ThePoweroftheMemeMeme

SusanBlackmore

OriginallypublishedinTheSkeptic(US),1997,5No2,4349
CoverillustrationbyPatLinse

Reprintedin2002as"Memesasgoodscience".InM.Shermer(Ed)The
SkepticEncyclopediaofPseudoscience,SantaBarbara,CA.,ABCClio,652
663

Withoutthetheoryofevolutionbynaturalselectionnothingintheworldof
biologymakesmuchsense.WithoutDarwinandneoDarwinism,youcannot
answerquestionslike"Whydobatshavewings?Whydocatshavefive
claws?orWhydoouropticfibrescrossinfrontofourretinas?"Youcanonly
fallbackonappealstoanimaginarycreator.

Iamgoingtomakeaboldclaim.

Withoutthetheoryofevolutionbymemeticselectionnothingintheworldof
themindmakesmuchsense.Withoutmemeticsyoucannotanswerquestions
like"WhycantIgetthatthoughtoutofmymind?WhydidIdecidetowrite
thisarticleandnotthatone?WhoamI?"Withoutmemeticsyoucanonlyfall
backonappealstoanimaginaryconsciousagent.

InthisarticleIwanttolaythegroundworkforatheoryofmemeticsandsee
howfarwecanget.Ishalloutlinethehistoryandoriginsoftheidea,explore
howithasbeenused,abused,andignored,andhowithasprovidednew
insightintothepowerofreligionsandcults.Ishallthentakeonamemeseye
viewoftheworldandusethistoanswerfivepreviouslyunanswered
questionsabouthumannature.Whycantwestopthinking?Whydowetalk
somuch?Whyarewesonicetoeachother?Whyareourbrainssobig?And,
finally,whatisaself?

Ihavetriedtowritethesectionstostandalone.Ifyouonlywanttoreadsome
ofthemIsuggestyoureadthesectionTakingthememeseyeview,andpick
anyothersthattakeyourfancy.
AHistoryoftheMemeMeme
In1976DawkinspublishedhisbestsellingTheSelfishGene.Thisbook
popularisedthegrowingviewinbiologythatnaturalselectionproceedsnotin
theinterestofthespeciesorofthegroup,norevenoftheindividual,butinthe
interestofthegenes.Althoughselectiontakesplacelargelyattheindividual
level,thegenesarethetruereplicatorsanditistheircompetitionthatdrives
theevolutionofbiologicaldesign.

Dawkins,clearanddaringasalways,suggestedthatalllifeeverywhereinthe
universemustevolvebythedifferentialsurvivalofslightlyinaccurateself
replicatingentities;hecalledthese"replicators".Furthermore,these
replicatorsautomaticallybandtogetherintogroupstocreatesystems,or
machines,thatcarrythemaroundandworktofavourtheircontinued
replication.Thesesurvivalmachines,or"vehicles"areourfamiliarbodies
andthoseofcats,ecoliandcabbagescreatedtocarryaroundandprotect
thegenesinsidethem.

RightattheendofthebookhesuggeststhatDarwinismistoobigatheoryto
beconfinedtothenarrowcontextofthegene.Soheasksanobvious,if
provocative,question.Arethereanyotherreplicatorsonourplanet?Yes,he
claims.Staringusintheface,thoughstilldriftingclumsilyaboutinitsprimeval
soupofculture,isanotherreplicatoraunitofimitation.Hegaveitthename
"meme"(torhymewith"dream"or"seem")andasexamplessuggested
"tunes,ideas,catchphrases,clothesfashions,waysofmakingpotsorof
buildingarches."Memesarestoredinhumanbrainsandpassedonby
imitation.

Injustthosefewpageshelaidthefoundationsforunderstandingtheevolution
ofmemes.Hediscussedtheirpropagationbyjumpingfrombraintobrain,
likenedthemtoparasitesinfectingahost,treatedthemasphysicallyrealised
livingstructures,andshowedhowmutuallyassistingmemeswillgroup
togetherjustasgenesdo.Hearguedthatonceanewreplicatorarisesitwill
tendtotakeoverandbeginanewkindofevolution.Aboveallhetreated
memesasreplicatorsintheirownright,chastisingthoseofhiscolleagues
whotendedalwaystogobackto"biologicaladvantage"toanswerquestions
abouthumanbehaviour.Yes,heagreed,wegotourbrainsforbiological
(genetic)reasonsbutnowwehavethemanewreplicatorhasbeen
unleashedanditneednotbesubservienttotheold.Inotherwords,memetic
evolutioncannowproceedwithoutregardtoitseffectsonthegenes.

AfewyearslaterDouglasHofstadterwroteaboutviralsentencesandself
replicatingstructuresinhisScientificAmericancolumnMetamagicalThemas.
Readersreplied,withexamplesoftextusingbaitandhookstoensureitsown
replication.Theysuggestedviralsentencesfromthesimplestinstruction,such
as"Copyme!",throughthosewithaddedthreats("SaymeorIII.putacurse
onyou")orpromises("III.grantyouthreewishes"),toexamplesofvirulent
chainletters(Hofstadter,1985,p53).Onereadersuggestedtheterm
memeticsforthedisciplinestudyingmemes.Yetmemeticsdidnotreallytake
off.

