Phase I Assessment of The Upper Twelve Mile Creek

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Kayla Wilcox
Phase I Assessment of the Upper Twelve Mile Creek
November 20, 2016
Dr. Brand
December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4

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Table of Contents
Environmental Summary .............................................................................................................5

Introduction ................................................................................................................................5
Locality ...................................................................................................................................5
Land Use Past and Present .......................................................................................................6
Impacts of Urbanization on Streams ....................................................................................7

General Geology .....................................................................................................................7
Chemistry/Field Parameters.....................................................................................................8
Total Phosphorous ...............................................................................................................8

Total suspended solids .........................................................................................................9
Water Temperature ..............................................................................................................9
Dissolved oxygen .............................................................................................................. 10
pH ..................................................................................................................................... 10
Conductivity ...................................................................................................................... 10
Turbidity ........................................................................................................................... 11
Background information on the ecology ................................................................................ 11
Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) ..................................................................................... 11

Water Striders (Gerris remigis) .......................................................................................... 12
Hydrology ............................................................................................................................. 12
Previous reports..................................................................................................................... 13
NPCA Water Quality Report for Groundwater................................................................... 13

NPCA Water Quality Report for Surface Water ................................................................. 14
Observations ............................................................................................................................. 14
Further ecological observations ............................................................................................. 14
Project Goals and Objectives ..................................................................................................... 15

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Methods .................................................................................................................................... 15
Field components .................................................................................................................. 15
Water Quality .................................................................................................................... 15

Cross Section..................................................................................................................... 15
Flow Readings ................................................................................................................... 16
Water Sample .................................................................................................................... 16
Lab Components ................................................................................................................... 16
Phosphorous Testing ......................................................................................................... 16

Suspended Load Test ......................................................................................................... 16
Results ...................................................................................................................................... 17
Water Temperature................................................................................................................ 17
pH ......................................................................................................................................... 17
Dissolved Oxygen ................................................................................................................. 17
Turbidity ............................................................................................................................... 18
Total Suspended Sediments ................................................................................................... 18
Phosphate Load ..................................................................................................................... 18
Discussion................................................................................................................................. 18
Parameter Comparison .......................................................................................................... 19
Air Temperature vs Water Temperature ............................................................................. 19

Water Temperature vs Dissolved Oxygen .......................................................................... 19
Other Parameter Comparison ............................................................................................. 19
Cross Sectional Area, Flow, Phosphate and TSS Comparisons .......................................... 20
Overall St. Johns and Effingham Comparison .................................................................... 20
Overall Health of the stream .................................................................................................. 21
Ecology ............................................................................................................................. 21
Water Quality .................................................................................................................... 22
Change in Water Quality Over Time ..................................................................................... 23

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Possible Errors/Limitations ................................................................................................... 23
Human Errors .................................................................................................................... 23

Instrument Errors............................................................................................................... 24
Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 24
Recommendations ..................................................................................................................... 25
References ................................................................................................................................ 25
Qualifications ............................................................................................................................ 26
Appendices ............................................................................................................................... 26
Appendix A (site data) .......................................................................................................... 26
Land Use Over the Years of The Area ............................................................................... 31

Appendix B (raw data) .......................................................................................................... 33
Water Quality .................................................................................................................... 33

Flow Measurements .......................................................................................................... 35
TSS and Phosphate Loads ................................................................................................. 36
Appendix C ( Observational Pictures).................................................................................... 38
Appendix D (graphs) ............................................................................................................. 40
St. Johns ............................................................................................................................ 40

Effingham ......................................................................................................................... 44
Appendix E (Comparative Graphs) ........................................................................................ 47
Dissolved Oxygen vs Water Temperature .......................................................................... 47

Water Temperature vs Air Temperature ............................................................................. 48

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Environmental Summary
The Upper Twelve Mile Creek Watershed is located within the Niagara Region, which
houses the only two cold water streams within this area, the Effingham and St. Johns. These
cold-water streams contain a specific type of habitat for many organisms within the ecosystem.
The main purpose and objectives for this watershed assessment, was to analyze two streams,
Effingham and the St. Johns, within the Pelham area, and conclude which stream is healthier
based on water quality tests taken and observations. The parameters that were tested were
temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity, suspended sediment load and phosphate loads.
Using a water quality and flow meter in the field, data and water samples were collected at nine
different sites. The samples were brought back to the lab and tested for the total suspended
sediment load and total phosphorous load. The main results that were found within the streams
analyzed is temperature dropped in relation to the air temperature. As temperature dropped, the
dissolved oxygen concentrations of the streams increased. Turbidity was found to decrease with
the decreasing temperatures as well. These parameter trends have an affect upon the local
ecosystem and organisms that live within these two cold water streams. Overall, based on the
assessment completed on the Effingham and St. Johns streams, the Effingham stream proved to
be healthier than the St. Johns stream based on the observations and tests that were conducted.
Introduction
Locality
The Twelve Mile Creek Watershed is a significant watershed containing the two streams
analyzed within the Town of Pelham in this assessment. The locations can be seen Appendix A

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figure 1 and figure 2 below. The Upper Twelve Mile Creek sub watershed contains the
headwaters of the Twelve Mile Creek. A complex series of valleys within the Fonthill Delta
Kame was formed by the Twelve Mile Creek headwaters (Durley, 2006). The two streams, the
Effingham and the St Johns, are the only identified cold water streams within the Niagara
Region, and are home to naturally reproducing Brook trout communities (Durley, 2006).
The elevations and altitudes shown in Appendix A tables 1 and 2 below show the direction of
water flow that will be taking place in both the St. Johns and Effingham streams. Due to
gravitational forces, water will move from areas of high elevations to low elevations.
Lastly, within the Upper Twelve Mile Creek watershed, there is a high percentage of natural
areas, which include Areas of Natural and Scientific Interest (ANSIs), Environmentally Sensitive
Areas (ESAs) and Short Hills Provincial Park (Durley, 2006). Some recreational land uses that
are above the Niagara Escarpment include hiking within the Short Hills Provincial Park, nature
appreciation and the St. Johns Conservation Area.
Land Use Past and Present
Around 20 percent of the watershed is occupied within the town of Pelham (Durley,
2006). As seen in appendix A below in figures 4, 5 and 6, land use has changed over the years
within this general area. When you look at the map from 1934 (figure 6 below), there is a lot of
farmland and vegetation present within the area. As you look at more recent maps of the area
from 2010 (figure 5 below) and 2016 (figure 4 below), it can be seen that the land use within this
area increases to urbanize and farmland/vegetation start to decrease.
Within the Twelve Mile Creek watershed, agriculture is a prominent usage of land. The
agriculture that is in this watershed consists of grain, fruit and oilseed (Durley, 2006).

