Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Engineering
CE/HES99/4004/E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 5
II. CONCEPT OF THE PLANT MASTER PLAN ................................................................... 6
III. THE POSITION OF THE PLANT MASTER PLAN IN BUSINESS PLANNING ........ 7
Procedure in case of absence of Business Plan ................................................................8
Coordination and yearly update of Business Plan, Plant Master Plan and Budget ............8
IV. RELATION TO THE MANUFACTURING PERFORMANCE REVIEW (MPR) .......... 8
Brief Description of the Manufacturing Performance Review (MPR)..................................9
Differences between MPR and PMP ..................................................................................9
Coordination of MPR and PMP ........................................................................................11
V. PROCEDURE FOR ELABORATING THE PLANT MASTER PLAN.............................. 12
Starting Points ..................................................................................................................12
People Involved ................................................................................................................12
The Approach ...................................................................................................................13
"Typical" Plant Types........................................................................................................14
Minimum Requirements....................................................................................................15
VI. GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENTS OF PLANT MASTER PLAN............................ 16
VII. ESSENTIALS OF THE INDIVIDUAL PARTS OF THE GENERIC TABLE OF
CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... 17
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY................................................................................................. 17
2. INTRODUCTION TO THE PLANT MASTER PLAN ....................................................... 17
3. BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES.................................................................................... 17
4. METHODOLOGY TO ACHIEVE BUSINESS PLAN OBJECTIVES ............................... 17
5. MATERIALS AND ENERGIES SUPPLY ........................................................................ 18
5.1 Materials ................................................................................................................18
5.2 Energy ...................................................................................................................21
6. PRODUCTION PROCESS AND PLANT ........................................................................ 23
6.x.x.1 Past and Present Situation ...................................................................................23
6.x.x.2 Weak Points and Bottle Necks..............................................................................23
6.x.x.3 Alternatives for Development................................................................................23
6.x.x.4 Operational Measures...........................................................................................23
6.x.x.5 CAPEX Projects....................................................................................................24
Cement Manufacturing Course Version 2005 Volume 6 - Page 3
6.1 General Remarks on Plant Development ..............................................................24
6.2 Main Production Process.......................................................................................24
6.3 Internal Infrastructure.............................................................................................25
6.4 External Infrastructure ...........................................................................................25
6.5 Environmental Management..................................................................................25
6.6 Abandoned Plant Sections ....................................................................................26
6.7 Dumps ...................................................................................................................26
7. PLANT ORGANIZATION AND SUPPORTING FUNCTIONS......................................... 27
7.1 Organizational Structure ........................................................................................27
7.2 Personnel...............................................................................................................27
7.3 Quality Assurance..................................................................................................28
7.4 Maintenance ..........................................................................................................28
7.5 Production..............................................................................................................29
7.6 Purchasing and Stocks Management ....................................................................29
7.7 Social and Health Management.............................................................................30
7.8 Plant Security Management...................................................................................30
7.9 Public Relations .....................................................................................................31
7.10 Labor Union Relations ...........................................................................................31
8. SUMMARY OF OPERATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES ..................... 31
9. SUMMARY OF PLANNED CAPEX PROJECTS AND PLANT LAYOUT....................... 31
10. ACTUAL COST DEVELOPMENT (AND OPTIONALLY: FINANCIAL
PROJECTIONS).............................................................................................................. 32
11. PLANT DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVES............................................................. 32
11.1 Exhausting Capacity Reserves..............................................................................32
11.2 Maximizing clinker production capacity of installed kiln systems...........................32
11.3 Considerations in view of plant extensions............................................................32
12. IMPLEMENTATION PLAN AND PROCESS FOR PMP UPDATES........................ 32
ANNEX 1: DETAILED GENERIC TABLE OF CONTENT OF PLANT MASTER PLAN .... 34
ANNEX 2: EXAMPLE OF TABLE FOR SUMMARY OF OPERATIONAL AND
ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES................................................................................... 46
ANNEX 3: EXAMPLE OF TABLE FOR SUMMARY OF PLANNED CAPEX PROJECTS 47
ANNEX 4: USEFUL TIPS WHEN ANALYZING THE PLANT ORGANIZATION ............... 48
ANNEX 5: SUMMARY OF THE PROCESS TO SET UP A TRAINING MASTER PLAN .. 50
Annex 6: Elements to consider when analyzing the Maintenance Environment 53
The Plant Master Plan gained importance in recent years mainly due to the
following four reasons:
Enhancements within the planning cycles
The process to standardize the Holcim Group companies planning cycles
put also the Plant Master Plan in the limelight: The Plant Master Plan is the
document which translates the strategy of the Business Plan into operational
and organizational measures as well as into CAPEX projects on plant level.
Continuous improvement needs in plant performance and product quality
Continuing importance of low cost production and of high product quality,
satisfying growing market requirements, has to be transformed on plant level
into measures aiming at high plant utilization and at appropriate quality
assurance.
Increased number of small CAPEX projects
The Plant Master Plan, having a long-term perspective and a clear focus on
the Business Plan objectives, is a good tool to coordinate the various smaller
projects typically being carried out at a plant over the years.
Acquisition of plants with extensive rehabilitation requirements
Acquisitions of existing cement plants create the need of a more
standardized approach towards planning of all operational and
organizational improvements. The Plant Master Plan provides a structured
planning tool for the rehabilitation process and coordinates the work of the
various specialists involved.
Cement Manufacturing Course Version 2005 Volume 6 - Page 5
II. CONCEPT OF THE PLANT MASTER PLAN
The main objective of the Plant Master Plan is
Manufacturing Performance
Review(s) Plant Master Plan(s)
Overall
Manufac turing
Perfor mance
Performance
Costs Costs of Pr oducts Im pact & Prod Plan
Pr oduced
Performance KPI
Raw Mater ial
KPI
Raw Material
KPI
Raw Meal
KPI
Clinker
KPI
Cem ent
KPI
Maint Relate d Budget
Installation State of
Technol ogy
Instrumentati on
Over all
Conditi on
Housekee ping
Past & Future
Investments
Environmental
Pr otection
Control
Functions
& Equipment
Foundation
Qualifica tion Plant Budget
Skills Per sonnel Plant Raw Mater ial CAPEX
of Key Master Investment
Assessment Or ganisati on Mana gement Mana gem ent Pr ocedur es
Personnel Plan Pr ocedur es
CAPEX - Projects
Yearly Actions Engineering Realization
and Budgets Studies of Projects
Figure: Business Planning Cycle: from Strategic Assessment to Yearly Actions & Budgets
As the figure shows, the Manufacturing Plan links the Business Plan to the Plant Master
Plan. Whereas the Manufacturing Plan emphasizes the objectives ("what to we want do
accomplish where?"), the Plant Master Plan describes in details how to achieve these
objectives.
The Plant Master Plan provides operational measures and CAPEX projects in
order to improve operational and economical plant performance. The resulting
improvement in performance has to be considered as input for the Business
Plan (Manufacturing and Finance Plan). The estimated operational and
capital expenditures have to be considered in the financial projections of the
Business Plan.
As a consequence, simultaneous elaboration of the Business Plan and the
Plant Master Plan is recommended, as iterations may become necessary.
Coordination and yearly update of Business Plan, Plant Master Plan and
Budget
During the yearly planning cycle, the new objectives for the manufacturing
process are defined in the Business Plan. The Plant Master Plan has to be
reviewed to assure that the planned operational measures and
investments are still in line with the business plan objectives.
