CassiniHuygens

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The CassiniHuygens CassiniHuygens

(/ksini hns/) (commonly
called Cassini) mission was a
collaboration between the United
States' NASA, the European Space
Agency (ESA), and the Italian
Space Agency (ASI) to send a
probe to study the planet Saturn
and its system, including its rings
and natural satellites. The Flagship-
class unmanned robotic spacecraft
comprised both NASA's Cassini Artist's concept of Cassini's orbit insertion around Saturn
probe, and ESA's Huygens lander Mission type Cassini: Saturn orbiter
which would be landed on Saturn's
Huygens: Titan lander
largest moon, Titan.[7] Cassini was
the fourth space probe to visit Operator Cassini: NASA / JPL
Saturn and the first to enter its Huygens: ESA / ASI
orbit. The craft were named after COSPAR ID 1997-061A (http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1997-061A)
astronomers Giovanni Cassini and
SATCAT no. 25008
Christiaan Huygens.
Website NASA (https://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/)
Launched aboard a Titan ESA (http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Cassini-Huygens)
IVB/Centaur on 15 October 1997, ASI (http://www.asi.it/en/activity/solar-system-exploration/cassini-huygen
Cassini had been active in space for
s)
more than 18 years, with 13 years
spent orbiting Saturn, studying the Mission duration Elapsed:
planet and its system since entering 19 years, 335 days from launch
orbit on 1 July 2004.[8] The voyage 13 years, 76 days at Saturn
to Saturn included flybys of Earth En route:
(August 1999), Venus (April 1998 6 years, 261 days
+ July 1999), and Jupiter Prime mission:
(December 2000). Its mission
3 years
ended on 15 September 2017, when
Extended missions:
Cassini flew into Saturn's upper
Equinox: 2 years, 62 days
atmosphere and burned up at a very
high temperature,[9][10] in order to Solstice: 6 years, 205 days
prevent any risk of contaminating Finale: 4 months, 24 days
Saturn's moons, some of which
have active environments that Spacecraft properties
could potentially bear life.[11][12] Manufacturer Cassini: Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(At that point Cassini lacked Huygens: Alcatel Alenia Space
sufficient impulse to leave the Launch mass 5,712 kg (12,593 lb)[1]
Saturn system, so it could only be
left in orbit where it might collide Dry mass 2,523 kg (5,562 lb)[2]
with a moon, or be destroyed.) The Power ~885 watts (BOL)[2]
mission is widely perceived to have ~670 watts (2010)[3]
been successful beyond ~663 watts (EOM/2017)[2]
expectation. Cassini-Huygens has
been described by NASA's Start of mission
Planetary Science Division Director Launch date October 15, 1997, 08:43:00 UTC
as a "mission of firsts",[13] that has
revolutionized human Rocket Titan IV(401)B B-33
understanding of the Saturn system, Launch site Cape Canaveral SLC-40
including its moons and rings, and
our understanding of where life End of mission
might be found in the Solar System. Disposal Controlled Re-Entry into Saturn[4][5]
Last contact September 15, 2017 (11:55:46) UTC
Decay date September 15, 2017 (10:31) UTC[6]
Cassini's original mission was Orbital parameters
planned to last for four years, from
Reference system Kronocentric
June 2004 to May 2008. The
mission was extended for another Flyby of Venus (Gravity assist)
two years until September 2010,
branded the Cassini Equinox Closest approach April 26, 1998
Mission. The mission was extended Distance 283 km (176 mi)
a second and final time with the Flyby of Venus (Gravity assist)
Cassini Solstice Mission, lasting
another seven years until 15 Closest approach June 24, 1999
September 2017, on which date Distance 6,052 km (3,761 mi)
Cassini was de-orbited by being
Flyby of Earth-Moon system (Gravity assist)
allowed to burn up in Saturn's
upper atmosphere. Closest approach August 18, 1999, 03:28 UTC
Distance 1,171 km (728 mi)
The Huygens module traveled with
Cassini until its separation from the Flyby of 2685 Masursky (Incidental)
probe on 25 December 2004; it was Closest approach January 23, 2000
successfully landed by parachute
on Titan on January 14, 2005. It Distance 1,600,000 km (990,000 mi)
successfully returned data to Earth Flyby of Jupiter (Gravity assist)
for around 90 minutes, using the
Closest approach December 30, 2000
orbiter as a relay. This was the first
landing ever accomplished in the Distance 9,852,924 km (6,122,323 mi)
outer Solar System and the first Saturn orbiter
landing on a moon other than our
Orbital insertion July 1, 2004, 02:48 UTC
own. Cassini continued to study the
Saturn system in the following Titan lander
years. Spacecraft Huygens
component
At the end of its mission, the
Cassini spacecraft executed the Landing date January 14, 2005
"Grand Finale" of its mission: a Flagship Program
number of risky passes through the
gaps between Saturn and Saturn's inner rings.[4][5] The purpose of this phase was to maximize Cassini's scientific outcome before
the spacecraft was destroyed.[14] The atmospheric entry of Cassini effectively ended the mission, although data analysis and
production will continue afterwards.

Contents
1 Overview
2 Naming
3 Objectives
3.1 Itinerary
4 History
5 Spacecraft design
6 Instruments
6.1 Summary
6.2 Description
7 Plutonium power source
8 Telemetry
9 Huygens probe
10 Selected events and discoveries
10.1 Venus and Earth fly-bys and the cruise to Jupiter
10.2 Jupiter flyby
10.3 Tests of general relativity
10.4 New moons of Saturn
10.5 Phoebe flyby
10.6 Saturn rotation
10.7 Orbiting Saturn
10.8 Titan flybys
10.9 Huygens lands on Titan
10.10 Enceladus flybys
 10.11 Radio occultations of Saturn's rings
10.12 Spoke phenomenon verified
10.13 Lakes of Titan
10.14 Saturn hurricane
10.15 Iapetus flyby
10.16 Mission extension
10.17 Second mission extension
10.18 Great Storm of 2010 and aftermath
10.19 Venus transit
10.20 The Day the Earth Smiled
10.21 Rhea flyby
10.22 Hyperion flyby
10.23 Dione flyby
10.24 Hexagon changes color
11 Grand Finale and destruction
11.1 Missions
12 Glossary
13 See also
14 References
15 Further reading
16 External links

Overview
Teams from seventeen countries make up the joint team responsible for designing, building, flying and collecting data from the
Cassini orbiter and Huygens probe.

