CHAPTER 2

DESIGNING THE HIGHWAY

Consistency
It is the most important single rule in highway design. That is, by making every element of the
roadway conforms to the expectation of every driver.

Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:

1. Clear information and guidance through a variety of road signs.
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road standards.

Definition of Terms
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
- 1914, established as an association of State Territorial and District of Columbia Highway
Department, and the Federal Highway Administration.
- 1973, Department of Transportation was integrated into the association renaming AASHO to
AASHTO.

AASHTO publications includes:

1. Transportation Materials Specifications and Tests
2. Specifications for Highway bridges
3. Geometric Design Standards
4. Numerous Policy Statements and guides

Roads and Highways

It is defined as strips of land that have been cleared and further improved for the movement of people
and goods.

Road
It is describe a public thoroughfare and also refer to railways.

Highway
It first used in England to describe a public road built by digging ditches on both sides and heaping up
the earth in the middle creating a way higher than the adjacent land.

Expressway
It is divided arterial highway for through traffic with full or partial control or access and generally
provided with grade separation at major intersections.

Freeway
It is an expressway with full control of access.

Control of Access
It is a condition where the rights of owners or occupants of adjoining land or other person access to
light, air or view in connection with a highway is fully or partially controlled by public authority.

Full Control of Access

It give preference to through traffic by providing access connections to selected public roads only.
Crossing at grade or direct private driveway connections is not permitted.

Partial Control of Access

Although in addition to access connections with selected public roads, there may be some crossings
at grade and some private driveway connections allowed.

Through Street or Through Highway

Vehicular traffic from intersecting highways is required by the law to yield right of way to vehicles on
such through high way in obedience to either stop sign or yield signs erected thereon.
Parkway
An arterial highway for non-commercial traffic, with pull or partial control of access usually located
within a park or ribbon park-like development.

Arterial Street
An arterial highway for non-commercial traffic, with pull or partial control of access usually located
within a park or ribbon park-like development.

Basic Consideration in Planning Arterial Roadways

1. Selection of routes.
2. Studies of traffic volume.
3. Origin of destination.
4. Accident experienced.
5. Width should not be less than 15 meters.
6. One traffic lane of traffic in each direction.
7. One kilometer in length.
8. Should skirt neighborhood areas rather than penetrate them.
9. On grid design system streets, arterials are spaced at about 600 to 900 meters apart.
10. When accident hazard is not a factor, minimum volume to justify arterial road is 300 vehicles /
average hour during day, and 450 vehicles hourly during peak periods.

To Increase the arterial Capacity, the following solutions are enforced:

1. During peak hours, parking is prohibited on one or both sides of street.
2. Parking is prohibited several meters away from each side of the road intersection or corners.
3. Right turn is allowed on red signals any time with care.
4. Left turns are eliminated on congested intersections.
5. The direction of traffic is reversed in the center late to provide more lanes in the direction of
heavier traffic flow.

Collector Street
It form smaller mesh grid pattern where passengers are pick up from service streets and carried to
the arterials.

Local Roads
It is defined as street or road primarily for access to residence, business, or other adjoining
properties. Road constructed and maintained by government.

Highway Capacity
It is defined as the maximum number of vehicles that are reasonably expected to pass a given point
over a given period of time (usually in hours).

1. Under ideal conditions, one freeway can accommodate about 2000 passengers car per hour.
2. Two-lane road can carry up to 1000 passenger cars per hour in each direction

Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT or ADT)

It refers to traffic volume or flow on a highway as measured by the number of vehicles passing a
partial station during a given interval of time.

Design Speed
The speed determined for design and correlation of the physical feature of a highway that
influences vehicles operation.
It is the minimum speed that can be maintained over a specified section of the highway when
weather and traffic conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway govern.
The design speed be set to the greatest degree possible, to satisfy the needs of nearly all
drivers both today and throughout the road anticipated life.
 TABLE 1. MINIMUM RECOMMENDED DESIGN SPEED

DESIGN SPEED (Km/Hr.)

