Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Defining Competition
Likely Consequences and Benefits of Competition
Healthy vs. Unhealthy Competition
Classroom Applications
Competition in the Transformative Classroom
When we were students, some of us had positive experience with competition, while
others had experiences that were more often painful or at best not very enjoyable. As
adults, we commonly take that view of competition that we formed when we were
students ourselves, and then apply it to what we believe is appropriate and right for our
students and/or children; consequently, we may be operating from unexamined
assumptions. As a result, it is possible that our students are paying the price for our lack
of awareness. Therefore, it may be instructive to consider the effects of competition as
objectively as is possible, as we try to find an appropriate place for it in our classroom.
In this chapter we examine the nature of competition as well as its place in the
classroom. We will distinguish what could be considered the healthier forms of
competition from those that are less healthy, and examine if and when it can be
incorporated into the transformative classroom.
Defining Competition:
The definition of human competition is a contest in which there are two or more people
engage in a contest where typically only one or a few participants will win and others will
not (Webster, 2007). By definition competition exists when there is a scarcity of a
desired outcome. Individuals and/or groups are then in a position that they must vie for
the attainment of that outcome. For example in team athletics, two teams engage in a
sport for the purpose of winning.
It is partially true that the world is competitive. It is difficult to avoid competition entirely in
life. But it is also true that for the most part, competition in life is a self-imposed or at
least self-selected condition. We can just as easily live an existence defined more by
collaborative and self-referential goals than by competition with others. So to say that the
real world is inherently competitive is for the most part a myth. Moreover, to say that we
are preparing students for the real world by putting them in artificially constructed
competitive situations is to impose our world-view on them. In fact, one could argue that
in a broad sense, collectively, we as educators create a more or less competitive future
world by the way we encourage our students to think and treat one another. In other
Chapter Reflection 19-b: In your ideal world, what is the role of competition? Keep this
answer in mind as you reflect on the role that you want competition to play in the world
of your classroom.
Chapter Reflection 19-c: Recall a situation where you or someone else was involved in
a race to complete a task. Was there more mistakes being made as a result? Was the
quality of the performance better or worse? How do you explain your observations?
Introducing competition into the context of a group efforts, we can see much of the same
shift in attitude occurring. When competitive goals are present, the group will tend to
place an increased value on the outcome of the effort and decrease their focus on the
process. In other words, they will increase the attention that is placed upon doing what it
takes to win, and decrease the attention placed upon learning for its own sake. In
addition the competitive element will have an effect on the group dynamics as well. For
example, suppose that we ask groups to work in teams to assemble model airplanes,
and set up a reward for the group that finishes first or creates the best product. If we
contrast this competitive condition to a purely collaborative condition, the likely result will
be that group members will change the way they regard one another. The competitive
condition encourages one to view their fellow group members less as peers or a vehicle
for learning, and more those to be used to reach the goal. Such behaviors as dialogue
and reflection are useful in the collaborative condition, whereas in the competitive
condition, they often slow the process and diffuse the groups focus. In a collaborative
condition divergent ideas can usually be explored without penalty, whereas when we
Chapter Reflection 19-d: Recall your own experience in group to group competition.
What was the attitude of the others? Did everyone in the group enjoy the experience
(even on a winning team)? If not, why not?
While the list of potential costs related to competition is more substantial than its list of
potential benefits, the power of its effect makes its use very tempting. Typically, we find
that little else will get a group of young people more energized than when we introduce
competition into the equation. But like the use of any of the other extrinsically motivating
practices, the short-term benefits can mask the long term detrimental effect. As is
necessary when we consider the use of extrinsic rewards or other loaded strategies,
we need to be intentional and careful in our use of competition.
First, competitions for valuable outcomes will have more detrimental effects on a class
than competitions for trivial and/or symbolic outcome. There are essentially three types
of valuable/real outcomes. They are a) material things of value - this includes privileges
that have a substantive impact, b) the teachers conspicuous and/or lasting affection,
and c) recorded grades. When we give students a meaningful reward for winning, we
make the winning what is important, and we make the statement that students should
care at least as much about getting the reward as they do about the quality of their effort.