The mission is managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in the United States, where the orbiter was assembled. Huygens
was developed by the European Space Research and Technology Centre. The Centre's prime contractor, Arospatiale of France
(now Thales Alenia Space), assembled the probe with equipment and instruments supplied by many European countries
(Huygens' batteries and two scientific instruments by the United States). The Italian Space Agency (ASI) provided the Cassini
orbiter's high-gain radio antenna, with the incorporation of a low-gain antenna (to ensure telecommunications with the Earth for
the entire duration of the mission), a compact and lightweight radar, which also uses the high-gain antenna and serves as a
synthetic-aperture radar, a radar altimeter, a radiometer, the radio science subsystem (RSS), the visible channel portion VIMS-V
of VIMS spectrometer.[15]

The VIMS infrared counterpart was provided by NASA, as well as Main Electronic Assembly, which includes electronic
subassemblies provided by CNES of France.[16][17]

On April 16, 2008, NASA announced a two-year extension of the funding for ground operations of this mission, at which point it
was renamed the Cassini Equinox Mission.[18] The round of funding was again extended in February 2010 with the Cassini
Solstice Mission.

Naming
The mission consisted of two main elements: the ASI/NASA Cassini orbiter, named for the Italian-French
astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini, discoverer of Saturn's ring divisions and four of its satellites; and
the ESA-developed Huygens probe, named for the Dutch astronomer, mathematician and physicist
Christiaan Huygens, discoverer of Titan.

The mission was commonly called Saturn Orbiter Titan Probe (SOTP) during gestation, both as a Mariner
Mark II mission and generically.

Cassini-Huygens was a Flagship-class mission to the outer planets.[7] The other planetary flagships include Huygens'
Galileo, Voyager, and Viking.[7] explanation for
the aspects of
Saturn, Systema
Objectives Saturnium (1659)

Cassini had several objectives, including:[19]

Determining the three-dimensional structure and dynamic behavior of the rings of Saturn.
Determining the composition of the satellite surfaces and the geological history of each object.
Determining the nature and origin of the dark material on Iapetus's leading hemisphere.
 Measuring the three-dimensional structure and dynamic behavior of the magnetosphere.
Studying the dynamic behavior of Saturn's atmosphere at cloud level.
Studying the time variability of Titan's clouds and hazes.
Characterizing Titan's surface on a regional scale.

CassiniHuygens was launched on October 15, 1997, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's Space Launch Complex 40 using a
U.S. Air Force Titan IVB/Centaur rocket. The complete launcher was made up of a two-stage Titan IV booster rocket, two strap-
on solid rocket motors, the Centaur upper stage, and a payload enclosure, or fairing.[20]

The total cost of this scientific exploration mission was about US$3.26 billion, including $1.4 billion for pre-launch development,
$704 million for mission operations, $54 million for tracking and $422 million for the launch vehicle. The United States
contributed $2.6 billion (80%), the ESA $500 million (15%), and the ASI $160 million (5%).[21] However, these figures are from
the press kit which was prepared in October 2000. They do not include inflation over the course of a very long mission, nor do
they include the cost of the extended missions.

The primary mission for Cassini was completed on July 30, 2008. The mission was extended to June 2010 (Cassini Equinox
Mission).[22] This studied the Saturn system in detail during the planet's equinox, which happened in August 2009.[18]

On February 3, 2010, NASA announced another extension for Cassini, lasting 6 years until 2017, ending at the time of summer
solstice in Saturn's northern hemisphere (Cassini Solstice Mission). The extension enables another 155 revolutions around the
planet, 54 flybys of Titan and 11 flybys of Enceladus.[23] In 2017, an encounter with Titan changed its orbit in such a way that, at
closest approach to Saturn, it will be only 3,000 km above the planet's cloudtops, below the inner edge of the D ring. This
sequence of "proximal orbits" ended when another encounter with Titan sends the probe into Saturn's atmosphere.

Itinerary

Selected destinations (ordered by size but not to scale)

Titan Earth's Moon Rhea Iapetus Dione Tethys Enceladus

Mimas Hyperion Phoebe Janus Epimetheus Prometheus Pandora

Helene Atlas Pan Telesto Calypso Methone

History
CassiniHuygens's origins date to 1982, when the European Science Foundation and the American National Academy of
Sciences formed a working group to investigate future cooperative missions. Two European scientists suggested a paired Saturn
Orbiter and Titan Probe as a possible joint mission. In 1983, NASA's Solar System Exploration Committee recommended the
same Orbiter and Probe pair as a core NASA project. NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) performed a joint study of
the potential mission from 1984 to 1985. ESA continued with its own study in 1986, while the American astronaut Sally Ride, in
her influential 1987 report NASA Leadership and America's Future in Space, also examined and approved of the Cassini mission.

While Ride's report described the Saturn orbiter and probe as a NASA solo mission, in 1988 the Associate Administrator for
Space Science and Applications of NASA Len Fisk returned to the idea of a joint NASA and ESA mission. He wrote to his
counterpart at ESA, Roger Bonnet, strongly suggesting that ESA choose the Cassini mission from the three candidates at hand
and promising that NASA would commit to the mission as soon as ESA did.

At the time, NASA was becoming more sensitive to the strain that had developed between
the American and European space programs as a result of European perceptions that
NASA had not treated it like an equal during previous collaborations. NASA officials and
advisers involved in promoting and planning CassiniHuygens attempted to correct this
trend by stressing their desire to evenly share any scientific and technology benefits
resulting from the mission. In part, this newfound spirit of cooperation with Europe was
driven by a sense of competition with the Soviet Union, which had begun to cooperate
more closely with Europe as ESA drew further away from NASA.

The collaboration not only improved relations between the two space programs but also
helped CassiniHuygens survive congressional budget cuts in the United States. Cassini
Huygens came under fire politically in both 1992 and 1994, but NASA successfully
persuaded the U.S. Congress that it would be unwise to halt the project after ESA had
already poured funds into development because frustration on broken space exploration
promises might spill over into other areas of foreign relations. The project proceeded
politically smoothly after 1994, although citizens' groups concerned about its potential
environmental impact attempted to derail it through protests and lawsuits until and past its
Cassini-Huygens on the launch pad
1997 launch.[24][25][26][27][28]

Spacecraft design
The spacecraft was planned to be the second three-axis stabilized, RTG-powered Mariner
Mark II, a class of spacecraft developed for missions beyond the orbit of Mars.

Cassini was developed simultaneously with the Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby
(CRAF) spacecraft, but budget cuts and project rescopings forced NASA to terminate
CRAF development to save Cassini. As a result, Cassini became more specialized. The
Mariner Mark II series was cancelled.