The results of the PMP, especially CAPEX scheduling and projections of
KPIs (e.g. actual costs clinker and cement) are to be considered for the
completion of the BP (functional plan).
Further, the CAPEX scheduled and projections of KPIs (e.g. actual costs
clinker and cement) for the following year are to be considered as input for
the budget elaboration of the next business year.
The yearly update of the PMP provides continuity in the yearly CAPEX
scheduling and gives transparency for the cases where the planned
investments projects have to be changed.
The following table shows an example for the scheduling of the yearly update
of the Business Plan and Plant Master Plan.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Business Plan
Budget
Raw Mix
Process Process AFR
& Product
Procedures Control Optimisation
Optimisation
Utilisation
& Systems
Raw Material CAPEX
Quality Control Maintenance Benchmarking
Management Management
Business environment
Constraints Achievable technical excellence
Long-term plant development
Starting Points
In line with the business planning cycle the Plant Master Plan is to be
elaborated with a 5 year time horizon. If available, a recent MPR shall be
considered for the analysis of the current condition and the potential of the
production process.
Ideally, the PMP is updated yearly in parallel with the Business Plan. To
facilitate this yearly update, the individual chapters are shaped to make a
rolling process possible. Including the date of revision in the chapters helps
keeping track of modifications.
People Involved
The nature of the Plant Master Plan requires the elaboration to be a real team
effort. Only pooling the knowledge and experience of all levels and disciplines
of the company will allow for covering all aspects. To ensure the buy-in and
commitment of all parties involved in the investment decision process, it is
advised to include company management representatives. Experts from
HGRS assist in challenging the status quo and bringing additional alternatives
into discussion.
Though it is possible to carry out a PMP with only the coaching assistance of
HGRS for the methodology of the PMP, experience has shown that a much
better cost-benefit relation results from having Corporate Engineering (CE)
involved also in the engineering aspects of the PMP.
In case CE is to endorse the findings of the PMP, a close involvement of CE
into the elaboration of the alternatives is mandatory from an early stage on.
Only this way the necessary knowledge can be obtained and CE can set
technical directions.
Specific Studies
Technical Support
Figure: Example of the project organization for elaboration of the Plant Master Plan
1-2 weeks 2-4 weeks 20-30 weeks 1-2 week 1-2 week
2-4 man-weeks 2-5 man-weeks 20-60 man-weeks 2-4 man-weeks 1-2 man-weeks
1 man-week (incl. in I) 3-12 man-weeks 1 man-week (incl. in IV)
Figure: Phases and activities of the elaboration process and a typical time-frame for a first
time implementation
Documentation
3-5 weeks 3-5 weeks 8-10 weeks 3-5 weeks 3-5 weeks
Minimum Requirements
In case resources are short to elaborate a full-size PMP, it is possible to
elaborate an abbreviated version. In chapters 5 (Materials and Energy
Supply) and 6 (Production Process and Plant) some specific subchapters of
less importance to the plant at this moment may be treated only briefly or left
out. However, make sure all departments are included where investment
projects are envisaged. Whenever deciding on an operational measure or
investment, it has to be assured that all influencing and depending factors
have been considered and the specific problem has been analyzed
thoroughly. Otherwise an isolated solution might be selected which will not
yield the expected results if the "big picture" has not been duly considered.
Plants recently acquired by Holcim should elaborate chapter 7 (Plant
Organization) in detail. For other plants, if deemed not necessary, it may be
shortened or if even skipped completely.
Shortening or skipping any chapters obviously will not exploit all potential for
improvement and future development. It is recommended to make up on
those chapters in the next update of the PMP.
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Function: Provide an executive summary
It summarizes the main operational and organizational measures as
well as the main CAPEX projects to achieve the Business Plan
objectives on plant level including summaries of disbursement plan and
development of production cost.
5.1 Materials
5.1.5 Gypsum
Same structure and content as 5.1.4 Correctives.
5.2 Energy
6.2.17 Drives
6.2.18 Instrumentation
6.3.9 Railway
6.4.1 Roads
6.4.2 Railway
6.4.3 Harbor
6.4.4 Terminals
6.4.5 Pipelines
6.7 Dumps
7.1.2 Functions
Includes any actions required to describe job specifications that are
needed as a result of the business plan directions. Job specifications
will include Job title, Job Objectives, Key Responsibilities, Performance
Indicators, Organizational Relationships (upwards, downwards) and
Requirements Profile.
7.2 Personnel
7.2.4 Training
Includes an overview of the major training in initiatives that are
formulated in detail in the Training Master Plan (TMP). The Annex 5
provides some guidelines on how to set up a TMP.
7.2.5 Communication
A description of actions that might be needed to ensure that
communication, external communication, industrial relations, etc. fully
support the strategic goals set in the Business Plan.
7.4 Maintenance
When addressing the maintenance issue, the MAC Sustainability
Review shall be taken into consideration. Annex 6 provides an
overview of element recommended to be considered when assessing
the maintenance environment.
7.5 Production
Involve a team of specialists from the following areas when assessing the organization:
Financial
Accounting and commercial operations
Production
Maintenance and technical operations
Personnel
Management
Training
Starts with the collection of information on the organizational structure, focusing on:
Task distribution
Span of control
Reporting relationships to best carry out assigned responsibilities
A possible study of the decentralized management style should focus on the framework
of:
Goal setting
Performance evaluation
Autonomy
One of the main objectives of the Training Master Plan (TMP) is to promote additional
training for those individuals who have the greatest impact on plant operation.
