Energy & Fuels | 3b2 | ver.9 | 10/12/09 | 21:10 | Msc: ef-2009-00688v | TEID: mjp00 | BATID: 00000 | Pages: 9.

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Energy Fuels XXXX, XXX, 000000 : DOI:10.1021/ef900688v

1 Full Engine Cycle CFD Investigation of Effects of Variable Intake Valve

2 Closing on Diesel PCCI Combustion and Emissions
3 Zhijun Peng and Ming Jia*,

4 School of Engineering and Design, University of Sussex, U.K., and School of Energy and Power Engineering,
5 Dalian University of Technology, China

6 Received July 3, 2009. Revised Manuscript Received September 30, 2009

7 A full-cycle three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model coupled with detailed chemical
8 kinetics has been developed to investigate the effect of late intake valve closing (IVC) on combustion and
9 emission characteristics in a diesel engine with premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) combustion.
10 The application of late IVC was demonstrated to provide efficient control of ignition timing and significant
11 reduction of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and soot emissions by decreasing the effective compression ratio and
12 increasing premixing, but it possibly led to increases of hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO)
13 emissions due to low combustion temperature and insufficient oxygen amount. Parametric studies by
14 varying intake pressure, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rate and start of injection (SOI) timing with
15 varied IVC timing were conducted to explore the potential of late IVC for emission reduction in diesel
16 PCCI engines. The results showed that, with assistance of increasing intake pressure, late IVC could reduce
17 NOx, soot, HC, and CO emissions simultaneously. A certain EGR rate and optimized SOI timing were
18 always necessary to maintain satisfactory NOx and soot emissions for diesel PCCI combustion.

1. Introduction oriented HCCI combustion. Under very low load condition, 42

19 When a fully mixed air-fuel mixture with possible dilution
20 of excess air and/or residual/exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
21 gases is compressed in an IC engine cylinder to a temperature
22 for autoignition, the engine operates in homogeneous charge
23 compression ignition (HCCI) mode. For the automobile
24 industry, HCCI combustion is an attractive alternative to
25 spark ignition (SI) combustion because of potentials for
26 improving the fuel economy and dramatically reducing nitro-
27 gen oxides (NOx) emissions and to compression ignition (CI)
28 combustion due to potentials for substantially reducing NOx
29 and particulate matter (PM) simultaneously while maintains
30 the engine efficiency as that of conventional diesel engines.
31 However, with near 20 years of broad research, the inherent
32 difficult and sensitive combustion control is still the major
33 challenger for HCCI combustion because ignition timing
34 cannot be directly controlled, as is the case in conventional
35 internal combustion engines which have fuel injection or
36 spark ignition to determine the ignition timing.1-4
37 When the broad research of HCCI combustion was just
38 started in the mid-1990s, it was thought that the more homo-
39 geneous the charge was, the better combustion performance
40 achieved for HCCI mode. But now it has been found that the
41 fully homogeneous is not always essential, especially for diesel
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. Telephone: 86 138
42870115. E-mail: jiaming@dlut.edu.cn.
(1) Blom, D.; Karlsson, M.; Ekholm, K.; Tunestal, P.; Johansson, R.
HCCI engine modeling and control using conservation principles. SAE
Paper 2008-01-0789.
(2) Hardy, A. J. J.; Heywood, J.; Kenney, T. Fuel economy benefit
and aftertreatment requirements of a naturally aspirated HCCI - SI
engine system. SAE Paper 2008-01-2512.
(3) Kim, H. M.; Kim, Y. J.; Lee, K. H. Energy Fuels 2008, 22 (3),
15421548.
(4) Silke, E. J.; Pitz, W. J.; Westbrook, C. K.; Sjoberg, M.; Dec, J. E.
Understanding the chemical effects of increased boost pressure under
HCCI conditions. SAE Paper 2008-01-0019.
some range stratification can improve operation stability due 43
to those rich mixtures that can help for increasing the combus- 44
tion speed. When the engine load is increased close to the full 45
load, a certain stratification can decrease the in-cylinder 46
pressure increasing rate, then reduce the knocking trend and 47
expand the operating region of HCCI combustion. Therefore, 48
the current trend for diesel-oriented HCCI combustion is to 49
advance fuel injection to some time earlier than traditional 50
timing, but not very early. Although this can avoid the fuel 51
spray to be injected out of the combustion chamber, the whole 52
combustion is mainly dominated by the premixed stage. 53
Currently, premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) 54
has gradually become a preferable name for describing this 55
kind diesel-oriented HCCI combustion.3,5-7 56
With regard to the diesel PCCI technology, because of the 57
low volatility and high ignitability of diesel fuel, technical 58
barriers still come from insufficient mixture preparation 59
and locally very rich mixture before the autoignition takes 60
place, if a conventional DI diesel combustion system and 61
compression ratio is used.3,8-10 When various variable valve 62
(5) Lee, S.-S. Investigation of two low emissions strategies for diesel
engines: Premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) and stoichio-
metric combustion. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison:
2006.
(6) Murata, Y.; Kusaka, J.; Daisho, Y.; Kawano, D.; Suzuki, H.;
Ishii, H.; Goto, Y. Miller-PCCI combustion in an HSDI diesel engine
with VVT. SAE Paper 2008-01-0644.
(7) Nevin, R. M.; Sun, Y.; Gonzalez, M. A.; Reitz, R. D. PCCI
investigation using variable intake valve closing in a heavy duty diesel
engine. SAE Paper 2007-01-0903.
(8) Chan, T. L.; Cheng, X. B. Energy Fuels 2007, 21 (3), 14831492.
(9) Peng, Z. J.; Jia, M. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part D 2008, 222 (6),
10471064.
(10) Zhao, F.; Asmus, T. W.; Assanis, D. N.; Dec, J. E.; Eng, J. A.;
Najt, P. M., Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) En-
gines: Key Research and Development Issues; Society of Automotive
Engineers: Warrendate, PA, 2003.

r XXXX American Chemical Society A pubs.acs.org/EF

 Energy Fuels XXXX, XXX, 000000 : DOI:10.1021/ef900688v Peng and Jia

Figure 1. Summaries of the influence of late IVC on engine emissions and performance from recent published experimental data (LIVC: late
IVC; r: advance; V: decrease; v: increase; ;: remain constant).