Including the orbiter and probe, it has been the second-largest unmanned interplanetary
spacecraft built,[29][30] as well as being among the most complex.[29] The orbiter had a
mass of 2,150 kg (4,740 lb), the probe 350 kg (770 lb). With the launch vehicle adapter
and 3,132 kg (6,905 lb) of propellants at launch, the spacecraft had a mass of 5,600 kg
(12,300 lb). Only the two Phobos 1 and 2 spacecraft sent to Mars by the Soviet Union
were larger.

The Cassini spacecraft was 6.8 meters (22 ft) high and 4 meters (13 ft) wide. Spacecraft
complexity was increased by its trajectory (flight path) to Saturn, and by the ambitious
science at its destination. Cassini had 1,630 interconnected electronic components, 22,000
wire connections, and 14 kilometers (8.7 mi) of cabling. The core control computer CPU
Cassini-Huygens assembly
was a redundant MIL-STD-1750A system. The main propulsion system consisted of one
prime and one backup R-4D rocket engine. The thrust of each engine was 490 newtons
and the total spacecraft delta-v was about 2,040 meters per second.[31]

Cassini was powered by 32.7 kg[32] of plutonium-238the heat from the material's radioactive decay was turned into electricity.
Huygens was supported by Cassini during cruise, but used chemical batteries when independent.

Until September 2017 the Cassini probe continued orbiting Saturn at a distance of between 8.2 and 10.2 astronomical units from
the Earth. It took 68 to 84 minutes for radio signals to travel from Earth to the spacecraft, and vice versa. Thus ground controllers
could not give "real-time" instructions for daily operations or for unexpected events. Even if response were immediate, more than
two hours would have passed between the occurrence of a problem and the reception of the engineers' response by the satellite.

Instruments
Summary

Instruments:[34]

Optical Remote Sensing ("Located on the remote sensing pallet")[34]

Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS)
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS)
 Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph (UVIS)
Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS)
Fields, Particles and Waves
Cassini Plasma Spectrometer (CAPS)
Cosmic Dust Analyzer (CDA)
Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS)
Magnetometer (MAG)
Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument (MIMI)
Radio and Plasma Wave Science (RPWS)
Microwave Remote Sensing
Radar
Radio Science (RSS)

Description Titan's surface revealed by VIMS

Cassini's instrumentation consists of: a synthetic aperture radar mapper, a charge-coupled

device imaging system, a visible/infrared mapping spectrometer, a composite infrared
spectrometer, a cosmic dust analyzer, a radio and plasma wave experiment, a plasma
spectrometer, an ultraviolet imaging spectrograph, a magnetospheric imaging instrument,
a magnetometer and an ion/neutral mass spectrometer. Telemetry from the
communications antenna and other special transmitters (an S-band transmitter and a dual-
frequency Ka-band system) will also be used to make observations of the atmospheres of
Titan and Saturn and to measure the gravity fields of the planet and its satellites.

Cassini Plasma Spectrometer (CAPS)

The CAPS is a direct sensing instrument that measures the energy and electrical
charge of particles that the instrument encounters (the number of electrons and
protons in the particle). CAPS will measure the molecules originating from Saturn's
ionosphere and also determine the configuration of Saturn's magnetic field. CAPS Rhea in front of Saturn
will also investigate plasma in these areas as well as the solar wind within Saturn's
magnetosphere.[35][36] CAPS was turned off June 2011 due to an electrical short
circuit that occurred in the instrument. The instrument was powered on in March
2012; after 78 days a second short circuit forced the instrument to be again shut
down.[37]
Cosmic Dust Analyzer (CDA)
The CDA is a direct sensing instrument that measures the size, speed, and direction
of tiny dust grains near Saturn. Some of these particles are orbiting Saturn, while
others may come from other star systems. The CDA on the orbiter is designed to
learn more about these particles, the materials in other celestial bodies and
potentially about the origins of the universe.[35]
Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS)
The CIRS is a remote sensing instrument that measures the infrared radiation
coming from objects to learn about their temperatures, thermal properties, and
compositions. Throughout the CassiniHuygens mission, the CIRS will measure
Saturn's north polar hexagon[33]
infrared emissions from atmospheres, rings and surfaces in the vast Saturn system.
It will map the atmosphere of Saturn in three dimensions to determine temperature
and pressure profiles with altitude, gas composition, and the distribution of aerosols
and clouds. It will also measure thermal characteristics and the composition of
satellite surfaces and rings.[35]
Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS)
The INMS is a direct sensing instrument that analyzes charged particles (like
protons and heavier ions) and neutral particles (like atoms) near Titan and Saturn to
learn more about their atmospheres. INMS is intended also to measure the positive
ion and neutral environments of Saturn's icy satellites and rings.[35][38][39]
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS)
The ISS is a remote sensing instrument that captures most images in visible light,
and also some infrared images and ultraviolet images. The ISS has taken hundreds Animated 3D model of the spacecraft
of thousands of images of Saturn, its rings, and its moons. The ISS has a wide-angle
camera (WAC) that takes pictures of large areas, and a narrow-angle camera (NAC)
that takes pictures of small areas in fine detail. Each of these cameras uses a sensitive charge-coupled device (CCD) as its
electromagnetic wave detector. Each CCD has a 1,024 square array of pixels, 12 m on a side. Both cameras allow for
many data collection modes, including on-chip data compression. Both cameras are fitted with spectral filters that rotate on
a wheelto view different bands within the electromagnetic spectrum ranging from 0.2 to 1.1 m.[35][40]
Dual Technique Magnetometer (MAG)
The MAG is a direct sensing instrument that measures the strength and direction of the magnetic field around Saturn. The
magnetic fields are generated partly by the molten core at Saturn's center. Measuring the magnetic field is one of the ways
 to probe the core. MAG aims to develop a three-dimensional model of Saturn's magnetosphere, and determine the magnetic
state of Titan and its atmosphere, and the icy satellites and their role in the magnetosphere of Saturn.[35][41]
Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument (MIMI)
The MIMI is both a direct and remote sensing instrument that produces images and other data about the particles trapped in
Saturn's huge magnetic field, or magnetosphere. This information will be used to study the overall configuration and
dynamics of the magnetosphere and its interactions with the solar wind, Saturn's atmosphere, Titan, rings, and icy
satellites.[35][42] MIMI includes the Ion and Neutral Camera (INCA), which captures and measures Energetic Neutral
Atoms (ENAs).[43]
Radar
The on-board radar is an active and passive sensing instrument that has produced maps of Titan's surface. The active radar
can send radar waves able to penetrate the thick veil of haze surrounding Titan. By measuring the send and return time of
the signals it is possible to determine the height of large surface features, such as mountains and canyons. The passive radar
listens for radio waves that Saturn or its moons may emit.[35]
Radio and Plasma Wave Science instrument (RPWS)
The RPWS is a direct and remote sensing instrument that receives and measures radio signals coming from Saturn,
including the radio waves given off by the interaction of the solar wind with Saturn and Titan. RPWS measures the electric
and magnetic wave fields in the interplanetary medium and planetary magnetospheres. It also determines the electron
density and temperature near Titan and in some regions of Saturn's magnetosphere. RPWS studies the configuration of
Saturn's magnetic field and its relationship to Saturn Kilometric Radiation (SKR), as well as monitoring and mapping
Saturn's ionosphere, plasma, and lightning from Saturn's (and possibly Titan's) atmosphere.[35]
Radio Science Subsystem (RSS)
The RSS is a remote-sensing instrument that uses radio antennas on Earth to observe the way radio signals from the
spacecraft change as they are sent through objects, such as Titan's atmosphere or Saturn's rings, or even behind the Sun.
The RSS also studies the compositions, pressures and temperatures of atmospheres and ionospheres, radial structure and
particle size distribution within rings, body and system masses and the gravitational field. The instrument uses the
spacecraft X-band communication link as well as S-band downlink and Ka-band uplink and downlink.[35]

Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph (UVIS)

The UVIS is a remote-sensing instrument that captures images of the ultraviolet
light reflected off an object, such as the clouds of Saturn and/or its rings, to learn
more about their structure and composition. Designed to measure ultraviolet light
over wavelengths from 55.8 to 190 nm, this instrument is also a tool to help
determine the composition, distribution, aerosol particle content and temperatures
of their atmospheres. Unlike other types of spectrometer, this sensitive instrument
can take both spectral and spatial readings. It is particularly adept at determining the
composition of gases. Spatial observations take a wide-by-narrow view, only one
pixel tall and 64 pixels across. The spectral dimension is 1,024 pixels per spatial
pixel. Also, it can take many images that create movies of the ways in which this
material is moved around by other forces.[35]
Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS)
The VIMS is a remote sensing instrument that captures images using visible and VIMS spectra taken while looking
infrared light to learn more about the composition of moon surfaces, the rings, and through Titan's atmosphere towards the
the atmospheres of Saturn and Titan. It is made up of two cameras in one: one used Sun helps understand the atmospheres
to measure visible light, the other infrared. VIMS measures reflected and emitted of exoplanets (artist's concept; May 27,
radiation from atmospheres, rings and surfaces over wavelengths from 350 to 2014).
5100 nm, to help determine their compositions, temperatures and structures. It also
observes the sunlight and starlight that passes through the rings to learn more about
their structure. Scientists plan to use VIMS for long-term studies of cloud movement and morphology in the Saturn system,
to determine Saturn's weather patterns.[35]

Plutonium power source

Because of Saturn's distance from the Sun, solar arrays were not feasible as power sources for this space probe.[44] To generate
enough power, such arrays would have been too large and too heavy.[44] Instead, the Cassini orbiter is powered by three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), which use heat from the natural decay of about 33 kg (73 lb) of plutonium-238 (in
the form of plutonium dioxide) to generate direct current electricity via thermoelectrics.[44] The RTGs on the Cassini mission
have the same design as those used on the New Horizons, Galileo, and Ulysses space probes, and they were designed to have very
long operational lifetimes.[44] At the end of the nominal 11-year Cassini mission, they will still be able to produce 600 to 700
watts of electrical power.[44] (One of the spare RTGs for the Cassini mission was used to power the New Horizons mission to
Pluto and the Kuiper belt, which was designed and launched later.)

To gain momentum while already in flight, the trajectory of the Cassini mission included several gravitational slingshot
maneuvers: two fly-by passes of Venus, one more of the Earth, and then one of the planet Jupiter. The terrestrial flyby was the
final instance when the Cassini space probe posed any conceivable danger to human beings. The maneuver was successful, with
Cassini passing by 1,171 km (728 mi) above the Earth on August 18, 1999.[45] Had there been any malfunction causing the

A glowing-hot plutonium pellet that is
the power source of the probes
radioisotope thermoelectric generator
than one in one million.[46]
Cassini space probe to collide with the Earth,
NASA's complete environmental impact study
estimated that, in the worst case (with an acute
angle of entry in which Cassini would gradually
burn up), a significant fraction of the 33 kg[32] of
plutonium-238 inside the RTGs would have been
dispersed into the Earth's atmosphere so that up to
five billion people (i.e. almost the entire terrestrial
population) could have been exposed, causing up
to an estimated 5,000 additional cancer deaths[46]
(0.0005 per cent, i.e. a fraction 0.000005, of a
billion cancer deaths expected anyway from other
causes; the product is incorrectly calculated
elsewhere[47] as 500,000 deaths). However, the
chance of this happening were estimated to be less

Telemetry A Cassini RTG before installation

The Cassini spacecraft is capable of transmitting in several different telemetry formats.

The telemetry subsystem is perhaps the most important subsystem, because without it there could be no data return.

The telemetry was developed from ground up, due to the spacecraft using a more modern set of computers than previous
missions.[48] Therefore, Cassini was the first spacecraft to adopt mini-packets to reduce the complexity of the Telemetry
Dictionary, and the software development process led to the creation of a Telemetry Manager for the mission.

There are currently around 1088 channels (in 67 mini-packets) assembled in the Cassini Telemetry Dictionary. Out of these 67
lower complexity mini-packets, 6 mini-packets contained the subsystem covariance and Kalman gain elements (161
measurements), not used during normal mission operations. This left 947 measurements in 61 mini-packets.

A total of seven telemetry maps corresponding to 7 AACS telemetry modes were constructed. These modes are: (1) Record; (2)
Nominal Cruise; (3) Medium Slow Cruise; (4) Slow Cruise; (5) Orbital Ops; (6) Av; (7) ATE (Attitude Estimator) Calibration.
These 7 maps cover all spacecraft telemetry modes.

Huygens probe
The Huygens probe, supplied by the European Space Agency (ESA) and named after
the 17th century Dutch astronomer who first discovered Titan, Christiaan Huygens,
scrutinized the clouds, atmosphere, and surface of Saturn's moon Titan in its descent
on January 15, 2005. It was designed to enter and brake in Titan's atmosphere and
parachute a fully instrumented robotic laboratory down to the surface.[49]

The probe system consisted of the probe itself which descended to Titan, and the
probe support equipment (PSE) which remained attached to the orbiting spacecraft.
The PSE includes electronics that track the probe, recover the data gathered during its
descent, and process and deliver the data to the orbiter that transmits it to Earth. The
core control computer CPU was a redundant MIL-STD-1750A control system.