FACILITY
URBAN RURAL
Freeway 80 95 preferred 110 95 mountainous
Arterial 64 95 but 48 in built up areas 80 110
Collector 48 TABLE 2
Local 32 48 TABLE 2

TABLE 2. AASHTO MINIMUM DESIGN SPEED FOR RURAL COLLECTORS AND LOCAL
ROADS BASED ON CURRENT ADT
CLASS TERRAIN AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC
COLLECTOR 0 400 400 750 750 2000 2000 4000 OVER 4000
Level 60 75 75 75 90
Rolling 45 60 60 75 75
Mountainous 30 45 45 60 60
LOCAL 0 50 50 250 250 400 OVER 400
Level 45 45 60 75
Rolling 30 45 45 60
Mountainous 30 30 30 45

Cross Section of Typical Highway

The Cross Section of a Typical Highway has latitude of variables to consider such as:
The volume of traffic
Character of traffic
Speed of traffic
Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver.

A Cross Section design generally offers the expected level of service for safety and a recent
study showed that:
7.20m pavement ha 18% less accident compare to 5.50m wide
7.20m pavement has 4% fewer accident than 6m wide
Accident records showed no difference between the 6.60m and 7.20 m wide pavement
For 6.00m, 6.60m, 7.20m wide pavement with 2.70m to 3.00m, wide shoulder, recorder
accident decreases by 30% compared to 0m to 60m shoulder. 20% compared to .90m to 1.20
m wide shoulder

Two Lane Rural Highway

- A 7.20 meters wide surface I required for safe clearance between commercial vehicles and is
recommended for main highways.

Collector Roadway
- 6.00 meters wide surface is acceptable only for low volume traffic including few trucks.

Local Rural Roadway

- The minimum surface width is 4.80 meters for a 30 Km/Hr. design speed.

Urban Roadway
- The minimum design width is 3.60 meters although 3.00 meters is allowed where space is
limited.
Road Shoulder
It is defined as that portion of the roadway between the edge of the traffic lane and the edge of the
ditch, gutter, curb or side slope.

Importance of Road Shoulder

1. Serves as a place for vehicles to stop when disabled or for some other purposes.
2. If the shoulder is too narrow, the road capacity decreases and accident opportunity increases.
3. Should be continuous along the full length of the roadway. Also adds structural strength to the
road pavement.
4. It increases the horizontal sight distance on curves. Reduces accident potential when vehicle
stop during emergencies.

Policy on Geometric Design Recommended that:

1. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3.00 or 3.60 meters wide if truck volume is more
than 250 in ADT.
2. Recommended width of median shoulder is 1.20 to 2.40 meters with 1.20 meters paved.
3. In 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder should be 3.00 meters wide or 3.50 meter if truck
volume in the design hour exceeds 250.
4. Arterials with ADT less than 400, shoulder width is fixed at 1.20 meters minimum, although
2.40 meters is preferred.
5. When ADT exceeds 400, minimum shoulder is 2.40 meters although 3.60 meters is preferred.
6. For Urban Arterial Road, similar curb is suggested unless needed for proposed drainage.
7. The width of median shoulder on four lanes divided arterials is fixed at 90 centimeters
minimum
8. For six or more lanes, 2.40 to 3.00 meters shoulder width is recommended.
9. For Rural Collectors Roadway, 60 centimeters wide graded shoulder is required for ADTs less
than 400.
10. For ADTs over 2000, 2.40 meters wide shoulder is recommended.

TABLE 3. WIDTH OF ROADWAY FOR UNDIVIDED HIGHWAY

Total Travel way Shoulder Width Roadway Width Speed of Reference

14.00 m 3.25 20.50 100 80 60 40
12.00 m. 3.25 18.50 60 40
7.00 m. 2.75 12.50 100 80 60 40
7.00 m. 2.00 11.00 80 60 40
6.70 m. 2.75 12.20 100 80 60 40
6.70 m. 2.00 10.70 80 60 40
6.00 m. 2.75 11.50 80 60 40
6.00 m. 1.50 9.00 80 60 40

The Cross Slope

It is provided in all tangent sections of the roadway. A cross slope in one direction of multi lane makes
driving comfortable, but with heavy rainfall, the water depth increases on the roadway.

Cut or Fill Slope

Earth fill of normal height is safe on a slope of 1:2 ratios while slopes of cuts through an ordinary
undistributed earth fill remains in place with 1:1 ratios. Rocks cuts could be steep as 1:2 and
sometimes 1:4 ratios.
Advantages of Flat Side or Back Slope
1. With back slope 3:1 or even flatter, cars could be directed to back into the road and will come
to stop or continue down with no risk.
2. Flat fill slopes are visible from vehicles at full extent giving the road a safer appearance.
3. With visible slope being flat, vehicles could be positioned or parked closer to the edge and on
two lane roadway facilities parking would be farther from the opposing traffic.