By Friedrich Richner, CE
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 57
2. POWER GENERATION / POWER SUPPLY .................................................................. 57
2.1 Emergency power supplies: .....................................................................................57
3. GENERAL POWER TRANSMISSION ARRANGEMENT............................................... 59
4. POWER TRANSMISSION VOLTAGE LEVELS .......................................................... 59
5. ENERGY CONSUMPTION / TARIFF STRUCTURE....................................................... 60
5.1 General.....................................................................................................................60
5.2 Tariff Structures........................................................................................................60
5.3 Typical Tariff example ..............................................................................................61
5.3.1 Active energy consumption charge ....................................................................61
5.3.2 Power demand charge .......................................................................................61
5.3.3 Reactive energy consumption charge................................................................61
5.3.4 Tariff phases ......................................................................................................61
6. STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS IN A CEMENT PLANT ............................. 62
7. POWER CONSUMPTION OF A CEMENT PLANT......................................................... 62
8. TYPICAL SUPPLY VOLTAGES FOR CEMENT PLANTS ............................................. 63
9. TYPICAL CONCEPT OF POWER DISTRIBUTION FOR CEMENT PLANTS................ 63
9.1 High voltage transformer station ..............................................................................63
9.2 Medium voltage power distribution...........................................................................66
9.3 Low Voltage Distribution / Distribution transformers / Motor control centres............68
10. HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR............................................................................ 69
10.1 Typical symbols of electrical switchgear (HV, MV- and LV)...............................69
10.2 Power Distribution: Typical elements of a high voltage transformer station.......70
10.3 Power Distribution: Typical elements of protective relays..................................71
10.4 Power Distribution: Typical elements of medium voltage power distribution .....72
10.5 Types of high voltage stations............................................................................72
10.5.1 Outdoor transformer station with conventional switch gear............................72
10.5.2 Indoor transformer station with conventional switch gear...............................72
10.5.3 Indoor transformer station equipped either with: ............................................72
10.6 Circuit Breakers..................................................................................................73
10.7 High Voltage Transformer ..................................................................................77
11. MEDIUM VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR ...................................................................... 79
Cement Manufacturing Course Version 2005 Volume 6 - Page 55
11.1 Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers.......................................................................80
11.2 Properties of Vacuum- and SF6 circuit breakers ................................................82
11.3 Medium Voltage Contactors...............................................................................82
11.4 Medium Voltage Transformers...........................................................................85
12. LOW VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR ............................................................................ 88
12.1 Motor Control Centres........................................................................................88
12.2 Motor Control Interface ......................................................................................88
13. CABLES.................................................................................................................. 90
14. POWER FACTOR AND ITS IMPROVEMENT........................................................ 93
14.1 General ..............................................................................................................93
14.2 Power Factor Correction ....................................................................................95
14.2.1 For low voltage motors: ..................................................................................95
14.2.2 For high voltage motors with constant speed: ................................................96
14.2.3 For large variable speed drives: .....................................................................97
15. ENERGY- / POWER-METERING ........................................................................... 98
15.1 Metering for energy invoice................................................................................98
15.2 Metering for internal use only.............................................................................98
16. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT................................. 100
16.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................100
16.2 Touch Voltage ................................................................................................100
16.3 Step Voltage ...................................................................................................101
16.4 Safety Precautions in High Voltage Equipment Rooms ...................................101
16.5 Preventive Maintenance...................................................................................102
16.6 Precautions against Electric Fires....................................................................102
16.7 Maintenance of Temporary Installations during Construction / Erection..........103
16.8 First Aid ............................................................................................................103
The following are the most commonly used power generating systems:
Hydraulic power stations (River power plants; High level basin power plants)
Thermal power plants (Oil, gas or coal fired)
Nuclear power plants
Diesel engines
It is most desirable and most economical however, to provide cement plants whenever
possible from an existing utility network. Stand-alone power plants built for a cement plant
are extremely costly, are subject to high maintenance and are not considered as reliable as
a large interconnected network system.
Power generation plants powered by diesel engines or gas turbines are seldom used in new
installations for cement plants, with the exception of installations located in remotely isolated
areas or regions with underdeveloped power system networks.
The emergency power unit shall be located as near as possible to the loads it serves. This
will avoid expensive cable installation costs.
5.1 General
Electrical energy cannot be stored, which is in sharp contrast with the other forms of energy
such as gas, oil, coal, wood, water, etc. Therefore, the production of electrical energy and
consumption must always be balanced and the utility companies undertake every effort to
cope with the continuously charging demand. With good planning surplus generating
capacity must be available to avoid energy demand bottlenecks.
The interconnection of power distribution networks from different utilities and cross borders
from state to state, or province or country to country which are also supported by mutual
agreements of network support ensure a most reliable distribution system. (Example: Europe
= interconnected grid from North of Norway to South of Italy).
Isolated grid systems have the disadvantage of being weak, with unstable frequencies
during network disturbances. Heavy load demands may require temporary disconnection
from the grid during such disturbances.
Winter Summer
High tariff 0-25 Mio. KWh: 6,3 cts/kWh 0-20 Mio. kWh: 4,5 cts/kWh
> 25 Mio. KWh: 6,1 cts/kWh >20 Mio. kWh: 4,3 cts/kWh
Low tariff 0-20 Mio. KWh: 4,6 cts/kWh 0-10 Mio. kWh: 2,6 cts/kWh
> 20 Mio. KWh: 4,4 cts/kWh > 10 Mio. kWh: 2,4 cts/kWh
Legend:
1 Busbar with combined disconnect/grounding switch
2 Circuit breaker
3 Current transformer
4 Potential transformer
5 Cable end unit with combined
Disconnect/grounding switch
6 Fast acting grounding switch
7 Control cubicle
8 Isolation
Schematical arrangement:
High voltage transformers are used in the cement plants power distribution to lower the
incoming voltage from the utility to the voltage level typically 13.8kV, 6.9kV or 4.16kV used
for the power distribution to the departmental transformers. These transformers are
designed to operate with low losses typically with less than 1% loss on the name plate
rating. The transformers are always filled with oil, which offers the best overall dielectric
insulating properties.
In order to maintain a steady voltage level in the plant under various load conditions and to
cope with varying voltage levels at the utility substation, the transformer must be equipped
with a load tap changers and voltage regulator. The function of the regulator is to
automatically increase or decrease the secondary voltage in tune with the requirements of
the load, but typically these are small steps of about 1 to 1.5% of the nominal voltage.
Large transformers are designed to operate with natural cooling air at the base nameplate
rating. Increased power can be delivered when the transformer is forced cooled. The forced
cooling equipment such as air or water cooling equipment are often included with the original
specifications which is most economical. For example a 20 MVA transformer with an
efficiency of 98% produces a heat load 400 kW of heat.
This type of transformer being the most critical piece of equipment in the plant must be
protected adequately from overloads and over-voltages. For this reasons the transformers
are equipped with lighting arrestors, temperature sensors, oil level sensors, tap changer
position indicators, sudden pressure/gas accumulation relay (Buchholz-Relay) and current
differential, which together protect the transformer against overload and insulation failures.
The Buchholz-Relay detects gas bubbles, which accumulate at the highest point of the
transformer, and gives a good indication if there are insulation or over-temperature problems
with transformer windings.
The installation of the high voltage transformers most often is outdoors far enough from
buildings and other plant structures. In certain applications however and for aesthetic
reasons these transformers must be located inside a building structure designed specifically
to house the transformer.
Typical picture of a high voltage transformer see below
Legend:
1 Core- and coil assembly 6 Buchholz relay
2 Iron core 7 Tank
3 Windings 8 Tank cover
4 On-load tap changer (Motor driven) 9 Truck
5 Bushings 10 Conservator
Medium voltage power distributions consist mainly of the same components as described in
paragraph 10. They are generally of the indoor type. Today draw-out type cubicles are
commonly used. Different equipment can be mounted on identical trucks. The trucks are
easy to handle and allow a quick replacement in case of a failure. The figure below shows a
medium voltage distribution station.
Legend:
1 Control panel / Motor drive 4 Moving contacts
2 Actuating road 5 Ceramic insulators
3 Fixed contacts
Items 3 and 4 operate within the vacuum environment
Criterias:
The operating principle is similar to that of a circuit breaker, except that the interrupter is not
designed to interrupt short circuit currents. The contact system is optimised for high numbers
of rated current operations.
High rupture current limiting fuses are installed in series with the interrupter to provide co-
ordinated protection during short circuit conditions.
Overload protection is ensured by separate relays.
Fused contactors can be used to supply motor and transformer loads.
Examples: maximum rating of fuse rating = 250 A, 6 kV, can be used with
Distribution transformers max. 2000 kVA
Motor with starting current 1350 A maximum
and acceleration time of 10 sec. Maximum
Legend:
1 Fuse contactor compartment
2 Contactor
3 LV plug-in connection
4 Fuses
5 Metal safety shutters covering fixed disconnecting contacts
6 Busbar compartment
7 Busbars
8 Cable-connection compartment
Cement Manufacturing Course Version 2005 Volume 6 - Page 83
9 Earthing switch
10 Current transformer
11 Potential dividers
12 HV solid-dielectric cables
13 LV auxiliaries compartment
14 LV wiring trough
15 Earthing bus
Legend:
Figure 12.1 Motor control centre with outgoing feeders of the draw-out,
fully-plugged design
13. CABLES
The selection of power cables for the correct application is an integral part of the power
distribution for a cement plant. There are many choices for power and control cables all of
which will do the job, but with increasing installation costs and available bulk quantity
discounts it is best to limit the selection to a few types which will cover all applications.
