ISSUE 10 MARCH/APRIL 2006 $5.

00

SEA ANEMONES
A DANGER TO
MARINE FARMERS
CARP BREEDING
HAS A SILVER LINING
CONTENTS

4 9 11

3 EDITORIAL
Are our politicians naturally stupid?

4 IS THERE VALUE IN MUSSEL FAECES?

Mussel farm waste could nourish sea cucumbers

6 ADVANCEMENTS IN FISH VACCINE DEVELOPMENT

Vaccines are an important tool for finfish health

9 RESEARCH COULD TURN WASTE INTO WHITEBAIT

Whitebait thrive on fish food from agricultural waste

10 CARP BREEDING PROGRAMME HAS A SILVER LINING

Silver carp have great potential

11 BLUE STRIPED SEA ANEMONE: A SAFETY ISSUE

Toxins a problem for mussel harvesters

12 NEWS
A look at whats happening in the industry ISSUE 10
MARCH/A
PRIL 2006

$5.00

15 MAORI AQUACULTURE SETTLEMENT

HANDOUT OR PALM OFF?
New areas essential for iwi aquaculture to thrive ON THE COVER:
A healthy adult
whitebait along
with juveniles

Photo by
Charles Mitchell
SEA
ANEM
A ONES
MARIN DANGER TO
E FARM
ERS
CARP
HAS BREE
A SILV DING
ER LI
NING

ISSN 1176-5402 ISSN 1176-8657 (web)
An informative journal
for the aquaculture industry
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2 NZ AQUACULTURE MARCH/APRIL 06
EDITORIAL
BY KEITH INGRAM

Are our politicians

NATURALLY STUPID?
L
ast issue of Aquaculture New Zealand we featured the
latest marine invader, Styela clava, or the club tunicate
sea squirt so readers could identify them, as our
more recent photographs were more realistic than the dry
offerings that have been published widely elsewhere.
Unfortunately, we must now report that this illegal alien has
now spread extensively throughout the Hauraki Gulf, and its
possible eradication appears no longer to be an option.
As we speak, Biosecurity New Zealand is endeavouring to
develop a management plan to try and contain this critter to
the Hauraki Gulf.Any such plan will require the commitment of
the marine transport industry, fishing vessels, the aquaculture
industry and pleasure craft users. It is a difficult task.
New Zealand Aquaculture magazine thanks the aquaculture
industry in the Hauraki Gulf for their prompt reporting once
the sea squirt was identified and its on-going support in trying
to manage the organism.
Our investigation has confirmed that the sea squirt is
extensively in the Tamaki River, with the mooring service
operator reporting many lost moorings because the single-float
is now being pulled down by the weight of sea squirts. Sea
squirts have also been identified in the marinas and heavy
mooring areas.
While its future long-term impact on the aquaculture
industry remains unknown, clearly the addition of this marine
organism adding weight to mussel lines and competing for
photo-plankton in the water will have an effect. Recently I
caught some scallops with dreaded sea squirts attached.What
the long-term impact on scallops will be remains unknown.We
will report more on this as it comes to hand.
On a positive note, we must acknowledge the industrys
acceptance of New Zealand Aquaculture magazine.We are
mindful of our responsibility to publish quality, informative
information, and are pleased to hear the positive feedback we
have received to date from aquaculture participants, because it
is only through this feedback can we measure the standard and
level of information you are seeking.
In saying this, we are here to support the industry and it is
only with your support of providing good information and
sharing ideas that
we as a collective
industry can move ahead.
Unfortunately, the heads in the Beehive have not
acknowledged the benefits that this industry can contribute to
the New Zealand economy.While they pay lip service to the
industry, any real evidence of their commitment to ensure that
the industry moves forward seems lacking.
Clearly our politicians need to make decisions in relation to
the process of aquaculture management areas and the
Resource Management Act.
It never ceases to amaze me when I hear stories from
dedicated aquaculture farmers who want to develop and
progress their businesses to hear of their frustrations and the
huge costs incurred in trying to run their business. It is no
wonder that many of these operators, with hard-learnt New
Zealand skills in aquaculture, are heading to Australia.
If one thinks back, would our farming industry be what it is
today if it had had to deal with the Resource Management Act
as we know it today. I think not.
Meanwhile, across the Tasman, state authorities and local
politicians are not only welcoming New Zealand expertise and
Kiwi ingenuity, they are encouraging it to the level where they
are assisting applications through the process in what can only
be described as an amazingly short time.A recent new
operator from New Zealand in South Australia advised us that
from the time he saw an opportunity and made that first
important enquiry to the time he had all the resource
approvals in his hand took six months. No wonder these
people are happy to invest in Australia.
One shies away from suggesting that the Australians are
smarter than us. Are our skills and knowledge being
lost because our politicians are being so stupid? ac

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MARCH/APRIL 06 NZ AQUACULTURE 3
IS THERE VALUE in mussel faeces?
BY MATTHEW SLATER AND DR GUY CARTON
LEIGH MARINE LABORATORY, UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND

W
ith mussel farms covering more than 5000ha
of New Zealands coastal waters, and with
Sea cucumber grazing
considerable expansion underway, the on mussel farm-impacted
environmental impact of farming is receiving increasing sediments in a laboratory tank

attention in the media and among the public.

