Chapter 2:

Chemistry & Life

1. Atoms

2. Molecules

3. Water
1. Atoms
A Generic Atom
 All Matter is made of Atoms
Atoms are the smallest indivisible unit of matter
92 different types of atoms: ELEMENTS
Atoms are made of:
protons (positively charged)
nucleus
neutrons (no charge)

electrons (negatively charged)

orbit the nucleus in orbitals within electron shells
**# of protons determines identity of atom**
**in a neutral atom, # protons = # electrons**
(neutrons help stabilize the nucleus)
The Periodic Table of Elements
atomic number =
# of protons

atomic mass =
# of neutrons & protons
 Hydrogen & Helium Atoms

Atoms of the same element having different numbers of

neutrons are different isotopes of that element, some of
which are unstable and thus radioactive.
 Electrons & Chemical Behavior
Electrons (e-) occupy orbitals within e- shells
by the following rules:
1) up to 2 e-/orbital, up to 4 orbitals/shell
1st e- shell holds 1 orbital, up to 2 e-
2nd, 3rd , 4th, e- shells hold 4 orbitals, up to 8 e-

2) an atoms electrons fill shells in order

i.e., 1st shell before 2nd before 3rd
ea orbital must have 1 e- before any get a 2nd e-

Outermost shell determines chemical behavior

(based on the # of e- in outermost shell)
**atoms are happiest when shells are full (or empty)**
 e- Shells of some Larger Elements

Unpaired e- (in outermost shell) are the key to

chemical behavior:
atoms share unpaired e- to fill their orbitals
this is the nature of chemical bond formation
**elements w/same # of outer shell e- have similar behavior**
Some Atoms form Ions
gain or lose
electrons

have a net +
or - charge

atoms w/shells
that are almost
full or empty
tend to lose or
gain e- to avoid
having partially
filled e- shells
 Sodium and Chlorine Ions
sodium easily
forms a + ion
(cation) by
giving up 1 e-
ionic bond

chlorine easily
forms a - ion
(anion) by
receiving an e-

**any charged
Now theyre both happy! atom (or molecule)
is an ion**
2. Molecules
 So whats a Molecule?
2 or more atoms connected by a chemical
bond(s) constitute a molecule.

Chemical bonds involve the sharing of a pair of e-

1 unpaired e- from each atom = 1 bond
sharing of e- fills shared orbital between the atoms

If the pair of e- is shared, the bond is covalent

equal sharing = non-polar covalent bond (non-polar mol.)
unequal sharing = polar covalent bond (polar molecule)

If the pair of e- is not shared at all (one gives, one

receives), the chemical bond is ionic
e.g., sodium chloride (NaCl)
 Some Polar & Non-polar Molecules
NON-POLAR POLAR

hydrogen gas (H2)

water (H2O)
different elements vary in
oxygen gas (O2) their attractiveness for e-
(electronegativity)
**different electronegativities = polar covalent bond**
Chemical Bonds involve unpaired e-
Atoms of a given element tend to form as many
bonds as unpaired e- in outermost shell
more than one (up to 3) covalent bond can form
between any 2 atoms (i.e., double, triple bonds)
3. Water
 Water is a Polar Molecule
Covalent bonds between O & H are polar.
Waters polarity gives it unique properties:
is a great solvent for polar, charged particles

high heat
capacity

liquid in a
broad range
of temperature
Water forms Hydrogen Bonds
waters polar
nature makes
it sticky

due to attraction
between partial
+ & - charges

such interactions
are called
hydrogen bonds
 Water is a Good Solvent
SOLVENT = liquid in which
a substance is dissolved

SOLUTE = a substance
dissolved in liquid

Due to interactions between opposing charges in

water and other polar or charged molecules
water does not dissolve non-polar (hydrophobic) mol.
Water can form ions

acid

acidic
[H+] > [OH-]

base

basic
[OH-] > [H+]
 The pH of Water is very Important
pH & acidic vs basic:
pH depends on the balance of hydrogen ions (H+)
& hydroxide ions (OH-)
H+ = a hydrogen atom that has lost an e-
OH- = a hydroxide group thats gained an e-

pH value reflects amount of H+

[H+] > [OH-] : acidic (pH 1-6)
[H+] = [OH-] : neutral (pH 7)
[H+] < [OH-] : basic (pH 8-14) alkaline
 Acids and Bases
Pure water is always neutral: [H+] = [OH-], pH 7

When other substances (molecules) are

dissolved in water the pH can change:

ACID = substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+)

into an aqueous solution
increase [H+], lower the pH value

BASE = substance that combines with H+ in an

aqueous solution
reduce [H+], raise the pH value
pH scale is logarithmic
ea unit reflects a
10-fold change
in [H+]

higher pH value
= lower [H+]

pH 3 = 10-3
= 0.001 [H+]

pH 9 = 10-9
= 0.000000001 [H+]

**chemical buffers
resist changes
in pH**
 Key Terms for Chapter 2
protons, neutrons, electrons
orbitals, electron shells
ions, covalent bonds, ionic bonds
polar, non-polar, hydrogen bond
electronegativity
solvent, solute, pH, buffer
acid vs base, acidic vs basic

Relevant Review Questions:

1, 3-8, 12-16, 18-23