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Impacts of Urbanization on Streams
There are many impacts that urbanization can have on streams. It can impact the hydrology,
ecology and chemistry of the stream leading to detrimental affects.
Hydrology can be impacted due to the fact that when urbanization increases, there is also
an increase in the amount of water that enters a stream after a storm since the water takes less
time to travel over the new urbanized land. Also, the rapid amount of runoff that is produced is
too much for the little amount of soil that is left in the area and results in a lower streamflow.
Ecology can also be affected and a shift in the species composition of algal, fish and
invertebrates communities can be seen within the two streams. One of the most consistent
changes within biological communities is a loss of sensitive invertebrate species and a shift in
the biological community to a higher percentage of species that are more tolerant to both
chemical and physical stressors.
Finally, the chemistry of the streams can be affected where an increase in nitrogen,
chloride, phosphorous and hydrocarbons can be seen. One of the biggest affects on streams is
the increase in runoff that contains fertilizers. These fertilizers contain nutrients like
phosphorous and nitrogen which can lead to an increase in eutrophication and a decrease in
dissolved oxygen which results in a decrease in aquatic organisms.
General Geology
Due to the multi-branched pattern of the headwaters of the Twelve Mile Creek, the upper
portion of the Twelve Mile Creek watershed is characterized by gullies that are deeply eroded
(Durley, 2006). Below the Niagara Escarpment, in the lower portion of the watershed, there are
flat and typical valleys that are found within the Niagara Peninsula. The outlet of Twelve Mile
Creek is Lake Ontario through the Martindale Pond in Port Dalhousie (Durley, 2006).

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The watershed is made up of stratified clay, silt and sand above the Niagara Escarpment
which is associated with the Fonthill Delta-Kame Complex and the Short Hills development
(Durley, 2006). The watershed that is below the escarpment, is made up of mostly Halton Till
deposits which are comprised of silt and clay (Durley, 2006).
Around 13,000 years ago the last major advance of an ice mass resulted in deposition
throughout the Niagara Peninsula of Halton Till which consists of a brownish silt to clay till.
The Halton Till also has a low stone content and within Pelham is buried by younger
glaciolacustrine deposits.
The Fonthill Delta-Kame Complex was formed along the edges of a stationary ice front at
the edge of Lake Warren around 12000 years ago (Durley, 2006). The glacier that blanketed
most of the area at this time, underwent considerable melting which deposited a large amount of
outwash sand and gravels into Lake Warren. As Lake Warren shrank towards the Lake Erie
basin, the complex evolved and developed a large ice marginal delta that sloped slightly to the
south and had steep slopes on the north side. Both the post glacial and glacial lake stages
changed the surface of the Fonthill Delta-Kame Complex which can be seen by the raised
shorelines (Durley, 2006). Within the Niagara Region the Fonthill Delta Kame is the highest
point of land and is the only place within the Peninsula where there are raised shorelines (Durley,
2006).
Chemistry/Field Parameters
Total Phosphorous
Phosphorous is a natural element which is found in soils, rocks and organic material and
is an essential nutrient for the growth of plants. Since phosphorous tends to cling tightly to

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particles of soil, its often associated with suspended sediment. Excessive overgrowth and
decomposition of algae and plants is correlated with high phosphorous concentrations. This will
cause a decrease in the amount of dissolved oxygen concentrations through the increase of
decomposition of organic matter. The total phosphorous is a measure of all forms of
phosphorous that is within the water sample. Some examples of anthropogenic sources that
increase phosphorous would be fertilizers, sewage and pesticides.
Larger streams react to phosphate levels that approach around the 0.1 mg/L level,
however, smaller streams can react to levels of 0.01 mg/L or less (Behar, 1997).
Total suspended solids
The total suspended solids are a measure of the undissolved solid material that is within
surface water which consist for the most part of clay, silt, plankton and fine particles of organic
and inorganic matter. Some of the sources of suspended solids can include storm water, erosion,
wastewater, and industrial effluent. The concentrations of suspended solids vary seasonally and
usually peak during events of rainfall. High concentrations of suspended solids in the surface
waters can have a negative impact on the aquatic organisms.
Water Temperature
Temperature is a factor that affects both the ecosystem and chemistry of streams. Many
other factors can be affected by temperature like dissolved oxygen. An increase in temperature
results in a decrease in the amount of dissolved oxygen within a stream. This is because gases
are more soluble at colder water temperatures. These increases in temperature, can cause stress
to be put on organisms inhabiting the streams, especially the Brook trout who like colder
temperatures. Due to the stress of warmer water this will usually affect their reproduction and
some might even find another habitat and migrate.

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Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen is the soluble oxygen that is within waters. This as stated above, is
affected with changes in temperature. Dissolved oxygen comes from the atmosphere as well as
photosynthesis by water plants. Dissolved oxygen however can be depleted through the
respiration of the organisms that live within the water and through the decomposition of plants
(USGS, 2016). Both respiration and decomposition of plants produce carbon which gets
released into the stream and decreases the amount of space where oxygen can be retained. The
measurement of dissolved oxygen is measured in mg/L. When dissolved oxygen is in the range
of 4-7 mg/L, it is good for many aquatic organisms however, not for cold water fish like the
Brook trout (Behar, 1997). A range of 7-11 mg/L is the optimal amount of dissolved oxygen for
most stream fish including the Brook trout (Behar, 1997).
pH
pH is a numeric scale that is used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.
Solutions that have a pH of 7 are deemed neutral, if the solution has a pH of below 7 then it is
acidic and a pH above 7 is basic. More acidic pHs have an increase in the amount of hydrogen
ions within the solution whereas in a basic solution there are less hydrogen ions and is also
described as alkaline (USGS, 2016).
Conductivity
Conductivity is the ability of a substance to be able to conduct or transmit heat, sound or
electricity through it. Pure water isnt a good conductor of electricity. Since the electrical
current is transported by the ions in solution, the conductivity of a solution increases as the
concentration of ions increases (USGS, 2016). The conductivity of distilled water ranges from
0.5-3 S/cm, while streams conductivity ranges from 50-1500 S/cm (Behar, 1997). Ideally,