While mussel aquaculture is widely considered one of the
most sustainable forms of aquaculture, it has been shown that
the seafloor directly beneath farms is degraded by increased
sedimentation, mainly in the form of mussel faeces and
pseudofaeces. BELOW:
Each experimental
While biologists have repeatedly highlighted the animal is photo-
consequences of this faecal rain on the seafloor, no identified. Unique
pigmentation
consideration has been given to the potential economic value allows individual
animals to be
of this waste stream.This is the subject of research currently identified and their
being undertaken at the Leigh Marine Laboratory. growth to be
tracked
The two aims of the project are to reduce the impact of
mussel farming on the local sea floor, and to produce a
valuable secondary crop.
Initial trials have focussed on the common New
Zealand sea cucumber Stichopus mollis, a deposit feeder
frequently found on many sub-tidal reefs in New Zealand.
It is hoped that these animals will consume mussel waste
directly beneath the farms, and in the process produce a
valuable secondary crop that in some instances may even
exceed the value of the farmed mussels. made up of mussel faeces and pseudofaeces.
The research is primarily focussed on determining the They consume large amounts of impacted sediments and are
growth and survivorship of caged sea cucumbers under farms, active bioturbators of the sediment surface. Combined, the
and secondly, laboratory experiments that analyse the effects farm growth and the success of the laboratory-based feeding
of sea cucumber grazing on pure mussel waste. experiments indicate that the common sea cucumber is well
Animals have been caged at varying densities beneath mussel suited to polyculture with mussel farms in New Zealand coastal
farms to determine potential carrying capacity, and these waters.These results may be extended to other aquaculture
capacities have also been compared to observed natural operations such as oyster farming and sea-caged finfish.
densities as determined by reef surveys. Initial results show The caging of sea cucumbers under farms is probably
excellent survival and good growth of the farmed animals. In impractical below an operating mussel farm, and may not be
laboratory experiments, the sea cucumbers can be maintained warranted, as they appear to have relatively low rates of
on a diet consisting exclusively of heavily impacted sediments movement.

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4 NZ AQUACULTURE MARCH/APRIL 06
 The sea cucumbers appear to confine themselves to the
impacted area immediately around the farm, where they have
access to a rich food source.While promising, the results raise
questions about the practicality of farming and harvesting the
animals, and perhaps more importantly, the legislative
framework surrounding the harvesting of polycultured crops
from under farmed areas.
Can a reliable artificial seed source be established to seed
sea cucumbers under farms? Should animals seeded and
collected from under farms be excluded from the quota
management system? Can other commercial operators be
discouraged from removing the polycultured animals from the
seafloor below the farms? Such practical hurdles will need to
be overcome if a commercially viable industry is to develop.
However, given the demand for the product throughout Asia,
the potential rewards clearly exist.
The sea cucumber fishery in New Zealand is as yet poorly
developed.A small fishery is supported by local demand in the
Auckland region, where collected specimens are primarily sold
as live seafood. Sporadic fisheries existed in the Marlborough
Sounds and Fiordland between 1991 and 2003, but exports
have rarely exceeded more than a few tonnes per year of
dried sea cucumber.
Despite potential returns of up to $18 per kilo green weight,
the majority of S mollis total allowable catch is taken as by-
catch in shallow trawls and shellfish dredges and is discarded
rather than being processed.The key to developing a profitable
industry will be improved knowledge of optimal harvest times
Researchers
Dr Guy Carton
and Matthew
Slater with sea
cucumbers
and methods to ensure high-value products such as gravid
gonads can be included in the harvest, and the development of
appropriate processing capacity.
Polyculture can be the most sustainable and profitable
approach in aquaculture. Environmental impacts and concerns
are dealt with while waste products are transformed into
valuable secondary crops.With legislative and industry
support, sea cucumbers farmed and harvested under mussel
farms may become an excellent example of large-scale
polyculture in conjunction with a successful established
aquaculture industry.
Many thanks to Kennedy Bay Mussel Farms for access
and logistical support. ac