The data were transmitted by a radio link between Huygens and Cassini provided by
Probe Data Relay Subsystem (PDRS). As the probe's mission could not be
Huygens view of Same with different
telecommanded from Earth because of the great distance, it was automatically
Titan's surface data processing
managed by the Command Data Management Subsystem (CDMS). The PDRS and
CDMS were provided by the Italian Space Agency (ASI).

After Cassini's launch, it was discovered that data sent back from the probe to European Space Agencys mission control center
was largely unreadable. It was determined that Cassinis receiver was unable to accurately process the changes in frequency and
wavelength of the signal it would be receiving from Huygens during its descent to Titan.[50] The problem was rectified by
changing the distance and angle of Cassini's trajectory to Huygens during the landing.[50][51]

Selected events and discoveries

Venus and Earth fly-bys and the cruise to Jupiter
The Cassini space probe performed two gravitational-assist flybys of Venus on April 26,
1998, and June 24, 1999. These flybys provided the space probe with enough momentum
to travel all the way out to the asteroid belt. At that point, the Sun's gravity pulled the
space probe back into the inner Solar System.

On August 18, 1999, at 03:28 UTC, the craft made a gravitational-assist flyby of the
Earth. One hour and 20 minutes before closest approach, Cassini made its closest
approach to the Earth's Moon at 377,000 kilometers, and it took a series of calibration
photos.

On January 23, 2000, Cassini performed a flyby of the asteroid 2685 Masursky at around
10:00 UTC. It took photos[52] in the period five to seven hours before the flyby at a
distance of 1.6 million kilometers, and a diameter of 15 to 20 km was estimated for the Picture of the Moon during flyby
asteroid.

Jupiter flyby

Cassini made its closest approach to Jupiter on December 30, 2000, and made many
scientific measurements. About 26,000 images of Jupiter, its faint rings, and its moons
were taken during the six month flyby. It produced the most detailed global color portrait
of the planet yet (see image at right), in which the smallest visible features are
approximately 60 km (37 mi) across.[53]

A major finding of the flyby, announced on March

Cassini photographed Io transiting
Jupiter on January 1, 2001.
6, 2003, was of Jupiter's atmospheric circulation.
Dark "belts" alternate with light "zones" in the
atmosphere, and scientists had long considered the
zones, with their pale clouds, to be areas of
upwelling air, partly because many clouds on
Earth form where air is rising. But analysis of
Cassini imagery showed that individual storm
cells of upwelling bright-white clouds, too small
to see from Earth, pop up almost without
exception in the dark belts. According to Anthony
Del Genio of NASA's Goddard Institute for Space A Jupiter flyby picture
Studies, "the belts must be the areas of net-rising
atmospheric motion on Jupiter, [so] the net motion
in the zones has to be sinking."

Other atmospheric observations included a swirling dark oval of high atmospheric-haze, about the size of the Great Red Spot,
near Jupiter's north pole. Infrared imagery revealed aspects of circulation near the poles, with bands of globe-encircling winds,
with adjacent bands moving in opposite directions.

The same announcement also discussed the nature of Jupiter's rings. Light scattering by particles in the rings showed the particles
were irregularly shaped (rather than spherical) and likely originate as ejecta from micrometeorite impacts on Jupiter's moons,
probably Metis and Adrastea.

Tests of general relativity

On October 10, 2003, the mission's science team announced the results of tests of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity,
performed by using radio waves transmitted from the Cassini space probe.[54] The radio scientists measured a frequency shift in
the radio waves to and from the spacecraft, as those passed close to the Sun. According to the general theory of relativity, a
massive object like the Sun causes space-time to curve, causing a beam of radiowaves (or light, or any form of electromagnetic
radiation) that passes by the Sun to travel farther (known as the Shapiro time delay).

Although some measurable deviations from the values calculated using the general theory of relativity are predicted by some
unusual cosmological models, no such deviations were found by this experiment. Previous tests using radiowaves transmitted by
the Viking and Voyager space probes were in agreement with the calculated values from general relativity to within an accuracy of
one part in one thousand. The more refined measurements from the Cassini space probe experiment improved this accuracy to
about one part in 51,000.[55] The data firmly support Einstein's general theory of relativity.

New moons of Saturn

In total, the Cassini mission discovered seven new moons orbiting Saturn.[56] Using
In total, the Cassini mission discovered seven new moons orbiting Saturn.[56] Using
images taken by Cassini, researchers discovered Methone, Pallene and Polydeuces in
2004,[57] although later analysis revealed that Voyager 2 had photographed Pallene in its
1981 flyby of the ringed planet.[58]

On May 1, 2005, a new moon was discovered by

Discovery photograph of moon Daphnis
in diameter in the B-ring system.[60]
Cassini in the Keeler gap. It was given the
designation S/2005 S 1 before being named
Daphnis. A fifth new moon was discovered by
Cassini on May 30, 2007, and was provisionally
labelled S/2007 S 4. It is now known as Anthe. A
press release on February 3, 2009 showed a sixth
new moon found by Cassini. The moon is The possible formation of a new moon
approximately 1/3 of a mile (500 m) in diameter was captured on April 15, 2013
within the G-ring of the ring system of Saturn, and
is now named Aegaeon (formerly S/2008 S 1).[59]
A press release on November 2, 2009 mentions the seventh new moon found by Cassini
on July 26, 2009. It is presently labeled S/2009 S 1 and is approximately 300 m (1000 ft)

On April 14, 2014, NASA scientists reported the possible beginning of a new moon in the A Ring of the planet Saturn.[61]

Phoebe flyby

On June 11, 2004, Cassini flew by the moon Phoebe. This was the first
opportunity for close-up studies of this moon (Voyager 2 performed a distant
flyby in 1981 but returned no detailed images). It also was Cassini's only
possible flyby for Phoebe due to the mechanics of the available orbits around
Saturn.[62]

The first close-up images were received on June 12, 2004, and mission
scientists immediately realized that the surface of Phoebe looks different
from asteroids visited by spacecraft. Parts of the heavily cratered surface look
very bright in those pictures, and it is currently believed that a large amount
of water ice exists under its immediate surface.
Cassini arrival (left) and departure mosaics of Phoebe
Saturn rotation (2004)

In an announcement on June 28, 2004, Cassini program scientists described

the measurement of the rotational period of Saturn.[63] Because there are no fixed features on the surface that can be used to
obtain this period, the repetition of radio emissions was used. These new data agree with the latest values measured from Earth,
and constitute a puzzle to the scientists. It turns out that the radio rotational period has changed since it was first measured in
1980 by Voyager 1, and that it is now 6 minutes longer. This does not indicate a change in the overall spin of the planet, but is
thought to be due to movement of the source of the radio emissions to a different latitude, at which the rotation rate is different.