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freshwater streams should have a conductivity that ranges between 150-500 S/cm in order to
support aquatic life (Behar, 1997).
Turbidity
Turbidity is the measure of clarity within a liquid/solution. Its an optimal characteristic
of water and is an expression that deals with the amount of light that is scattered by material that
is within the water when light is shined through the sample (USGS, 2016). The higher the
intensity of the scattered light, the higher the turbidity is. Examples of materials that can cause
water to be turbid are clays, silts, fine organic matter, algae and other microscopic organisms.
Turbidity tends to make the water look cloudy and opaque. An elevated turbidity will tend to
raise the water temperature which lowers the dissolved oxygen and prevents light from reaching
the aquatic plants. This will result in reducing the plants ability to photosynthesize and can harm
the Brook trouts fish gills and eggs that are living within the stream (Behar, 1997).
Background information on the ecology
Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)
One main biological organism that is important to both the St. Johns and Effingham streams
is the Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). These Brook trout have an olive green back with a
black or brown belly and have a length of 15-40 centimeters (Ontario.ca, 2016). Brook trout are
a salmonid which is very sensitive to warm waters and usually tend to avoid temperatures that
are greater than 20C (Garside, 1973). In response to these warmer waters which cause stress,
the Brook trout will end up migrating to cooler waters (Elson, 1942).
Brook trout can also inhibit fairly acidic streams (pH<5.0) and are more resilient to acidity
than the other salmonids, however, low alkalinity and acidity can reduce the survival of the eggs
and young of the Brook trout (Petty et al., 2005). For Brook trout to spawn, they prefer a stable

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flow of water, silt free-gravel, an abundance of riffles and sufficient stream cover. When the
temperature falls to 12.7 degrees Celsius, spawning occurs (Mitchill, 1814). After eggs are
fertilized, the female will cover them with gravel creating a nest or redd where they will stay
until the eggs hatch in early spring (Karas, 1997). If there is an elevation in turbidity, it will end
up raising the water temperature, lowering the dissolved oxygen, which prevents light from
reaching aquatic plants and reduces their ability to photosynthesize, thus harming the fish gills
and eggs (Behar, 1997). The hatching time of these eggs takes around 100 days at 5 degrees
Celsius and will usually take longer at cooler temperatures as low as 1.7 degrees Celsius
(Mitchill, 1814). When looking at Appendix C figure 2 below, this shows a good spawning
location for the Brook trout.
Finally, Brook trout are most abundantly found within isolated, high-altitude head water
streams where there is little pollution and high dissolved oxygen (Karas, 1997). The ideal range
of dissolved oxygen for Brook trout within these cold-water streams are 7-11 mg/L (Behar,
1997). Due to this, it can be inferred that by looking at appendix A table 1 below, site E1 should
contain the most amount of Brook trout.
Water Striders (Gerris remigis)
Water striders are a semi-aquatic bug species that for the most part prefer their own micro-
niches within favorable habitats with low water flow. Due to these micro-niches, they can be
used as bioindicators within a stream ecosystem to indicate the health of a stream.
Hydrology
The area that was studied for this assessment was the Upper Twelve Mile Creek which is
located within the Niagara Peninsula 12 miles west from the Niagara River and travels through
many municipalities. It covers around 178 square kilometers and extends in a length of around

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22 kilometers (Bassi, 1984). Within the Town of Pelham and the City of Thorold, is where the
headwaters begin. Then they start to meander through Lincoln, St. Catharines, Niagara Falls and
the Welland Canal (Bassi, 1984). This watershed can be seen in Appendix A figure 2 below.
The significance of this watershed both regionally and locally are the two cold water
streams that are located within the Niagara Region known as the St. Johns and Effingham
branches.
Previous reports
NPCA Water Quality Report for Groundwater
Surface water reports from the NPCA which include biological and chemical results show
that most of Niagaras watersheds have poor water quality. Some factors that cause this major
impairment within this watershed include total phosphorous, E. coli, chlorides and suspended
solids from both point and nonpoint sources. However, twelve-mile creek has the best water
quality results within the Niagara watershed.
The NPCA used benthic invertebrates to monitor the surface water quality as indicators of
stream health. Historically, water quality monitoring has relied on chemical testing but there are
also several advantages to using biological monitoring of benthic invertebrates. Due to their
limited mobility and habitat likings, these benthic invertebrates usually stay within a localized
area. As a result of this, they are more subjected to the effects of pollution and environmental
stream conditions throughout time. These benthic invertebrate samples are collected annually
during the spring and fall seasons.
The monitoring of surface water quality within the Upper Twelve Mile Creek for the 2012
report gave it an overall grade of a C. Even though the water quality for the most part exceeded
the provincial guidelines for E. coli and phosphorous, there are sections of this watershed like the

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Effingham and St. Johns that have one of the best water quality results in the NPCA watershed.
Within this watershed the benthic community that was found was made up of pollutant sensitive
organisms and ended up achieving the Benthic Indicator target (Twelve Mile Creek, 1974). As
seen in Appendix A in chart 3 below, the results we got in 2007-2011 were for the most part way
higher than the provincial guideline values except when it came to the benthic indicators.
Studies in both 2006 and 2010 showed the water chemistry and field parameters for the
Upper Twelve Mile Creek seen in Appendix A table 4. The locations where these results were
collected can be seen in appendix A figure 3 below.
NPCA Water Quality Report for Surface Water
The NPCA monitors two stations which are located at the outlets of the St. Johns and the
Effingham tributaries through partnership with the Ministry of Environment (MOE) as part of
the Provincial Water Quality Monitoring Network (PWQMN) (Durley, 2006). The staff of the
NPCA collects the water samples and the MOE provides analytical services.
To date, the data that was collected at the two sites routinely exceeds the Provincial
Water Quality Objective for the total phosphorous which is 0.03 mg/L for total phosphorous
(Durley, 2006).
Observations
Further ecological observations
On top of some of the fish fry that was seen in site E3 (Appendix C figure 1 below) there
were also a frog and crayfish that were observed. The fish fry seen within the E3 location was a
pre-indicator that the stream was healthy.