VIP.AC06

MARCH/APRIL 06 NZ AQUACULTURE 5
 ADVANCEMENTS IN
fish vaccine development
BY DR PHILLIP KLESIUS, DR JOYCE EVANS AND DR CRAIG SHOEMAKER
(United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service, Aquatic
Animal Health Research Laboratory, AL and Chestertown, MD)
D
uring the past decade, aquaculture production
has significantly increased in many parts of the
world. Seafood provides 16 percent of the animal
protein consumed by humans. From 1992 to 2001, the United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) reported
that total seafood supply increased by 29.8 percent, whereas
the supply of wild-captured fish increased by only 8.3 percent.
The FAO also reported that global aquaculture is increasing by
11 percent per year and is the worlds fastest growing food-
producing sector.
The incidence and emergence of new infectious diseases has
almost paralleled the growth of the aquaculture industry.The
increasing impact of infectious diseases on production is likely
to be the result of sub-optimal production husbandry
practices, intensive culture at high fish densities, the lack of
health management practices and the introduction of sick fish
to healthy populations.
Immuno- The movement of fish, eggs and genetic material from
fluorescent
antibody stained
country to country has resulted in the introduction of new
Edwardsiella diseases for which fish have little or no resistance.The overall
ictaluri (red) and
Flavobacterium economic impact of fish diseases is difficult to determine, but
columnare may be as high as 10 to 15 percent of the total value of fish
(green).
production worldwide.
(Courtesy of Dr Certain diseases may destroy the entire production chain,
Victor Panagala,
USDA, ARS, and often result in the destruction of healthy fish in the
Aquatic Animal affected area in an effort to control the epizootic from
Health Research
Laboratory) spreading to other regions or countries.
6 NZ AQUACULTURE MARCH/APRIL 06
The aquaculture industry has made remarkable
biotechnological advancements in the past five years.These
advancements in areas such as fish vaccines are necessary to
meet the rapid growth of the aquaculture industry worldwide.
The use of vaccines for humans, food animals and pets to
prevent disease is a common practice. Similar biotechnological
advancements in the development of efficacious fish vaccines
for disease prevention in cultured fish are on the rise.
From 1976 to the present, the number of commercially
available, safe and efficacious fish vaccines has increased from
one to more than 14.The majority of these vaccines are to
prevent bacterial diseases. However, several vaccines are also
available to prevent viral diseases.
The majority of the available bacterial vaccines are of the
killed type (ie the infectious agent(s) are inactivated or killed).
Killed vaccines are primarily administered by injection and the
duration of their protection may be limited.This method of
immunisation is costly because of the need to handle and
inject each fish.
KILLED STREPTOCOCCAL
VACCINES
Streptococcus iniae and Streptococcus agalactiae are major
pathogens that cause serious economic losses in tilapia and
numerous species of freshwater, marine and estuarine fish
worldwide.
Efficacious S iniae (US patent 6,379,677 B1) and S agalactiae
(patent pending) vaccines were developed and patented by the
Agricultural Research Service,Aquatic Animal Health Research
Laboratory at Auburn,AL and Chestertown, MD using
formalin-killed cells and concentrated extra-cellular products.
A specific antibody response appears to confer protection
for both the S iniae and S agalactiae vaccines.The finding that
extra-cellular products of these Gram-positive streptococci
are important immunogens that confer protective immunity
following immunisation is a notable advancement in the
development of efficacious killed vaccines.
ATTENUATED VACCINES
The development of attenuated bacterial vaccines was a
biotechnological breakthrough.Attenuated vaccines are made
by changing virulent pathogens so they retain the ability to
infect and cause the host to mount an effective immune
response without causing mortality, adverse reactions or
reverting to the virulent form.
Attenuated vaccines can be successfully administered by bath
immersion, a cost-effective method of mass immunisation of
large numbers of fish. Equally important, attenuated vaccines
can be successfully used to immunise fingerlings and
fry as young as seven to 10 days after hatching.This
immunisation will last the life of their production
cycle, as opposed to a shorter duration of about six
months for a killed vaccine.
Examples of the first US-licensed attenuated
bacterial vaccines are those against enteric
septicemia of catfish (ESC) and columnaris disease
of catfish. These attenuated vaccines were
developed and patented by the Agricultural
Research Service, USDA, Aquatic Animal Health
Research Laboratory at Auburn, AL (US patents
6,019,981 and 6,881,412). Edwardsiella ictaluri, the
causative agent of ESC, costs the catfish industry
about US$50-60 million annually.
Columnaris disease caused by the bacterium
Flavobacterium columnare costs the catfish industry
about $40 million annually. Both diseases are generally
found together, compounding these industry losses.The DNA VACCINES ESC immunised
channel catfish
Agricultural Research Service, USDA, licensed both vaccines to Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) vaccination is another example (ARS photo
Intervet, Inc, Millsboro, DE which commercialised the vaccines. of a biotechnological advancement to protect fish from news story,
Agricultural
The ESC and columnaris vaccines are commercially pathogens.The basis of a DNA vaccine is the delivery of a Research,
May 2005)
labeled Aquavac-ESC and Aquavac-COL, respectively. The gene encoding for a protective vaccine antigen.The vaccine
economic impact of the ESC vaccine is an increase of gene is expressed by the host muscle cells to produce the
producer profit by $1706 per acre and a significant vaccine antigen, which in turn stimulates the host immune
reduction in loss due to disease. The results show that both system to provide protection against the pathogen.
vaccines significantly increased the survival of the
immunised channel catfish. CONTINUED