Orbiting Saturn

On July 1, 2004, the spacecraft flew through the gap between the F and G
rings and achieved orbit, after a seven-year voyage.[64] It is the first
spacecraft to ever orbit Saturn.

The Saturn Orbital Insertion (SOI) maneuver performed by Cassini was

complex, requiring the craft to orient its High-Gain Antenna away from Earth
and along its flight path, to shield its instruments from particles in Saturn's
rings. Once the craft crossed the ring plane, it had to rotate again to point its
engine along its flight path, and then the engine fired to decelerate the craft
Saturn reached equinox in 2008, shortly after the end
of the prime mission
by 622 meters per second[65] to allow Saturn to capture it. Cassini was
captured by Saturn's gravity at around 8:54 pm Pacific Daylight Time on June
30, 2004. During the maneuver Cassini passed within 20,000 km (12,000 mi)
of Saturn's cloud tops.

When Cassini was in Saturnian orbit, departure from the Saturn system was evaluated in 2008 during end of mission planning.[66]
Titan flybys

Cassini had its first flyby of Saturn's largest moon, Titan, on July 2, 2004, a day after orbit
insertion, when it approached to within 339,000 km (211,000 mi) of Titan. Images taken
through special filters (able to see through the moon's global haze) showed south polar
clouds thought to be composed of methane and surface features with widely differing
brightness. On October 27, 2004, the spacecraft executed the first of the 45 planned close
flybys of Titan when it passed a mere 1,200 kilometers above the moon. Almost four
gigabits of data were collected and transmitted to Earth, including the first radar images of
the moon's haze-enshrouded surface. It revealed the surface of Titan (at least the area
covered by radar) to be relatively level, with topography reaching no more than about 50
meters in altitude. The flyby provided a remarkable increase in imaging resolution over
previous coverage. Images with up to 100 times better resolution were taken and are
typical of resolutions planned for subsequent Titan flybys.
Titan's surface was imaged by looking
Huygens lands on Titan through the atmosphere in 2004, but
some clouds remain visible
Cassini released the Huygens probe on December 25, 2004, by means of a spring and
spiral rails intended to rotate the probe for greater stability. It entered the atmosphere of
Titan on January 14, 2005, and after a two-and-a-half-hour descent landed on solid External image
ground.[5] Although Cassini successfully relayed 350 of the pictures that it received from Raw images from the Huygens
Huygens of its descent and landing site, a software error failed to turn on one of the probe descent on 14 January 2005 (37
Cassini receivers and caused the loss of another 350 pictures.[67] Pages) (http://esamultimedia.esa.int/doc
s/titanraw/index.htm)
Enceladus flybys
ESA/NASA/JPL/U. of Arizona. (ESA
hosting)
During the first two close flybys of the moon Enceladus in 2005, Cassini discovered a
deflection in the local magnetic field that is characteristic for the existence of a thin but
significant atmosphere. Other measurements obtained at that time point to ionized water
vapor as its main constituent. Cassini also observed water ice geysers erupting from the
south pole of Enceladus, which gives more credibility to the idea that Enceladus is
supplying the particles of Saturn's E ring. Mission scientists began to suspect that there
may be pockets of liquid water near the surface of the moon that fuel the eruptions.[68]

On March 12, 2008, Cassini made a close fly-by of Enceladus, passing within 50 km of
the moon's surface.[69] The spacecraft passed through the plumes extending from its
southern geysers, detecting water, carbon dioxide and various hydrocarbons with its mass
spectrometer, while also mapping surface features that are at much higher temperature View of Enceladus's Europa-like
than their surroundings with the infrared spectrometer.[70] Cassini was unable to collect surface with the Labtayt Sulci fractures
data with its cosmic dust analyzer due to an unknown software malfunction. at center and the Ebony (left) and Cufa
dorsa at lower left; imaged by Cassini
On November 21, 2009, Cassini made its eighth flyby of Enceladus,[71] this time with a on February 17, 2005
different geometry, approaching within 1,600 kilometers (990 mi) of the surface. The
Composit Infrared Spectrograph (CIRS) instrument produced a map of thermal emissions
from the Baghdad Sulcus 'tiger stripe'. The data returned helped create a detailed and high resolution mosaic image of the
southern part of the moon's Saturn-facing hemisphere.

On April 3, 2014, nearly ten years after Cassini entered Saturn's orbit, NASA reported evidence of a large salty internal ocean of
liquid water in Enceladus. The presence of an internal salty ocean in contact with the moon's rocky core, places Enceladus
"among the most likely places in the Solar System to host alien microbial life."[72][73][74] On June 30, 2014, NASA celebrated ten
years of Cassini exploring Saturn and its moons, highlighting the discovery of water activity on Enceladus among other
findings.[75]

In September 2015, NASA announced that gravitational and imaging data from Cassini were used to analyze the librations of
Enceladus' orbit and determined that the moon's surface is not rigidly joined to its core, concluding that the underground ocean
must therefore be global in extent.[76]

On October 28, 2015, Cassini performed a close flyby of Enceladus, coming within 49 km (30 mi) of the surface, and passing
through the icy plume above the south pole.[77]

Radio occultations of Saturn's rings

In May 2005, Cassini began a series of radio occultation experiments, to measure the size-distribution of particles in Saturn's
rings, and measure the atmosphere of Saturn itself. For over four months, the craft completed orbits designed for this purpose.
During these experiments, it flew behind the ring plane of Saturn, as seen from Earth, and transmitted radio waves through the
particles. The radio signals received on Earth were analyzed, for frequency, phase, and power shift of the signal to determine the
structure of the rings.

Upper image: visible color mosaic of Saturn's rings taken on December 12, 2004. Lower image: simulated view constructed from a radio occultation
observation on May 3, 2005. Color in the lower image represents ring particle sizes.