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Project Goals and Objectives
The main goals and objectives for this watershed assessment, was to analyze two streams
within the Pelham area, the Effingham and the St. Johns, and conclude which stream is healthier
based on water quality tests taken and observations.
Methods
Field components
Water Quality
Water quality data came from a water quality meter that was used. Before going out into
the field to test the water, the water quality meter was calibrated within the lab. This is done to
make sure that you get accurate data.
After calibrating the meter, it is then used to test the two streams water quality. This is
done by first turning on the device and then by lowering the sensor probe into the water. After
leaving the sensor probe in the water for a couple minutes to let the numbers stabilize, you can
then record the data.
Cross Section
For this field component, a cross section was made using wooden markers where one
marker was on either side of the stream (width wise). After these markers are placed, using a
tape measure, every 10 cm across the cross section you used a ruler to measure the depth of the
water (in cm).

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Flow Readings
In order to take flow readings, a flow meter was used. To use the flow meter, you must
submerge the end of the flow meter with the propeller into the water and make sure that the
arrow on the propeller are pointing in the direction of flow. Measurements were then taken
every ten seconds for a total duration of thirty seconds to take into account any fluctuations and
changes in the water flow.
Water Sample
For water samples that were taken at each site, a beaker with a meter stick taped to it was
used to retrieve the water which was then poured into a bottle to take back to the lab. The water
samples were collected before other tests were taken to ensure that there was no disturbance of
the sediments within the stream.
Lab Components
Phosphorous Testing
To test for phosphorous levels within the streams, we used the water that was collected at
each stream and measured out 25 mL of each sample into a small cuvette/tube. After a packet of
Phosver 3 Phosphate Reagent to 25 mL of water, the sample is shaken for two minutes. Then
after the cuvette is wiped off with a kimwipe to make sure that there are no finger prints to
interfere, it is put in a spectrophotometer to measure the absorbance. This absorbance value
directly relates to how much phosphorous was contained within each streams water sample.
Suspended Load Test
To find the total suspended solids, a glass fiber filter was used to filter the sediments out of
100 mL of each streams specific sites water sample. These sediments were collected onto a
piece of filter paper with a specific mass that was known. Once all the water was filtered

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through this piece of filter paper, the filter paper with the sediment on it was dried in an oven for
an hour. Weights of the filter paper were then taken to find the amount of sediment within each
streams water sample.
Results
Water Temperature
When looking at the graphs below in appendix D, it can be seen that the St. Johns stream
has a bigger temperature drop off than the Effingham stream. As the air temperature decreased,
the water temperature showed a similar trend.
The range in water temperature for the Effingham stream is 4.1-20.9 degrees Celsius
within the dates that were studied. For the St. Johns stream, the range in temperature was 4.54-
15.2 degrees Celsius.
pH
For the pH results, both for the St. Johns and Effingham streams, there was an overall
decrease in the trend. However, a sharp increase can be seen around the third date (October 6 th)
in all of the streams. After the sharp increase, the trend continues to decrease.
The range in pH for the Effingham stream was 7.62-8.94 within the study dates and the
St. Johns pH range was 5.97-8.72.
Dissolved Oxygen
When analyzing the graphs below in appendix D, it is evident that the overall trends
increasing with time. This makes sense since temperatures are decreasing with time and as

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temperature decreases there should be an increase in the amount of dissolved oxygen within the
streams.
The range of the dissolved oxygen for the Effingham stream is 5.51-13.41 mg/L within
the dates studied while the range for the St. Johns stream was 3.48-14.2 mg/L
Turbidity
For the most part when looking at the graphs below in appendix D, there is an overall
decrease in the trend for both streams.
The range of turbidity for the Effingham was 0-19.8 mtu within the dates studied while
the range for the St. Johns stream was 0-20.9 mtu. This doesnt include the storm water site
which was much higher with a range of 4.35-300.48 mtu.
St. Johns
When looking at site S1, this one does not follow the overall decrease in trend. Instead of
decreasing at the end, there is a slight increase.
Total Suspended Sediments
The overall trend for the total suspended sediments couldnt be found since there was
only one data set. The range for the TSS load for Effingham was -0.003-0.003 mg/L and the
range for St. Johns was -0.001-0.005 mg/L.
Phosphate Load
The overall trend for the phosphate load couldnt be found due to only using one data set.
The range for the Effingham was 0.07-0.11 mg/L and the range of the St. Johns was 0.05-0.13
mg/L.
Discussion

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Parameter Comparison
Air Temperature vs Water Temperature
When looking at graphs 3 and 4 below in appendix E, they both had a good correlation
showing an increase in water temperature with an increase in air temperature. The St. Johns
graph contained an outlier which made the trendline (exponential) R-value lower than it should
have been. We can also see that the Effingham stream stays more consistent with its
temperatures since there werent as many outliers thus, temperature within the stream is more
steady.
Water Temperature vs Dissolved Oxygen
Looking at graphs 1 and 2 below in appendix E, they both had an overall decreasing
correlation where as water temperature increases dissolved oxygen decreases. Yet again, looking
at the St. Johns graph, you can see that there are many outliers present. The St. Johns isnt as
consistent as the Effingham stream where there is a stronger correlation. The trendline that was
used was logarithmic where the R-values were 0.756 for the Effingham and 0.507 for the St.
Johns stream.
Other Parameter Comparison
Other parameters were graphed to see if there were any relationships between them. Of
the other parameters that were graphed for comparison were, turbidity vs flow, dissolved oxygen
vs flow and pH vs dissolved oxygen. I thought that there would have been strong correlations
between the flow vs turbidity and the pH vs the dissolved oxygen comparisons however, the
correlations were too low to be able to compare.
I was hoping to look at comparisons that involved phosphate load and total suspended
solids however, since only one data set for each of these parameters were collected/used it