63 actuation (VVA) technologies are proposed as promising were conducted. The results indicated that late IVC resulted in 89
64 solutions to HCCI/PCCI combustion, because of its fast a 90% NOx reduction at high speed and intermediate 90
65 response time,11,12 late intake valve closing (IVC) has been load with constant airflow and no EGR. With the help of late 91
66 studied for achieving lower effective compression ratio to IVC, less EGR is required to achieve the same NOx emissions, 92
67 allow a longer time for mixture preparation before the while CO and PM could be dramatically reduced by 93
68 autoignition take places. This can avoid too advanced ignition nearly 70%. 94
69 timing before top dead centre (TDC) and also be used Furthermore, He et al.14 experimentally investigated the 95
70 to adjust the ignition timing to be at the right position feasibility of using late IVC to improve the performance and 96
71 around TDC for better thermal efficiency and lower NOx emissions of diesel engine with a fully flexible valve actuation 97
72 emissions. system. It is found that late IVC reduced NOx emissions by 98
73 Some research for using late IVC to optimize PCCI com- approximately 25-50% while EGR, intake manifold tem- 99
74 bustion can be found from the work of Helmantel and perature, air-fuel ratio, and combustion phasing were kept 100
75 Denbratt,13 who tested several valve timing strategies for fixed, by only changing boost pressure and injection timing. 101
76 controlling diesel PCCI combustion with a Lotus adjustable Late IVC significantly reduced PM emissions, and more than 102
77 valve timing system. In their experiments a five-split injection 95% PM reduction was observed at some operating condi- 103
78 was introduced, and the combustion phasing was adjusted by tions. For the same NOx emission level, late IVC reduced 104
79 the combination of IVC timing and EGR rate. Lower fuel the EGR requirement by 15-25%. Walter et al.15 evaluated 105
80 consumption was achieved by late IVC due to the reduction of the potential of VVA for diesel PCCI combustion in a single 106
81 pumping losses. However, their results also indicated that cylinder engine with several intake and exhaust VVA config- 107
82 VVA could not be used as a replacement for EGR due to the urations. It is found that the reduction of compression ratio by 108
83 limit of knock intensity. Another example from Nevin et al.7 late IVC was not beneficial for the expansion of near-zero 109
84 incorporated a hydraulically actuated variable IVC system NOx area due to the decrease of total mass trapped inside 110
85 into a single cylinder diesel engine to explore the potential of the cylinder and limited equivalent ratio at a given intake 111
86 intake valve actuation on a heavy-duty diesel engine. Para- pressure. 112
87 metric studies by varying IVC, EGR rate, intake manifold It can be seen that late IVC has a complex influence on 113
88 pressure, fueling rate, injection pressure, and injection timing engine performance and emissions, and those influences can 114
be significantly combined with other operating parameters 115
(11) Benajes, J.; Novella, R.; Garcia, A.; Arthozoul, S. Energy Fuels including EGR rate, intake pressure, injection timing, and 116
2009, 23 (6), 28912902. fueling rate etc. As shown in Figure 1, the effect of late IVC on 117
(12) Murata, Y.; Kawano, D.; Kusaka, J.; Daisho, Y.; Suzuki., H.;
Ishii, H.; Goto, Y.; Odaka, M. Achievement of medium engine speed
and load premixed diesel combustion with variable valve timing. SAE (14) He, X.; Durrett, R.; Sun, Z. Late intake valve closing as an
Paper 2006-01-0203 emissions control strategy at tier 2 bin 5 engine-out NOx level. SAE
(13) Helmantel, A.; Denbratt, I. HCCI operation of a passenger car Paper 2008-01-0637.
DI diesel engine with an adjustable valve train. SAE Paper (15) Walter, B.; Pacaud, P.; Gatellier, B. Oil Gas Sci. Technol. 2008, 63
2006-01-0029. (4), 517534.
B
 Energy Fuels XXXX, XXX, 000000 : DOI:10.1021/ef900688v Peng and Jia

118 CO, HC, NOx, and soot emissions, as well as indicated specific their simulations with the simple assumption that the in- 173
119 fuel consumption (ISFC) and noise from several recent cylinder pressure and temperature conditions at IVC were 174
120 published experimental data are summarized. The low com- the same as those in the intake manifold regardless of what 175
121 bustion temperature induced by late IVC could help the time the intake valve closes. This simplification could lead to 176
122 reduction of NOx emissions and engine noise. However, it two problems: (1) the effective compression ratio was under- 177
123 also leads to the increase of HC emissions. Late IVC prolongs estimated, which was resulted from the fact that the gas in the 178
124 ignition delay and improves charge homogeneity inside the cylinder was partially compressed due to the high flow 179
125 cylinder, which reduces NOx and soot emissions. On the other resistance across the intake valve before IVC;14 (2) the in- 180
126 hand, since late IVC allows some intake gases to be expelled cylinder flow induced by the valve motion could not be taken 181
127 out the cylinder during the compression stroke, the amount of account of, and its further influence on mixing and combus- 182
128 oxygen available for the combustion is reduced, and this tion processes was ignored. 183
129 could cause the increase of soot emissions. Higher boost In this paper, the full engine cycle simulation was performed 184
130 pressure can help to maintain the in-cylinder gas density by using a 3D CFD model coupled with detailed chemical 185
131 when late IVC is used, but this increases the compression kinetics to understand the impact of late IVC on fuel-air 186
132 work and thus possibly leads to higher ISFC. CO emissions mixing and combustion characteristics in a diesel PCCI 187
133 have a more complicated behavior for late IVC, and it is engine. Specifically, the potential of late IVC combined with 188
134 sensitive to both combustion temperature and local air-fuel variable intake pressure, EGR rate, start of injection (SOI) for 189
135 ratio. emissions reduction was investigated to give a better solution 190
136 With the help of computational modeling, deeper insights for future diesel PCCI engine. 191
137 into the influence of late IVC on diesel PCCI could be
138 obtained. Lancefield16 carried out an one-dimensional model 2. Test Engine 192