Whynot?Thebasicideaisverysimple.IfDawkinsisrighttheneverything
youhavelearnedbyimitationfromsomeoneelseisameme.Thisincludesall
thewordsinyourvocabulary,thestoriesyouknow,theskillsandhabitsyou
havepickedupfromothersandthegamesyouliketoplay.Itincludesthe
songsyousingandtherulesyouobey.So,forexample,wheneveryoudrive
ontheright(andIontheleft!),eatahamburgerorapizza,whistle"Happy
BirthdaytoYou"or"MamaIloveyou"orevenshakehands,youaredealing
inmemes.Memeticsisallaboutwhysomememesspreadandothersdonot.

ThegreatestproponentofmemeticssinceDawkinshasbeenthephilosopher
DanDennett.InhisbooksConsciousnessExplained(1991)andDarwins
DangerousIdea(1995)heexpandsontheideaofthememeasreplicator.

InTheOriginofSpecies,Darwin(1859)explainedhownaturalselectionmust
happenifcertainconditionsaremet.Ifthereisheredityfromparentto
offspring,variationamongtheoffspring,andnotalltheoffspringcansurvive
thenselectionmusthappen.Individualswhohavesomeusefuladvantage
"havethebestchanceofbeingpreservedinthestruggleforlife"(Darwin,
1859,p127,andseeDennett,1995,p48)andwillthenpassonthis
advantagetotheiroffspring.Darwinclearlysawhowobvioustheprocessof
naturalselectionisonceyouhavegraspedit.Itjustmusthappen.

Dennettdescribesevolutionasasimplealgorithmthatis,amindless
procedurethatwhencarriedoutmustproducearesult.Forevolutionyou
needthreethingsheredity,variationandselectionthenevolutionis
inevitable.Youneednotgetus,ofcourse,oranythingremotelylikeus;for
evolutionhasnoplansandnoforesight.Nevertheless,youmustget
somethingmorecomplexthanwhatyoustartedwith.Theevolutionary
algorithmis"aschemeforcreatingDesignoutofChaoswithouttheaidof
Mind"(Dennett,1995,p50).This,saysDennett,isDarwinsDangerousIdea.

Nowonderpeoplehavebeenterrifiedofit,andfoughtsohardagainstit.Itis
outrageouslysimpleandterrifyinglypowerful.

Ifevolutionisanalgorithmthenitshouldbeabletorunondifferent
substrates.Wetendtothinkofevolutionasdependingongenesbecausethat
isthewaybiologyworksonthisplanet,butthealgorithmisneutralaboutthis
andwillrunwhereverthereisheredity,variationandselection.Oras
Dawkinsputsitareplicator.Itdoesntmatterwhichreplicator.Ifmemesare
replicatorsthenevolutionwilloccur.

Soarememesreplicators?
Thereisenormousvarietyinthebehaviourshumanbeingsemit,these
behavioursarecopied,moreorlessaccuratelybyotherhumanbeings,and
notallthecopiessurvive.Thememethereforefitsperfectlywiththescheme
ofheredity,variationandselection.Thinkoftunes,forexample.Millionsof
variantsaresungbymillionsofpeople.Onlyafewgetpassedonand
repeatedandevenfewermakeitintothepopchartsorthecollectionsof
classics.Scientificpapersproliferatebutonlyafewgetlonglistingsinthe
citationindexes.Onlyafewofthedisgustingconcoctionsmadeinwoks
actuallymakeitontotheTVshowsthattellyouhowtoWokthingsandonlya
fewofmybrilliantideashaveeverbeenappreciatedbyanyone!Inother
words,competitiontogetcopiedisfierce.

Ofcoursememesarenotlikegenesinmanywaysandwemustbevery
carefulinapplyingtermsfromgeneticstomemes.Thecopyingofmemesis
donebyakindof"reverseengineering"byonepersoncopyinganothers
behaviour,ratherthanbychemicaltranscription.Alsowedonotknowjust
howmemesarestoredinhumanbrainsandwhethertheywillturnouttobe
digitallystored,likegenes,ornot.However,theimportantpointisthatif
memesaretruereplicators,memeticevolutionmustoccur.

Dennettisconvincedtheyareandheexploreshowmemescompetetoget
intoasmanymindsaspossible.Thiscompetitionistheselectiveforceofthe
memosphereandthesuccessfulmemescreatehumanmindsastheygo,
restructuringourbrainstomakethemeverbetterhavensformorememes.
Humanconsciousness,claimsDennett,isitselfahugememecomplex,anda
personisbestunderstoodasacertainsortofapeinfestedwithmemes.Ifhe
isrightthenwecannothopetounderstandtheoriginsofthehumanmind
withoutmemetics.

Thismakesitallthemorefascinatingthatmostpeopleinterestedinthe
humanmindhaveignoredmemeticsorsimplyfailedtounderstandit.Mary
Midgley(1994)callsmemes"mythicalentities"thatcannothaveinterestsof
theirown;"anemptyandmisleadingmetaphor".Inarecentradiodebate,
StephenJayGouldcalledtheideaofmemesa"meaninglessmetaphor"
(thoughIamnotsureonecanactuallyhaveameaninglessmetaphor!).He
wishes"thattheterm"culturalevolution"woulddropfromuse."(Gould,1996,
p21920).