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wouldnt have shown a relationship. The main comparison that I wanted to see were the loads
compared to the turbidity or flow of each stream.
Cross Sectional Area, Flow, Phosphate and TSS Comparisons
Looking at appendix B below in tables 10 and 11, it can be said that the smaller the cross-
sectional area, the smaller the velocity of flow was found. It can also be seen that there is a
slight correlation between the flow and the total suspended sediment within the streams however,
more data would be needed in order to find a good trendline. There was also a negative number
for one of the sites. Lastly, there was also no correlation between the phosphate load and the
average flow and more data sets would be needed to find a trendline.
Overall St. Johns and Effingham Comparison
When looking at the temperature of the two streams, it is apparent that the Effingham
stream had a larger range of temperature than the St. Johns. This larger range in the Effingham
stream was mostly due to the higher fall (first trip) temperatures. The warmer temperatures
within the Effingham stayed consistent longer and showed a gradual change in temperature as
opposed to the St. Johns. The greater cross-sectional area would also make the Effinghams
stream be susceptible to more sunlight heating it faster and during the months where the air
temperature started decreasing it took longer for the Effinghams stream temperature to decrease
alongside the air temperature due to again, the greater cross-sectional area.
When looking at the pH on the other hand, the St. johns had the broader range compared
to the Effingham stream. Both streams get more acidic with decreasing temperatures. Some
factors that can affect the pH in a stream are sewage or runoff that contains fertilizers thus
making it more acidic.

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Both the Effingham and the St. Johns streams increase in dissolved oxygen as the water
temperature and air temperature gets colder. It can also be said that as the Ph drops and becomes
more acidic, dissolved oxygen increases. This makes sense because an increase in nutrients
caused by either runoff, fertilizers or sewage into a stream will increase the nutrient level like
phosphorous and increase eutrophication. This eutrophication will decrease the amount of
oxygen and affect the organisms within the stream. Also, some organisms are more sensitive to
fluctuating pH levels and a sharp increase in pH for example can put stress on these organisms
like the Brook trout.
For the most part turbidity peaked on October 6th for both the Effingham and the St.
Johns. The Effingham however had a greater drop off than the St. Johns stream. Also, looking
at the St. Johns stream site S1 instead of turbidity decreasing the last couple of trips, it ended up
sharply increasing.
Overall, the Effingham stream graphs had stronger correlations than the St. Johns, which
means that they arent as easily affected by outside influences like the St. Johns. Also, looking at
the results below in Appendix B charts 10 and 11, it can be said that the cross-sectional area,
average flow and average flow per area are larger values for the Effingham which means that it
moves a greater amount of water and sediments will be moved farther down stream. The St.
Johns stream moves slower which means that there will be more sediment build up due to the
slower flow rate.
Overall Health of the stream
Ecology
Spawning of organisms within the streams can be directly affected by the suspended
sedimentation load, turbidity, temperature and dissolved oxygen within a stream. Too much

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suspended sediments and turbidity can end up smothering the eggs of organisms which can affect
how much sunlight and dissolved oxygen reaches these eggs. The optimal range of dissolved
oxygen as stated above in cold water streams is ranged from 7-11 mg/L (Behar, 1997).
The main/important organism within the two streams that were studied was the Brook
trout whose eggs can be affected just like the other organisms within the streams. Brook trouts
eggs like to be in a nest (redd) of gravel, so the increased turbidity and sedimentation can
increase temperature and dissolved oxygen that gets to the eggs. This increase in temperature is
not good for the eggs since they like to hatch at temperatures that are around 1.7 degrees Celsius
(Mitchill, 1814). Spawning can also be affected by temperature where it is triggered around 12.7
degrees Celsius (Mitchill, 1814).
Overall, the Effingham stream is a better habitat for Brook trout which was the organism
of focus, rather than the St. Johns due to its temperature, turbidity/sedimentation and dissolved
oxygen values. The temperature was more consistent and followed a gradual decrease in
comparison to the air temperature. Turbidity/sedimentation values were lower, which means that
there would be a less likelihood that the Brook trouts eggs will be suffocated and covered under
silt. Lastly, there was a higher overall amount of dissolved oxygen that had a more stable range.
Water Quality
When looking at the water quality results that were obtained from this assessment, it can
be said that for the most part, each site parameter followed the general trend specific to each
parameter that was expected. Although based on previous reports stated above and observed
data, it can be said that the Effingham stream has better water quality then the St. Johns. This
could be because the St. Johns stream flows through more areas where there is urbanization.
This will affect the water quality through anthropogenic processes like fertilization, sewage and

23
pollution to the area. There will also be more runoff caused due to the water not being able to
percolate through the ground as easily as when there was no urbanization.
It can be seen within Appendix B tables 10 and 11, that the phosphate levels within both
streams had lower concentrations of phosphate at the headwaters and lower concentrations as
you got further away. This can show that as the streams move through areas of urbanization, it
picks up phosphorous.
Change in Water Quality Over Time
Seen in Appendix A table 4 below, there is previous data from the NPCA in year 2006-
2010 from two locations, TW005 and TW006, which corresponds with E3 and S5 locations that
were collected by our class in 2016. TW005 corresponds to site S5 while TW006 corresponds to
the E3 site location. When looking at the phosphorous concentrations in 2006-2010, for both of
the sites there was an overall decreasing trend, however the E3 location contained less
phosphorous than the S5 location. There was also a consistent amount of dissolved oxygen
within both site locations that increased over time. Finally, both site locations pH values
increase to a more basic pH with time.
Possible Errors/Limitations
Human Errors
A couple of errors could have occurred which might have affected our data. One error
that could have occurred is that the water quality meter might not have been calibrated correctly.
Another possible error could be that when collecting our results, the water may have been
disturbed by another group taking their results before us which can majorly impact the turbidity
and water sample results. Also since there were different groups taking the different

24
measurements, not every groups method of doing the tests are the same. There also could have
been some errors that occurred with the calculations.
Instrument Errors
There were also errors that occurred with the instruments that were used. With the water
quality meter, it ended up running out of batteries once. If you are not prepared for this to
happen within the field, then there will be a loss of time. Also, sometimes the propeller on the
flow meter got stuck and didnt want to read the flow right. Finally, when it came to finding the
TSS results, we found that the scale that was used to measure the final weight of sediments was
incorrect and kept giving us different numbers.
Conclusions
In conclusion, the Effingham stream is the healthier stream with less detrimental affects
caused by anthropogenic processes analyzed throughout this assessment. Lower temperatures
which are stable, high dissolved oxygen concentrations, and lower turbidity are reflective of a
healthy stream which were seen within the Effingham stream.
The unhealthier stream that was analyzed within this assessment was the St. Johns stream
due to the fact that it flowed through many areas of urbanization. This urbanization can lead to
less infiltration which causes more runoff which is contaminated with factors like sewage and
fertilizers. The runoff then enters the stream which affects the water quality by raising the pH,
increasing the phosphate load which then lowers the dissolved oxygen. Turbidity and total
suspended sedimentation load will also increase due to contaminates from the runoff entering the
stream because of this the temperatures within the streams will increase thus making the streams
environment increasingly anoxic and less favorable to the streams biology.