139 to identify the potential of VVA on fuel economy in a light- The engine simulated in this work was derived from a Ford 193
140 -duty diesel engine at part loads. It is claimed that brake four-cylinder, high-speed direct-injection (HSDI) diesel en- 194
141 specific fuel consumption (BSFC) can be improved by up to gine with a displacement of 0.5 L/cylinder. There were four 195
142 19% with late IVC combining the calibration of variable valves on each cylinder with two intake and two exhaust 196
143 geometry turbocharger (VGT) and EGR systems. Similar valves. A major modification to the original engine was 197
144 work was conduced by Yang and Keller17 recently, who found decreasing the compression ratio from 18.2 to 16.0 in order 198
145 that late IVC coupled with VGT can reduced NOx emissions to realize PCCI combustion. Under the help of genetic algo- 199
146 by 24% due to the decreased peak combustion temperature. rithm optimization,20 a new piston with an open-crater-type 200
147 Genzale et al.18 used a multidimensional computational bowl and a six-hole nozzle with spray included angle of 120 201
148 fluid dynamics (CFD) model to explore the effectiveness of was designed for better mixture preparation. The injector was 202
149 late IVC in controlling diesel PCCI combustion phasing over installed vertically in the central point of the cylinder with a 203
150 various loads, engine speeds, and boost pressures. It indicated protrusion of 1.30 mm. Although the max possible injection 204
151 that the application of late IVC could optimize combustion pressure of the injection system was 180 MPa, the injection 205
152 phasing and increase work output, thus allowing the possibi- pressure in this research was kept at 150 MPa. Relevant engine 206
153 lity to employ PCCI operation at higher loads. The model was specifications are summarized in Table 1. This study focused 207
154 also applied to investigate the effect of IVC timing on emis- on the part-load operating conditions with the BMEP of 208
155 sions characteristics in diesel PCCI engines by Park and around 659.4 kPa (in fact, the fuelling was fixed at 21.8 mg/ 209
156 Reitz.19 It was pointed out that IVC timing variation was cycle) and the engine speed of 1600 rpm. The corresponding 210
157 effective to control the combustion to occur within the low operating conditions tested in this study are shown in Table 2. 211
158 emission window. A more detailed study based on equivalence A full 360 mesh comprised of 132 000 cells at BDC was used 212
159 ratio-temperature map and three-dimensional (3D) CFD to model the engine, and the computational grid is shown in 213
160 model was conducted by Murata et al.6,12 They found that Figure 2. 214
161 the use of late IVC combined with a large amount of EGR
162 simultaneously reduced NOx and soot emissions while main- 3. Numerical Model 215
163 taining the fuel consumption performance, since local max- 3.1. Model Details. The CFD code used in present study is 216
164 imum combustion temperature was lowered and local over- KIVA-3 V.21 To gain better predictions, various physical 217
165 rich regions were avoided during the combustion process. and chemistry submodels in KIVA-3 V have been updated as 218
166 All previous studies show the potential of late IVC for listed in Table 3. The turbulent flows were modeled using the 219
167 future diesel PCCI engine with the reduction of pollutant RNG k- turbulence model,22 modified for variable-density 220
168 emissions and/or the improvement of fuel economy. However, engine flows. Spray was represented by a particle method 221
169 the impact of late IVC on fuel-air mixing and combustion and several submodels were included in the code to account 222
170 processes is still not fully understood. Although multidimen- for spray atomization, breakup, collision, vaporization and 223
171 sional model has been used by Genzale et al.18 and Murata spray/wall interaction.21 Kelvin-Helmholtz Rayleigh-Taylor 224
172 et al.,6,12 the gas exchange processes were not considered in (KH-RT) model23 was used to simulate the breakup process 225

(16) Lancefield, T. The influence of variable valve actuation on the
part- load fuel economy of a modern light-duty diesel engine. SAE Paper
2003-01-0028.
(17) Yang, B.; Keller, P. Analysis of diesel engine emissions reduction
by late intake valve close and vtg turbocharger using 1-d simulation.
SAE Paper 2008-01-2444.
(18) Genzale, C. L.; Kong, S. C.; Reitz, R. D. J. Eng. Gas Turbines
Power 2008, 130 (5), 05280610528068.
(19) Park, S. W.; Reitz, R. D. Combust. Sci. Technol. 2007, 179 (11),
22792307.
C
(20) Boyarski, N. J.; Reitz, R. D. Premixed compression ignition
(PCI) combustion with modeling-generated piston bowl geometry in a
diesel engine. SAE Paper 2006-01-0198.
(21) Amsden, A. A. KIVA-3V: A block-structured KIVA program for
engines with vertical or canted values, Technical Report LA-13313-MS;
Los Alamos National Laboratory:1997.
(22) Han, Z. Y.; Reitz, R. D. Combust. Sci. Technol. 1995, 106 (4-6),
267295.
(23) Ricart, L. M.; Reitz, R. D.; Dec, J. E. J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power
2000, 122 (4), 588595.
 Energy Fuels XXXX, XXX, 000000 : DOI:10.1021/ef900688v Peng and Jia

