Journal of Materials Processing Technology 214 (2014) 12931300

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Journal of Materials Processing Technology

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Cutting temperatures during hard turningMeasurements and effects

on white layer formation in AISI 52100
S.B. Hosseini a, , T. Beno b , U. Klement a , J. Kaminski a , K. Ryttberg c
a
Department of Materials and Manufacturing Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
b
Department of Engineering Science, University West, SE-461 86 Trollhttan, Sweden
c
AB SKF, SE-415 50 Gothenburg, Sweden

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper concerns the temperature evolution during white layer formation induced by hard turning
Received 8 July 2013 of martensitic and bainitic hardened AISI 52100 steel, as well as the effects of cutting temperatures
Received in revised form 8 December 2013 and surface cooling rates on the microstructure and properties of the induced white layers. The cutting
Accepted 27 January 2014
temperatures were measured using a high speed two-colour pyrometer, equipped with an optical bre
Available online 4 February 2014
allowing for temperature measurements at the cutting edge. Depending on the machining conditions,
white layers were shown to have formed both above and well below the parent austenitic transformation
Keywords:
temperature, Ac1 , of about 750 C. Thus at least two different mechanisms, phase transformation above
White layer
Hard turning
the Ac1 (thermally) and severe plastic deformation below the Ac1 (mechanically), have been active during
Phase transformation white layer formation. In the case of the predominantly thermally induced white layers, the cutting
Intense plastic deformation temperatures were above 900 C, while for the predominantly mechanically induced white layers the
Cutting temperatures cutting temperatures were approximately 550 C. The surface cooling rates during hard turning were
Surface integrity shown to be as high as 104 105 C/s for cutting speeds between 30 and 260 m/min independent of whether
the studied microstructure was martensitic or bainitic. Adding the results from the cutting temperature
measurements to previous results on the retained austenite contents and residual stresses of the white
layers, it can be summarised that thermally induced white layers contain signicantly higher amounts
of retained austenite compared to the unaffected material and display high tensile residual stresses. On
the contrary, in the case of white layers formed mainly due to severe plastic deformation, no retained
austenite could be measured and the surface and subsurface residual stresses were compressive.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Historically, grinding has been used for machining of hard-
ened steel parts. However, in the past few decades hard turning
has gained increased interest from both the scientic community
as well as the industry. Advantages of hard turning, if compared
to grinding, are e.g. dry cutting possibilities, turning of complex
geometries and the possibility of performing rough and nish tur-
ning in one clamping. One example is given by Tnshoff et al. (2000)
who compared grinding and hard turning of a hydraulic component
with respect to the surface quality, machining time and the total
cost. They concluded that a comparable surface quality could be
achieved by hard turning, at the same time as the total machin-
ing time was reduced by 60%. However, even though there is a
strong interest in adapting hard turning, the process is still not as
widely used in industry as expected. As discussed by Bartarya and
Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 31 337 2854.
E-mail addresses: seyed.hosseini@chalmers.se, seyed.b.hosseini@gmail.com
(S.B. Hosseini).
Choudhury (2012), the major reasons are related to the tool wear,
which will result in larger dimensional variations (geometric form
and surface roughness), alterations of the surface and subsurface
microstructures and generation of high tensile residual stresses.
All these properties have a negative inuence on the fatigue perfor-
mance. For example, when studying the relationship between the
residual stresses, white layers and the fatigue life of hard turned
surfaces of AISI 52100 steel, Guo et al. (2010) concluded that white
layers could reduce the fatigue life by as much as 8 times com-
pared to surfaces free from white layers. On the contrary, Smith
et al. (2007) concluded that there was not any conclusive evidence
suggesting that the hard turned induced white layers (2 m) had a
negative inuence on the axial fatigue life of AISI 52100 steel.
The developed microstructure is referred to consist of white and
dark layers, and displays properties which are signicantly different
from the bulk material, such as differing hardness and rened grain
structure. The nomenclature has developed as this microstructure,
when polished and etched, appears whiter (white) and/or darker
(dark), compared to the unaffected material when viewed in a light
optical microscope, see Fig. 1. The thicknesses of the respective lay-
ers as generated in hard turning are typically up to 5 m for white