Recalling our discussion of motivation in Chapter 7, when we do this we have drawn the
intrinsic motivation out of the situation by introducing an extrinsic reward.
Second, the shorter the life of the competition the more likely it is to have a beneficial
effect. The length of the contest will increase its sense of prominence and decrease its
sense of intensity and fun both undesirable effects. For example, if we keep track of
the number of books each student has read over the course of the semester and post
the tally on a chart on the wall of the classroom, the initial effect may be an increased
sense of motivation to read books. Therefore, we initially might assume that our strategy
has been effective. However, as the contest goes on, we will notice that students will
increasingly read books just for the sake of the contest, and will have an incentive to
falsify the number of books that they have read. Moreover, over time we will notice that
the competition is becoming less fun and increasingly more of a burden. At the end of
the year, the competition will have produced essentially one somewhat happy and very
relieved student, many students who feel unhappy about losing, a good number who will
feel a little unhappy but highly relieved that the chart is no longer being held over their
head and shaming them.
Third, the leader of the competition needs to place a conspicuous emphasis on the
process over the product. If the winning is the point, the students will take on a do what
it takes attitude. If the students are encouraged to value the process, they will feel
justified stay focused on the learning outcome and feel assured that it is okay to put their
When taken together we could conclude that the most healthy and beneficial
competitions are those that are undertaken for exclusively symbolic value (e.g., good
job you won polite applause for the winners congratulations to group four they came
up with some great ideas and won the contest.), are short and sweet, are characterized
by all participants feeling like they have a chance to win, and have the process and
quality of work being given conspicuous value, and the product of the winning given a
conspicuously low level of importance. Figure 19.2 lists the principles that create more or
less healthy competitive contexts.
In Unhealthy Competition
o It feels real. The winners and losers will be affected.
o The competitive goal/reward is valuable/real, and is characterized
that way.
o The learning task is characterized as a means to an end (winning the
competition).
o Winners are able to use their victory as social or educational capital at
a later time.
o Competition implicitly or explicitly rewards the advantaged students.
o Over time students develop an increasingly competitive mindset.
o Examples include: Long-term point systems, competition for grades,
grading on a curve, playing favorites, Awards for skill related
performance.
o
Chapter Reflection 19-f: Recall the last classroom competition that you observed.
Given the list above, would you classify it as a healthy or unhealthy competition?
The full effect of an unhealthy competitive experience may not be apparent on the
surface or immediately. In fact, it may appear like it has had a rather desirable influence
on the students. Vockell (2004) points out that competition helps some students (i.e., the
winners) feel an enhanced sense of self-esteem by experiencing a favorable
comparison. That is, they feel better about themselves because they came out ahead of
someone else. One of the problems with this source of satisfaction is that it leads quickly
to the fear that in the future one may not come out on top - in other words, a fear of
failure. In fact, self-esteem based on comparison is not true self esteem (as discussed
in Chapter 8). It is a fragile ego construction. The best it can lead to is a temporary
experience of relief from feeling like a failure. Ultimately it leads to loss of intrinsic
motivation as a result of the student competing for the external reinforcement (i.e., the
prize, the validation, the favorable comparison) and defining themselves by their
personal win-loss record.
When the student sees his/her school performance as a contest, it leads increasingly to
what Dweck (2000) refers to as a helpless pattern. As discussed in Chapter 8, the
helpless pattern develops as a result of the student perceiving himself/herself as having
a fixed quantity of ability and therefore needing to prove that they are adequate relative
to others. While on the surface what may appear as students who are motivated to
perform, is more likely actually evidence of students motivated to avoid the pain of
feeling inadequate and inferior. The development of this helpless pattern promotes a
decrease in internal motivation, a decreased value for growth as a goal, and decreased
resilience to challenging situations. So initially we may see students who are energized
by the competitive challenge (out of fear of failure, or a desire to enhance their self
image by accomplishing a favorable comparison to others), however, we will eventually
get student who put in less and less effort on the task, quit when things get difficult, and
lose interest in learning unless it includes the drama that the competitive element brings
(i.e., much the same way that the gambling addict needs to play for money to be able to
take an interest in playing the game.)