Theword"Meme"doesnotevenappearintheindexofimportantbooksabout
humanoriginsandlanguage(e.g.Donald,1991;Dunbar,1996;Mithen,1996;
Pinker,1994;Tudge,1995;Wills,1993),inanexcellentcollectionon
evolutionarypsychology(Barkow,CosmidesandTooby,1992),norinbooks
abouthumanmorality(Ridley,1996;Wright,1994).Althoughtherearemany
theoriesoftheevolutionofculture,almostallmakecultureentirely
subservienttogeneticfitness,asinWilsons(1978)metaphorofthegenes
holdingcultureonaleashorLumsdenandWilsonsclaimthat"thelink
betweengenesandculturecannotbesevered"(1981,p344).CavalliSforza
andFeldman(1981)treat"culturalactivityasanextensionofDarwinian
fitness"(p362)andevenDurham(1991),theonlyonetousetheword
"meme",stickstoexamplesofculturalfeatureswithobviousrelevanceto
geneticfitness,suchascolornaming,dietaryhabitsandmarriagecustoms.
PerhapsBoydandRicherson(1990)comeclosesttotreatingtheculturalunit
asatruereplicator.However,theystillview"geneticandculturalevolutionas
atightlycoupledcoevolutionaryprocessinhumans"(Richerson&Boyd,
1992,p80).

AsfarasIcanunderstandthem,nooneexceptCloak(1975)andDawkins
treatstheirunitofculturalexchangeasatruereplicator.Ifthereisa
continuumfromGouldsoutrightrejectionatoneend,toDawkinsandCloakat
theother,thenmostlieinbetween.Theyacceptculturalevolutionbutnotthe
ideaofasecondreplicator.Whentheysay"adaptive"or"maladaptive"they
meanforthegenes.Whenitcomestothecrunchtheyalwaysfallbackon
appealstobiologicaladvantage,justasDawkinscomplainedthathis
colleaguesdidtwentyyearsago.

Dawkinsisclearonthisissuewhenhesays"thereisnoreasonwhysuccess
inamemeshouldhaveanyconnectionwhateverwithgeneticsuccess".I
agree.Iamgoingtoproposeatheoryofmemeticsthatliesatthefarendof
thiscontinuum.Isuggestthatoncegeneticevolutionhadcreatedcreatures
thatwerecapableofimitatingeachother,asecondreplicatorwasborn.Since
thenourbrainsandmindshavebeentheproductoftworeplicators,notone.
Todaymanyoftheselectionpressuresonmemesarestillofgeneticorigin
(suchaswhomwefindsexyandwhatfoodtastesgood)butasmemetic
evolutionproceedsfasterandfaster,ourmindsareincreasinglytheproductof
memes,notgenes.Ifmemeticsistruethenthememeshavecreatedhuman
mindsandculturejustassurelyasthegeneshavecreatedhumanbodies.

ReligionsasCoAdaptedMemeComplexes
Dawkins(1976)introducedthetermcoadaptedmemecomplex.Bythishe
meantagroupofmemesthatthriveineachotherscompany.Justasgenes
grouptogetherformutualprotection,leadingultimatelytothecreationof
organisms,sowemightexpectmemestogrouptogether.AsDawkins(1993)
putsit"therewillbeagangingupofideasthatflourishinoneanothers
presence".

Memecomplexesincludeallthosegroupsofmemesthattendtobepassed
ontogether,suchaspoliticalideologies,religiousbeliefs,scientifictheories
andparadigms,artisticmovements,andlanguages.Themostsuccessfulof
thesearenotjustlooseagglomerationsofcompatibleideas,butwell
structuredgroupswithdifferentmemesspecialisingashooks,bait,threats,
andimmunesystem.(Memeticjargonisstillevolvingandthesetermsmay
changebutseeGrants"memeticlexicon"(Grant,1990)).

WhenIwasabouttenyearsoldIreceivedapostcardandaletterthat
containedalistofsixnamesandinstructedmetosendapostcardtothefirst
nameonthelist.Iwastoputmyownnameandaddressatthebottomand
sendthenewlisttosixmorepeople.ItpromisedmeIwouldreceivelotsof
postcards.

Thiswasafairlyinnocuouschainletterasthesethingsgo,consistingjustofa
bait(thepromisedpostcards)andahook(sendittosixmorepeople).Threats
arealsocommon(sendthisonortheevileyewillgetyou)andmanyhavefar
worseconsequencesthanawasteofstamps.Whattheyhaveincommonis
theinstructionto"duplicateme"(thehook)alongwithcomemesforcoercion.
Thesesimplelittlegroupscanspreadquitewell.

Withtheadventofcomputersviralmemegroupshavemuchmorespaceto
playinandcanleapfromdisktodiskamong"unhygienic"computerusers.
Dawkins(1993)discusseshowcomputervirusesandwormsusetrickstoget
themselvesspread.Someburythemselvesinmemoryonlytopopupasa
timebomb;someinfectonlyasmallproportionofthosetheyreach,andsome
aretriggeredprobabilistically.Likebiologicalvirusestheymustnotkilltheir
hosttoosoonortheywilldieout.Theirfinaleffectmaybequitefunny,such
asonethatmakestheMackintoshsloudspeakersay"DontPanic!",butsome
havecloggedupentirenetworksanddestroyedwholedoctoraltheses.My
studentshaverecentlyencounteredavirusinWORD6thatlivesina
formattingsectioncalled"Thesis"temptingyoutogetinfectedjustwhen
youryearsworkisalmostfinished.Nowonderwenowhaveaproliferationof
antivirussoftwaretheequivalentofmedicinefortheinfosphere.