0924-0136/$ see front matter 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.01.016
1294 S.B. Hosseini et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 214 (2014) 12931300
Fig. 1. White and dark layers induced by hard turning. (vc = 110 m/min and
Vb = 0.3 mm).
layers and up to 15 m for dark layers, even though white layers as
thick as 12 m have been reported in the literature.
As discussed by Grifths (1987) there are basically three main
mechanisms suggested for the formation of white layers in vari-
ous manufacturing processes: (i) phase transformation due to rapid
heating followed by a subsequent rapid cooling, (ii) severe plastic
deformation resulting in a ne grain structure, and (iii) chemical
surface reaction with the environment. Even though few attempts
to measure the temperatures during hard turning have been pre-
sented, it is generally believed that white layer formation is mainly
thermally driven, in other words the machined surface is rapidly
heated above the austenitic phase transformation temperature
(Ac1 ) followed by a rapid quenching. To get an indication of whether
the machined surface has been heated above Ac1 , the changes in the
retained austenite content are often analysed by means of X-ray
diffraction. For example, Chou and Evans (1999) measured a three-
fold increase of the retained austenite content in the white layers
compared to the unaffected material when studying hard turning of
SAE 52100 steel, which made the authors conclude that the forma-
tion had been mainly thermally activated (rapid heating and rapid
cooling). There are also some works highlighting the importance
of severe plastic deformation during white layer formation. After
observing a fourfold reduction in the retained austenite content in
the surface area after hard turning of AISI 52100 steel at low cut-
ting speed, Ramesh et al. (2005) concluded that the subsequently
induced white layers were formed due to severe plastic deforma-
tion. Furthermore, based on the similarities of the microstructure
and crystallography of the white layers induced by hard turning
and adiabatic shear bands in general, Barry and Byrne (2002) pro-
posed that the main mechanism causing white layer formation
was dynamic recovery. However, the authors also emphasised the
importance of dynamic recrystallisation for white layers generated
during hard turning with worn cutting tools.
To clarify, if hard turned induced white layers are predominantly
thermally (temperature > Ac1 ) or mechanically (temperature < Ac1 )
activated, temperature measurements are necessary. However,
there are only a few attempts presented in the literature where
both the work piece and the cutting tool temperatures have been
measured during hard turning. For example, Ueda et al. (1999) used
a two-colour pyrometer for measuring the cutting edge tempera-
tures during internal turning of AISI 52100 steel. They concluded
that by increasing the cutting speed from 100 m/min to 300 m/min,
the temperatures increased from 800 C to 950 C. However, it
was not clear whether the stated temperatures were averaged or
maximum temperatures. Also, no clear relation between the tool
conditions and the measured cutting temperatures was provided
by the authors. Mller et al. (2004) used a two-colour pyrometer to
determine both chip and work piece surface temperatures for AISI
1045 steel. The work piece surface temperatures were reported to
increase with the cutting speed and reached a maximum tempera-
ture of 700 C. More recently, Han et al. (2008) measured the work
piece surface temperatures of AISI 1045 steel by using thermocou-
ples located at the tool/work piece interface in order to validate
modelled temperatures. Despite deviations of up to 32% between
measured and calculated temperatures, the model was considered
to be accurate enough for predicting the surface temperatures.
Formation of white and dark layers during hard turning of
AISI 52100 steel with martensitic and bainitic microstructures has
previously been studied by Hosseini et al. (2012). The inuences
of cutting speed and tool wear on the formation of white and
dark layers as well as the characteristics of the resulting micro-
structures were then thoroughly studied. The authors concluded
that depending on the cutting conditions, the white layers had been
predominantly thermally or mechanically induced. For the pre-
dominantly thermally induced white layers, the authors estimated
the cutting temperatures by analysing the microstructural con-
stituents in relation to a timetemperature austenitisation diagram
(TTA). However, no experimental evidence for the temperatures
was provided. The aim of the present study was to measure the
cutting temperatures during hard turning of AISI 52100 steel under
comparable cutting conditions using a two-colour pyrometer, and
to correlate the measured temperatures with the previous results
on the white layer microstructure constituents and the resid-
ual stresses. Before the hard turning experiments, the accuracy
of the two-colour pyrometer was investigated by Hosseini et al.
(2013), and due to the large temperature deviations between the
two-colour pyrometer and the thermocouple readings, an approx-
imation function was developed for the studied materials. The
developed approximation function has been applied in the current
study to correct the measured temperatures.
2. Experimental procedure
2.1. Work piece material
The material chosen for this study was AISI 52100 steel with
the nominal chemical composition as shown in Table 1. Since
the studied material is often heat treated to have either bainitic
or martensitic structure, both structures were investigated. Prior
to the nal hardening treatment, the microstructure of the steel
consisted of evenly distributed spheroidised (Fe,Cr)3 C carbides in
a ferritic matrix with a hardness of 200 HV30. After the nal heat
treatment, the hardnesses of the studied martensitic and bainitic
microstructures were 61 and 60 HRC, respectively.
2.2. Hard turning
To ensure the formation of white layers during hard turning,
the cutting speed and the tool ank wear were kept at the same
levels as used in the previous investigation made by the authors
(Hosseini et al., 2012), where three different cutting speeds (30, 110
and 260 m/min) and two levels of tool ank wear (0 and 0.2 mm)