Chapter Reflection 19-g: Reflect on the most desirable state of mind of those who need
to perform successfully in highly competitive situations. In some situations, in which the
contest is about brute strength, there are occasions when fear and anger can create a
desired effect. Yet, by and large competitive performance requires the execution of skills
and strategy. Take for example professional golf. When high performing players were
asked to explain what they were thinking in a given pressure situation, the most common
answer is that they were trying to keep their attention in the moment and resist the
temptation to attend to the external stimuli. But as we know, they are not always
successful in doing so. When a player does fail to stay in the moment and begins to shift
their thinking from each shot to an awareness of their performance relative to the others
on the course and/or relative to a negative event in their past, the common result is poor
Chapter Reflection 19-h: Have you ever blanked out in a competitive condition? When
the stakes have been high for a test or public performance, have you ever found yourself
forgetting what to do or say? Test anxiety is a byproduct of the competitive factor. Our
consciousness shifts from the task to the cost of the performance of the task and we
Chapter Reflection 19.i Reflect on your experience as a student. Can you think of
teacher behaviors other than games and normative grading that caused you to think of
yourself as being in competition or to comparison of yourself in relation to the other
students in the class? What were they?
Predictably there will be a team or two who will The competition is not held up as a substantive
be out of the running in the point standings, means to personal satisfaction for the students.
and they will be very aware of it. Predictably, So while they are interested in the outcome
they begin to blame and resent one another. As and feel a sense of drama, they do not feel
the competition goes on they will increasingly substantially attached to the outcome. The
lose interest in the game and begin to make teacher has been very intentional about helping
only a minimal effort or even possibly lose on them recognize the many other meaningful
purpose as a means to exerting a sense of outcomes that are taking place in the class that
The competition becomes a source of pain for The completion is changed and modified
the teams that are far behind as it drags on. frequently so it never gets stale and all teams
For the teams in the lead it is a source of a feel that they have a chance to come back and
feeling of entitlement, superiority, and fear of win. Since the teacher has never made a big
losing. . While it maintains some power to deal of winning, the team in the lead does not
modify behavior, this power decreases daily, fear losing what is essentially only a symbolic
and it is related primarily to a desire to avoid reward. After a couple of weeks the teacher
pain. ends the competitions.
Competition is used throughout the whole year Competition is brought back once in a while for
and the importance of it is increasingly brief episodes, but is never given any place of
emphasized. This is necessary because, while importance.
the students do not realize it, they are losing See the next section Competition in the
interest, because there is nothing inherently Transformative Classroom.
satisfying about the competition and the reward
is not worth being so slavish to the procedures.
Knowledge bowl, Trivia, Jeopardy and/or Mock Quiz Show Games. If we design
a game for our students to play that includes academic content, it has the potential
to be fun and help reinforce certain skills and content, however, we need to keep in
mind the principles for a healthy competition. For example, the use of a jeopardy-like
game, or a team knowledge bowl competition to review for tests can raise the level of
interest and excitement while accomplishing essentially the same degree of content
processing. But if the outcome of the game becomes part of what is formally graded,
the competition goes from the healthy to the unhealthy column. Let us compare two
scenarios, one in which the outcome translates into each students formal grade and
a more healthy application in which it does not.
In a healthy use scenario, we might divide the class into 4 groups and have students
work together to answer questions related to the content of any upcoming exam. The
content would be familiar and the competition would act as a means of testing the
degree to which the students could retrieve the information under pressure. The
purpose would be clearly stated as a form of preparation for an exam. At the end of
the competition the teacher would want to recognize the efforts of each team and ask
the teams to offer the winning team their congratulations and polite applause. After
this recognition of effort, it would be effective for us to make a statement related to
what the knowledge level during the competition indicated about the assessment of
readiness of the group. In this scenario, the competition is simply a means, the
desired end is the learning and the fun.
In an unhealthy scenario, the one might start the same way, by dividing the class into
4 groups. But as soon as we tell the class that the competition has a meaningful cost
(the grade for the day in this case), things will change. One of the first changes will
be that the students will become conspicuously obsessed with fairness, the rules and
the appearance of cheating and/or any sign of favoritism by the teacher. A great deal
of our energy will need to be spent putting down angry demonstrations when any
event is perceived by students to have been unfair. As discussed earlier, the
members of each team will be encouraged by the competitive structure to put aside a
Chapter Reflection 19-j: How would you feel at the end of a review activity if the
teacher gave daily grades depending on how well your team did? What would
change in your attitude the next time you played?