Internetvirusesarearelativelynewarrival.LastweekIreceivedaverykind
warningfromsomeoneIvenevermet."Donotdownloadanymessage
entitled"PenpalGreetings""itsaidandwentontowarnmethatifIreadthis
terriblemessageIwouldhaveletina"TrojanHorse"virusthatwoulddestroy
everythingonmyharddriveandthensenditselfontoeveryemailaddressin
mymailbox.Toprotectallmyfriends,andtheworldwidecomputernetwork,I
hadtoactfastandsendthewarningontothem.

Haveyouspottedit?Thevirusdescribeddoesnotmakesenseanddoesnot
exist.Therealvirusisthewarning.Thisisaverycleverlittlememecomplex
thatusesboththreatsandappealstoaltruismtogetyouthesilly,caring
victimtopassiton.Itisnotthefirst"GoodTimes"and"Deeyenda
Maddick"usedasimilartrickanditprobablywontbethelast.However,as
morepeoplelearntoignorethewarningstheseviruseswillstarttofailand
perhapsthatwillletinworseviruses,aspeoplestarttoignorewarningsthey
oughttoheed.SoWatchOut!

Whatdoesthishavetodowithreligions?AccordingtoDawkins,agreatdeal.
Themostcontroversialapplicationofmemeticsisundoubtedlyhistreatment
ofreligionsascoadaptedmemecomplexes(Dawkins1976,1993).He
unashamedlydescribesreligionsas"virusesofthemind"andsetsabout
analysinghowtheywork.

Theyworkbecausehumanbrainsarejustwhatinfovirusesneed;brainscan
soakupinformation,replicateitreasonablyaccurately,andobeythe
instructionsitembodies.DawkinsusestheexampleofRomanCatholicism;a
gangofmutuallycompatiblememesthatisstableenoughtodeserveaname.
TheheartofCatholicismisitsmajorbeliefs;apowerfulandforgivingGod,
Jesushissonwhowasbornofavirginandroseagainfromthedead,theholy
spirit,andsoon.Ifthesearentimplausibleenoughyoucanaddbeliefin
miraclesortheliteraltransubstantiationofwineintoblood.Whyshouldany
onebelievethesethings?Dawkinsexplains.

Threatsofhellfireanddamnationareaneffectiveandnastytechniqueof
persuasion.FromanearlyagechildrenarebroughtupbytheirCatholic
parentstobelievethatiftheybreakcertainrulestheywillburninhellforever
afterdeath.ThechildrencannoteasilytestthissinceneitherhellnorGodcan
beseen,althoughHecanseeeverythingtheydo.Sotheymustsimplylivein
lifelongfearuntildeath,whentheywillfindoutforsureornot!Theideaof
hellisthusaselfperpetuatingmeme.

AnddidIsay"test"theidea?Somereligiousbeliefscouldbetested,suchas
whetherwinereallyturnsintoblood,orwhetherprayeractuallyhelps;hence
theneedfortheantitestingmemeoffaith.InCatholicism,doubtmustbe
resisted,whilefaithisnurturedandrespected.Ifyourknowledgeofbiology
leadsyoutodoubtthevirginbirth,orifwar,crueltyandstarvationseemto
challengethegoodnessofGodthenyoumusthavefaith.Thestoryof
DoubtingThomasisacautionarytaleagainstseekingevidence.AsDawkins
putsit"Nothingismorelethalforcertainkindsofmemethanatendencyto
lookforevidence"(Dawkins,1976,p198)andreligions,unlikescience,make
suretheydiscourageit.Alsounlikescience,religionsoftenincludememes
thatmaketheircarriersviolentlyintolerantofnewandunfamiliarideasso
protectingthemselvesagainstbeingoustedinfavourofadifferentreligionor
noneatall.

Finallythememecomplexneedsmechanismstoensureitsownspread."Kill
theinfidel"willdisposeoftheopposition."Goforthandmultiply"willproduce
morechildrentopassitselfonto.Sowillforbiddingmasturbation,birthcontrol
orinterfaithmarriages.Iffearofgoingblinddoesntwork,thereareprizesin
heavenformissionariesandthosewhoconvertunbelievers(Dawkins,1993;
Lynch,1996).

Catholicismgenerallyspreadsfromparenttochildbutcelibatepriestsplaya
roletoo.Thisisparticularlyinterestingsincecelibacymeansadeadendfor
thegenes,butnotforthememes.Apriestwhohasnowifeandchildrento
careforhasmoretimetospreadhismemes,includingthatforcelibacy.
Celibacyisanotherpartnerinthisvastcomplexofmutuallyassistingreligious
memes.

Dawkins(1993)givesotherexamplesfromJudaism,suchasthe
pointlessnessofRabbistestingforthekosherpurityoffood,orthehorrorsof
JimJonesleadinghisflocktomasssuicideintheGuyanajungle.Todayhe
mightadd"HeavensGate"tothecatalogue."Obviouslyamemethatcauses
individualsbearingittokillthemselveshasagravedisadvantage,butnot
necessarilyafatalone.....asuicidalmemecanspread,aswhenadramatic
andwellpublicisedmartyrdominspiresotherstodieforadeeplylovedcause,
andthisinturninspiresotherstodie,andsoon."(Dawkins,1982,p111).