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MARCH/APRIL 06 NZ AQUACULTURE 7
 Intramuscular injection of DNA vaccines against the major
viral diseases of salmon, such as infectious hematopoietic
necrosis virus (IHNV) and viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus
(VHSV) has resulted in protection in laboratory trials.
Very limited success has been reported for bacterial pathogens
with DNA vaccines. Denmark and Canada have allowed the
initiation of field tests to determine the usefulness and safety of
DNA vaccines against fish viral diseases in the aquaculture setting.
IN OVO AND ORAL VACCINATION
Different methods of administration for mass vaccination can
be employed to maximise the protection conferred by
different vaccine types. In ovo immunisation of channel catfish
eggs (US patent 6,153,202) with attenuated ESC vaccine
resulted in protection against ESC in fingerlings.
This is the earliest life stage at which fish have been
successfully immunised with an attenuated vaccine.The
commercial use of in ovo immunisation would allow for a
very cost-effective method of mass vaccinating fish.
Oral immunisation is also a recent biotechnological
advancement.Vaccines must be delivered on a mass scale to be
effective, thus oral vaccination, like in ovo vaccination, is appealing.
The basis of oral vaccination is to protect the vaccine
components from destruction by the fish digestive tract so
that the antigens are able to penetrate the intestinal lining and
stimulate an immune response.
PerOs Technologies, Inc, of St Nicolas, Canada, has developed
its patented OraljectTM technology that prevents the degradation
VIP.AC10
VIP.AC01
8 NZ AQUACULTURE MARCH/APRIL 06
of the vaccines components by digestive enzymatic function and
decreases the gastric pH of the fish intestine.
Currently, the ARS patented Streptococcus iniae vaccine
(US patent 6,379,677 B1) was incorporated into Oralject
and fed to tilapia. The S iniae Oralject vaccine was
efficacious following challenge with live S iniae in the oral-
immunised tilapia.
VACCINATION AS PART
OF A MANAGEMENT PLAN
The practice of culturing finfish is dependent on the
employment of health management and biosecurity measures
in which vaccination is an integral tool for the producer.Thus,
vaccines are a management tool in aquatic animal health
management and biosecurity plans to prevent disease
outbreaks and the introduction of economically devastating
pathogens into the producer facilities. Increased global trade of
aquaculture products depends on the continued advancement
of these and other such biotechnical contributions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper originally appeared in Aquaculture Health
International. See www.aquaculturehealth.com. Reproduced
with permission. The authors wish to acknowledge Laura
McGinnis and Lisa Biggar for their helpful editorial
assistance. The use of a trade or manufacturers name does
not imply endorsement by the US Department of
Agriculture. ac
Research could turn
WASTE INTO WHITEBAIT
BY THE FOUNDATION FOR RESEARCH,
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
N
ine years of research could help solve two
apparently unrelated problems - New Zealands
depleted whitebait stocks, and the impact of an
increasing volume of waste effluent from agriculture.
Since 1997, Charles Mitchell has invested thousands of dollars
into researching the aquaculture of whitebait, developing a
laboratory of six original design ponds on a coastal property
near Raglan Harbour naturally powered by gravity flow and tidal
energy to manage about 8500 tonnes of water.The ponds, which
are also home to eels and mullet, use natural tidal triggers for
whitebait spawning activity and egg deposition.
Mitchell, a fisheries consultant with 31 years experience,
remains the only person in New Zealand to artificially breed
whitebait, or inanga, and is now routinely spawning large shoals.
Whitebait are one of the highest value seafoods on the New
Zealand market, fetching up to $250 per kilo in some seasons
and seldom selling for less than $100 per kilo.
Over 50,000 adult whitebait brood stock were spawned
repeatedly between May and October 2005, resulting in some
250 million whitebait larvae being released into Raglan Harbour
from June until September.
Whitebait grow rapidly in the sea, making a 430-fold weight
gain in three to five months before they return to coastal
waterways.We can reliably breed them in bulk with low labour
inputs, and enough whitebait return to the ponds each year from
fresh hatched larval releases to provide a population growth of
around 25 percent per annum. But the big barrier to a
commercially viable whitebait industry is the very high natural
mortality rate of larvae.
Mitchell says that in the wild fishery, over 99.5 percent of
whitebait larvae die between hatching and returning from the sea.
What we are looking for are means of intervention and
domestication that will break that pattern. If we could improve
survival to one or even two percent, our population could rapidly
shift from biologically sustainable to economically sustainable.
Research at Raglan suggests that improving harbour water
quality and increasing the amount of feed available in the first few
weeks of life is critical to boosting whitebait survival rates and
ultimately catch levels.
To achieve this goal, Mitchell has been trialling conversion of
agricultural waste into ultra low-cost, high quality fish food to
feed the inanga larvae after hatching.
With an investment of around $80,000 over two years from
the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology, he has
been experimenting with waste yeast from a local winery, fish
processing waste, chicken manure, horse manure, cow manure
slurry and chopped clover as test diets for farmed zooplankton
to feed baby whitebait.Trolling the Internet for other feed ideas
also has him considering using algae slurry from advanced dairy
effluent treatment ponds to grow the plankton.
All kinds of organic waste can be
used to produce food for plankton,
because they feed on the bacteria and
algae produced during the breakdown
of wastes in water.
To develop captive strains of local
planktonic organisms suitable for
larval fish food, Mitchell has used the
foundations investment to support a
search of sewage effluent ponds, stagnant high tidal rock pools Charles Mitchell
and other fertile places for zooplankton species potentially
valuable for aquaculture. So far three species have proven
successful under intensive culture.
With the food supplies flowing, this year we achieved a 25
percent increase in the length of the whitebait within four days
before they ate everything and we had to release.This strategy
has the potential to bypass the extremely high early larval
mortality rate.
While there is a way to go before proof of concept is
established, results to date leave Mitchell optimistic.After seven
generations, his captive breeding whitebait are growing larger and
producing more than three times the number of eggs hatched by
their counterparts in the wild.
Part of the research investment from the foundation is to be
used to refine a method of fish ear bone tagging to identify which
whitebait returning to the ponds have originated from the
farmed stock.
While developing a new commercial aquaculture industry is a
top priority for Mitchell, hes also aiming to improve the overall
health of the whitebait fishery. He says catch quotas tend to be
set on the numbers spawned in strong years, but these occur
erratically, depending on weather conditions, meaning the
population may be severely depleted in weaker years.
Commercialisation must not mean over-exploitation of
native stocks. My research has the potential to provide the
know-how and the techniques to grow the native inanga
fishery within present intensive land use and to ensure it
is sustainable.
Being able to manage pollution at the same time is another
plus.My research could offer the agriculture industry new ways
to manage effluent, while also supporting a high value fishery.This
project is high risk, truly unknown and applied to todays issues.
Support from the foundation has been vital in helping me to
carry on.
Ian Gray, a research and development project director working
with Mitchell, says the work being done near Raglan has exciting
potential for other aquaculture industries and for environmental
restoration.He has built up a huge body of knowledge about
restoring aquatic environments using native species and
natural forces, like tidal movement.
ac
MARCH/APRIL 06 NZ AQUACULTURE 9
CARP BREEDING PROGRAMME
has a silver lining
BY DAVID COOPER, PROJECT MANAGER, MAHURANGI TECHNICAL INSTITUTE
T
he silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, has
been successfully bred in New Zealand for the first
time in 20 years, thus saving the species from
almost certainly disappearing from New Zealand.
The aquaculture team at Mahurangi Technical Institute in
Warkworth led by the chief aquaculture scientist, Dr Tagried
Kurwie, assisted by technicians Adrian Paarman and Kim
Pierce, has achieved two successful spawnings in their hatchery
and now have several hundred thousand juveniles past the
early critical stage, feeding and growing well.
The broodstock was taken from the
holding and conditioning ponds of New
Zealand Waterways Restoration, which
commissioned the breeding programme. At
approximately two weeks of age the fry
were returned to NZWRs fish farm, also in
VIP.AC01
10 NZ AQUACULTURE MARCH/APRIL 06
Warkworth, to mature in ponds.
Auckland University and later the Hawkes Bay
Acclimatisation Society originally imported silver carp into
New Zealand in the mid-1960s for evaluation.They have not
been bred in New Zealand since the mid-1980s, which means
that all the available stock is getting older and is in less than
ideal condition.
The fish are known to be a great tool for water quality
management in natural waterways, as they are filter feeders
that consume suspended algae, and they cannot breed in the
wild in New Zealand. One of the areas they are therefore
being considered for is the Rotorua lakes.
Silver carp also hold great potential as a food fish for
aquaculture.They are already grown for food in many
countries, and their preference for eating phytoplankton must
have a positive effect on production costs.
The fish can grow as heavy as 20kg and have a life
expectancy of 20 to 25 years. Spawning must be induced in
laboratory conditions with the aid of hormones, and despite
the fact that Dr Kurwie is very proficient in this technique
with other species, notably eels and grass carp, she recently
travelled to Hungary to confer with recognised world experts
in this species.
While she was there, she visited a government-owned
hatchery breeding not only silver carp but also grass and
common carp, as well as running two large-scale carp farms.
The Hungarians were very friendly and helpful, and I
learned several tips and hints that have since been
incorporated into our technique and helped us refine our
process, says Dr Kurwie.
The MTI has made several unsuccessful attempts to breed
them over the past few years, but the two successful
spawnings will ensure the species will flourish in New Zealand,
as the likelihood of being able to import any new stock is very
low. In turn this means that the development of the
species for fish farming becomes entirely possible. ac
BLUE STRIPED SEA ANEMONE:
a safety issue for marine farms
BILL RUCKS AND KEVIN HEASMAN, CAWTHRON INSTITUTE