Types of cables
The selection of the type of cable depends on the installation whether is on a tray, conduit,
buried in the ground or suspended overhead.
single conductor, non metallic or interlocked aluminium armour
Triplex conductors, non metallic, aluminium or steel interlocked armour
Shielded conductors for medium voltage installations
Unshielded conductors for low voltage installations
Single conductor cables are normally use on trays and conduit. Interlocked armour cable is
used when the cable can be exposed to mechanically damaged
Figure 13.2 Medium voltage power cable (3-core, with steel armour)
Legend:
1 Lead sheath
2 Single wire armour (steel)
3 Overall sheath (jute)
4 Conductor (copper)
5 Paper-Insulation
6 Filler
7 Inner sheath (paper)
8 Fibrous sheaths (in layers)
Polyethylene, cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulated cables are the most widely
installed power cables today in a cement plant. Ethylene-propylene-rubber (EPR) insulated
with PVC jacket cables are used extensively for larger cables and will in the future replace
many of the PE and XLPE-cables.
Copper conductors are preferable to aluminium conductors mainly due to the simpler
installation method but also for their higher current carrying capacities and therefore smaller
cross sections.
The PVC jacket of cables is flame retardant, low acid gas evolution and when exposed to
sunlight has to be UV proofed. Also non-corrosive sheath material (EVA) can be installed.
Dimensioning of cables
Power cables have to be carefully dimensioned in respect of
Current carrying capacity by taking into account
ambient temperature
kind of installation (ground, air grouping)
Magnetic or non-magnetic raceway
Voltage drop (power loss)
Thermal and dynamic short-circuits withstand capabilities
14.1 General
The electrical energy delivered by the utility contains two components of power, the active
(real) power (kW) and reactive power (kVAr). The reactive power usually lags the active
power component by 90 electrical degrees. The quadratic sum of these two components
gives the kVA or the apparent power the utility companies have to generate and distribute to
consumers (see vector diagram Fig. 14.1.2).
The ratio of the active power kW divided by apparent power kVA defines the power angle of
these two power components. The cosine of this angle is called simply the power factor. It
can have value from zero to unity. Unity power factor is excellent, but most installations have
power factors between 0.79 to 0.83 before compensation.
Reactive power is used by the magnetic circuits of the stator and rotor, in motor's case to set
up rotating but opposing magnetic fields, which produce the torque. In the case of the
transformer the magnetic flux is required to induce voltage in the transformer secondary
circuits.
Active power or real power is drawn from the power lines by the load connected to the motor
shaft or by the load connected to the secondary of the transformer.
For a magnetic circuit such as the induction motor and transformer, the reactive power lags
the real power by 90 electrical degrees. This means that reactive power is drawn from the
supply. For a synchronous motor with over excitation or for a capacitor the reactive power
leads the real power by 90 electrical degrees. This means that the reactive power flows back
into the supply.
The induction motors and transformers are the largest consumers of lagging reactive power
in a cement plant. This power has to be delivered by the utility companies. It can be seen
readily that lagging reactive power is a burden on the generator and the supplying cables. It
appears as the total current or the active current and causes losses in the cables,
transformers and in the generator.
Legend:
S: Apparent power kVA P1: Active Power kW
Q: Reactive power kVAr P2: Mechanical Power kW
Legend:
OA: Active power W (kW)
OB: Inductive reactive power Q (kVAr)
OC: Apparent power S (kVA)
CD: Capacitor reactive power Q (kVAr)
Phi: Phase angle, uncompensated
Phi1 Phase angle, compensated
Cos phi = P1
S
The electrical authorities contractually demand that the plant operates with a minimum
lagging power factor (cos phi) to limit the losses in their own power distribution system. The
power factor can be specified as 0.9 to 0.95 lagging based on the monthly billing demand
charges. Failure to maintain the minimum power factor results in power demand penalties
with the power demand corrected for the stipulated power factor.
One of the most common practices used to improve the power factor is the installation of
capacitor banks. The capacitor produces static leading reactive power, which displaces
some of the lagging power required by inductive component of electrical equipment, thus
relieving the supply generator of the extra burden.
Other more economical methods include the installation of synchronous motors designed
with leading power factor or synchronous condensers. With these rotating machines the
power system can be dynamically compensated as dictated by the load.
Legend:
L: Inductance 14.1 Mh
R: Resistor 50
C1: Capacitor 720 F
C2: Capacitor 90 F
PROT: Protection (MCX 912)
16.1 Introduction
Electrical equipment carries large amounts of hidden energy, which by its nature is
inherently dangerous to personnel if safety practices are not implemented around the
plant. Safety around electrical equipment and enforcing safety regulations and
training are responsibilities of personnel and management alike.
The design and installation of the main grounding network are paramount to ensuring
safety of the power distribution system in a cement plant. Measurements of ground
electrode resistance must be included and recorded periodically as part of an
effective maintenance program.
The metal enclosures of electrical equipment and must be grounded to earth to reduce
shock hazard to personnel and to provide a low resistance path to ground for
currents induced in the system through lightning or power system faults.
Touch voltage is defined as the potential difference between a grounded point and a point
on the earths surface equal to a persons normal maximum horizontal reach. Fault current
flowing into the earth via the grounded casing of the motor will develop a voltage drop across
RE, representing total ground system resistance. A person touching the faulty motor will be
safe as long as his body resistance RB and his contact resistance to the earth RC are much
bigger than RE. The body resistance RB varies greatly, even on the same person, between
approx. 1,300 Ohm on a hot day in a humid atmosphere and approx. 3,000 Ohm in dry
weather and with dry hands.
The maximum permissible voltage the body can be exposed to without immediate danger is
65 V. This corresponds under worst conditions to a maximum current of:
65V / 1300Ohm = 0.05 Amperes
Drive Systems
By Roman Menz, CE
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................106
1.1 General ............................................................................................................106
1.2 Environmental Protection and Cooling Methods ..............................................111
2. MOTORS ........................................................................................................................113
2.1 Squirrel cage motor (induction motor)..............................................................113
2.2 Slip ring motor ..................................................................................................118
2.3 Synchronous motor ..........................................................................................120
2.4 Synchronous induction motor...........................................................................123
2.5 DC-motor (direct current motor) .......................................................................126
2.6 Ring motor (gearless mill drive) .......................................................................130
3. POWER ELECTRONICS ...............................................................................................132
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................132
3.2 Application for power electronics in the cement industry .................................133
4. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE (VSD) SYSTEM..................................................................135
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................135
4.2 AC drive with squirrel cage motor ....................................................................138
4.3 AC drive with slip ring motor ............................................................................143
4.4 AC drive with synchronous motor ....................................................................146
4.5 Synchronous motor with intermediate circuit converter ...................................148
4.6 Electronic smooth-start for three-phase motors (soft starters).........................150
4.7 DC-drive ...........................................................................................................152
4.8 Summary of large variable speed drive systems for the cement industry (>1 MW)
155
5. CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT ....................................................................................156
5.1 Specifications ...................................................................................................156
5.2 Reliability..........................................................................................................156
5.3 Efficiency..........................................................................................................156
6. CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................................157
7. MESSAGES ...................................................................................................................157
1.1 General
Long gone are the early days of the industrial revolution when steam and gasoline engines
where used exclusively as primary power movers of the manufacturing process of the 1800
and early 1900s.