Table 1. Engine Specifications Table 3. Computational Models

displacement 0.50 L turbulent model RNG k- model22
bore  stroke 86 mm  86 mm breakup model KH-RT model23
compression ratio 16.0:1 collision model Nordin model24
piston geometry open-crater-type bowl spray/wall interaction model Han model25
valve arrangement 4 valves per cylinder: 2 intake valves heat transfer from the wall Han and Reitz model26
2 exhaust valves combustion model CHEMKIN30
intake ports one helical shaped, one tangential shaped fuel chemistry reduced n-heptane mechanism27
fuel injection system common-rail high pressure injection system soot mechanism phenomenological soot model28
maximum injection 180 MPa NOx mechanism extended Zeldovich mechanism
pressure
nozzle hole diameter 0.12 mm Table 4. Constants in KH-RT Model
nozzle hole number 6
spray hole cone angle 120 constant explanation value
valve timing (for IVC, IVO 10 BTDC
baseline) C jet breakup length 30
IVC 40 ABDC B0 product droplet radius for KH 0.61
EVO 50 BBDC B1 time scale for KH 18
EVC 10 ATDC C3 product droplet radius for RT 2.5
C time scale for RT 1.0

of n-heptane to those of diesel fuel. In addition, the extended 241

Zeldovich mechanism and an improved phenomenological 242
soot model28 were employed to calculate NOx and soot 243
emissions, respectively. Based on recent findings of Singh 244
et al.,29 the CHEMKIN solver30 was integrated into KIVA-3 245
V code to solve the chemical reaction mechanism without 246
considering the subgrid-scale turbulence-chemistry interac- 247
tion in this study. 248
Recently, by comparing three different combustion 249
submodels, that is, characteristic time combustion (CTC), 250
representative interactive flamelet, (RIF) and direct inte- 251
gration using detailed chemistry (KIVA-CHEMKIN) under 252
operating strategies with significant premixing of fuel and air 253
Figure 2. Computational mesh. prior to ignition, Singh et al.29 revealed that the predictions 254
from the KIVA-CHEMKIN submodel agreed best with 255

Table 2. Operating Conditions experimental observations of the location of ignition sites 256
and the spatial distribution of soot and OH than others 257
engine speed 1600 rpm without the need to account for subgrid scale turbulence- 258
intake pressure 1.5, 1.8, and 2.1 bar
intake air temperature 360 K chemistry interactions. Because the conditions simulated in 259
EGR rate 40, 45, and 50% this study were under the low temperature combustion 260
injection pressure 150 MPa regime with early fuel injection (similar to those investigated 261
start of injection (SOI) 30, 20, and 10 BTDC by Singh et al.29), the CHEMKIN solver was integrated into 262
fuel flow rate 21.8 mg/cyc
the KIVA-3 V code to solve the chemical reaction mechan- 263
226 of injected droplets with those constants in KH-RT model ism without considering the subgrid-scale turbulence-chem- 264
227 given in Table 4. The collision model developed by Nordin24 istry interaction. 265
228 with the improvement of grid independence was integrated 3.2. Model Validations. The computational model was 266
229 into the KIVA-3 V code, and the spray/wall interaction validated by the experiments conducted by Lee5 in a HSDI 267
230 model used here was developed by Han et al.25 with the diesel engine. In the test engine, a nozzle with narrow spray 268
231 consideration of the gas density in computing the size of included angle (120) and 8 holes, an open-crater-type 269
232 secondary droplets in the splash process. Heat transfer from combustion chamber, 55% EGR, and a low compression 270
233 the wall was simulated by the Han and Reitz model,26 which (16.0) were designed for the realization of diesel PCCI 271
234 accounts for the variations in the gas density and the combustion. The detailed experimental setup can be found 272
235 turbulent Prandtl number in the boundary layer. in ref 5. With regard to the boundary conditions and para- 273
236 Diesel fuel model DF2 (C12H26 Cummins model21) was meters in the model, a zero-dimensional model was em- 274
237 used to model the nonchemical-kinetic processes of diesel ployed to calculate the intake mixture compositions, in 275
238 fuel. While a reworded n-heptane reaction mechanism with particular with different EGR rate. It was assumed that the 276
239 29 species and 52 reactions27 was chosen to simulate the combustion of the fuel was burned completely, and a multi- 277
240 diesel fuel chemistry due to the similar ignition characteristics cycle simulation was conducted until the unchanged 278
in-cylinder compositions after IVC were obtained. As this 279

(24) Nordin, N. Complex chemistry modeling of diesel spray combus-

tion; Ph.D. Thesis, Chalmers University: 2001.
(25) Han, Z. Y.; Xu, Z.; Trigui, N. Int. J. Engine Res. 2000, 1 (1), 127
146.
(26) Han, Z. Y.; Reitz, R. D. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 1997, 40 (3),
613625.
(27) Patel, A.; Kong, S. C.; Reitz, R. D. Development and validation
of reduced reaction mechanism for HCCI engine simulation. SAE Paper
2004-01-0558.
D
(28) Jia, M.; Peng, Z. J.; Xie, M. Z. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Part D
2009, 223 (3), 395412.
(29) Singh, S.; Reitz, R. D.; Musculus, M. P. B.; Lachaux, T. Int. J.
Engine Res. 2007, 8 (1), 97126.
(30) Kee, R. J.; Rupley, F. M.; Meeks, E.; Miller, J. A. CHEMKIN-
III: A Fortran Chemical Kinetics Package for the Analysis of Gasphase
Chemical and Plasma Kinetics, SAND96-8216; Sandia National Labora-
tories: 1996.
 Energy Fuels XXXX, XXX, 000000 : DOI:10.1021/ef900688v Peng and Jia

Figure 3. Comparison between measured and simulated in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate for two selected cases.