M
arine fouling is a perennial problem on
anything kept in the sea for long periods:
boats, port structures and marine farms.
Apart from the obvious physical problems caused by
fouling, some fouling organisms constitute a potential
danger for aquaculture workers, as the animals may be
stimulated to release toxic substances when disturbed
during routine marine farm work. One such potentially
toxic organism is the blue striped sea anemone. An
understanding of the hazard presented by this animal, plus
how to avoid and treat its effects, will enhance worker
safety and possibly improve productivity.
Blue Striped
The blue striped sea anemone belongs to the phylum Sea Anemone
Cnidaria, which also includes jellyfish and corals.All cnidarians
share a similar basic body design: a bag whose open end forms
the mouth.The majority of species have both a sessile stage,
attached to a substrate, and a motile stage where they move INDUSTRY WORKERS SHOULD BE
about. Most species exhibit a preference for one stage or the INFORMED OF THIS POTENTIAL
other: anemones show a dominance of the sessile stage. HAZARD AND KNOW HOW TO
Sea anemones occur throughout the worlds oceans, and IDENTIFY THE ORGANISM
although they are usually thought of as reef dwellers, since that is
where most tropical diving occurs, they are also found in other
habitats, such as the undersides of mussel buoys. Like all cnidarians, an ongoing rash for years.
anemones are hunters; their mouths are fringed with tentacles Eye contact may result in conjunctivitis, chemosis, corneal
armed with tiny stinging cells designed to immobilize small animals, ulcerations, or lid edema, requiring weeks of antihistamine or
allowing the tentacles to draw them into the mouth.These stinging other treatment.
cells can also release toxins as a tool for protecting the animal. Chronic reactions have included keloid formation, hyper-
These toxins are the source of a problem in the mussel industry. pigmentation, fatty atrophy and vascular spasm.
Aquaculture in the marine environment requires the
development of a situation conducive to the growth of aquatic RECOMMENDATIONS
organisms. Unfortunately we cannot be selective about what Before risk of exposure to the anemone and its toxin,
other organisms also find the conditions around our aquaculture aquaculture industry workers should be informed of this
structures appealing.Thickets of anemone and other sea life potential hazard and know how to identify the organism.
frequently develop on the bottom of mussel buoys.These can Each vessel should carry a copy of the Sea Anemone Info
weigh down the buoys, and the farm may need to be partially Sheet available from Cawthron.
re-floated when this load becomes too great. An emergency eye-wash station should be installed on each
Because of the physical disturbance caused during removal vessel, in an immediately accessible location, and staff should
of these thickets, the blue striped sea anemone can be be instructed on its use.
stimulated to discharge its toxin as a defence mechanism.This
creates the risk that mussel harvester crew will come into PRECAUTIONS AND TREATMENT
contact with the anemone toxin, which can affect any exposed Wear safety goggles to protect the eyes.
body surfaces, including legs, arm and eyes. Wear protective clothing to cover the skin.
A barrier cream may be useful to protect exposed skin on
SYMPTOMS OF EXPOSURE arms and legs.
The most common presentation is a painful skin eruption. If toxin comes in contact with skin, remove immediately with
Lesions can last from minutes to hours.A rash usually copious quantities of saline water.
develops approximately 24 hours after exposure and lasts If toxin comes in contact with eyes, immediately wash with
three to five days. sterile eye-wash solution.
In serious cases the rash may progress to urticaria, Seek medical advice after exposure to the toxin,
haemorrhage, or ulceration. In some cases a person may have particularly if a reaction develops. ac
MARCH/APRIL 06 NZ AQUACULTURE 11
NEWS