25
Recommendations
For future studies, I would recommend that more data be collected at each site in order to
see trends and correlations better. Also, more time would make sure all readings are done
accurately and arent rushed. Finally, it would be more consistent if each group did one specific
test throughout this assessment.
References
Durley, J. 2006. Twelve Mile Creek Watershed Plan. Niagara Peninsula Conservation
Authority.
Garside, E.T. 1973. Ultimate upper lethal temperature of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.).
Canadian Journal of Zoology 51: 898-900.
Elson, P.F. 1942. Effect of temperature on activity of Salvelinus fontinalis. Journal of the
Fisheries Research Board of Canada 5: 461-470.
Karas, Nick. Brook Trout. New York: Lyons & Burford, 1997. Web.
Petty, J.T, P.J. Lamothe and P.M. Mazik. 2005. Spatial and seasonal dynamics of brook trout
populations inhabiting a central Appalachian watershed. Transactions of the American Fisheries
Society 134: 572-587.
Mitchill. (1814) Salvelinus fontinali.s Retrieved on November 18,2016:
http://www.fishbase.ca/summary/Salvelinus-fontinalis.html
Ontario.ca. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Dec. 2016.
Bassi, Kris G., Watone L. Lin, George Ai-Bazi, and Osmo E. Ramakko. "The Twelve Mile
Creek Precast Prestressed Segmental Bridges." PCI Journal 29.6 (1984): 30-47. Web.
Twelve Mile Creek. Paris: Canadian Culturel Centre, 1974. Web.

26
USGS. 2016. Water Properties and Measurments.The USGS Water Science School. Web. 12
Dec. 2016.
Behar, Sharon. 1997. Testing the Waters: Chemical and Physical Vital Signs of a River. River
Watch Network ISBN 0787234923.
Qualifications
Currently am enrolled within the Earth Science/Biology Department at Brock University
Appendices
Appendix A (site data)
Figure 1: Map of the site locations that were tested

27
Table 1: Latitudes and Longitudes at the two study locations

Location Latitude Longitude
S1 43359.20 79177.43
S2 43340.60 791938.78
S3 43331.09 79178.42
S4 43349.92 791630.98
S5 43514.06 791729.64
E1 43340.60 791938.78
E2 43423.58 791832.55
E3 43515.75 791732.47
SWSJ 4331.12 791618.52
Table 2: The altitudes of the sample sites

Location S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 E1 E2 E3 SWSJ
Altitude 165m 169m 161m 161m 122m 185m 174m 122m 196m

28
Figure 2: Map View of the 12 Upper Twelve Mile Creek watershed

29
Table 3: NPCA 2012 Report Results

30
Figure 3: Site locations from the NPCA water chemistry locations that were used and how they
correspond to the locations that were used for this assessment

31
Table 4: Water chemistry data collected by the NPCA
Land Use Over the Years of The Area

32
Figure 4: Picture of the Area in 2016
Figure 5: Photograph of the area in 2010

33
Figure 6: Photograph of the area in 1934
Appendix B (raw data)

Water Quality
Table 1: Water Quality September 15th ,2016
Site Water pH Conductivity Turbidity Dissolved Air Time
Temperature Oxygen Temperatre
Unit C mS/cm mtu mg/L C
S1 6.7 0.625 0.38 3.78 17 8:40
S2 13.8 8.2 0.93 9.7 6.9 17 9:28
S3 12.6 7.76 0.77 16.2 5.5 17 8:50
S4 12.8 8.11 0.845 11.3 6.07 17 9:05
S5 14.16 8.23 0.75 7.9 7.23 17 11:15
E1 20.9 7.8 0.55 8 7.4 17 10:52
E2 13.33 8.2 0.654 19.5 6.34 17 11:00
E3 14.04 8.27 0.413 15.9 6.48 17 11:17
Table 2: Water Quality September 22nd ,2016
Water Dissolved Air

Site pH Conductivity Turbidity Time
S1 13 6.22 0.628 2.7 6.8 20 8:34

34
S2 15.2 8.1 0.961 12.7 7.74 20 9:07

S3 14.11 7.22 0.776 18.8 6.78 20 8:47
S4 14.1 7.76 0.872 12.4 6.47 20 8:53
S5 15.2 8.27 0.778 8.8 9.82 21 10:34
E1 20.75 7.88 0.589 6.6 7.4 21 10:03
E2 14.4 8.14 0.688 18.5 7.8 21 10:19
E3 15.52 8.08 0.665 15.9 7.83 21 10:54
SWSJ 20.93 7.98 0.99 28.7 6.8 21 9:30
Table 3: Water Quality October 6th ,2016

Water Dissolved Air
S1 14.11 6.71 0.61 1.3 3.48 15 8:23
S2 13.91 8.5 0.93 17.7 6.93 16 9:00
S3 13.25 8.18 0.841 14.2 14.2 5.66 8:40
S4 13.04 8.1 0.771 20.9 5.52 16 8:35
S5 14.3 8.72 0.755 11.2 5.11 17 10:19
E1 16.67 8.6 0.577 19.7 5.51 17 9:41
E2 13.29 8.84 0.662 19.8 7 17 10:00
E3 14.14 8.94 0.664 18.3 6.83 17 10:30
SWSJ 16.82 8.45 0.653 36.6 5.67 17 9:18
Table 4: Water Quality October 27th ,2016