HemightequallyhavechosenIslam;afaiththatincludestheconceptofthe
jihadorholywar,andhasparticularlynastypunishmentsforpeoplewho
desertthefaith.Eventodaytheauthor,andheretic,SalmanRushdielivesin
fearofhislifebecausemanyMuslimsconsiderittheirholydutytokillhim.
Onceyouhavebeeninfectedwithpowerfulmemesliketheseyoumustpaya
highpricetogetridofthem.

Lynch(1996)exploresindepthsometricksusedbyreligionsandcults.
"Honourthyfatherandmother"isanexcellentcommandment,increasingthe
chancethatchildrenwilltakeonbeliefsfromtheirparents,includingthe
commandmentitself.Asasecularmemeitmightnotsucceedverywell,since
kidswouldsurelyrejectitiftheythoughtitcamestraightfromtheparents.
However,presentedasanideafromGod(whoispowerful,allseeingand
punishesdisobedience)ithasamuchbetterchanceagoodexampleof
memes"gangingup".

Dietarylawsmaythrivebecausetheyprotectagainstdisease,butmayalso
keeppeopleinthefaithbymakingitharderforthemtoadapttootherdiets
outside.Moralcodesmayenhanceeffectivecooperationandsurvivalbutmay
alsobewaysofpunishinglapsesoffaith.Observing"holydays"ensureslots
oftimeforspreadingthememes,andpublicprayersandgraceatmeals
ensurethatlotsofpeopleareexposedtothem.Learningsacredtextsby
heart,andsettingthemtoinspiringormemorablemusicensurestheir
longevity.

Inthelonghistoryofreligionsmostofthemhavespreadverticallythatis
fromparenttochild.Eventodaythebestpredictorofyourreligionisyour
parentsreligionevenifyouthinkyourationallychosethe"best"or"truest"
one!However,todaymoreandmorenewreligionsandcultsspread
horizonallyfromanypersontoanyotherperson.Thetwotypesusedifferent
memetricksfortheirreplication.

AsanexampleofthefirsttypeLynch(1996)givestheHutterites.They
averagemorethantenchildrenpercouple,afantasticratethatispossibly
helpedbythewaytheydistributeparentalresponsibility,makingeachextra
childonlyaslightlygreaterburdenforitsnaturalparents.Otherreligionsput
moreeffortintoconversion,liketheevangelicalfaithswhichthriveoninstant
rewardsandspiritualjoyonconversion.

IncaseIseemtobeimplyingthatpeoplehavedeliberatelymanufactured
religionsthisway,thatisnotatallwhatImean.Lookatitthiswayimaginein
thelong,longhistoryofhumanreligiousendeavour,allthemillionsand
millionsofdifferentstatements,ideas,andcommandmentsthatmusthave
beenutteredatsometimeoranother.Whichwouldyouexpecttohave
survivedthroughtothepresent?Theansweris,ofcourse,theonesthatjust
happenedtohaveincludedclevertricksorcometogetherwithotherideas
theycouldgangupwith.Thecountlessmillionsofotherideashavesimply
beenlost.Thisismemeticevolution.

TakingtheMemesEyeView
Wearenowreadytotakeonthememeseyeview.ThebasicapproachItake
isthisimagineaworldfullofhostsformemes(e.g.brains)andfarmore
memesthancanpossiblyfindhomes.Nowaskwhichmemesaremore
likelytofindasafehomeandgetpassedonagain?Itsthatsimple.

IndoingthisItrytofollowsomesimplerules.

First,rememberthatmemes(likegenes)donothaveforesight!
Second,consideronlytheinterestsofthememes,notofthegenesorthe
organism.Memesdonotcareaboutgenesorpeoplealltheydois
reproducethemselves.Shorthandstatementslike"memeswantx"or
"memestrytodoy"mustalwaysbetranslatablebackintothelongerversion,
suchas"memesthathavetheeffectofproducingxaremorelikelytosurvive
thanthosethatdonot."

Third,memes,bydefinition,arepassedonbyimitation.Solearningbytrial
anderrororbyfeedbackisnotmemetic,norareallformsofcommunication.
Onlywhenanidea,behaviourorskillispassedonbyimitationdoesitcount
asameme.

Now,rememberingtheserules,wecanaskthequestionandseewhereit
leads.

Imagineaworldfullofbrains,andfarmorememesthancanpossiblyfind
homes.Whichmemesaremorelikelytofindasafehomeandgetpassedon
again?

Someoftheconsequencesarestartlinglyobviousonceyouseethem.And
somearefrighteninglypowerful.

Ishallstartwithtwosimpleones,partlyasexercisesinthinkingmemetically.

1.Whycantwestopthinking?
Canyoustopthinking?Ifyouhaveevermeditatedyouwillknowjusthow
hardthisisthemindjustseemstokeepblitheringon.Ifwewerethinking
usefulthoughts,practisingmentalskills,orsolvingrelevantproblemsthere
mightbesomepoint,butmostlywedon'tseemtobe.Sowhycantwejustsit
downandnotthink?Fromageneticpointofviewallthisextrathinkingseems
extremelywastefulandanimalsthatwasteenergydon'tsurvive.Memetics
providesasimpleanswer.

Imagineaworldfullofbrains,andfarmorememesthancanpossiblyfind
homes.Whichmemesaremorelikelytofindasafehomeandgetpassedon
again?
Imagineamemethatencouragesitshosttokeeponmentallyrehearsingit,or
atunethatissoeasytohumthatitgoesroundandroundinyourhead,ora
thoughtthatjustcompelsyoutokeepthinkingit.