Recommended Policy on Geometric Design

1. 6:1 slope ratio could not be adopted on embankment less than 1.20 m high, and 4:1 ratio on
higher fill
2. The 2:1 slope is allowed to heights greater than 6.00m.
3. Cut slope should not be steeper than 2:1 ratio except on solid rock or special kind of soil.

When the sides slope requires embankment with suitable retaining wall, any of the following
materials could be used upon natural conditions:
1. Hand placed stones
2. Cement rubbles masonry
3. Concrete blocks
4. Conventional reinforced concrete
5. T or counter forted designs
6. Cribs assembled from timber
7. Precast concrete
8. Metal elements
9. Tied back piling
10. Earth reinforced with metal or plastic band

Number of Lanes
It is determined from the estimated traffic volume for the design year (AADT) and highway lane
capacity at expected level of service.

Highway Median
Advantages of Highway Median:
1. Reduce headlight glares, conflicts, and accident in opposing streams of traffic.
2. Offers refuge between opposing traffic and stream cross of traffic.
3. Provides available space for left turn lanes.
4. Makes turning of vehicles smooth and safe.
5. Wide median is highly recommended.
6. Policy in Geometric Design states that; 3.00 to 9.00 meters median width is appropriate in
mountainous situation.
7. For rural and urban arterials, 18 m median or wider is preferred.
8. Medians with 6 to 18 meters wide allows drivers to cross separately. 4.20 to 6.60 meters for
turning vehicles.
9. Curve median with 1.20 to 1.80 meters width serves as partition
10. Width of traversable median should be wide enough to prevent vehicles running out of control
from reaching opposite traffic.
11. 15 to 24 meters distance between landed edges is favored but specific value is not stipulated.
12. Cross slope pf the median should not be greater than 6:1 but 10:1.
13. Dense planting of rose hedges serves as safety crash barriers.

Four Means of Reducing Cross Meridian Accidents:

1. Provide deterring devices
2. Provide non-traversable energy absorbing barriers
3. Provide non-traversable rigid barriers
4. Provide G.M. barriers.

Deterring Devices
Two sets of double strip painted on existing pavement, raised diagonal bars, low curbing and shallow
ditches
Non Traversable Energy Absorbing Devices (Metal Guard Rail)
Line chain link fence 1 meter high supported by steel post augmented by cables at the bottom and
midpoint.

G.M. Barriers
High non-mountain sloped face concrete barriers called New Jersey. It is cast or extruded in place
or precast in section and set in position by cane.

The Grade Line

It is defined as the longitudinal profile of the highway as a measure how the centerline of the highway
rises and fall.

In laying the grade line, the designer must consider the following:
1. Where the earthwork is minimal.
2. In mountainous areas, grade line must be considered balance excavation.
3. In flat area, grade line is set almost parallel to the ground surface.
4. Undesirable native soil should be provided with sufficient covering.
5. Grade line elevations along the river or stream, is governed by expected level of water flood.

Vertical Curve over Crest

The vertical distance from the intersection of the straight grade line to the curve is equal to one eight
of the product of the algebraic difference in grades and the length of the curve in stations.

Correction at any intermediate point is obtained by:

1. Multiplying the max correction by the square of the hor. Distance between near end of the
curve and point.
2. Divide this product by the square of ne half the length of curve.

Right of Way
A successful freeway and expressway operations, closes the roadway from direct access to adjoining
property and some local roads or streets.

Stopping Sight Distance

It is defined as the longest distance that a driver could see the top of an object 15 centimeters (6)
above the road surface where the design height of the drivers eye above the pavement is 105
centimeters.

Made up of two elements:

1. Distance travelled after obstruction or object is seen and before the driver applies the brakes.
2. Second distance consumed while the driver applies brakes for the vehicle to stop.

It can expressed by:

d = tm/s
(/)2 (/)2
Breaking distance: d= or d =
2 19.8(+)
Where: m/s = initial speed, meter per second
t = direction 9break reaction time)
gm = acceleration of gravity, 9.80 meters per second square
f = coefficient of friction between tire and pavement
g = longitudinal slope of the roadway or % Grade / 100

Uphill grade is positive (+)

Downhill grade is negative (-)
Passing Sight Distance
It is the longest distance that a driver can see the top of an oncoming vehicle where the drivers eye
level is 1.05 meters above the pavement surface.