were studied using a CBN insert of grade BNX10. However, in the
present investigation, a CBN insert of grade BNC200 was chosen
due to its benecial interrupted cutting properties. The insert had
a nose radius of 0.8 mm, a chamfer land and angle of 0.10 mm and
15 , respectively and a clearance angle of 7 . The feed rate and depth
of cut were also chosen according to the above-mentioned studies;
0.08 mm/rev and 0.08 mm, respectively, and the cutting was per-
formed in dry conditions. To prevent premature tool failure during
the temperature measurements when utilising worn tools, the tools
 S.B. Hosseini et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 214 (2014) 12931300
Table 1
Nominal chemical composition (wt.%) of the work material, Fe-bal.
Material C Mn Cr
AISI 52100 0.951.05 0.200.45 1.301.65
were pre-worn on specimens with comparable geometry, micro-
structure and hardness. Once a tool ank wear of 0.18 mm was
measured, the cutting edge or surface temperatures were recorded
using either test samples with pre-machined slot or tools with the
through-hole; see below.
2.3. Temperature measurements
Temperatures were measured by means of a two-colour pyrom-
eter (described in Section 2.4) both at the edge of the cutting tool
and at the work piece surface at a short distance beneath the cut-
ting edge. The rst measurement corresponded to the actual cutting
temperature while the second type of measurement allowed for
calculations of the cooling rate. The experimental setups for the
respective types are presented in Fig. 2 and described in more detail
below. For both types: cutting tool temperatures and cooling rate
calculations, one temperature measurement per cutting condition
and microstructure was performed, resulting in a total of 27 tests.
Depending on the cutting speed, each experimental run was carried
out for 1050 s during which temperatures were recorded. In the
case of the cutting edge temperature measurements this resulted
in about 30300 temperature proles per experimental condition
since one prole was recorded per revolution (passing of the slot).
For the work piece surface temperatures used for the cooling rate
calculations, a continuous signal was recorded. This was due to the
fact that the bre was pointing towards the newly machined sur-
face through the cutting tool, which means that the entire cutting
time could be used for analysis. The temperatures provided in Sec-
tions 3 and 4 are the averaged temperature values and the error
bars show the measured maximum and minimum temperatures.
2.3.1. Cutting temperature measurements
To carry out the temperature measurements at the edge of the
cutting tool, which corresponds to the actual cutting temperature,
a slot with a length of 25 mm and a width of 0.4 mm (see Fig. 2(a))
was machined in each test ring by the use of wire-electric discharge
machining. During hard turning, the temperatures at the edge were
measured each time the slot passed the cutting tool and the optical
bre. The bre was positioned inside the rings via a specially man-
ufactured tool holder as shown in Fig. 2(b). For each revolution, the
emitted radiation from the cutting tool was recorded and converted
into a unique temperature prole by the pyrometer software. To
ensure that correct temperatures were measured for each revolu-
tion, precise positioning of the bre viewing through the slot was
important. To mount the bre in the right position, a red diode light
Fig. 2. Illustration of (a) test sample with a slot; (b) tool holder used for cutting tool temperature measurements: (1) guide screw for the bre and (2) m-precision screws
for alignment of the bre; and (c) through-hole in the cutting tools used for work piece surface temperature measurements.
1295
Si S P Ni
0.200.35 0.015 max 0.027 max 0.30 max
beam was sent through the bre. With the help of the micrometre
screws the spot was adjusted to view the tip of the cutting tool. The
functionality and the accuracy of the system were tested by several
pre-runs.
2.3.2. Cooling rate calculations
To determine the surface cooling rates during hard turning, tem-
peratures from at least two well dened positions are required. In
the current study, besides the cutting tool temperatures, the sur-
face temperatures were also measured at a pre-dened distance
beneath the cutting edge. To be able to measure the surface tem-
peratures close enough to the cutting edge, a through-hole with
a diameter of about 0.7 mm was made in the cutting tool 1.5 mm
beneath the cutting edge using electric discharge machining; see
Fig. 2(c). To verify that the through-hole did not cause early or
unexpected tool failure, several pre-tests were conducted before
the actual experiments.
2.4. Two-colour pyrometer
The contactless two-colour pyrometer used in the current inves-
tigation was developed by Mller and Renz (2001). The basic
concept of a pyrometer is to detect the infrared radiation emitted
from a target and the temperature can be derived by knowing the
emittance value,  , of the target surface at a specic wavelength.
However, when using a two-colour pyrometer, the temperatures
can be determined without knowledge of the emittance values by
just assuming grey-body condition, i.e. assuming the emittance val-
ues to be identical for the two wavelengths used (1 = 2 at 1 and
2 ). But even if the wavelengths (1 and 2 ) are chosen close to
each other the spectral emittance values for most metallic sur-
faces differ substantially. This was for example demonstrated by
Kobayashi et al. (1999) in their study of the changes in the nor-
mal spectral emittance values at high temperatures for numerous
pure metals and alloys. Recently, Hosseini et al. (2013) showed that
for AISI 52100 steel hard turned with either fresh or worn cutting
tools the applied two-colour pyrometer measured temperatures
that were 1220% lower than the ones measured by thermocou-
ples that were considered to be correct target temperatures.
When measuring on the cutting tools, the two-colour pyrometer
recorded 13% lower temperatures compared to the true target
temperatures. Based on the ndings, three unique equations were
determined; one for each of the machined surfaces hard turned
with either fresh or worn cutting tools (Eqs. (1) and (2)) and one
1296 S.B. Hosseini et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 214 (2014) 12931300