Spoke phenomenon verified

In images captured September 5, 2005, Cassini detected spokes in Saturn's rings,[78] previously seen only by the visual observer
Stephen James O'Meara in 1977 and then confirmed by the Voyager space probes in the early 1980s.[79][80]

Lakes of Titan

Radar images obtained on July 21,

2006 appear to show lakes of liquid
hydrocarbon (such as methane and
ethane) in Titan's northern latitudes.
This is the first discovery of currently
existing lakes anywhere besides on
Titan - Evolving feature in Ligeia Mare (August 21, Earth. The lakes range in size from
2014). one to one-hundred kilometers
Ligeia Mare, on the left, is compared at
across.[81]
scale to Lake Superior.
On March 13, 2007, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory announced that it found strong
evidence of seas of methane and ethane in the northern hemisphere of Titan. At least one
of these is larger than any of the Great Lakes in North America.[82]

Saturn hurricane

In November 2006, scientists discovered a storm at the south pole of Saturn with a distinct eyewall. This is characteristic of a
hurricane on Earth and had never been seen on another planet before. Unlike a terrestrial hurricane, the storm appears to be
stationary at the pole. The storm is 8,000 kilometers (5,000 mi) across, and 70 kilometers (43 mi) high, with winds blowing at
560 kilometers per hour (350 mph).[83]

Iapetus flyby

On September 10, 2007, Cassini completed its flyby of the strange, two-toned, walnut-shaped moon, Iapetus. Images were taken
from 1,000 miles (1,600 km) above the surface. As it was sending the images back to Earth, it was hit by a cosmic ray that forced
it to temporarily enter safe mode. All of the data from the flyby were recovered.[84]

Mission extension
On April 15, 2008, Cassini received funding for a 27-month extended mission. It
consisted of 60 more orbits of Saturn, with 21 more close Titan flybys, seven of
Enceladus, six of Mimas, eight of Tethys, and one targeted flyby each of Dione, Rhea, and
Helene.[85] The extended mission began on July 1, 2008, and was renamed the Cassini
Equinox Mission as the mission coincided with Saturn's equinox.[86]

Second mission extension

Taken on September 10, 2007 at a
A proposal was submitted to NASA for a second mission extension (Sept 2010 May distance of 62,331 km (38,731 mi)
2017), provisionally named the extended-extended mission or XXM.[87] This ($60M pa) Iapetus's equatorial ridge and surface
was approved in Feb 2010 and renamed the Cassini Solstice Mission.[88] It includes are revealed. (CL1 and CL2 filters)
Cassini orbiting Saturn 155 more times, conducting 54 additional flybys of Titan and 11
more of Enceladus.

Great Storm of 2010 and aftermath

On October 25, 2012, Cassini witnessed the

aftermath of the massive Great White Spot storm
that recurs roughly every 30 years on Saturn.[89]
Data from the composite infrared spectrometer
(CIRS) instrument indicated a powerful discharge
from the storm that caused a temperature spike in
the stratosphere of Saturn 83 K (83 C; 149 F)
above normal. Simultaneously, a huge increase in
ethylene gas was detected by NASA researchers at
Closeup of Iapetus surface, 2007
Goddard Research Center in Greenbelt, Maryland.
Ethylene is a colorless gas that is highly
uncommon on Saturn and is produced both
Northern hemisphere storm in 2011 naturally and through man-made sources on Earth. The storm that produced this discharge
was first observed by the spacecraft on December 5, 2010 in Saturn's northern
hemisphere. The storm is the first of its kind to be observed by a spacecraft in orbit
around Saturn as well as the first to be observed at thermal infrared wavelengths, allowing scientists to observe the temperature of
Saturn's atmosphere and track phenomena that are invisible to the naked eye. The spike of ethylene gas that was produced by the
storm reached levels that were 100 times more than those thought possible for Saturn. Scientists have also determined that the
storm witnessed was the largest, hottest stratospheric vortex ever detected in the Solar System, initially being larger than Jupiter's
Great Red Spot.

Venus transit

On December 21, 2012, Cassini observed a transit of Venus across the Sun.[90] The VIMS instrument analyzed sunlight passing
though the Venusian atmosphere.[90] VIMS previously observed the transit of exoplanet HD 189733 b.[90]

The Day the Earth Smiled

On July 19, 2013, the probe was pointed towards Earth to capture an image of the Earth
and the Moon, as part of a natural light, multi-image portrait of the entire Saturn system.
The event was unique as it was the first time NASA informed the public that a long-
distance photo was being taken in advance.[91][92] The imaging team said they wanted
people to smile and wave to the skies, with Cassini scientist, Carolyn Porco, describing
the moment as a chance to "celebrate life on the Pale Blue Dot".[93] The Day the Earth Smiled - Saturn with
some of its moons, Earth, Venus, and
Rhea flyby Mars as visible in this Cassini montage
(July 19, 2013).[91]
On February 10, 2015, the Cassini spacecraft visited Rhea more closely, coming within
47,000 km (29,000 mi).[94] The spacecraft observed the moon with its cameras producing
some of the highest resolution color images yet of Rhea.[95]

Hyperion flyby

Cassini performed its latest flyby of Saturn's moon Hyperion on May 31, 2015, at a distance of about 34,000 km (21,000 mi).[96]
 Hyperion - context view Hyperion - close-up view
from 37,000 km (23,000 mi) from 38,000 km (24,000 mi)
(May 31, 2015) (May 31, 2015)

Dione flyby

Cassini performed its last flyby of Saturn's moon Dione on August 17, 2015, at a distance of about 475 km (295 mi). A previous
flyby was performed on June 16.[97]

Hexagon changes color

Between 2012 and 2016, the hexagon changed from a mostly blue color to more of a golden color.[98] One theory for this is that
sunlight is creating haze as the pole is exposed to sunlight due to the change in season.[98] It was previously noted that there was
less blue color overall on Saturn between 2004 and 2008.[99]

2012 and 2016:

hexagon color changes 2013 and 2017:
hexagon color changes

Grand Finale and destruction

The chosen mission ending involved a series of close Saturn passes, approaching within the rings, then an entry into Saturn's
atmosphere on September 15, 2017, to destroy the spacecraft.[5][10][66] This method was chosen because it is imperative to ensure
protection and prevent biological contamination to any of the moons of Saturn thought to offer potential habitability.[100]

In 2008 a number of options were evaluated to achieve this goal, each with varying funding, scientific, and technical
challenges.[101] A short period Saturn impact for an end of mission was rated "excellent" with the reasons "D-ring option satisfies
unachieved AO goals; cheap and easily achievable" while collision with an icy moon was rated "good" for being "cheap and
achievable anywhere/time".[101]