In a modern industrial plant of today the electric motor is the workhorse. It plays the most
important role in the manufacturing process and it is used in all applications in which motive
power is required to satisfy mechanical equipment requirements of a given process.
Simply stated a motor is the electromechanical equipment, which converts electrical energy
at the input into rotating power at the output shaft. The amount of electrical energy input
must be sufficient to be converted to an equivalent mechanical output power to satisfy the
requirements of the driven load.
From the electrical operating principle point of view, the motor action is a result of the
interaction between two magnetic fields. That is, the interaction of the magnetic field
produced in the stationary part of the motor circuit (the stator) and the interaction of the
magnetic field produced in the rotating part of the motor circuit (the rotor), as a result of
passage of current, or simply by electromagnetic induction.
It is important to recognise that an electric motor is a piece of equipment whose design must
be carefully selected and applied to a particular process to ensure a satisfactory
performance for a long time.
The energy conversion takes place in the direction of current flow. If the current flows from
the power source into the load we have motor action. If the current flows in the other
direction the motor would become a generator. In such case, the mechanical energy of the
prime mover will be converter into electrical energy.
2 f
n =
P
n = synchronous speed, turns or revolutions per minute
P = number of pole pairs
f = frequency of the power supply (50 Hz or 60Hz)
Induction Motor:
n=
(1 s)(2 f )
P
n = asynchronous speed
s = slip frequency of the rotor. The slip can vary between 2% to 5% of the synchronous
speed
f = frequency of the power supply (50 Hz or 60Hz)
P = number of pole pairs
DC - Machine:
Va = Armature voltage
n=
(Va la Ra)
k
Ia = armature current
Ra =Armature resistance
= magnetic flux
k = proportionality constant of the machine which depends on the number of armature
conductors, the type of armature winding and the number of poles.
P =
(T n)
K
P = Mechanical power output expressed in kilowatts (kW) or horsepower (hp)
T = Mechanical shaft torque expressed in Newton-meters or pound feet (lb-ft)
K = proportionality constant, which depends if SI units are used or British units are used.
n = output speed
In order to select the motor for the correct application the relationship of these quantities
must be known. These relationships are expressed in terms of torque versus speed
characteristic curves.
The influence of the torque or speed on the size of a motor can also be explained by means
of a mechanical example:
truck (30 t payload)
motor: 15 l > power = 200 kW
formula 1 racing car
motor: 2 l > power = 400 kW
The truck motor generates a much higher torque at a much lower speed.
For the electric motor the magnetic circuit produces torque at the output shaft of the
machine, and the speed at which the shaft is turning determines the power drawn from the
power source.
The torque requirements for any load can be characterised as following:
breakaway torque is the torque required to move the load from rest. For the motor this
would be called locked rotor torque or starting torque.
acceleration torque, which is the average torque required to accelerate the load to full
speed. For the motor this would be defined as the pull up torque or saddle torque.
breakdown torque, which is the maximum torque safely sustained by the mechanical
equipment. For the electric motor, the breakdown torque is the maximum attainable
torque, which can be produced by the magnetic circuit. Beyond this value the motor
torque breaks down and the motor pulls out of step, which creates a short circuit and
could severely damage the mechanical equipment, the foundation and the rotor.
Therefore, it is always prudent to ascertain the limitations of the gearboxes, pulleys and
couplings to avoid catastrophic failures.
Fig. 2:
a) Machine with mounted Water-To-Air heat exchanger (TEWAC, IC81W). The circuits are
completely separate.
b) Machine with mounted Air-to-Air heat exchanger (TEAAC, IC611). The circuits are
completely separate.
c) Surface cooled machine with fan mounted on the shaft end (TEFC, IC411)
d) Weather protected machine (WPII, IC01); the cooling air goes directly through the
machine.
2.1.1 Construction
The squirrel cage motor is in its construction the simplest motor used in the cement industry.
The main feature is a rotor without external connections (no slip rings, no brushes). Its two
bearings are the only parts exposed to wear and tear. As the name implies, the rotor design
resembles a rotating cage similar to that used by pet rats or squirrels. It is the most
economical in terms of initial price and requires less maintenance than other motors.
2.1.4 Application
The squirrel cage motor can be used for almost any drive application operating with a
constant speed on a sinusoidal waveform and having normal starting torque and short
acceleration time. The motors are available from a fraction of a kW to thousands of kW.
The advent of variable frequency drives (VFD) has extended their use for inverter duty
application with non-sinusoidal waveform e.g. kiln, separator, fans. When applied to non-
sinusoidal waveform operations the squirrel cage motors must be designed to be compatible
with such operation. Failure to specify VFD duty operation could destroy the motor
prematurely due to insulation failure and iron core heating.
Motors designed for VFD duty only have weak rotors, which are not suitable to accelerate
loads when starting directly across the line. Therefore if the motor must be operated on VFD
and also across the line with a bypass, then the rotor should be also designed for direct
across the line start or DOL.
2.2.1 Construction
The slip ring motor, like the squirrel cage motor, is an induction motor. The major difference
is that the rotor windings are not shorted like the squirrel cage motor but are terminated at
collector rings. Since the starting torque and current are a function of the rotor resistance,
the collector rings are connected to variable resistors, which allow control of the starting
torque and current within a wide range of values.
This is also the reason why the motor quite often is called Wound rotor motor.
MN : nominal torque
MA : torque characteristics during start-up
MG : torque of the load
2.2.4 Application
The slip ring motors are best applied where a combination of high speed, high starting
torque and low starting current are required, in weak power systems. Some applications
include raw mill, cement mill, high inertia fans.
2.3.1 Construction
The stator of the synchronous motor is no different than the stator of the induction motor.
The main difference is in the design of the rotor circuit. The rotor of the synchronous motors
contains two separate and distinct circuits. The first circuit is called the cage winding, gives
the motor a starting characteristic much like that of the squirrel cage motor. The second
circuit is the DC field winding, which is built on laminations evenly distributed in pairs on the
rotor shaft. These are called the poles of the machine. Because of the discrete arrangement
and large gaps, as opposed to uniform distribution and no gaps, these are called also,
salient pole arrangement. The saliency provides stronger magnetic field in the air gap.
Typical synchronous motors can be designed with a starting torque of approximately 60-
80% out of the nominal torque, with relatively very low current inrush, typically 3.5 to 4.5
times the full load current. For high torque starting is possible to built machines which allows
up to two times nominal torque during starting. These high torque machines have usually
between 7 to 8 times inrush current.
When power is first applied, the synchronous motor accelerates, similar to a squirrel cage
motor, near to 95%-98% of synchronous speed. At this time the DC power is applied to the
field windings. The application of DC excitation set up a magnetic field in the field winding,
which produces the necessary pull-in torque to pull the rotor into synchronism.
Depending on the strength of the power supply, low speed high torque drive arrangements
with synchronous motors are also possible (e.g. cement mill drive without gearbox directly
connected to the pinion shaft of the mill). High-torque synchronous motors are almost twice
the cost of normal torque motors for the same speed and power range and have high current
inrush, which limits their application to strong power supply networks. In contrast with the low
torque synchronous motors, the high torque machines require stronger fields and high
current exciters and therefore must be equipped with collector rings and separate power
supplies. This increases the maintenance and losses in the circuit.