for the cutting tool material (Eq. (3)), with which the temperatures
as obtained from the two-colour pyrometer were corrected:

TCorr = 1.27 TMeas 100 (1)

TCorr = 1.37 TMeas 68 (2)

TCorr = 1.17 TMeas 40 (3)

Here TCorr is the calculated target temperature in degrees Celsius

and TMeas is the temperature measured by the two-colour pyrom-
eter in degrees Celsius. These equations have been applied in the
current study to correct the temperatures as measured by the two-
colour pyrometer.
Fig. 3. Cutting edge temperatures versus cutting speed for the studied micro-
structures and tool conditions (M: martensitic and B: bainitic microstructures). The
3. Results
Ac1 line represents the austenitisation temperature for the material.

3.1. Cutting temperatures

The averaged cutting temperatures for both fresh and worn
cutting tools are provided in Fig. 3. In general, increased cutting
speeds and/or hard turning with worn instead of fresh cutting
tools resulted in increased cutting temperatures, while the micro-
structure of the test samples (bainite or martensite) did not have
a signicant effect on the temperature development. For exam-
ple, when hard turning samples with a martensitic structure using
fresh cutting tools, increasing the cutting speed from 30 m/min to
110 m/min resulted in temperatures changing from about 510 C
to about 810 C, while at the highest cutting speed (260 m/min) the
measured temperatures were about 850 C. Changing from fresh
to worn cutting tools always resulted in increased cutting temper-
atures where the largest temperature increase was seen for the
surfaces hard turned at 110 m/min, where the worn cutting tool
made the cutting temperatures for martensitic samples rise from
810 C to 880 C. At the lowest cutting speed, 30 m/min, the tem-
perature increase was not as large; 30 for both microstructures.
At the highest cutting speed, the worn cutting tools resulted in a
temperature increase of 50 ; from 850 C to 900 C.
3.2. Cooling rate calculations
The cooling rates were determined by considering the differ-
ence in temperatures measured at the cutting edge and at the work
piece surface at a pre-dened distance beneath the cutting edge.
The surface cooling rates for each cutting condition and material
are shown in Fig. 4(a)(c). Position A in each graph represents the
averaged cutting temperatures measured at the edge of the cutting
tool, while position B corresponds to the averaged temperatures
measured 1.15 mm beneath the cutting edge. As can be seen in
the graphs in Fig. 4, the lowest cooling rate was seen for surfaces
turned at 30 m/min using worn tools and the highest for surfaces
hard turned at 260 m/min using fresh tools.
No signicant differences with respect to the cooling rates were
seen between bainite and martensite. To verify the calculated