In most cases, the competitive context brings out feelings in students that they think are
natural. In a sense, these feelings are natural, however, they are not going to lead to a
feeling of natural happiness and peace (i.e., the natural condition). Students should be
helped to see the feelings that competition brings out as normal and predicable, but not
necessary. Feelings such as worrying about losing, needing to win to feel good about
oneself, or needing the drama of the competition to feel interested, or being so worried
about the outcome that one losses focus on the process, are all normal but inevitably
dysfunctional habits of mind. We need to therefore help our students recognize these
normal tendencies and instead use more functional thinking to guide their choices and
define their state of mind during a competitive experience.
Low stakes competition includes situations such as when we tell the students that we
are looking for a ready group, when students are engaged in doing group
presentations, or when we have them take part in small-scale competitive games. During
these low-threat competitive contexts we need to be clear about the purpose of the
competition (i.e., fun and learning, and not winning) and help students pay attention to
what is going on internally. When it comes to games we might be very direct, making the
statement to the class, If we can play these games for fun, we will keep playing them. If
we start worrying about who wins or loses, or we start doing sloppy work to be done first,
we need to stop doing them. If, as suggested in Chapter 6, we give minor privileges
(e.g., getting to go line up first) to groups or individuals for being ready early, we need
to make it clear that we all need to be ready, that it helps the whole class, and we are
just using the game to emphasize that an important collective skill. Our message to
students may be This is good practice for games in life, we are all capable of being the
first ones ready, if your group is ready first, great, if not, you made a good effort that
helps us all. So we all win when we try our best.
As we raise the level of competitive energy, we need to help the students keep in mind
that the reason that we are using the skills that we have developed in a competitive
context, is not to see who is better, but to see how well each of us does with a
competitive learning environment. We are primarily testing our characters, and only
secondarily testing our skills. We need to help them see that we are helping them learn
how to perform under pressure, and learn that one can actually perform in high stakes
contexts without the need to feel pressured, anxious, or like their self-esteem is attached
to the outcome.
Possible Teacher Action: First, we need to be sure that we can back up what we are
saying and the competition is not for meaningful stakes, the students are prepared for
what we are asking them to do, and the we have not created an emotional climate that
has glorified winning. Second, we need to send a message that we care about each
student and want them to do well. We need to be the teacher not the judge, let them see
us putting our attention into instruction, and supporting their efforts with that instruction.
Potential Student Problem 2: Students begin to put too much focus on the
outcome/winning and lose sight of quality, cooperation, process, sportsmanship, and
ethics, or become too concerned with fairness and cheating.
Intentional Teacher Counter-Message: When the students get too focused on the
competitive element of the task, remind them that what is important is what they learn
and how they treat one another. Remind them that the competition does not affect their
grade or anything else that is important. If they are obsessed with fairness, help them
use it as a means to becoming bigger than their situation. Explain to them that winners
overcome adversity and dont get sidetracked by bad calls, corrupt systems, bad breaks,
etc. Help them see that this is good practice for life. Real victory is the ability to look
back and like how we acted during the competition.
Possible Teacher Action It would be a good idea if your assessment system supported
the message that what is being rewarded in the class is the process. Chapter 21 may be
helpful in that area. If a team or individual does not show the ability to work in a
competitive context without falling apart emotionally, blaming, cheating, or complaining
excessively, a consequence is required. The best consequence in this case will most
often be losing the opportunity to take part. Having a group or student sit out and reflect
on their previous actions and the priorities that motivated them should be valuable. It
may help to reflect along with them, if they are having trouble seeing where they are
going wrong. But as always our message to them needs to be I know that you will be
able to do this eventually, relax, take a few deep breathes, think about it a while. During
this past situation you were not able to show the level of self-discipline that we need to
be able to take part. You are smart, capable and reflective, and you have a lot to
contribute, so lets work on this so you can join the group as soon as possible.