Figure 4. Comparison between measured and simulated emission data for various SOI timings.

280 research was concentrated on the influence of IVC, the take combustion temperature. The early ignition timing also led 297
281 temperature was kept constantly at 360 K for all cases. to lower HC and CO emissions, as well as increased NOx 298
282 For the model validation, the cases with SOI timing emissions. As SOI timing was retarded from 30 to 20 CA 299
283 sweeping from 43 to 2 CA BTDC were simulated. Figure 3 BTDC, the soot and CO emissions slightly decrease. During 300
284 shows the calculated pressure and heat release rate histories this period, spray directly impinged on the corner region of 301
285 with corresponding experimental data for SOI 43 CA the piston bowl, and the mixing process played a very 302
286 BTDC and SOI 25 CA BTDC. It can be seen that the important role. As SOI timing was further retarded beyond 303
287 simulated results show in very good agreement with the 20 CA BTDC, soot emissions increased again, which was 304
288 measurements. The simulated and measured HC, CO, caused by the diffusion-dominant combustion arising from 305
289 NOx, and soot emissions for 10 different SOI timings are the limited mixing time. Only partial fuel was oxidized when 306
290 shown in Figure 4. It can be seen that the overall trend of SOI timing was further retarded later than 15 BTDC due to 307
291 emissions were well captured by the model. Especially, the the low combustion temperature induced by the low com- 308
292 complicated behavior of soot emissions with the variation of pression ratio and high EGR level, which resulted in more 309
293 SOI timing was well reproduced. As SOI timing was advan- HC and CO emissions and less NOx and soot emissions. 310
294 ced from 30 CA BTDC toward 43 CA BTDC, soot It should be noted that there still exist some discrepan- 311
295 was significantly reduced due to the longer mixing time, cies between the predictions and measurements. Especially, 312
296 which helped form more homogeneous charge and higher most emissions were under-predicted by the simulation. 313

E
 Energy Fuels XXXX, XXX, 000000 : DOI:10.1021/ef900688v Peng and Jia

Figure 5. Valve lift profiles (Profile A).

Figure 7. Effects of late IVC timing on swirl ratio development.

Figure 6. Effects of late IVC timing on in-cylinder pressure and

apparent heat release rate (Pin = 1.8 bar, EGR = 50%, SOI = 20
BTDC).
Figure 8. Tumble and swirl ratios at 340 CA for four IVC timings.
314 This might be caused by the uncertainties in the chemical
increased rapidly by the induction of inflow during the intake 346
315 kinetics model used in this study. Considering that the
stroke. Because the period with maximum intake valve lift 347
316 emission prediction are always the most difficult for diesel
was extended for late IVC case, more mixture with higher 348
317 engine combustion especially for soot emissions, those re-
discharge velocity was induced from the intake port to the 349
318 sults make it confident to apply the present model to predict
cylinder, which led to a higher swirl ratio at 175 CA (near 350
319 engine performance and emission characteristics for diesel
BDC) for IVC = 240, 260, and 280 CA. However, for the 351
320 PCCI engine with different late IVC strategies.
case with IVC = 280 CA, a large amount of mixture was 352
expelled out of the cylinder during the compression stroke, 353
321 4. Results and Discussion
and it resulted in significant reduction of the swirl ratio at 354
322 4.1. Effects of Purely Varied IVC. Four different IVC 300 CA. 355
323 timings were first explored for investigating the effect of late The tumble and swirl ratios at SOI (340 CA) are shown in 356
324 IVC on diesel PCCI combustion. As shown in Figure 5, IVC Figure 8. It can be seen that the case with 240 CA IVC 357
325 timing was delayed from 220 to 280 CA (40 to 100 CA timing had highest swirl ratio due to the enhanced induction 358
326 ABDC), while the exhaust valve lift profiles and maximum flow in the intake stroke. Swirl ratio was decreased as IVC 359
327 intake valve lift were fixed in the four tested cases. To focus timing was further retarded because the outward flow from 360
328 on the impact of late IVC, all other tested conditions were the cylinder to the intake port at the beginning of the 361
329 kept constant in this section, including 20 CA BTDC SOI compression process destroyed the in-cylinder swirl motion. 362
330 timing, 1.8 bar intake pressure, and 50% EGR rate. It can also be found that the dominant tumble motion 363
331 In Figure 6, the effect of late IVC timing on in-cylinder (Tumble X Ratio), Tumble Y Ratio, decreased significantly 364
332 pressure and apparent heat release rate is shown. It can be as the IVC timing was delayed. 365
333 found that the ignition timing was efficiently controlled by Effects of late IVC on NOx and soot emissions are 366
334 IVC timing due to the variation of the effective compression presented in Figure 9. NOx emission was reduced by up to 367
335 ratio. When the IVC timing was gradually retarded to half when IVC timing was retarded from 220 CA to later 368
336 around 270 CA, the ignition can take place just before than 260 CA. In the mean time, soot emissions was also 369
337 TDC and then result in the combustion phasing just located reduced when IVC timing kept continuous retarding over 370
338 around TDC. This led to the improvement of thermal 250 CA, although it had some increase around 240 CA. 371
339 efficiency by reducing negative work during the compression Trend of NOx and soot emissions with the variation of IVC 372
340 stroke. timing can be explained by the distributions of temperature 373
341 Regarding the effect of varied IVC timing on in-cylinder and equivalence ratio in the combustion process, as shown in 374
342 gas motion, which is always very important for diesel Figure 10 for the comparisons IVC = 220 and 260 CA at 375
343 combustion process, the development histories of swirl ratio 360 CA. It should be noted that the calculation of equiva- 376
344 for four IVC timings are shown in Figure 7. Similar trend can lence ratio in Figure 10b was based on the intermediate and 377
345 be observed for all the tested cases. The swirl ratio was product compositions in the mixture. As IVC timing was 378

F
 Energy Fuels XXXX, XXX, 000000 : DOI:10.1021/ef900688v Peng and Jia

Figure 9. Effects of late IVC timing on NOx and soot emissions.