Fig. 4. Calculated cooling rates during hard turning with fresh and worn cutting tools: (a) 30 m/min, (b) 110 m/min and (c) 260 m/min. Symbols in the graphs represent
() worn and () fresh tools for martensitic structures and () worn and () fresh tools for bainitic microstructures, respectively. The () shows the work piece surface
temperature at 0.7 mm during hard turning with fresh cutting tools for samples with martensitic microstructures.
 S.B. Hosseini et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 214 (2014) 12931300
cooling rates, additional work piece surface temperature measure-
ments at a shorter distance, 0.7 mm, beneath the cutting edge were
carried out. As shown by position C in Fig. 4(a)(c) the calculated
cooling rates at 0.7 mm conrmed the high cooling rates in hard
turning.
4. Discussion
For each cutting condition the averaged temperature was pre-
sented together with a temperature range representing the lowest
and highest measured temperatures for the specic condition,
which reects the accuracy of the two-colour pyrometer as well
as the experimental setup. As shown in Figs. 3 and 4, the tem-
perature range was between 70 C and 170 C. Part of this range
was considered to be from the two-colour pyrometer (accuracy
and response time) and some part from the experimental setup.
When studying the applicability and accuracy of the two-colour
pyrometer, Hosseini et al. (2013) observed that at an object tem-
perature of 570 C, the temperature range was not larger than 10 C
after three consecutive measurements. Also regarding the response
time, it can be concluded from the work undertaken by Davies
et al. (2007) after reviewing several techniques for measuring the
cutting temperatures that, in comparison to other techniques, two-
colour pyrometers are superior and should be able to monitor rapid
thermal changes. Hence, the measured range in the current investi-
gation was not considered to be caused primarily by the two-colour
pyrometer. On the other hand, from an experimental point of view,
it is possible that the measured temperatures are inuenced by e.g.
particles or fragments of the produced chips, which could have a
higher or a lower temperature than the area of interest.
4.1. Cutting temperatures
In this investigation, the cutting tool temperatures were mea-
sured when the tool entered the slot during machining. By
assuming that the temperature at the edge of the cutting tool is
equal to the temperature at the work piece surface when the cut-
ting tool enters the slot, the temperatures at the machined surfaces
could be obtained. A similar approach for measuring the cutting tool
edge temperatures as described in the present investigation was
previously employed by Ueda et al. (1999) and more recently by
Tanaka et al. (2009) who obtained comparable cutting edge temper-
atures during hard turning of SAE 52100 and SCM 415 steel. Tanaka
et al. (2009) reported a temperature increase of 65 when the
tool wear was increased from 0.0 mm to 0.1 mm for cutting speeds
between 100 m/min and 150 m/min. Ueda et al. (1999) reported
that the cutting temperatures increased by some 120 when the
cutting speed was increased from 100 m/min to 250 m/min during
hard turning of SAE 52100 steel. By using a timetemperature-
austenitisation diagram, assuming a heating rate of 105 C/s and
considering the microstructure constituents, Hosseini et al. (2012)
estimated the temperature for surfaces machined at 110 m/min
and 260 m/min with worn cutting tools would reach 1200 C. In
the current investigation, the temperature corresponding to the
same cutting conditions was measured at 900 C, i.e. 300 below
the estimated temperature. The main reason for the discrepancy
between calculated and measured temperatures is considered to
be due to the simplications made for the temperature estima-
tions. For example, the effects of parameters like contact pressure
(stress), rapid heating, plastic strain, latent heat during phase
transformation and changes in chemical composition caused by
diffusion were not considered. In order to make the estimations