Imagineincontrastamemethatburiesitselfquietlyinyourmemoryandis
neverrehearsed,oratunethatistoounmemorabletogoroundinyourhead,
orathoughtthatistooboringtothinkagain.

Whichwilldobetter?Otherthingsbeingequal,thefirstlotwill.Rehearsalaids
memory,andyouarelikelytoexpress(orevensing)theideasandtunesthat
fillyourwakinghours.Whatistheconsequence?Thememospherefillsup
withcatchytunes,andthinkablethoughts.Weallcomeacrossthemandso
weallthinkanawfullot.

Theprinciplehereisfamiliarfrombiology.Inaforest,anytreethatgrowstall
getsmorelight.Sogenesforgrowingtallbecomemorecommoninthegene
poolandtheforestendsupbeingashighasthetreescanmakeit.

Wecanapplythesameprincipleagain.

2.Whydowetalksomuch?
Imagineaworldfullofbrains,andfarmorememesthancanpossiblyfind
homes.Whichmemesaremorelikelytofindasafehomeandgetpassedon
again?

Imagineanymemethatencouragestalking.Itmightbeanidealike"talking
makespeoplelikeyou"or"Itsfriendlytochat".Itmightbeanurgentthought
thatyoufeelcompelledtoshare,afunnyjoke,goodnewsthateverybody
wantstohear,oranymemethatthrivesinsideatalkativeperson.

Imagineincontrastanymemethatdiscouragestalking,suchasthethought
"talkingisawasteoftime".Itmightbesomethingyoudarenotvoicealoud,
somethingverydifficulttosay,oranymemethatthrivesinsideashyand
retiringperson.

Whichwilldobetter?Putthiswaytheanswerisobvious.Thefirstlotwillbe
heardbymorepeopleand,otherthingsbeingequal,simplymuststanda
betterchanceofbeingpropagated.Whatistheconsequenceofthis?The
memospherewillfillupwithmemesthatencouragetalkingandwewillalltalk
anawfullot.Andwedo!

Asimplerwayofputtingitisthis:peoplewhotalkmorewill,onaverage,
spreadmorememes.Soanymemeswhichthriveinchatterboxesarelikelyto
spread.

Thismakesmeseeconversationinanewlight.Isallthattalkingreally
foundedonbiologicaladvantage?Talkingtakesalotofenergyandwedotalk
aboutsomedaftandpointlessthings!Dothesetrivialandstupidthoughtsand
conversationshavesomehiddenbiologicaladvantage?

Iwouldatleastliketoofferthesuggestionthattheydonot.Thatwedoallthis
talkingandallthisthinkingmerelybecausethememesthatmakeusdoitare
goodsurvivors.Thememesseemtobeworkingagainstthegenes.

Thissetsthestageforamoreaudacioussuggestion.

3.Whyarewesonicetoeachother?
Ofcoursewearentalwaysnicetoeachother,buthumancooperationand
altruismaresomethingofamysterydespitethetremendousadvancesmade
inunderstandingkinselectionandinclusivefitness,reciprocalaltruismand
evolutionarilystablestrategies(seee.g.Wright,1994;Ridley,1996).Human
societiesexhibitmuchmorecooperationthanistypicalofvertebratesocieties,
andwecooperatewithnonrelativesonamassivescale(Richersonand
Boyd,1992).AsCroninputsit,humanmorality"presentsanobvious
challengetoDarwiniantheory"(Cronin,1991,p325).

Everyonecanprobablythinkuptheirownfavouriteexample.RichardDawkins
(1989p230)callsblooddoning"agenuinecaseofpure,disinterested
altruism".Iammoreimpressedbycharitablegivingtopeopleinfaraway
countrieswhoprobablyshareasfewofourgenesasanyoneonearthand
whomweareunlikelyevertomeet.Andwhydowehandinwalletsfoundin
thestreet,rescueinjuredwildlife,supportecofriendlycompaniesorrecycle
ourbottles?Whydosomanypeoplewanttobepoorlypaidnursesand
counsellors,socialworkersandpsychotherapists,whentheycouldlivein
biggerhouses,attractrichermates,andaffordmorechildreniftheywere
bankers,stockbrokersorlawyers?
Manypeoplebelieveallthismustultimatelybeexplainedintermsofbiological
advantage.Perhapsitwill,butIofferanalternativeforconsideration;a
memetictheoryofaltruism.Wecanuseour,bynow,familiartactic.

Imagineaworldfullofbrains,andfarmorememesthancanpossiblyfind
homes.Whichmemesaremorelikelytofindasafehomeandgetpassedon
again?

Imaginethesortofmemethatencouragesitshosttobefriendlyandkind.It
mightbeamemeforthrowinggoodparties,forbeinggenerouswiththe
homemademarmalade,orjustbeingpreparedtospendtimelisteningtoa
friendswoes.Nowcomparethiswithmemesforbeingunfriendlyandmean
nevercookingpeopledinnersorbuyingdrinks,andrefusingtogiveyourtime
toothers.Whichwillspreadmorequickly?

Thefirsttype,ofcourse.Peopleliketobewithnicepeople.Sothosewho
harbourlotsoffriendlinessmemeswillspendmoretimewithothersandhave
morechancestospreadtheirmemes.Inconsequencemanyofuswillendup
harbouringlotsofmemesforbeingnicetoothers.