Water Dissolved Air
S1 8.76 7.13 0.647 0 4.61 3 9:50
S2 7.24 7.76 0.66 7.1 9.66 2 8:45
S3 7.08 7.52 0.738 13.4 7.97 3 9:42
S4 7.6 7.62 0.867 10.2 8.25 16 9:30
S5 6.82 7.8 0.765 2.8 9.8 2 8:32
E1 9.36 7.64 0.615 0.393 8.83 2 8:59
E2 7.24 7.76 0.66 7.1 9.66 2 8:45
E3 6.21 7.8 0.667 7.4 13.41 2 8:22
SWSJ 9.26 7.72 0.24 300.48 8.95 2 9:19
Table 5: Water Quality November 24th ,2016

Water Dissolved Air

35

S1 12.12 5.97 0.568 4.5 8.25 3 9:24
S2 5.45 7.83 0.941 10.3 11.15 3 9:52
S3 7.23 7.13 0.716 11.4 10.95 3 9:40
S4 6.4 7.69 0.859 9.2 9.47 3 9:44
S5 4.54 8.27 0.749 0 12.1 3 11:05
E1 7.62 7.62 0.614 0 12.9 3 10:35
E2 5.7 8.19 0.656 0 12.05 3 10:45
E3 4.1 8.29 0.667 0 12.67 3 11:00
SWSJ 8.64 5.65 0.61 4.35 10.52 3 10:20
Calibration
n/a 4 4.46 0.6 9.39 n/a 9:00
@ Brock
Calibration
n/a 3.99 4.53 2 8.99 n/a 10:18
@ SW
Flow Measurements
Table 6: Flow Measurements taken September 22, 2016
Flow Measurements September 22nd, 2016
Site Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Unit m/s m/s m/s
S1 0.3 0.2 0.2
S2 0.2 0.1 0.1
S3 0.2 0.2 0.3
S4 0.3 0.3 0.3
S5 0.6 0.6 0.5
E1 0.2 0.3 0.4
E2 0.7 0.8 0.9
E3 0.2 0.2 0.2
SWSJ 0 0 0
Table 7: Flow Measurements taken October 6, 2016

Flow Measurements October 6th, 2016
Unit m/s m/s m/s

S1 0.2 0.1 0.2
S2 0.2 0.3 0.2
S3 0.2 0.3 0.2
S4 0.2 0.2 0.2

36
S5 0.3 0.3 0.3

E1 0.3 0.3 0.3
E2 0.8 0.8 0.9
E3 0.5 0.5 0.4
SWSJ 0 0 0
Table 8: Flow Measurements taken November 24, 2016

Flow Measurements November 24th, 2016
Unit m/s m/s m/s

S1 0.3 0.2 0.3
S2 0.1 0.2 0.2
S3 0.1 0.1 0.1
S4 0.2 0.1 0.2
S5 1 1.1 1
E1 0.2 0.1 0.2
E2 0.9 0.9 0.8
E3 0.6 0.6 0.7
SWSJ 0 0 0
TSS and Phosphate Loads
Table 9: TSS Weights
Water Source Dish
SW 1
S3 2
SW-2 4
S1 4K
S4 5
E2 6
E3 7
E1 8
S5 12
S2 17
Table 10: Total cross sectional area, average flow, TSS load and Phosphate load for sites S1, S2,
S3 and S4 testing sites

37
Sites S1 S2 S3 S4
Total Cross Section

0.1154 0.0175 0.1495 0.1025
Area)m^2)
Average Flow (m/s) 0.17 0.23 0.2 0.2
Average Flow per

0.019618 0.004025 0.0299 0.0205
Area (m^3/s)
TSS Load (mg/L) 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.004
Phosphate Load
0.05 0.08 0.13 0.08
(mg/L)
TSS Load per Cross
0.000039236 0.0000161 0.0001495 0.000082
Section Area (mg/s)
Phosphate Load per
Cross Section Area 0.0009809 0.000322 0.003887 0.00164
(mg/s)
TSS Load per Cross
Section Area 3.3899904 1.39104 12.9168 7.0848
(mg/day)
Phosphate Load per
(mg/day)
TSS Load per Cross
Section Area 1237.346496 507.7296 4714.632 2585.952
(mg/year)
Phosphate Load per
(mg/year)
Table 11: Total cross sectional area, average flow, TSS load and Phosphate load for sites, S5,
E1, E2 and E3
Sites S5 E1 E2 E3
Toral Cross Section

0.2381 0.0625 0.2168 0.3117
Area)m^2)
Average Flow
0.3 0.3 0.83 0.46
(m/s)

38
Average Flow per

0.07143 0.01875 0.179944 0.143382
Area (m^3/s)
TSS Load (mg/L) -0.001 0 -0.003 0.003
Phosphate Load
0.11 0.07 0.1 0.11
(mg/L)
TSS Load per Cross
-
Section Area -0.00007143 0 0.000430146
0.000539832
(mg/s)
Phosphate Load
per Cross Section 0.0078573 0.0013125 0.0179944 0.01577202
Area (mg/s)
TSS Load per Cross
Section Area -6.171552 0 -46.6414848 37.1646144
(mg/day)
Phosphate Load
per Cross Section 678.87072 113.4 1554.71616 1362.702528
Area (mg/day)
TSS Load per Cross
-
Section Area -2252.61648 0 13565.08426
17024.14195
(mg/year)
Phosphate Load
per Cross Section 247787.8128 41391 567471.3984 497386.4227
Area (mg/year)
Appendix C ( Observational Pictures)

39
Figure 1: Within the black circles are little fish fry that were seen at site E3

40
Figure 2: This is a picture where there could be a good spawning area for Brook trout (seen
within the circle). This is due to the gravely material and how its somewhat protected.
Appendix D (graphs)
St. Johns
S1
Water temperature pH
15 7.2
Water Temperature in Degrees
7
6.8
10
6.6
pH
6.4
Celsius
5 6.2
6
0 5.8
07-Sep 27-Sep 17-Oct 06-Nov 26-Nov 16-Dec 07-Sep 27-Sep 17-Oct 06-Nov 26-Nov 16-Dec
Date Date

41
DO Turbidity
10 5
Turbidity (mtu)
8 4
DO (mg/L)
6 3
4 2
2 1
0 0
Date Date
S2
20 8.6
Water Temperature in
8.4
15
Degrees Celsius
8.2
pH
10
8
5 7.8
0 7.6
07-Sep 27-Sep 17-Oct 06-Nov26-Nov 16-Dec 07-Sep 27-Sep 17-Oct 06-Nov 26-Nov 16-Dec
Date Date
DO Turbidity
12 20
10
Turbidity (mtu)
15
DO (mg/L)
8
6 10
4
5
2
0 0
Date Date
S3