more accurate, those parameters should be taken into account.
For example, Ramesh and Melkote (2008) estimated the phase
transformation temperature would drop by at least 100 C (shear
1297
stress 1.3 GPa) by using ClausiusClayperon equation when tak-
ing into account the pressure effect for SAE 52100 steel. By adjusting
the timetemperature-austenitisation diagram with the above
mentioned parameters, the temperature differences between esti-
mations and measurements would be signicantly lowered.
4.2. Cooling rate calculations
In the current investigation, it was experimentally shown that
even though cutting speeds as low as 30 m/min were used dur-
ing hard turning, the cooling rates were in the order of 104 C/s.
By increasing the cutting speed to 260 m/min, the cooling rate was
increased by one order of magnitude to 105 C/s, which means
that the surface cooling rates during hard turning at the stud-
ied cutting conditions were between 104 C/s and 105 C/s. This is
consistent with the results presented by Chou and Evans (1999),
who used Jeagers moving heat source theory to simulate the tem-
perature elds generated in hard turned surfaces, from which the
cooling rate was calculated to be 4 104 C/s. Also comparable
results were obtained by Uhlmann et al. (2013), who used a ther-
mography camera Jade Mwir II to investigate the cooling rates
during hard turning of AISI 52100 steel. At cutting speeds between
100 m/min and 200 m/min, the authors calculated the cooling rate
to be 8 104 1.5 105 C/s. In the current study, the tool wear was
shown to inuence the cooling rate; lower cooling rates were mea-
sured for surfaces hard turned with worn cutting tools compared to
surfaces turned with fresh tools. This could probably be explained
by the differences in the contact times between the cutting tool and
the work piece. For example, when the tool ank wear increased
from 0.04 mm to 0.2 mm during hard turning at 110 m/min, the
contact time increased from 21 s to 110 s, which will result in a
larger heated volume and thereby lower cooling rates.
To obtain a better understanding of the formation mechanisms
of the white layer and the corresponding mechanical properties
as induced by hard turning, the temperatures as measured here
are discussed in combination with other surface responses in the
following section.
4.3. Relation between temperature, residual stress, retained
austenite content and white layer
Detailed knowledge of the cutting temperatures as well as the
cooling rates present during white layer formation is fundamental
to understanding the evolution of the microstructure. For example,
knowledge of the cutting temperatures helps to understand the
changes found in the retained austenite content, residual stresses
and the white and dark layer thicknesses, which are the main
parameters of importance for the life of a component in service.
Moreover, since residual stresses are a surface response that can be
easily measured, they are often addressed to conclude whether the
machined surfaces have been predominantly thermally or mechan-
ically affected. For example, Jacobson et al. (2002) concluded that
higher cutting speeds led to higher surface tensile residual stresses
due to the increased cutting temperatures, while surface compres-
sive residual stresses were dominating at lower cutting speeds.
The relationship between white and dark layer thicknesses,
retained austenite contents, and residual stresses for surfaces
machined with comparable cutting conditions (cutting speed, tool
ank wear, feed rate, depth of cut, nose radius, hard turning
machine, material batch) as used here were previously studied
by the authors. Based on the changes in the surface responses for
the different cutting conditions resulting in white layers, Hosseini
et al. (2012) concluded whether the white layer formation had been
predominantly thermally or mechanically initiated. Consequently,
the temperatures as measured in the present study provide valu-
able information as to the conclusion of whether white layers are
1298 S.B. Hosseini et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 214 (2014) 12931300