Asimplerwayofputtingitisthis:peoplewhoarealtruisticwill,onaverage,
spreadmorememes.Soanymemeswhichthriveinaltruisticpeoplearelikely
tospreadincludingthememesforbeingaltruistic.

Youmaywishtochallengeanyoftheabovesteps.Itisthereforereassuring
tolearnfrommanyexperimentsinsocialpsychology,thatpeoplearemore
likelytoadoptideasfrompeopletheylike(EaglyandChaiken,1984).
Whetherthisisacauseoraconsequenceoftheaboveargumentis
debatable.Itwouldbemostinterestingifpsychologicalfactslikethis,or
otherssuchascognitivedissonance,ortheneedforselfesteem,couldbe
derivedfromsimplememeticprinciplesbutthatisatopicforanothertime!

Fornowweshouldconsiderwhethertheideaistestable.Itpredictsthat
peopleshouldactinwaysthatbenefitthespreadoftheirmemesevenat
somecosttothemselves.Wearefamiliarwithbuyingusefulinformation,and
withadvertisersbuyingtheirwayintopeoplesmindsforthepurposesof
sellingproducts,butthistheorypredictsthatpeoplewillpay(orwork)simply
tospreadthememestheyholdbecausethememesforcethemto.
MissionariesandJehovahsWitnessesseemto.
Manyaspectsofpersuasionandconversiontocausesmayturnouttoinvolve
memedrivenaltruism.Altruismisyetanotherofthememetricksthatreligions
(thosemostpowerfulofmemecomplexes)havepurloined.Almostallofthem
thriveonmakingtheirmembersworkforthemandbelievetheyaredoing
good.

Ofcourse,beinggenerousisexpensive.Therewillalwaysbepressure
againstit,andifmemescanfindalternativestrategiesforspreadingtheywill.
Forexample,powerfulpeoplemaybeabletospreadmemeswithoutbeing
altruisticatall!However,thatdoesnotchangethebasicargumentthat
altruismspreadsmemes.

Youmayhavenoticedthattheunderlyingthemeinalltheseargumentsisthat
thememesmayactinoppositiontotheinterestofthegenes.Thinkingallthe
timemaynotusemuchenergybutitmustcostsomething.Talkingiscertainly
expensive,asanyonewhohasbeenutterlyexhaustedorseriouslyillwill
attest.Andofcourseanyaltruisticactis,bydefinition,costlytotheactor.

Iwouldsaythatthisisjustwhatweshouldexpectifmemesaretrue
replicators.Theydonotcareaboutthegenesorthecreaturesthegenes
created.Theironlyinterestisselfpropagation.Soiftheycanpropagateby
stealingresourcesfromthegenes,theywilldoso.

Inthenextexampleweseethememesforcingthehandofthegenesina
muchmoredramaticway.

4.Whyareourbrainssobig?
Yes,Iknowthisisanoldchestnut,andtherearelotsandlotsofgood
answerstothequestion.Butaretheygoodenough?Letusnotforgethow
mysteriousthisissuereallyis.Brainsarenotoriouslyexpensivebothtobuild
andtorun.Theytakeupabout2%ofthebodysweightbutuseabout20%of
itsenergy.Ourbrainsarethreetimesthesizeofthebrainsofapesof
equivalentbodysize.Comparedtoothermammalsourencephalisation
quotientisevenhigher,uptoabout25(Jerison,1973;Leakey,1994;Wills,
1993).Onmanymeasuresofbraincapacityhumansstandoutalone.Thefact
thatsuchintelligencehasariseninananimalthatstandsuprightmayormay
notbeacoincidencebutitcertainlyaddstotheproblem.Ourpelvisesarenot
ideallysuitedforgivingbirthtohugebrainsandsochildbirthisariskyprocess
forhumanbeingsyetwedoit.Why?

Themysterywasdeepenedformebythinkingaboutthesizeofthebiological
advantagerequiredforsurvival.Inastudyconcernedwiththefateofthe
Neanderthals,Zubrow(Leakey,1994)usedcomputersimulationsto
determinetheeffectofaslightcompetitiveedge.Heconcludedthata2%
advantagecouldeliminateacompetingpopulationinlessthanamillennium.If
weneededonlysuchatinyadvantagewhydowehavesuchahugeone?

Severalanswershaverecentlybeenproposed.Forexample,Dunbar(1996)
arguesthatweneedlargebrainsinordertogossip,andweneedtogossipas
akindofverbalgroomingtokeepverylargebandsofpeopletogether.
ChristopherWills(1993)arguesthattherunawayevolutionofthehuman
brainresultsfromanincreasinglyswiftgeneenvironmentfeedbackloop.
Miller(1993)proposesthatourvastbrainshavebeencreatedbysexual
selection;andRichersonandBoyd(1992)claimtheyareusedforindividual
andsociallearning,favouredunderincreasingratesofenvironmental
variation.

Whattheseauthorsallhaveincommonisthattheirultimateappealistothe
genes.LikeDawkinsbewailedcolleagues,theyalwayswishtogobackto
biologicaladvantage.Iproposeanalternativebasedonmemeticadvantage.