It can expressed by:

943
L = 2s - where S is greater than L

2
L= where S is less than L
943
Where L = length required of vertical curve
S = specified sight distance
A = algebraic difference in grades expressed in percent

Circular Curves
Sharpness
It is expressed in terms of curve degrees, and the degrees of curve is inversely proportional with the
radius.

5,729.58 5,729.58
Formula: D = or Radius =

Where: D = degree of curve and the radius
Degree of curve SI = 0.328 D

Arc Definitions
The degree of curve is the central angle subtended by a 30 meters arc of the curve

Chord Definitions
The degree of curve is the central angle subtended by 50 meters chord.
50
Radius =
Sine12
The Policy on Geometric Design recommended that:
1. For design speed of 50 kilometers per hour the normal cross slope is 1 21 or even flatter
curves.
2. For a 120 kilometers per hour design speed road, the normal cross slope is 0 15 or flatter
curves without super elevation.

Super Elevation Runoff

It is recommended that 60% to 80% of the runoff be on the tangent. For wider roadway, should
be increased:
1. Four lanes, individual value increased by 50%
2. Six lanes, individual value increased by 100%
Widening of Curves
A provision for a wider roadway is necessary on sharp curve for two lanes pavement under
the following reasons:
1. To force the drivers to shy away from the pavement edge.
2. To increase the effective transverse vehicle width for non tracking of front and rear wheels.
3. To give additional width due to the slanted position of the front wheel to the roadway center
line.
4. For a 7.20 meters wide roadway, an additional width of 30 centimeters is necessary on an
open curve highway.

Island
It is defined area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle movement and for pedestrian refuge.

Island is included in the design of intersections for the following purposes:

Separation of vehicular flows
Separation of conflicts
Reduction in excessive pavement areas
Reduction of traffic and indications of proper use of intersections
1. Arrangements to favor a prominent turning movement
2. Location of traffic control devices

Type of Interchange
It requires selection of the conformation that is best suited to particular situation and demand.
1. To provide separation between two or more traffic arteries.
2. To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from one entry to other or between local roadway
and the freeway.

Diamond type Interchange

It is the simplest and low cost form of interchange, and recommended where the freeway crosses non
freeway arterial.

Cloverleaf type Interchange

It is recommended for freeway and arterial intersections. Intersecting arteries are separated and free
of intersections.

Objections to the Cloverleaf Interchange Design

1. It requires large area of land.
2. At higher design speed, more time is consumed just to traverse the longer loops.
3. Vehicles making left turn execute 270 right turn and travel greater distance becoming very
unpleasant and hazardous due to the sharp curve and steep grades.
4. Vehicles leaving the curve loop in one quadrant weave those entering the adjacent loop from
the through roadway.

Highway Intersection at Grade

Intersection Area. It is considered part of every connecting roads.

Bicycle Lane
It is now popular due to energy cries and traffic problems. It requires separate road with design speed
is 20 30 kilometers per hour for flat section.
 TABLE 2-4 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE GRADES FOR HIGHWAYS IN %
Design ARTERIALS
Speed FREEWAYS RURAL URBAN Collectors RURAL Local RURAL
Km/hr. Flat Rolling Mount. Flat Rolling Mount. Flat Rolling Hilly Flat Rolling Mount. Flat Rolling Mount.
32 - - - - - - - - - 7 10 12 8 11 16
48 - - - - - - 8 9 11 7 9 10 7 10 14
64 - - - - - - 7 8 10 7 8 10 7 9 12
80 4 5 6 4 5 7 6 7 9 6 7 9 6 8 10
97 3 4 6 3 4 6 5 6 8 5 6 - 5 6 -
105 - - - 3 4 6 - - - - - - - - -
113 3 4 - 3 4 5 - - - - - - - - -

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design

No prescribed value for Local Streets - Maximum is 15%

TABLE 2-5 MINIMUM RIGHT OF WAY WIDTHS FOR RURAL AND URBAN FREEWAYS AT GRADE IN METER

RURAL URBAN
Width
Number of No Restricted Normal with Normal No
Frontage
Lanes Frontage No Frontage Frontage Frontage
Road
Road Road Road Road
2 60 45 - - -
4 68 53 41 - -
6 75 60 51 89 53
8 83 68 59 96 60

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design