42
15 8.4
8.2
10 8
7.8
pH
7.6
Celsius
5 7.4
7.2
0 7
07-Sep 27-Sep 17-Oct 06-Nov26-Nov16-Dec 07-Sep 27-Sep 17-Oct 06-Nov 26-Nov 16-Dec
Date Date
DO Turbidity
15 Turbidity (mtu) 20
15
DO (mg/L)
10
10
5
5
0 0
Date Date
S4
16 8.2
14 8.1
12 8
10
7.9
pH
8
Celsius
7.8
6
4 7.7
2 7.6
0 7.5
Date Date

43
Turbidity
DO
25
10
20
Turbidity (mtu)
8
DO (mg/L)
15
6
10
4
2 5
0 0
Date Date
S5
20 8.8
8.6
15
8.4
pH
10 8.2
Celsius
8
5
7.8
0 7.6
7-Sep-16
27-Sep-16
17-Oct-16
6-Nov-16
26-Nov-16
16-Dec-16 7-Sep-1627-Sep-16
17-Oct-166-Nov-1626-Nov-16
16-Dec-16
Date Water
DO Turbidity
14 12
12 10
Turbidity (mtu)
10
DO (mg/L)
8
8
6
6
4 4
2 2
0 0
7-Sep-1627-Sep-16
17-Oct-166-Nov-16
26-Nov-16
16-Dec-16 7-Sep-1627-Sep-16
17-Oct-166-Nov-16
26-Nov-16
16-Dec-16
Date Date

44
SW
Water Temperature pH
Water Temperatre in Degree
25 10
20 8
15 6
Celsius
pH
10 4
5 2
0 0
Date Date
Dissolved Oxygen Turbidity

12 350
10 300
Tuurbidity (mtu)
8 250
DO (mg/L)
200
6
150
4
100
2 50
0 0
Date Date
Effingham
E1

45
25 8.8
Water Temperature in Degree
20 8.6
8.4
15
8.2
celsius
pH
10 8
7.8
5
7.6
0 7.4
Date Date

14 25
12
20
10
DO(mg/L)
8 15
Turbidity
6 10
4
5
2
0 0
-5
Date Date
E2

46
16 9
14 8.8
12 8.6
10
8.4
pH
8
Celcius
8.2
6
4 8
2 7.8
0 7.6
Date Date

14 25
12
20
10
Turbidity(mtu)
DO(mg/L)
8 15
6 10
4
5
2
0 0
Date Date
E3
20 9
8.8
15 8.6
8.4
pH
10
Celsius
8.2
5 8
7.8
0 7.6
Date Date

47

16 20
14
Turbuduty(mtu)
12 15
DO(mg/L)
10
8 10
6
4 5
2
0 0
Date Date
Appendix E (Comparative Graphs)

Dissolved Oxygen vs Water Temperature

14
12 y = -4.204ln(x) + 17.461
R = 0.5069
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Water Temperature (C)
Figure 1: St. Johns location where dissolved oxygen and water temperature were compared

48

16
y = -4.675ln(x) + 20.023
14 R = 0.7555
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
12
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 2: Effingham location where dissolved oxygen and water temperature were compared
Water Temperature vs Air Temperature
y = 0.766e0.2152x
Air Temperature vs Water Temperature R = 0.6917
25
20
Air Temperature (C)
15
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Figure 3: St. Johns location where air temperature and water temperature were compared

49
Air Temperatre vs Water Temperature

y = 1.0439e0.1684x
40 R = 0.748
35
30
Air Temperature (C)
25
20
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 4: Effingham location where air temperature and water temperature were compared

Phase I Assessment of The Upper Twelve Mile Creek

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Phase I Assessment of the Upper Twelve Mile Creek

November 20, 2016

December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4

Environmental Summary .............................................................................................................5

Land Use Past and Present .......................................................................................................6

Impacts of Urbanization on Streams ....................................................................................7

Total Phosphorous ...............................................................................................................8

Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) ..................................................................................... 11

NPCA Water Quality Report for Groundwater................................................................... 13

Project Goals and Objectives ..................................................................................................... 15

December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4

Water Quality .................................................................................................................... 15

Phosphorous Testing ......................................................................................................... 16

Dissolved Oxygen ................................................................................................................. 17

Total Suspended Sediments ................................................................................................... 18

Phosphate Load ..................................................................................................................... 18

Air Temperature vs Water Temperature ............................................................................. 19

December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4

Possible Errors/Limitations ................................................................................................... 23

Human Errors .................................................................................................................... 23

Land Use Over the Years of The Area ............................................................................... 31

Water Quality .................................................................................................................... 33

Appendix D (graphs) ............................................................................................................. 40

St. Johns ............................................................................................................................ 40

Dissolved Oxygen vs Water Temperature .......................................................................... 47

December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4

December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4

appreciation and the St. Johns Conservation Area.

Land Use Past and Present

area increases to urbanize and farmland/vegetation start to decrease.

December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4

Impacts of Urbanization on Streams

ecology and chemistry of the stream leading to detrimental affects.

chemical and physical stressors.

dissolved oxygen which results in a decrease in aquatic organisms.

December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4

deposits which are comprised of silt and clay (Durley, 2006).

December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4

decomposition of organic matter. The total phosphorous is a measure of all forms of

increase phosphorous would be fertilizers, sewage and pesticides.

Total suspended solids

waters can have a negative impact on the aquatic organisms.

some might even find another habitat and migrate.

December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4

most stream fish including the Brook trout (Behar, 1997).

described as alkaline (USGS, 2016).

Conductivity is the ability of a substance to be able to conduct or transmit heat, sound or

December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4

support aquatic life (Behar, 1997).

Turbidity is the measure of clarity within a liquid/solution. Its an optimal characteristic

Background information on the ecology

Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)

December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4

location for the Brook trout.

contain the most amount of Brook trout.

Water Striders (Gerris remigis)

used as bioindicators within a stream ecosystem to indicate the health of a stream.

December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4

NPCA Water Quality Report for Groundwater

quality results within the Niagara watershed.

during the spring and fall seasons.

December 20, 2016 Kayla Wilcox SWS4