Fig. 5. Correlation between (a) cutting temperatures and residual stresses, (b) retained austenite content and residual stresses, and (c) retained austenite content and cutting
temperatures for the studied cutting conditions. The dots in each graph correspond to the investigated cutting conditions. The dark grey-coloured areas in the graphs represent
the 95% condence interval for the regression model and the bright grey-coloured areas are the 95% prediction intervals for a new single observation.
The retained austenite contents and residual stresses taken from Hosseini et al. (2012).

formed due to rapid heating above the austenitisation temperature
(thermally) or due to severe plastic deformation (mechanically)
at temperatures well below the Ac1 temperature. For example,
when studying the correlation between different surface responses
(Fig. 5(a)), it can be seen that e.g. when the cutting temperatures
increase the surface residual stresses also tend to increase and
eventually shift from compressive to tensile (R2 = 0.83). Further-
more, as shown in Fig. 5(b) a good correlation (R2 = 0.89) between
the surface retained austenite content and the surface residual
stresses can also be seen, i.e. if the retained austenite content
increases, so do the surface residual stresses (tensile). Finally, as
shown in Fig. 5(c), good correlation between the changes in the
retained austenite content and the temperatures was also observed,
R2 = 0.78. Thus, from this regression analyses it can be concluded
that even though the residual stresses cannot solely provide any
detailed information on the cutting temperatures, if combined with
the retained austenite content they can be used with condence for
determining whether the detected white layers have been ther-
mally or mechanically induced.
Further comparisons of the retained austenite contents, the
white and dark layer thicknesses and the cutting temperatures
are provided in Fig. 6. As shown in Fig. 6(a), cutting temperatures
well above the Ac1 , generally resulted in increased retained austen-
ite contents. For surfaces machined using worn cutting tools the
increase was large, from below 1% to about 8%, while for surfaces
machined with fresh cutting tools it was much less. This was con-
sidered to be mainly due to the difference in contact times between
the work material and the cutting tool, since a larger tool ank wear
allows the material to be austenitised for a longer time (between 4
and 5 times), resulting in both higher retained austenite contents
and thicker white layers if compared to when using fresh cutting
tools. This is conrmed in Fig. 6(b), where it is seen that for sur-
faces machined with fresh tools only discontinuous white layers
are found, and only for the highest cutting speed, while for the sur-
faces machined with worn tools at the two highest cutting speeds
the white layers are continuous and thicker. However, even though
comparable temperatures were recorded at 110 and 260 m/min
when using worn tools, the white layer thicknesses were not equal;
1.5 m and 3 m, respectively. This could once again be explained
by the difference in contact time between tool and work piece
surface. When machining at 110 m/min instead of 260 m/min, the
increased contact duration will allow for a larger material volume
to be heated above Ac1 , which should result in a thicker white layer.
However, even though a thicker white layer is initially created, part
of this layer might be re-tempered resulting in the nal white layer
thickness being less than for the surfaces hard turned at higher cut-
ting speeds. This should then be reected in signicantly larger dark
layers for surfaces machined at 110 m/min compared to 260 m/min.
As seen in Fig. 6(b), this was also the case since the dark layer thick-
nesses for surfaces hard turned at 110 and 260 m/min were 10 m
and 5 m, respectively.
For cutting temperatures 200 C below Ac1 , see Fig. 6(a), the
retained austenite contents had not increased but on the con-
trary decreased to undetectable levels. A reduction in the retained