TOUGH ROAD AHEAD and consultants. Meanwhile, the new

FOR MUSSEL INDUSTRY Aquaculture Law Reform Bill would end the
New Zealands mussel industry is doomed if era of mum and dad farmers, many of
the current economic and bureaucratic whom were the first to grow mussels in the
climate continues, say some leaders in the Sounds, Schwass said.It will seriously erode
aquaculture industry. their retirement nest egg in New Zealand
The general manager of the Port Mussel and leave them no industry to pass down to
Company,Terry Schwass, said there had been the next generation.
no growth for six years, and the industry was Politicians seemed unwilling or unable to
reeling from the high New Zealand dollar and acknowledge the contribution aquaculture
government regulations.The aquaculture made to the regions, and had effectively let
industry in this country as we know it is that could not be passed on to customers. down the next generation of marine farmers.
doomed if we dont get some common sense The Marlborough mussel and salmon The chief executive of Aotearoa Seafoods,
to prevail, he said. industry employed 1500 people in Sam Hobson, said he had to be optimistic
Schwass, one of the pioneers of the industry Marlborough, Nelson and Canterbury.And about the future of aquaculture.The industry
in Marlborough, said he and other Kiwi Marlborough annually exported about $230 was exporting container loads of mussels but
aquaculture entrepreneurs were increasingly million of aquaculture products, mainly it needed to appeal to a wider range of
forced to invest in Australia or South America mussels and salmon. seafood consumers by presenting product in
if they wanted business to expand. But the low returns and high costs in the different ways.
The chief executive of the New Zealand face of a weakening economy combined to
Marine Farming Association, Graeme Coates, encourage people to look at investing in CRYOPRESERVATION
said the high New Zealand dollar was making Australia or Chile, where there were more RESEARCH ATTRACTS
it incredibly difficult for the whole seafood favourable working environments.The irony STRONG INTEREST
industry.The mussel industry was is that we get all the verbal support out of The Cawthron Institute says its work in
experiencing some growth, with applications Wellington, but this doesnt deliver into freezing shellfish eggs and sperm has gained it
from between moratorium years still flowing water space, he said. international recognition.The results of seven
through the legal process. Schwass invested a year ago in South years of intensive research into ways to
But the Aquaculture Law Reform legislation Australia Seafoods Ltd, producing blue preserve and store Pacific oyster eggs to help
enacted in 2004 was so complex that to date mussels in Port Lincoln.They will be with selective breeding were recently
there had been no applications for water profitable by May, and Australian authorities published in the scientific journal Cryobiology.
space under that regime, he said. On top of have offered them more water space to add The Cawthron team said on December 22
that, regional councils and the government to their 120ha operation, he says. that it was the first in the world to achieve
were looking to impose coastal occupation He said the Resource Management Act was success with cryopreservation (storage of
and rating charges and bonds on the farmers a farce that played into the hands of lawyers living things at low temperatures) of eggs of
an aquatic species, whether fish or shellfish.
The leader of the programme, Serean Adams,
FISHERMEN REJECT ROCK LOBSTER VENTURE says the response to the publication of their
Western Australias traditional rock lobster fishermen have spurned the opportunity to research has been overwhelming.
introduce a venture that could boost the countrys A$400 million aquaculture industry. Because of our progress in this area, a
WA Fisheries Department scientists and the aquaculture company Summermor team of American researchers has asked if
conducted successful trials in the latter half of 2005. But traditionalists in the wild-catch they can come here to assist us in
industry fear aquaculture could damage the established trade and questioned the science. investigating the molecular and cellular effects
Cool weather in the lead-up to Christmas led to a 40 percent drop in Western Australias of cryopreservation on shellfish eggs.We
catch, creating a sellers market and price rises of 40 percent. have also been asked to visit researchers at
There had been previous failures in aquaculture attempts outside Western Australia, the Scripps Institute of Oceanography in San
because scientists had been unable to farm lobsters past the complex nine-month larval Diego, who are experts in shellfish
stage. Large stocks of juvenile lobsters off the coast had meant local scientists were able embryology, and we are in discussions with
to avoid this problem in the latest trial. researchers from France, who are keen to
The department is eager to invest in the new science, believing that farming lobsters come and spend time with us to learn our
would eliminate market troughs and develop constant production during season closures. techniques, she says.
Its principal researcher, Dr Roy Melville-Smith, said hundreds of millions of 20mm The institute was able to rear the first
juvenile lobsters had been identified in a seven-year research programme, of which an batch of Pacific oysters from cryopreserved
estimated 95 percent were lost to predators. Only about five per cent on average eggs in 2003.The team could now achieve
survived to grow to legal size, and harvesting for an aquaculture venture would have no high survival rates for the frozen eggs from
affect on sustainability. the best females.This means we can
Steven Gill, the executive director of the Western Rock Lobster Council, scoffed at incorporate egg cryopreservation into our
suggestions that removing two million juvenile lobsters out of the biological chain would selective breeding programme, making it
have no affect on sustainability. more commercially viable for industry. She
says the next challenge is to improve survival