Figure 11. and T conditions at 360 CA for IVC = 220 and

I260 CA on a calculated -T map.

Figure 10. Comparisons of temperature and equivalence ratio dis-

tributions at 360 CA for IVC = 220 and 260 CA. Figure 12. Effects of late IVC timing on HC and CO emissions.

379 delayed from 220 to 260 CA, the high temperature combus- zero-dimensional, closed perfectly stirred reactor under var- 408
380 tion area was reduced significantly due to the lower effective ious temperature and equivalence ratio conditions with 50% 409
381 compression ratio. This is the key reason for the reduction of EGR rate and constant pressure of 10 MPa, which corre- 410
382 NOx emissions. For IVC = 260 CA, more mixture with rich sponded to average in-cylinder peak pressure. The reaction 411
383 fuel was observed near the corner region of the piston bowl, time was assumed to be 1.0 ms, which was close to the 412
384 Figure 10b. This was primarily due to the fact that more fuel average combustion duration investigated in this study. As 413
385 impinges on the piston top, because of the lower ambient shown in Figure 11, it was suggested that most of the soot 414
386 pressure and temperature for late IVC timing. Moreover, the formed in the region of temperature from 1600 to 2200 K and 415
387 intake gas flowing back into the intake port for late IVC equivalence ratio higher than 2.0. The source of NOx region 416
388 resulted in less oxygen entraining into the cylinder and the mainly lay in the region where temperature exceeded 2200 K 417
389 decrease of swirl and tumble motion, increasing the rich and equivalence ratio lower than 2.0. 418
390 mixture amount. Although the fuel-rich region was the By plotting practical equivalence ratio and temperature 419
391 source of soot emissions, there was not more soot observed distributions in individual grid at 360 CA for IVC = 220 420
392 for the case of IVC = 260 CA than that of IVC = 220 CA. and 260 CA on Figure 11 (red and blue dots), possibilities of 421
393 The main reason is probably that the prolonged ignition NOx and soot emissions for those two IVC timings could be 422
394 delay for IVC = 260 CA provides longer mixing time prior demonstrated. Comparing to those results shown in Figures 9 423
395 to ignition. In Figure 10b, it can found that 260 CA IVC and 10, similar trends were achieved for those two cases. 424
396 timing has obviously a bigger mixing zone than 220 CA. In Obviously less NOx emission but similar soot emission was 425
397 Figure 9, the best variation of IVC timing for NOx and soot possible for the case of IVC = 260 CA, compared to IVC = 426
398 emissions was from 250 to 280 CA, which resulted in solid 220 CA. 427
399 reductions for both NOx and soot emissions. The variations of HC and CO emissions with IVC timing 428
400 To better understand the source of NOx and soot emis- are presented in Figure 12. It was observed that CO emis- 429
401 sions in diesel PCCI combustion and the potential of late sions increased significantly for the late IVC cases. More fuel 430
402 IVC for improving the trade-off between these two emis- impinges on the piston top due to the relatively lower 431
403 sions, an -T (equivalence ratio-temperature) map was ambient pressure for late IVC timing was the main cause of 432
404 developed based on the method described in works of the higher CO emissions. The good point is that HC emission 433
405 Akihama et al.31 and Bergman et al.32 Those results of did not keep increasing after IVC timing more than 240 CA. 434
406 NOx and soot areas shown in the figure with different This is probably due to the increase of peak temperature 435
407 gray scale were created by performing calculations in a combustion area, which can be seen in Figure 10b. When 436
IVC was at 280 CA, HC emission was around 13.5 g/kg fuel 437
(31) Akihama, K.; Takatori, Y.; Inagaki, K.; Sasaki, S.; Dean, A. M. and CO emission was around 134 g/kg fuel. 438
Mechanism of the smokeless rich diesel combustion by reducing tem- 4.2. Effects of Varied IVC Combined with Adjusted Intake 439
perature. SAE Paper 2001-01-0655. Pressure. Results from the last section for higher soot, HC, 440
(32) Bergman, M.; Golovitchev, V. Application of transient tempera-
ture vs. Equivalence ratio emission maps to engine simulations. SAE and CO emissions with some retarded IVC indicate that an 441
Paper 2007-01-1086. increase of in-cylinder oxygen amount may be helpful to 442

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 Energy Fuels XXXX, XXX, 000000 : DOI:10.1021/ef900688v Peng and Jia

Figure 14. Comparisons fuel mass fraction distributions at 345 CA

for Pin = 1.5 and 1.8 bar.

Figure 15. and T conditions at 360 CA for the case with IVC =
Figure 13. Effects of late IVC and intake pressure on engine emis- 220 CA, Pin = 1.5 bar and the case with IVC = 260 CA, Pin = 1.8
sions (EGR = 50%, SOI = 20 BTDC). bar on a calculated -T map.