Synchronous motors are mainly used in the US market and are not very much applied in
Europe or Asia.
2.4.1 Construction
The synchronous induction motor is built like a slip ring motor; only the mode of operation
differs. It is equipped with collector rings and a separate field excitation, which reduces the
overall efficiency.
a) induction motor
b) starting resistor
c) DC power supply
2.4.4 Application
These motors are very expensive when compared with conventionally designed motors.
These motors are applied in weak power systems, which cannot tolerate high current inrush
above 2.5 times normal load current with loads above 3500 kW. Reactive power
compensation is a side benefit in such applications. One draw back is that these motors are
solidly coupled to their loads, therefore leading reactive power compensation benefit is lost
when the equipment is shut down. Conventional synchronous motor coupled with an air
clutch or fluid coupling can operate de-coupled from the load to correct the plant power
factor.
Applications for synchronous-induction motors in a cement plant operation include vertical
roller mills, ball mills and large capacity fans.
The rotor now moves to the neutral position between the South and the North poles.
To keep the armature rotating, a polarity change in the rotor circuit is required. This is
achieved through commutation action of the brushes. The commutator is built up of copper
segments connected to the coils of the armature. The brushes bridge the segments and
change the direction of the current flow in the coils, thus changing polarities.
To smooth out commutation in the neutral zones between adjacent poles additional windings
and laminations are installed called commutation poles, which compensate for the non-
uniformity of magnetic field in the air gap between adjacent poles to improve commutation
and reduce torque pulsation.
2.5.3 Application
DC-motors are installed where variable speed is necessary and where the excellent
characteristics of the drives outweigh the above mentioned drawbacks. Crusher feeders,
weigh belt feeders, separators and kiln drives are such possible applications.
2.6.1 Construction
The ring motor is a low speed synchronous motor. The stator is powered by a cycle-
converter power source, which converts the supply frequency to low frequency variable
supply. The output frequency ranges from zero and a few Hertz.
Applying a ring motor is economical for 7500 kW and larger loads.
The first ring motors were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. There are many
installations in the mining and cement industry benefiting from this development. The main
advantage is the overall small footprint of the mill and motor and reduced foundation and
building requirements.
With the ring motor, the rotor becomes part of the mill. It is connected to the mill via a tube
called the torque tube. Around the circumference of the torque tube the salient poles of the
rotor are fastened.
Controlling the frequency of the cycle-converter allows control of the speed of the mill.
Fig. 17: Starting characteristics of a synchronous motor with frequency and with
asynchronous starting
M) torque
n) speed
I) motor current
1) torque of the load (mill)
2) torque with frequency starting
3) current with frequency starting
4) torque with asynchronous starting
5) current with asynchronous starting
3.1 Introduction
The electronically adjustable speed drives make use of high power semiconductor devices to
rapidly switch on/off the flow of electrical current through the circuit.
Advances and the design and packaging of the semiconductor devices and circuit boards
have made them very reliable to apply. The latest devices have mean times between failures
as high as 800 years. Increased current carrying capabilities reduces the number of devices
required to power a drive. This combined with reduced unit cost makes them economically
attractive to apply in all applications requiring speed control.
To distinguish between electronics and power electronics, it may be said that electronics
handle currents above 1 mA while power electronics handle currents above 1 A. The present
maximum is about 9000 A (recTIFier diodes) for a single element.
The most familiar power electronic semiconductor devices are:
diodes - static recTIFiers without commutation control
transistors - static current amplifiers with current bias control
thyristors - silicon controlled recTIFiers (SCR) with active bias current control of the gate
circuit
triacs - AC controlled recTIFiers with active bias current controlled gate circuit. These
are also compared with back to back SCRs because they conduct power in both
directions.
GTO (gate turn-off thyristors) forced commutation the gate circuit
IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistors) most modern device with integrated gating
package which reduces switching frequency losses. These devices have very fast rate of
rise of voltage (dv/dt), which can damage the insulation of motors.
IGCT (integrated gate commutation thyristor) these are the latest devices developed to
handle large currents with even lower switching frequencies losses than IGBT and lower
rise of voltages(dv/dt).
The above mentioned electronic switches can be compared with other physical media, e.g.
modulating valves in water flow control.
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 General
Many process applications in a cement plant require the use of variable speed drive (VSD)
for energy efficiency purpose and finite control of the process variables such as air flow,
additive rates, raw meal feed and clinker. An added benefit of the use of VSD is the smooth
starting of the motors, which causes less stress to mechanical components as well as to
power supply systems. Traditionally, requirements for variable speed in the cement industry
were covered with the application of direct current (DC) drives or occasionally by hydraulic
drive systems. The newly installed drive systems make use exclusively of variable frequency
drives and a squirrel cage motor.
In a cement plant the variable speed drive finds application with the following equipment:
Process Fans
Conveyors
Bucket elevators
Kiln drive
Cement coolers
Mill drives
Starting duty applications
Energy savings applications
A variable speed drive system consists of the following major components:
Fig. 18
Robust The drive system must be designed to cope with the typical cement
plant environment and the type and quantity of dust prevailing at the
location of installation, e.g. clinker dust for cooler fan drives.
Ease of maintenance The necessary amount of man-hours required by the equipment must
be minimal. Diagnostic systems must help to idenTIFy failures and
indicate steps to correct the fault/failure. Modular design and access
must allow for a fast replacement of the defective component in order to
restore normal operation.
4.2.1.2 Application
Cooling equipment manufacturers and suppliers of water pumping stations have used this
type of variable speed drive since 1975. Several converter manufacturers have application
references for more than 1000 units of a wide power range within the past years.
The initial equipment cost is slightly higher than for a comparable DC-drive system due to
more semiconductor elements in the power circuit. On the other hand, the squirrel cage
motor is much cheaper than the DC-motor. Harmonic content and power factor aspects are
identical with those of a DC-drive since the input recTIFier represents the same type of load
to the supply side network.
This type of system is advantageous for retrofitting existing equipment. The installations of a
VFD to an existing piece of equipment, which until now was connected to a constant
frequency supply of 50 or 60 Hz, allows the motor to run under speed-controlled. It might be
of interest to notice that a speed-increase is also possible by applying more than line
frequency (e.g. 70 - 90 Hz). In other words, a separator or a belt conveyor could run faster.
These type of applications must be evaluated on an individual basis to ensure that the
additional power required by the process are within the power rating and safety factors of
exiting motor and gear box.
Fig. 23: Cage induction motor with load-commutated inverter (output Filter)
As with the conventional frequency converters, for normal operation the converter is
commutation by line-voltage and the inverter commutation by the load. Unlike the
conventional type, the current diverter circuit on the DC link is used for commutation of the
inverter at low frequency operation. The thyristors are gated individually phase displaced
(switched on) to produce the three-phase output.
Above 60% of rated frequency, depending on the motor, the diverter circuit turns off and the
inverter is load commutated by the combined effects of the output filter and the induced
motor-voltage (e.m.f.). The filter is sized to provide motor excitation over a wide frequency
range. The voltage and current waveshapes are nearly sinusoidal, typically containing less
than 5% harmonic distortion at rated output. No motor derating is necessary.
4.2.2.1 Application
The load-commutated inverter-fed induction motor is best suitable for very large loads with
squared torque/speed characteristic (Fig. 39) and reduced speed range, i.e. for fans.