12 NZ AQUACULTURE MARCH/APRIL 06

Serean Adams retrieves
straws containing cultures
from a cryopreservation bank
from the poorer performing females and
expand cryopreservation techniques to other
species of shellfish and micro-algae.
The institute is also working on developing
techniques for Greenshell mussels, paua and
micro-algae, and recently teamed up with
New South Wales Fisheries for research on
the Sydney rock oyster.
AgResearch and the University of Otago
have also been part of the team for the
project, which has also received support from
the aquaculture industry.I think everyone
agrees that this kind of research allows the
industry to take shellfish breeding to a whole
new level. It means we can store eggs and
sperm from the best stock and basically thaw
them out whenever we need to - even
beyond the lifespan of the shellfish, says
Serean Adams.
From the science point of view, were
really excited about being able to make
world-leading developments. Its a great boost
for us, and Im very proud of the
cryopreservation team.
See www.cawthron.org.nz
SEA LIFE HOLDS
PROMISE FOR
TREATMENT OF
HUMAN ILLNESSES
New Zealand research into marine organisms
may provide discoveries for treating human
illnesses, such as neurological diseases,
researchers from the Cawthron Institute in
Nelson said on January 20.A long-term
project to develop forecasting capability to
detect harmful algal blooms, part-funded
through the Foundation for Research, Science
and Technology, is giving researchers fresh
information on the unique chemicals and
biological processes of sea organisms.
AQUACULTURE GOES ON SHOW
Australasian Aquaculture, which takes place at the Adelaide Convention Centre from
August 27 to 30, is expected to be one of the worlds largest aquaculture events in 2006.
The Australasian Aquaculture Innovation in Aquaculture Conference and Trade Show
will bring together over 1000 delegates from around the world to share knowledge and
showcase aquacultures best innovations.
Some exciting developments in the Asia-Pacific region will be presented. Attendees
will have the chance to meet Australians Gavin Partridge and Ian McRobert.Their
design, the Semi Intensive Flotation Tanks System, or SIFTS, aims to turn salinity, one of
the biggest environmental problems in Australia, into a profitable solution and
transform production of fish in salt-water affected areas.The unique system was
developed with assistance from the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation,
the major conference supporter.
The corporation says the system has great potential for use throughout the world in
farm dams, old mine voids, sheltered bays, harbours, rivers and lakes.
This kind of development will make aquaculture more accessible to everyone, said
Bruce Zippel, the chairman of the conference organising committee. The SIFTS
technology has already proven its benefit to the environment. It also makes it possible
for traditional, land-based farmers to broaden their horizons beyond current practices.
The programme for the conference has been geared to meet the needs of the industry.
It includes a gala Seafood and Wine event, so participants can find out what state-of-the
art farming practices are occurring as they sample the best seafood available.
The trade show is expected to see over 160 booths operating during the conference.
Organisations interested in being part of this major international event should not waste
time. For further information, contact Bruce Zippel at 0428 476 245 or see
www.australian-aquacultureportal.com
Cawthron researchers say the analytical Cawthron analytical chemist Paul McNabb.
chemistry used to detect harmful toxins in This field of investigation is relatively new,
shellfish is giving them hope that biologically and the institute says it is working in
potent, cell-killing properties could be used partnership with the universities of Auckland
against damaging cells in the human body. and Otago.In general, the worldwide
If targeted to rogue cells in the body, they background knowledge of marine ecology
could potentially cause cell death, working in and chemistry is not well researched, so
ways that other chemicals dont. Conversely, were starting from scratch, says McNabb.
novel properties, such as those that alter The research also involves what McNabb
neurological function, may have some
beneficial uses in stroke patients, says CONTINUED
VIP.S48
MARCH/APRIL 06 NZ AQUACULTURE 13
NEWS
describes as a bit of gardening. Each new
marine species discovered during the
research programme is being catalogued and
placed in a permanent live collection.There
are already 150 species in the garden, which
is the start of a national reference collection.
Cawthron says its research puts it at the
forefront of world algal bloom monitoring
and detection, with its algal technologies
helping protect New Zealands $180 million
Greenshell mussel industry. Its detection
technologies provide quality assurance that
ensures continued access to, and premium
status in, international markets.
It also eliminates the unnecessary
destruction of shellfish that show early signs
of contamination. Shellfish have the ability to
excrete the poisonous toxins over time,
becoming suitable for future harvests and
meeting safe human consumption standards.
As an extension to Cawthrons marine toxin
research, it is now investigating remote sensing
technology to give advance warning when
acceptable toxin levels are being breached.
Many new shellfish farms are being
established in remote coastal locations so
remote sensing for early warning of toxins is
important. It means farms could be
automatically checked instead of the constant
manual and expensive monitoring now
required, says McNabb.
He said there was plenty of industry
involvement and collaboration. The
research was very targeted, and the
outcomes were closely aligned to an
industrys request for tools.
McNabb says the future of the industry is
also exciting for New Zealand, because it has
the potential to invigorate rural communities
where many commercial shellfish farms are
proposed or are already being developed.
MUSSEL FARM FOR
CLIFFORD BAY
The Minister of Conservation, Chris Carter,
has approved an application for a 424ha
mussel farm at Clifford Bay, south of
Blenheim.
It is conditional on the outcome of a
baseline survey to establish whether the site
of the farm is of significance to a sub-
population of Hectors dolphins resident in
the bay.The decision follows an application by
Clifford Bay Marine Farms Ltd for two
mussel farms in Clifford Bay, totalling over
1300ha, and another further south at Cape
Campbell.
The Marlborough District Council had
recommended that consent for the proposed
14 NZ AQUACULTURE MARCH/APRIL 06
farm be declined, and consent for the council had previously planned to legally
proposed farm in Clifford Bay be approved, establish 18 specific areas asaquaculture
but for a significantly reduced area.The management areas suitable for marine
matter went to the Environment Court farming.
inquiry, which recommended approval, Those changes were intended to ensure
subject to the conditions. the council complied with new government
In approving the application to site a laws that ban development of new marine
marine farm at Clifford Bay, the Conservation farms unless they are in areas formally
Minister has accepted the Environment designated as AMAs. However, successful
Courts view that there is a low risk of the lobbying by the council persuaded the
farm causing harm to Hectors dolphins in government to allow it to adopt a new
the area, said the associate Minister of option for identifying AMAs, the Invited
Conservation, Mahara Okeroa. Private Plan Change, Jensen said.
The completed farm will occupy less than Under this system, marine farmers, rather
three percent of the area where the dolphins than ratepayers, will have to pay the
mostly live. However, the Minister had agreed considerable costs of having areas zoned as
with the Environment Court that as an an AMA, a move expected to save ratepayers
additional precaution, the developers must hundreds of thousands of dollars.
commission and pay for the baseline survey Moves to designate an area as an AMA will
before building their farm to ensure the involve a public submission and hearing
proposed area was not a breeding ground, process, and even if an area is ultimately
nursery or zone of real importance for the zoned an AMA, Jensen says it will only be the