Imagineearlyhominidswho,forgoodbiologicalreasons,gainedtheabilityto
imitateeachotherandtodevelopsimplelanguage.Oncethisstepoccurred
memescouldbegintospread,andthesecondreplicatorwasborn.
Rememberoncethishappenedthegeneswouldnolongerbeabletostop
thespread!Presumablytheearliestmemeswouldbeusefulones,suchas
waysofmakingpotsorknives,orwaysofcatchingordismemberingprey.Let
usassumethatsomepeoplewouldhaveslightlylargerbrainsandthatlarger
brainsarebettercopiers.Asmoreandmorepeoplebegantopickupthese
earlymemes,theenvironmentwouldchangesothatitbecamemoreand
morenecessarytohavethenewskillsinordertosurvive.

Apersonwhocouldquicklylearntomakeagoodpotortellapopularstory
wouldmoreeasilyfindamate,andsosexualselectionwouldaddtothe
pressureforbigbrains.Inthenewenvironmentlargerbrainedpeoplewould
haveanadvantageandtheimportanceoftheadvantagewouldincreaseas
thememesspread.Itseemstomethatthisfundamentalchangeinselection
pressures,spreadingattherateofmemepropagation,providesforthefirst
timeaplausiblereasonwhyourbrainsaretotallyoutoflinewithallother
brainsontheplanet.Theyhavebeenmemedriven.Onereplicatorhasforced
themovesofanother.

5.WhoamI?
Wecannowseethehumanmindasthecreationoftworeplicators,oneusing
foritsreplicationthemachinerycreatedbytheother.AsDennettpointedout,
peopleareanimalsinfestedwithmemes.Ourpersonalities,abilitiesand
uniquequalitiesderivefromthecomplexinterplayofthesereplicators.What
thenofourinnermostselvesthe"realme",thepersonwhoexperiences"my"
life?

Iwouldsaythatselvesarecoadaptedmemecomplexesthoughonlyoneof
manysupportedbyanygivenbrain(Blackmore,1996).Likereligions,political
beliefsystemsandcults,theyaresetsofmemesthatthriveineachothers
company.Likereligions,politicalbeliefsystemsandcults,theyaresafe
havensforallsortsoftravellingmemesandtheyareprotectedfrom
destructionbyvariousmemetricks.Theydonothavetobetrue.

Infactweknowthatselvesareamyth.Lookinsidethebrainandyoufindonly
neurons.Youdonotfindthelittlepersonpullingthestringsorthehomunculus
watchingtheshowonaninnerscreen(Dennett,1991).Youdonotfindthe
placewhere"my"consciousdecisionsaremade.Youdonotfindthething
thatlovinglyholdsallthosebeliefsandopinions.Mostofusstillpersistin
thinkingaboutourselvesthatway.Butthetruthisthereisnooneinthere!

Wenowhavearadicallynewanswertothequestion"WhoamI?",anda
ratherterrifyingone."I"amoneofthemanycoadaptedmemecomplexes
livingwithinthisbrain.Thisscaryideamayexplainwhymemeticsisnotmore
popular.Memeticsdealsaterribleblowtothesupremacyofself.

TheFutureforMemes

Thememesareout!Formostofhumanhistorymemeshaveevolved
alongsidegenes.Theywerepassedonlargelyverticallyfromparenttochild
andthereforeevolvedatmuchthesamerateasgenes.Thisisnolonger
true.Memescanleapfrombraintobraininsecondsevenwhenthebrains
arehalfaplanetapart.

Whilesomememeshangaroundinbrainsforweeks,monthsoryearsbefore
beingpassedon,manynowspreadinmultiplecopiesatthespeedoflight.
Theinventionofthetelephone,faxmachineandemailallincreasethespeed
ofpropagationofmemes.Ashighspeed,accurate,horizontalcopyingof
memesincreaseswecanexpectsomedramaticdevelopmentsinthe
memosphere.

First,thefastermemesspreadtheweakeristheholdofnatural(genetic)
selection.Thisrelativeuncouplingofgenesandmemesmaymeanthatmore
thaneverbeforememeswillspreadthataredetrimentaltotheircarriers.We
maybeseeingthisalreadywithsomeofthedangerouscults,fads,political
systems,copycatcrimesandfalsebeliefsthatcannowspreadsoquickly.

Second,wemayexpectmemestobuildthemselveseverbettervehiclesfor
theirownpropagation.Geneshavebuiltthemselvesorganismstocarrythem
aroundin.Whatisthememicequivalent?Artifactssuchasbooks,paintings,
toolsandaeroplanesmightcount(Dennett,1995)buttheyarefeeble
comparedwithcomputersortheInternet.Eventheserecentinventionsare
stilllargelydependentonhumansfortheirfunctioning,andonthegenes
thosehumansarecarryingafterall,sexisthemostpopulartopiconthe
internet.Socanthesecondreplicatoreverreallybreakfree?Itmightifever
weconstructrobotsthatdirectlyimitateeachother.Fortunatelythisissucha
difficulttaskthatitwillnotbeachievedverysoonandperhapsbythenwewill
haveabetterunderstandingofmemeticsandbeinabetterpositiontocope
withournewneighbours.

Conclusion
Ihaveshownhowatheoryofmemeticsprovidesnewanswerstosome
importantquestionsabouthumannature.IfIamright,thenwehumansare
theproductoftworeplicators,notjustone.Inthepasthundredyearswehave
successfullythrownofftheillusionthataGodisneededtounderstandthe
designofourbodies.Perhapsinthenextmilleniumwecanthrowoffthe
illusionthatconsciousagentsareneededtounderstandthedesignofour
minds.
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