However, recent developments and the introduction of high power IGBT/IGCT drives with
pulse width modulation control renders the use of this type of drive unnecessary in most
applications in a cement plant.
4.3.2 Application
Especially large plants require large fans (with high torque inertia) where DC-drives are not
feasible as the power/speed ratio exceeds the typical DC-motor frame size. Here, the sub-
synchronous cascade system offers a feasible alternative.
A 2000 t/d plant, for example, needs a kiln fan of 1700 kW at 1500 min-1. Large fans in the
cement industry can have a range of up to 5 MW. Therefore, this type of drive will be seen in
our industry more often since it meets all requirements in terms of controllability, operating
behaviour and economy.
Furthermore, any existing slip ring motor can be converted into a variable speed drive by
adding a sub-synchronous cascade converter system. On the other hand, every cascade
system can run at rated motor speed without the static converter, e.g. during a fault in the
electronic regulation part. Leaving the mechanical flow control device installed will be of
advantage!
The sub-synchronous cascade drive is, therefore, a technically and economically favourable
system for large fans requiring variable speed due to process parameters.
Nowadays the system is used mainly within retrofit projects. For new installations a
combination of a squirrel cage motor with a frequency converter are normally applied.
Fig. 27: Converter schematic used in conjunction with the ring motor (gearless
mill drive)
1) converter transformer
2) two converters in anti-parallel three-phase bridge connection
3) synchronous motor
4) exciter winding
Each motor phase is connected to the feeding power system via SCR recTIFiers (thyristors)
arranged in anti-parallel or full wave recTIFication, three-phase bridge network. Lower
frequency at the output is obtained by means of control of the gating and phasing the
conduction cycle of the SCR bridges.
A power system frequency of 50/60 Hz can be converted to an output frequency as low as 3
to 6hz. The anti-parallel arrangement of the SCR is four-quadrant operation and reversal of
the direction of rotation and regenerative braking is possible without any modification.
This system is almost identical to a four-quadrant DC-drive, except for the motor.
High starting torque (150%) and almost sinusoidal current results in smooth torque
characteristics at all speeds.
4.4.2 Application
The cement industry uses this system only for large tube mills, eliminating the girth gears,
pinion, gearboxes, inching drive and foundation, main motor foundation, lubrication systems
for the gears thus saving space maintenance and building cost.
RecTIFier and inverter, 12-pulse with transformer windings displaced by 30o el. Two anti-
parallel bridges are connected in parallel.
This type of circuit is called converter-fed synchronous motor and consists of a controllable
recTIFier, a smoothing reactor and an inverter. In these designs the recTIFier and inverter
have to be sized for the full motor power, compared to the sub-synchronous cascade, where
the converter has to cope with the rotor slip power only. Natural commutation from phase to
phase is a function of the terminal voltage of the synchronous machine. This natural
commutation does not need any additional circuit like the forced commutation with the
converter type for squirrel cage motors.
This type of converter is suitable for 4-quadrant operation and can cover a full speed range
like a DC-drive variable speed system.
The 6-pulse scheme is normally used for power of 1 to 5 MW. For larger systems, the
harmonic currents lead towards 12-pulse configurations due to motor and line side problems.
Modern synchronous motors have a brush-less excitation system. A synchronous exciter is
mounted on the shaft of the machine. It supplies power to the field through a rotating diode
recTIFier to the DC field winding, which is turned on by the rotor frequency. This avoids the
trouble of maintaining collector rings.
4.5.1 Application
The main applications of the converter-fed synchronous motor for pumps, extruders and
compressors, where a precise speed control over a wide speed range are important. These
drives are not installed in the cement industry, as the existing type of machinery does not
specifically require a converter-fed synchronous motor system.
Figure 31 shows the torque characteristics with a smooth-start for a three-phase motor. The
starting procedure begins by 20 to 40% of the nominal voltage. During the adjusted starting
time, the stator voltage will be increased to 100% through the control of the firing-angle of
the thyristor-controllers.
The motor runs up along the load characteristic M, whereby torque-shocks will be avoided.
The speed increases linear during the starting time from 0 to the nominal speed of the motor.
After the starting procedure, when the motor runs with nominal load, the thyristor will be fully
conducted.
The electronic smooth-start works similar to the hydrodynamic fluid coupling but it has the
decisive advantage that the starting time and the starting torque can be easier adjusted to
the individual operating conditions.
The advantage of the fluid coupling is that it provides 100% starting torque whereas the soft
started is basically a reduced voltage starter in which the starting torque is a square function
of the terminal voltage. Therefore when applying a soft starter additional considerations
must be given to the current rating of the starter and its short time duty.
Fluid couplings for starting duty are most frequently used in a cement plant with a weak
power system. A low torque synchronous motor with low starting current is used in this
Cement Manufacturing Course Version 2005 Volume 6 - Page 150
application. The fluid coupling is designed to accelerate the load and develop an output
torque equivalent to 120% of rated torque to allow starting of large loads such as ball mill,
heavy inertia fans or conveyors.
4.7.2 Application
The DC-drive system is widely installed in the cement industry for the following machines:
kiln main drives 200 - 500 kW and twin drive
large fans (e.g. kiln, raw mill) 800 - 2000 kW
weigh feeders 5 - 15 kW
apron feeders and special belt conveyors 20 - 100 kW
Due to the rapid developments in power electronics, the variable speed drive technology has
gone through various stages in the last decades, but the DC-drive represents still an
efficient, approved and solution today. The commutator, the most delicate part of the whole
system, and the cooling system require special and permanent maintenance attention.
These two aspects explain the desire for other variable speed drive systems without
commutator.
5.1 Specifications
The specifications of the drive equipment must include operational requirements, the
performance and manufacturing standards of design and reliability. Apart from the
description of the main features required from the drive and the ambient operating
conditions, a number of other factors are important for the design and selection of the
variable-speed drives:
Starting and slow-running characteristics
Speed/torque characteristic of the driven machine and of the selected drive system
Range of operating speed and accuracy
Suitable means of protecting the installation, which does not lead to unnecessary
stops in the event of short interruption of the supply
Definition of the maximum admissible harmonic current content on the network and
of the filter equipment
Extent to which the power electronics is proof against short circuits
Cooling for the motor and converter
Redundancy requirements
Operating power factor over the speed range
5.2 Reliability
The main objective when using any drive system, be it mechanical or electrical, is to ensure
high availability and reliability for the installation as a whole, with minimum maintenance. The
reliability in critical applications is more important than in non-critical applications. Therefore
the requirement of redundant components and subsystems with bypass operations of the
electronic drive must be always considered in critical applications. The critical applications in
a cement plant include the kiln drive, main baghouse, kiln ID fan, alkali bypass, cooler
exhaust, ID fans with drives for roller mills.
5.3 Efficiency
The operating efficiency at the most frequently used operating point is a key factor for
consideration in determining the effect of energy consumption and how it affects operating
cost of the plant. Energy costs will continue to increase in the future at faster rates than
investment costs. Therefore, when planning installations, it is necessary to make a
comparison of the investment cost with the operating costs of the potential drive systems.
This trend should be taken into account in the appropriate manner during the evaluation.
The efficiency figures provided by the manufacturers of drive systems have to be examined
with great care, as in most cases they only provide an efficiency curve for full load of the
most significant drive component, e.g. the motor. Information on partial load is difficult to
obtain, but in most cases the values are below those quoted.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The existing and the newly planned installations should be evaluated to determine whether
the application of drive control systems could improve the efficiency of the operation. Making
use of up-to-date measuring techniques it is possible to achieve substantial savings in
operating costs.
