Rather than keeping its own database of web sites, Metacrawler conducts your search
simultaneously on several search engines, including Excite, Infoseek, Lycos, and Yahoo.
This takes a little longer than using just one search engine, but it's likely to yield a more
comprehensive set of results.
Major search sites generally provide more than one search engine for finding Web sites.
They also allow you to look up information such as recent news stories, newsgroup
postings, reference material (such as dictionary entries and maps), and e-mail addresses,
street addresses, and telephone numbers of business and individuals
Internet and Security

The Internet connects us to various places all over the world. This fact poses the question
of security, i.e. theft on private communication or electronic commerce transactions on
the Internet. Let us look at some technologies related to the security issues over the
Internet. The Internet may feel like a place where you roam anonymously and privately,
especially if you access it from your own home. However, with every foray onto the
Internet, your computer and other computers actively exchange information. So the
question arises as to how private and secure are these communications? What is the
security of your data when you are on the Internet?
The security that your machine has, depends on the sites you visit and the options you
select for your web browser, and the features that your web browser provides

Viruses
Beware of Viruses that you may receive from the Internet. Viruses can attack your
computer when you download files or even when you receive e-mails.
To protect your computer from viruses on the Internet, don't download files from sources
that you don't know are safe. Viruses are usually hidden in programs and activated when
the programs run. They also can be attached to certain other types of executable files,
such as special-action Web files and video files. Generally, when you're about to
download a type of file that could contain a virus, your browser will display a warning
and ask whether you want to open the file, or save it to disk. If you're confident that the
file comes from a trustworthy source, you may want to open it. If you're not sure, you
may want to cancel your download. Another way to verify the identity of a site is to
check whether it has a Web site certificate, naming the site's originator. With Microsoft®
Internet Explorer version 4.0, you can check a Web page's certificate by right-clicking on
the page, clicking Properties, and then clicking Certificates.
The best precaution you can take is to use an anti virus program.
There are many anti virus programs that can scan your computer for viruses, inoculate
against known viruses, and maybe even repair damage caused by a virus. To get the
benefit of such a program, make sure you run it as recommended (you may be able to
schedule it to automatically scan your computer on a regular basis) and get updates to the
program, which include information about new viruses
Electronic mail
Electronic mail, most commonly referred as e-mail, is one of the most popular and
effectively used services of the Internet. E-mail is popular because it ensures almost
instantaneous delivery of your message to your business associate or a friend, any where
in the world. Gone are the days when one had to rely on the postman for delivering
messages.
Today, e-mail is a fast, cheap and reliable way for sending your messages across the
world. E-mail is Effective , Economical ,Efficient ,Ecological. Speed, convenience, and
low cost have made e-mail a norm in business communication
A typical e-mail address can be anjali@bom3.vsnl.net.in where anjali is user Id

(identification) or User name, @ is the separator and "bom3.vsnl.net.in" is the
identification of the Internet service provider. Another typical e-mail address could be
education@arindamray.com, vidyasagarccc@yahoo.com.

Current Trends of Internet Technology
Intranet
The Intranet is an implementation of the Internet within an organization. It is a private
web site, maintained by an organization solely for its employees. It can also provide
various services within the organization. An Intranet is an organization’s own internal
network that uses the same services, protocols and technologies, which are available on
the Internet. Users use the same software to utilize services on the Internet as well as
Intranet. The Intranet can provide all the services that the Internet provides, but only
within the organization. Intranet can be used as an effective medium for communication
and collaboration within the organization.
Extranet
When an organization’s Intranet is made available to selected users outside its local area
network, it is known as an Extranet. Extranet is designed to grant authority to external
entities, to access the existing Intranet. For example, a company's clients can access the
Intranet to find out the latest information. Extranet provides better communication and
collaboration with the customers.
Web Application
Due to the development of recent technologies used on the Internet, web applications
have emerged for traditional application development. Web applications help in building
dynamic and more compelling information on the Web. They also promote the Web

browser as a single client application to perform various functions. Many organizations

have started implementing small to medium-sized applications using web technologies
like Java programming language, HTML, JavaScript and CGI server-side extension
technologies and so on. Java is an object-oriented programming language, used primarily
for writing web-based applications.
E-commerce
E-commerce involves money transaction over the Internet. You can buy as well as sell
products through the e-commerce facility of the Internet. The increased usage of the
Internet by commercial organizations has given rise to Electronic Commerce over the
Internet. Many technologies like Digital certificates, Digital cash, SET protocol, On-line
shopping malls have come up, enabling commerce solution via the Internet.

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Topics Page No.

AUTOMATIC: - A machine is said to be automatic, if it works by itself without

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 1

THE EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

First Generation: In 1945 ENIAC first designed a general-

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 2

Third Generation The use of Integrated circuit(IC) in the

The digital computers are of the following four main classes.

Micro Computer: A micro-computer's CPU is a microprocessor. The microcomputer

Mainframe Computer: Mainframe computers are generally 32-bit machines or on the

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 4

Library Maintaining: the records in library manually used to be very cumbersome

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 5

Computer consists of three (3) main parts. They are:

In short, the following functions are performed by an Input unit:

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 6

It consists of three (3) main units:

Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 7

In short, the specific functions of the storage unit are to store :

2. Secondary storage: The secondary storage, also known as auxiliary storage, is

INPUT - OUTPUT DEVICES

Input CPU Input

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 8

A device that converts our information to a form which computer understands is

1. Keyboard devices 4. Electronic cards based devices

(a) It has function keys (F! to F12) which is programmable

WE can also classify the keys of keyboard in four types as –

The Alphanumeric keys

The Numeric Keypad

The Function Keys:

Special purpose keys:

a) Mouse: Mouse is the most popular point-and-draw device. It is an online input

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 10

There are three (3) types of mouse:-

Optical Mouse: Optical mouse is a new type of non-mechanical mouse. It is quicker

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 11

Figure : Types of Mouse

Figure : Touch Screen

1. At an airport or a railway station to provide information to arriving passengers

3. DATA SCANNING DEVICES

Data scanning devices are of many types. These are:

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 13

♦ Optical Mark Reader (OMR )

It is popularly used for evaluating objective-answer scripts in examinations. In the

♦ Optical Character Reader (OCR )

♦ Bar- Code Reader

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 14

♦ Magnetic- Ink Character Reader (MICR)

4. Electronic – Card Reader

5. Voice Recognition Device

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 15

1. Soft–Copy Output: A soft-copy output is an output, which is not produced on a

2. Hard–Copy Output: A hard-copy output is an output, which is produced on a

Monochrome is derived from “Mono” which means single and

Gray- Scale monitors are special types of monitors for displaying

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 16

Color monitors can give output as a combination of RGB (Red-Green-

According to the technology monitors are classified in to following categories:

TECHNO INDIA GROUP By Parijat Chakraborty Page 17

The printers have two (2) basis of classification:

A. Classification based on the basis of printing technology, they are