dolphins, Okeroa said. first step towards setting up a new
A formal decision by the Minister of aquaculture venture within it. If an AMA is
Conservation is a statutory requirement agreed to, would-be marine farmers would
because the proposed development exceeds then have to apply for a consent to develop a
50ha, making it a restricted coastal activity as marine farm within it.This too would likely
defined in the Resource Management Act. entail a public hearing of any issues involved.
The council had identified 18 areas around
NEW REGIME COULD Northland as being potentially suitable for
SAVE RATEPAYERS marine farming.The main change in our
HUGE SUMS current approach is that it will now be up to
Would-be marine farmers, rather than applicants to apply to develop farms in these,
ratepayers, will bear the costs of any moves or other, suitable parts of Northland and to
to zone aquaculture areas in Northland meet the costs of doing so, Jensen said.The
under a new regime adopted by the Invited Private Plan change regime will ensure
Northland Regional Council. the councils role in aquaculture remained
The move is expected to save ratepayers regulatory rather than appearing to promote
hundreds of thousands of dollars, and the an industry perspective.
council held a series of public meetings Following the meetings, one month was
around Northland in February to outline the allowed for written comments to be
new regime as it moves to alter its regional received.This information and other feedback
coastal plan to enshrine the change. will be distilled into a report to the planning
Peter Jensen, the chairman of the councils and policy committee meeting in April.
planning and policy committee, said the See www.nrc.govt.nz
OYSTER FARM PLANS REJECTED
The Aquaculture Council says the rejection of plans to establish an oyster farm north of
Auckland will hurt the industry.Auckland Regional Council commissioners have declined an
application by BioMarine to set up a 100ha oyster farm in the Kaipara Harbour.The
decision, announced on November 15, went against the advice of regional council staff.The
commissioners said the proposal did not meet several requirements of the Resource
Management Act.
The Aquaculture Council says the decision is shortsighted and is likely to stunt the
growth of the industry. It says oyster farms on the eastern coast of Northland are under
threat from increased pollution and population growth.
BioMarine says it is considering whether to appeal against the decision.The managing
director, Jim Dollimore, says the oyster farm would have created about 100 new jobs.
The Maori Aquaculture Settlement
HANDOUT OR PALM OFF?
W
hen the Aquaculture Reform package of
legislation came into effect at the beginning of
this year, it included measures to give effect to
Maori aquaculture claims.
These measures were the subject of some controversy and
criticism, including from the iwi (tribes) that are the ostensible
beneficiaries of them.This article provides a brief overview of
what the settlement package is, and how it came to be.
For more than a decade, coastal iwi have claimed that they had
rights in the coastal marine area that were being overlooked in
the development of marine farming, and indeed in other coastal
developments.These claims essentially started from the point
that, even where Maori voluntarily sold land to the government
for settlement in the 1800s (let alone where land was
confiscated or otherwise acquired), the areas of sea adjoining
Maori land, and the resources associated with them, including
foreshore and seabed, were not generally sold or parted with.
There have been various vindications of these arguments in
the courts and the Waitangi Tribunal over the years, and
exactly this argument, as it relates to fisheries resources,
resulted in a settlement of those claims back in 1992.
There is some suggestion that aquaculture was raised as an
issue in the negotiations leading up to the 1992 Fisheries
Settlement, but it was not addressed at that time, being tacitly
agreed by all involved to be in the too hard basket.
Iwi continued to raise the issue of their rights in relation to
marine farming throughout the 1990s in Resource
Management Act processes, before the Waitangi Tribunal and,
most significantly, before the Maori Land Court in the
Marlborough Sounds case that was ultimately determined in
the Court of Appeal and led to the passage of the Foreshore
and Seabed Act 2004.
That act purported to unilaterally put an end to such claims,
and was interpreted by iwi as the death knell to any proper
consideration, let alone recognition, of their rights in relation to
marine farming.The governments June 2004 unveiling of Maori
settlement provisions to be included in the Aquaculture
Reform package therefore took almost everyone by surprise.
The Maori Commercial Aquaculture
Claims Settlement Act 2004
It is important to note at the outset that iwi had no input into
the Settlement Act and, indeed, the term settlement is a little
misleading, in that it suggests an agreement between the
parties. Despite the several years during which these issues
were raised and debated, various aspects of the Settlement Act
seem to be less than well thought out.
To start with, the act only addresses post-1992 claims, ie
potential claims in relation to marine farms that first obtained
permission to operate after September 21, 1992.The cut-off
date is an arbitrary one which leaves any earlier claims still live
and unaddressed; ie, the settlement hasnt in fact resolved all be little or nothing.
potential marine farming claims.
The Settlement Act further categorises aquaculture space
into new space and pre-commencement space. New space
is essentially space in an AMA, as such things come into being,
which is not covered by any lease, licence, permit, consent or
application in respect of marine farming, other than an
application frozen by the moratorium.
In relation to all new space, regional councils are required to
transfer 20 percent of authorisations to Te Ohu Kaimoana
Trustee Ltd (TOKMTL) as trustee for iwi in the region.The 20
percent must be representative in relation to other aquaculture
space in the region, and preferably in a single block. No doubt
these deceptively simple words will be challenging to implement.
Pre-commencement space is essentially space that became
subject to a lease, licence, permit or resource consent for
aquaculture between September 21, 1992 and 31 December
31, 2004, when the Settlement Act came into force.The Crown
has an obligation to ensure that TOKMTL is provided with the
equivalent of 20 percent of pre-commencement space.
It has 10 years to meet this obligation, and can do so using a
combination of new authorisations; existing
authorisations/coastal permits/marine farms purchased by the
Crown on a willing buyer/willing seller basis (from 2008
onwards), and/or cash compensation (from 2013).
The act also establishes the Maori Commercial Aquaculture
Settlement Trust, which is to receive and hold these settlement
assets until they are transferred to Iwi Aquaculture
Organisations.The trust must also facilitate iwi compliance with
the various requirements they must meet before ultimately
receiving those assets in their own right.These requirements
include organisational and governance standards, and
agreements as to the division or sharing of aquaculture assets
within each region.TOKMTL is to be the trustee of this trust.
What does it all mean?
The government, the courts, and - in large part - the aquaculture
industry, have accepted that there are legitimate iwi interests in
aquaculture which should be dealt with.Whether the Settlement
Act has struck the right balance in addressing those interest
remains to be seen, however.The fact that it was unilaterally
imposed on iwi and adopts two ad hoc parameters - a post-
1992 cut of and the figure of 20 percent - seriously undermines
its integrity and therefore its chances for success.
But perhaps the greatest challenge to successful
implementation of these arrangements lies in the fact that the
delivery of any benefit to iwi depends almost entirely on new
areas being made available for aquaculture development and
on new AMAs actually being created. The entire industry has
expressed concern that the reforms as a whole provide little
or no incentive for this to occur. If these concerns are borne
out, the benefit to iwi of this alleged settlement will
ac
MARCH/APRIL 06 NZ AQUACULTURE 15
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