443 achieve an acceptable level for all emissions when late IVC is of more NOx. On the other hand, higher dilution with 478
444 employed. In this section, further investigation for late IVC increased intake pressure helped the drop of local maximum 479
445 with increased boost pressure is introduced. Three intake combustion temperature, then resulting in a decrease of NOx 480
446 pressures (pressures in the intake manifold), 1.5, 1.8, and 2.1 emissions. Overall, increasing the intake pressure from 1.5 to 481
447 bar, were explored under the same IVC timings described in 1.8 bar does not affect the NOx emissions significantly. The 482
448 the last section. same findings were also indicated by the experiments con- 483
449 In Figure 13, the engine emission characteristics under ducted by Nevin et al.7 Further increasing the intake pressure 484
450 three intake pressures and four IVC timings are shown. It can to 2.1 bar, a slight increase of NOx emissions under all the 485
451 be found that the increase of oxygen amount benefited the IVC timing can be found in Figure 13, because the increased 486
452 complete combustion very much since HC, CO, and soot oxygen concentration plays a more important role in the 487
453 emissions decreased substantially with the intake pressure formation of NOx. 488
454 increased from 1.5 to 1.8 bar. If the late IVC was employed, As far as HC and CO emissions are concerned, the similar 489
455 for example, from 220 to 280 CA, all emissions could be trend is illustrated in Figure 13. As the intake pressure was 490
456 reduced by increasing the boost pressure from 1.5 to 1.8 bar. increased from 1.5 to 2.1 bar, the boosted intake pressure 491
457 However, further increasing the intake pressure to 2.1 bar, helped the reductions of HC and CO emissions. This is 492
458 nearly the same HC, CO, and soot emissions were obtained mainly due to less fuel impinging on the piston wall with 493
459 as those from intake pressure of 1.8 bar. This is mainly due to higher intake pressure, leaded to good mixing. Although the 494
460 the fact that the in-cylinder oxygen are sufficient for the combustion temperature decreased for higher intake pres- 495
461 complete combustion when the intake pressure is around 1.8 sure, the better air-fuel mixing helped the reduction of HC 496
462 bar, under the conditions investigated in this study. and CO emissions. However, the effect of boosted pressure 497
463 The decrease of soot emissions with increased intake on HC and CO emissions is not significant any more when 498
464 pressure was not just attributed to the increased oxygen intake pressure exceeds 1.8 bar. It can be observed from 499
465 amount but also to the improved homogeneity of the Figure 13 that the only slight decrease of HC and CO 500
466 fuel-air mixture, which can be seen from fuel mass fraction emissions were achieved as intake pressure is increased from 501
467 distributions before autoignition, as shown in Figure 14. 1.8 to 2.1 bar. 502
468 This was due to that the higher ambient pressure with the Simultaneous reduction of NOx, soot, HC, and CO 503
469 increased intake pressure enhanced the fuel-air mixing and emissions achieved by the combination of retarding IVC 504
470 decreased the fuel mass impinging on the piston wall. So, timing and boosting intake pressure can be further explana- 505
471 fewer regions with higher fuel mass fraction were formed and tions with the help of Figure 15, in which the equivalence 506
472 the charge trended to more homogeneous (in Figure 14). ratio and temperature distributions during those combus- 507
473 As shown in Figure 13, when the intake pressure increased tions for the case of IVC = 220 CA, Pin = 1.5 bar, and the 508
474 from 1.5 to 1.8 bar, it seemed there was not an obvious case of IVC = 260 CA, Pin = 1.8 bar are plotted in the -T 509
475 influence on NOx emission under various IVC timings. map. For the latter case, by means of increasing intake 510
476 On the one hand, the higher intake pressure caused too pressure, a lean mixture was formed with the equivalence 511
477 much excess oxygen amount, which helped the formation ratio of less than 2.5, leading to dramatic reduction of soot 512

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 Energy Fuels XXXX, XXX, 000000 : DOI:10.1021/ef900688v Peng and Jia

Figure 16. Effects of late IVC and EGR rate on NOx and soot Figure 17. Effects of late IVC and SOI on NOx and soot emissions
emissions (Pin = 1.8 bar, SOI = 20 BTDC). (Pin = 1.8 bar, EGR = 50%).