Intentional Teacher Counter-Message: When things get heated that is a clear sign that
the students are letting their egos get too involved. We might begin by asking them a
question such as Hey gang, it is just a game remember? Ask yourself, what is it that is
making you so competitive right now, is it the need to feel good about yourself by beating
others or proving your worth? Look around, these are your friends, they will still love you
and you will still love yourself when the game is over. Help them stay in the moment and
enjoy the process and recognize that peak performance comes from being completely in
the moment and letting go of the outcome. Help them shift their goal to staying present
and doing a good job with the quality of the relationships and performing the task, and
away from the illusion that wanting to win will help you win and/or be happy and
satisfied.
Possible Teacher Action: If the students cannot hear your redirection message
because they are too immersed in the drama of trying to enhance their self-images by
winning, you will need to simply withdraw the privilege of the competition. Our message
to them at this point, will need to be that in this class, we compete to learn how to
compete, when we cannot demonstrate that we are ready for it, we need to stop for a
time and then try again when we are. When the emotions are still fresh, an episode
such as this may provide a powerful opportunity for the class to reflect on why it is so
difficult for any of us not to get all tied-up in needing to win. However, if we have allowed
the game to come to completion, this processing will not be as powerful. We need to let
the class recognize the clear cause and effect significance in our action in this class
we use competition to the degree that we are ready for it.
In the transformative classroom, the feedback and positive recognitions are reserved
entirely for process related performance and the quality of the participation. In the
transformative class students learn that winning is not the point, and losing is not a big
deal. Neither winning nor losing is meaningful. What is meaningful is what we learn
about ourselves in the process, how we treat each other, what we learn about our skill
level.
Chapter Reflection 19-l: Reflect on your role as the teacher/leader in the transformative
class. While we may need to provide strong guidance and leadership as the group is
learning to function, our goal should remain to let them learn to do it themselves. So
avoid being in the role of referee or judge. Can you think of a teacher that you have seen
that liked to be in the role of referee? What did the students learn as a result? Where did
the anger and complains go when things went wrong?
Finally, we need to remember that, in the transformative class, games are for fun. In the
transformative classroom games and competition provide both a learning opportunity
and a chance to play. So what makes a game fun? First when the participants do not
fear the potential consequences. So teaching students how to play without fear of failure
Conclusion
So we must approach the use of competition like it is toxic paint or an electric power tool.
It can produce beautiful results, but unless we take great precautions the likelihood is
that we will regret putting it in the hands of young people. If it seems harmless, it is
simply because we are not perceiving the threat clearly. And while no one is going to sue
us for promoting a fear of failure like they would if we allowed a student to injure
themselves with a power tool, we need to be no less safely conscious.
In the next chapter, we will examine the sibling of unhealthy competition - the use
systematic public shaming in the form of a deficit model behavioral system. In much the
same way as competition can motivate by fear of failure, deficit models motivate by a
fear of experiencing guilt and shame. In Chapter 21, we examine more healthy
alternative that achieves both more effective results as well as supports our efforts to
promote a success psychology within our students.
Chapter Reflections
1. Reflect on your experience as a student. What was your experience of
competition? Do you still hold that perception today? Do it affect the way that you
approach competition in your classroom?
2. What types of teacher behaviors encourage students to think competitively? Can
you think of teachers that you have observed that promoted a mentality of
comparison and competition among their students in ways other than games and
contexts?
Chapter Activities
1. In your group, discuss the question Is the real world competitive? Can one live a
competition free life?
2. For each of the following activities conceive of teacher behavior and/or a lesson
design structure that would promote it being a healthy competition, and one that would
promote it being an unhealthy competition.
a. Reporting the results of a test.
b. Walking through the room examining student projects.
c. Encouraging groups to clean up and get ready.
d. Holding a Spelling Contest
e. Holding a food drive
References
Cropper. C. (1998) Is Competition an Effective Classroom Tool for the Gifted Student?
Gifted Child Today Magazine, v21 n3 p28-31 May-Jun 1998
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1989). Cooperation and competition: theory and
research. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1999). Learning together and alone: Cooperative,
competitive, and individualistic learning. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Lam, S., Law, J., Cheung, R. (2004) The effects of competition on achievement
motivation in Chinese classrooms. British Journal of Educational Psychology, June pp.
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