Fig. 6. (a) The retained austenite contents in the white layers formed either on originally a martensitic or a bainitic microstructure versus the cutting temperatures (lines
A and B is the retained austenite content in the as received microstructures, bainitic and martensitic, respectively). The measurement accuracy for the retained austenite
contents was estimated to be 2 vol.% and the temperature bars in (a) and (b) are the measured temperature range. (b) White and dark layer thicknesses versus the cutting
temperatures. The white layer thickness variation for vc = 30 and 110 was 0.5 m and for vc = 260 it was estimated to be 1.0 m. The retained austenite contents and
white/dark layer thicknesses are taken from Hosseini et al. (2012). (vc in m/min).
 S.B. Hosseini et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 214 (2014) 12931300
Fig. 7. Schematic illustration of the interaction between the cutting tool and work piece material for (a) new and (b) worn cutting tools. Compare the difference in the tertiary
shear zone (A A*) in (a) and (b). The tool crater wear is not included in the gures.
austenite content can be explained by the two following mecha-
nisms: (i) decomposition of the austenite into ferrite and cementite
due to the generated heat, which can be compared to tempering or
(ii) strain-induced martensitic transformation causing the austen-
ite to transform into martensite during plastic deformation. Since
both of these mechanisms occur simultaneously during hard tur-
ning, it is most likely that a reduction in the retained austenite
content is due to a combination of the two mechanisms. Com-
parable results have been reported by Ramesh et al. (2005) in
their study of hard turning of SAE 52100 steel. When machining
at 91 m/min with fresh cutting tools, the retained austenite con-
tent was reduced from 20 vol.% to 5 vol.%, which led the authors
to conclude that the white layer formation was mainly caused
by severe plastic deformation. As seen in Fig. 6(b), white layers
can also be formed at temperatures well below Ac1 which is then
mainly caused by severe plastic deformation (mechanically). To
be able to create predominantly mechanically induced white lay-
ers, the tool wear land (A A* in Fig. 7) plays an important role as
the temperatures are not high enough to cause re-austenitisation.
However, although the cutting temperatures are below Ac1 , the
thermal effects will cause a softening of the work piece material
and as the tool ank wear land (distance A A* in Fig. 7) slides
against the work piece surface the severe plastic deformation that
takes place at the surface will result in the formation of white lay-
ers. In the case of worn cutting tools, this distance is signicantly
increased, e.g. by a factor of 4 when the ank wear increases from
0.05 to 0.2 mm. As a consequence of the increased contact length
(A A* in Fig. 7) the surface will experience a higher degree of
plastic deformation resulting in the formation of white layers due
to severe plastic deformation. This effect, of severe plastic defor-
mation can also be observed when studying the residual stress
proles. For example, when Thiele and Melkote (2000) studied
the effect of tool edge geometry on the work piece subsurface
deformation on AISI 52100 steel, the authors concluded that large
edge honed tools (comparable to worn tools) produced measurable
subsurface plastic ow. On the contrary, when using a sharp cut-
ting tool (comparable to fresh tools), no subsurface ow could be
observed.
5. Conclusions
In this investigation the cutting tool temperatures and work
piece surface cooling rates were determined during white layer
formation induced by hard turning of AISI 52100 steel. By use of
a two-colour pyrometer, the cutting temperatures were measured
and found to increase from 510 C to 850 C and from 540 C to
920 C, respectively, when the cutting speed was increased from 30
to 260 m/min for fresh and worn cutting tools.
It was shown that white layers induced by hard turning
can occur both below and above the austenitic phase transfor-
mation temperature, Ac1 . For comparable hardness values, the
1299
microstructure being either bainite or martensite did not result in
signicantly differing cutting temperatures. White layers contain-
ing up to 10 (martensite) and 15 (bainite) times higher retained
austenite contents compared to the unaffected microstructure
and displaying high surface residual stresses had been formed at
temperatures between 840 C and 920 C. On the contrary, when
no retained austenite content could be detected and the surface
as well as the subsurface residual stresses were compressive, the
white layers had been formed well below the austenitic phase
transformation temperature, at a temperature of 550 C.
With respect to the cooling rates in hard turning, it was found
that independent of the starting microstructure and cutting con-
ditions, the cooling rates were between 104 C/s and 105 C/s.
Increased cutting speeds resulted in higher cooling rates while
increased tool ank wear resulted in lower cooling rates, which
was governed by the increased contact length between the cutting
insert and the work material.
Acknowledgements
The Area of Advanced Production at Chalmers University of Tech-
nology is acknowledged for nancial support. The authors also
acknowledge The Production Technology Centre at University West
for their contribution and support during the usage of the two-
colour pyrometer. Mr. S. Johansson, Dr. M. Escursell and Mr. U.
Hulling are all greatly acknowledged for their support throughout
the entire work as regards for the temperature measurements and
design of the tool-xture.
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