513 emissions. Meanwhile, the maximum combustion tempera- higher NOx emissions because of high combustion temp- 559
514 ture was well below 2200 K as late IVC timing was employed, erature, and too much negative work from burnt gas to 560
515 so the in-cylinder fuel/air ratio and temperature had almost the piston. With the assistance of late IVC, those problems 561
516 no overlap with the NOx formation region. could be avoided in some range, then the combustion and 562
517 With the above considerations, the intake pressure of 1.8 emissions could be optimized by adjusting both of SOI 563
518 bar was used in the following sections for investigating the timing and IVC timing. In this section, three injection 564
519 effects of varied IVC combined with adjusted EGR rate and timings (30, 20, and 10 CA BTDC) coupled to the variation 565
520 start of injection timing. of IVC timing were examined to give a better understanding 566
521 4.3. Effects of Varied IVC Combined with Adjusted EGR of the influence of varied IVC timing on diesel PCCI 567
522 Rate. To investigate the interaction between EGR rate and combustion process. 568
523 IVC timing for the reduction of engine emissions, three EGR In Figure 17, emissions of soot and NOx for three SOI 569
524 rates (40, 45, and 50%) were tested when IVC timing was timings and four IVC timings are shown. As it is expected, 570
525 simultaneously varied. As the combustion temperature is NOx emissions decreased gradually for delayed SOI timing 571
526 decreased as late IVC timing is employed, it will not require with IVC timings of 220 and 240 CA due to the lowered 572
527 too much EGR for reducing NOx emission. Then EGR combustion temperature. It is of interest to note that the 573
528 rate can be reduced for increasing oxygen amount to improve benefits of NOx reduction from late SOI timing disappeared 574
529 unburned HC, CO, and soot emissions. when IVC timing was delayed later than 260 CA. Nearly the 575
530 Figure 16 shows NOx and soot emissions for three same levels of NOx were obtained by all three SOI timings as 576
531 different EGR rates and four IVC timings. It can be seen IVC = 280 CA were adopted. This might be because the 577
532 that, for all different IVC timings, the decrease of EGR rate combustion temperature was too low for IVC = 280 CA; 578
533 from 50 to 45% had less increase on NOx emissions than even retarded SOI could not help to get further reduction of 579
534 from 45 to 40%. This suggests that maintaining a certain NOx emissions. 580
535 EGR rate is a very critical factor for the decrease of NOx Very complicated behaviors of soot with the variation of 581
536 emissions for diesel combustion. When IVC timing was SOI timing are demonstrated in Figure 17. Basically, soot 582
537 retained from 220 to 280 CA, reducing EGR rate from emissions are determined by the temperature and equiva- 583
538 50 to 45% or from 45 to 40% could result in the increase of lence-ratio distributions, which are sensitive to a lot factors, 584
539 NOx emissions. including spray target, wall film mass, mixing time, ignition 585
540 From Figure 16, although all retarded IVC timings could timing, etc. Generally, advanced SOI is beneficial for the 586
541 help to reduce NOx emissions for all three investigated EGR formation of more homogeneous charge, thus leading to less 587
542 rates, retarding of IVC timing could not provide any assis- soot emissions when normal IVC timing (IVC = 220 CA) 588
543 tance to this if EGR rate is reduced either from 50 to 45% or was utilized. In Figure 18a, the soot evolutions under three 589
544 from 45 to 40%. The decrease of EGR rate could substan- SOI timings with IVC = 220 CA are shown. It can be found 590
545 tially reduce soot emissions for all of four investigated IVC that the case with SOI = 30 CA BTDC produced the least 591
546 timings too. However there was no combination that could soot emissions, perhaps because it provides the most homo- 592
547 reduce NOx and soot emissions simultaneously. The above geneous mixture. Since in-cylinder temperature was high 593
548 results demonstrated that sufficient EGR was still needed to enough for soot oxidation under this IVC timing, the mixture 594
549 realize the ultralow NOx combustion, even when late IVC homogeneity played a decisive role in affecting soot emis- 595
550 timing was employed. sions. 596
551 4.4. Effects of Varied IVC Combined with Adjusted Start of However, for the cases with retarded IVC timing, in- 597
552 Injection Timing. For diesel PCCI combustion, early SOI cylinder temperature was reduced and this might give more 598
553 timing has been widely proposed for approaching the for- dominant to soot emissions. It can be found from Figure 18b 599
554 mation of homogeneous charge. But this must be limited in a that less soot could be oxidized for the case of SOI = 30 CA 600
555 certain range, otherwise the fuel spray would be possible to BTDC due to lower combustion temperature. For SOI = 601
556 inject out of the combustion chamber. In addition, if the 10 CA BTDC, although the nonuniform air-fuel mixing 602
557 conventional diesel operating parameters were used, early from too late injection led to more soot formation compared 603
558 injection would results in early autoignition, consequent to that of SOI = 30 CA BTDC (higher peak value of 604

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 Energy Fuels XXXX, XXX, 000000 : DOI:10.1021/ef900688v Peng and Jia

Figure 18. Effects of SOI timing on the evolution of soot emissions (Pin = 1.8 bar, EGR = 50%).

605 soot for SOI = 10 CA BTDC), the higher in-cylinder temp- SOI timing should be carefully optimized when variable 636
606 erature from late combustion contributed to the soot oxidi- IVC timing was employed for gaining both low NOx and soot 637
607 zation and a lesser amount of soot was left at the exhaust emissions for diesel PCCI combustion. 638
639
608 valve opening.
609 From these results, it suggests that SOI timing must be Nomenclature 640

610 optimized with the variation of IVC timing for gaining low ABDC = after bottom dead center 641
611 NOx and soot emissions for diesel PCCI combustion. ATDC = after top dead center 642
BBDC = before bottom dead center 643
612 5. Conculsion BDC = bottom dead center 644
BSFC = brake specific fuel consumption 645
613 Effects of late IVC on combustion and emissions charac-
BTDC = before top dead center 646
614 teristics in a diesel PCCI engine have been studied by a full-
CFD = computational fluid dynamics 647
615 cycle 3D CFD model coupled with detailed chemical kinetics.
CO = carbon monoxide 648
616 Based on the results, the following major conclusions are
EGR = exhaust gas recirculation 649
617 drawn:
EVO = exhaust valve opening 650
618 Ignition timing could be efficiently controlled by IVC
EVC = exhaust valve closing 651
619 timing because it could change the effective compression ratio.
HC = hydrocarbon 652
620 Late IVC avoided high NOx and soot concentrations by
HCCI = homogeneous charge compression ignition 653
621 keeping lower combustion temperature and providing better
HSDI = high-speed direct-injection 654
622 premixing. But it probably led to increases of HC and CO
ISFC = indicated specific fuel consumption 655
623 emissions due to the lower combustion temperature and
IVC = intake valve closing 656
624 insufficient oxygen amount.
IVO = intake valve opening 657
625 Increasing intake pressure helped reductions of soot, HC,
NOx = nitrogen oxides 658
626 and CO emissions due to the improved homogeneity of the
PCCI = premixed charge compression ignition 659
627 fuel-air mixture and increased oxygen amount. It is extre-
Pin = intake pressure 660
628 mely important to increase the intake pressure for soot
PM = particulate matter 661
629 reduction when late IVC was adopted. By properly retarding
SOI = start of injection 662
630 IVC timing and increasing intake pressure simultaneously, all
TDC = top dead center 663
631 four regulated emission components could be reduced.
VVA = variable valve actuation 664
632 For diesel PCCI combustion, a certain EGR rate was
633 necessary for maintaining low NOx emission when IVC timing Acknowledgment. Financial support from the Engineering 665
634 was retarded, although higher EGR rate increased soot emis- and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) and NSFC 666
635 sions almost for all investigated IVC timings. of China (50806008) are gratefully acknowledged. 667