On November 29, 2016, the spacecraft performed a Titan flyby that took it to the gateway of F-ring orbits: This was the start of
the Grand Finale phase culminating in its impact with the planet.[102][103] A final Titan flyby on April 22, 2017, changed the orbit
again to fly through the gap between Saturn and its inner ring days later on April 26. Cassini passed about 3,100 km (1,900 mi)
above Saturn's cloud layer and 320 km (200 mi) from the visible edge of the inner ring; it successfully took images of Saturn's
atmosphere and began returning data the next day.[104] Signal was lost at 7:55:46AM EDT on September 15, 2017.
 A close-up image of Saturn's
atmosphere from about 3,100 km
(1,900 mi) above the cloud layer, taken
by Cassini on its first dive on April 26,
2017, at the start of the Grand Finale

Video detailing Cassini's Grand Finale mission and a look back at what the mission has accomplished

Missions

The spacecraft operation back on Earth is organized around a series of missions.[105] Each
is structured according to a certain amount of funding, goals, etc.[105] At least 260
scientists from 17 countries have worked on the CassiniHuygens mission, in addition
thousands of people overall worked to design, manufacture, and launch the mission.[106]

Prime Mission, July 2004 through June 2008.[107][108]

Cassini Equinox Mission was a two-year mission extension which ran from July
2008 through September 2010.[105]
Cassini Solstice Mission ran from October 2010 through April 2017.[105][109] (also
known as the XXM mission.)[99]
Grand Finale (spacecraft eventually sent into Saturn), April 2017 to September 15,
2017.[109]
Cassini-Huygens by the numbers, as of
September 2017
 Saturn by Cassini, 2016

Glossary
AACS: Attitude and Articulation Control Subsystem
ACS: Attitude Control Subsystem
AFC: AACS Flight Computer
ARWM: Articulated Reaction Wheel Mechanism
ASI: Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, the Italian space agency
BIU: Bus Interface Unit
CAM: Command Approval Meeting
CDS: Command and Data SubsystemCassini computer that commands and collects data from the instruments
CICLOPS: Cassini Imaging Central Laboratory for Operations (http://ciclops.org/index.php)
CIMS: Cassini Information Management System
CIRS: Composite Infrared Spectrometer
DCSS: Descent Control Subsystem
DSCC: Deep Space Communications Center
DSN: Deep Space Network (large antennas around the Earth)
DTSTART: Dead Time Start
ELS: Electron Spectrometer (part of CAPS instrument)
ERT: Earth-received time, UTC of an event
ESA: European Space Agency
ESOC: European Space Operations Centre
FSW: flight software
HGA: High Gain Antenna
HMCS: Huygens Monitoring and Control System
HPOC: Huygens Probe Operations Center
IBS: Ion Beam Spectrometer (part of CAPS instrument)
IEB: Instrument Expanded Blocks (instrument command sequences)
IMS: Ion Mass Spectrometer (part of CAPS instrument)
ITL: Integrated Test Laboratoryspacecraft simulator
IVP: Inertial Vector Propagator
LGA: Low Gain Antenna
NAC: Narrow Angle Camera
NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the United States of America space agency
OTM: Orbit Trim Maneuver
PDRS: Probe Data Relay Subsystem
PHSS: Probe Harness SubSystem
POSW: Probe On-Board Software
PPS: Power and Pyrotechnic Subsystem
PRA: Probe Relay Antenna
PSA: Probe Support Avionics
PSIV: Preliminary Sequence Integration and Validation
PSE: probe support equipment
RCS: Reaction Control System
RFS: Radio Frequency Subsystem
RPX: ring plane crossing
 RWA: Reaction Wheel Assembly
SCET: Spacecraft Event Time
SCR: sequence change requests
SKR: Saturn Kilometric Radiation
SOI: Saturn Orbit Insertion (July 1, 2004)
SOP: Science Operations Plan
SSPS: Solid State Power Switch
SSR: Solid State Recorder
SSUP: Science and Sequence Update Process
TLA: Thermal Louver Assemblies
USO: UltraStable Oscillator
VRHU: Variable Radioisotope Heater Units
WAC: Wide Angle Camera
XXM: Extended-Extended Mission

See also
Cassini retirement
Europlanet, data network
Galileo, Jupiter orbiter and entry probe (19892003)
In Saturn's Rings
List of missions to the outer planets
List of missions to Venus
Planetary Science Decadal Survey
Timeline of CassiniHuygens
Tom Krimigis

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Further reading
Ralph Lorenz (2017). NASA/ESA/ASI Cassini-Huygens: 1997 onwards (Cassini orbiter, Huygens probe and future
exploration concepts) (Owners' Workshop Manual). Haynes Manuals, UK. ISBN 978-1785211119.
Karl Grossman (1997). The Wrong Stuff: The Space Program's Nuclear Threat to Our Planet. Common Courage Press.
ISBN 1-56751-125-2.
David M. Harland (2002). Mission to Saturn: Cassini and the Huygens Probe. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 1-85233-656-0.
Ralph Lorenz; Jacqueline Mitton (2002). Lifting Titan's Veil: Exploring the Giant Moon of Saturn. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-79348-3.
Meltzer, Michael (2015). The Cassini-Huygens Visit to Saturn: A Historic Mission to the Ringed Planet. Cham: Springer
International Publishing Switzerland. ISBN 978-3-319-07608-9.
Irene Klotz (Aug 31, 2017). "Cassinis Ringside Seat At Saturn Coming To An End" (http://aviationweek.com/space/cassini
-s-ringside-seat-saturn-coming-end). Aviation Week & Space Technology. An epic journey of discovery at Saturn ends,
leaving mysteries for future explorers.

External links
Official websites

Cassini-Huygens website (https://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/) by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Cassini-Huygens website (https://www.nasa.gov/cassini) by NASA
Cassini-Huygens website (http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Cassini-Huygens) by the European Space
Agency
Cassini-Huygens website (https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/cassini) by NASA's Solar System Exploration division

Media and telecommunications

CICLOPS.org (http://ciclops.org/), Cassini imaging homepage

Cassini Hall of Fame (https://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/galleries/hall-of-fame/), image galleries by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
"Cassini at Saturn" (https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLTiv_XWHnOZpKPaDTVy36z0U8GxoiIkZa), a YouTube
playlist by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
"Titan Touchdown" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=msiLWxDayuA), Depiction of Huygens descent and landing
DESCANSO DSN Telecom information (https://descanso.jpl.nasa.gov/DPSummary/Descanso3--Cassini2.pdf)
In Saturn's Rings (http://insaturnsrings.com/), film animated from millions of still photographs
Around Saturn (https://vimeo.com/70532693), film animated from more than 200,000 images taken by Cassini from 2004
to 2012
WebGL-based 3D rendering of Cassini (http://spacecrafts3d.org/models/cassini.html)

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