No matter how high the efficiency may be, it loses all its significance if the system fails only a
few times! It will therefore be necessary to weigh reliability and efficiency very thoroughly,
one against the other.
Some typical applications of variable-speed drive systems were dealt with in this session.
Unfortunately there are not generally valid solutions for the various applications in all
countries.
7. MESSAGES
Be energy conscious when selecting variable speed drives
Consider alternatives and new technologies
Analyse new technologies very thoroughly especially with respect to reliability and
efficiency
Be aware of the Total Cost of Ownership of a system
By Roland Luder, CE
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................160
2. BENEFITS/DRAWBACKS OF AUTOMATION AND MOTOR CONTROL....................161
2.1 Reliability..........................................................................................................161
2.2 Quality ..............................................................................................................161
2.3 Energy saving ..................................................................................................161
2.4 Manpower saving .............................................................................................161
2.5 Maintenance.....................................................................................................161
2.6 Life time cycle ..................................................................................................162
2.7 Environment .....................................................................................................162
2.8 Engineering/Commissioning ............................................................................162
3. AREAS OF AUTOMATION IN A CEMENT PLANT.......................................................163
4. PROCESS AUTOMATION.............................................................................................164
5. ROCESS AUTOMATION COMPONENTS ....................................................................166
6. PROCESS AUTOMATION SYSTEMS...........................................................................167
7. PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS (PLC) .................................................................169
7.1 Introduction, History .........................................................................................169
7.2 Hardware of Programmable Controllers...........................................................170
7.3 Structure of a PLC............................................................................................172
7.4 Software of Programmable Controllers ............................................................173
7.5 Programming a PLC.........................................................................................174
7.6 Programmable controller: language presentation ............................................175
SELECTION CRITERIA OF AN AUTOMATION AND PLC-CONTROL SYSTEM............180
7.7 Automation system...........................................................................................180
7.8 Criteria governing the Choice of PLC...............................................................182
8. OVERALL VIEW AND CONCLUSION ..........................................................................183
2.1 Reliability
The installation of modern electronic equipment instead of electro-mechanical components
guarantees a higher reliability of the control system. Equipment downtime can be reduced
due to the availability of detailed process warnings. However, the detailed information
system entails a more complex control system.
2.2 Quality
The operator is released from all routine operations, checking and controlling. He is thus in a
position to fully concentrate on the optimum and efficient operation of the process. In this
objective he is greatly supported by the system which presents all relevant information in a
logic and easily understandable way. The market demands for less tolerances in the cement
quality. An uniform operation, more precise on-line measurements are a guarantee also for
better quality.
2.5 Maintenance
The maintenance on control and instrumentation can be kept to a minimum due to the
installation of electronic equipment. No time-consuming troubleshooting will be required
since failures are displayed in clear text. Mechanical maintenance can be optimised and
preventive maintenance can be introduced due to the availability of detailed failure and
warning messages and statistical evaluation of all events. Modern sensors (smart sensor)
and control system can monitor their behaviour and recognize possible failures before they
occur.
2.7 Environment
A modern automation system not only controls the process, it is furthermore and more
responsible for continuous environmental protection.
Example: Exhaust gas analysis
Waste water treatment
Energy management
The given examples are typical closed loop control systems. Thus, the process is not
dependent on human observing abnormalities and reactions. It is a continuous process
acting in very narrow limits and process abnormalities are monitored.
Since in recent years environmental protection is widely spread and even used as a
marketing tool more and more consideration has to be given when applying automation and
motor control.
2.8 Engineering/Commissioning
The complex nature of the automation system asks for stringent engineering measures, that
is a well planed system possibly fully standardized. The system must be as modular as
permitted with clear interface. Thus it is guaranteed to replace each part when required.
Prior to sending such system to site Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) must form part of the
engineering process. FAT requires external test/simulation software. Only well planned
engineering and standardized automation approaches guarantee a functional and
maintainable automation system.
Table 1
AUTOMATION AREA AUTOMATION POSSIBLE
HARDWARE SUPPLIERS
1) QUARRY CONTROL
Quarry planning, Mixed bed control Workstations, PC's, GPS QSO of HMC, BMH
2) PROCESS AUTOMATION
Motor control Programmable controllers Siemens, ABB,
Process control PC's, (Slot PLC's), Rockwell, GE,
Monitoring Workstations Schneider,
High level control Graphics Displays Honeywell, Omron
Process computers
3) DISPATCH CONTROL
Loading Programmable controllers Local SW company
Administration Workstations, PC's WF-supplier
4) QUALITY CONTROL
Sampling preparation Programmable controllers "Polab", Gamma-
X-ray Including micro-computers metrix, Philips, ARL,
On-line raw mix control (dedicated equipment) Siemens
PC's, Workstations
EMR Control unit (PC, or ABB, Opsis, Sick
dedicated HW
& EMR-TIS
5) MAINTENANCE and TRAINING
Materials management Workstations SAP, dedicated.
Maintenance planning Personal computers (Office
Reporting, documentation automation), Handheld PC's
Process simulation system
6) MANAGEMENT INFORMATION,
ADMINISTRATION
Production reports, statistics Workstations SAP, TIS/LIMS of
Commercial data Personal computers, Hand ABB/HGRS,
Personnel administration, ERP held PC's, Network
7) Office
Project management, CAD, PC's, Network Micro Soft and
Engineering, FAT Autocad World
WinMOD
Information
Management
Level 3
Plant IT Network (TIS)
Engineering,
Optimizer
Expert
Level 2
Operator Color Color
Printer Printer Printer Printer
(DA, AE, HDA)
Stations
(HMI)
*
Server &
OPC
OPC
(DA)
Station
PS ETHERNET TCP/IP
Process
Stations Server 1 Server 2
Level 1 (redundant)
Mobile Engineering
BUS I/O
Programming, Documentation, Simulation
Fieldbus PS, OS & HDRS Software
I/O Test Panel I
0
Distributed Plant Fieldbus
Input/Output
ETHERNET Legend:
E3
see Specification
The total system of these component functions in a similar way as a human being:
Sensors and the cabling perform similar tasks as the nerves - capturing and transmission of
information to the brain.
The controller performs similar jobs as the brain. It processes the information.
The result of this data processing is transmitted again by the nerves to the muscles which
transform the information into a physical movement as in a plant control system, where the
controller output is transmitted - over cables or bus system - to the actuator or the MCC
where the information is transformed into physical power, the electric motor.
This control equipment is no longer offered from more or less specialised manufacturers, as
e.g.:
Modicon for Motor Control
Honeywell for Instrumentation
Digital Equipment for Data logging
Today market tendency for the established manufacturers to expand outside the field in
which they have hitherto specialised and to enter the other areas of automation more and
more; this means that modern programmable controllers can perform process control tasks
and condition data; computer systems are also able to perform sequence control and they
are all linked by computer bus systems and networks.
The power supply provides the internal stabilised control voltages of the programmable
controller
The processor performs the actual logic / timing and internal control functions thus contains
the program
The memory is required to store the program and raw process data.
To transform the signal coming in (INPUT) from outside (e.g. from a level switch) or going
out (OUTPUT) to the outside (e.g. to lamps, to the MCC). Today programmable controllers
handle digital as well as analogue I/O signals Analogue signals may be entered as 4-20mA
(see instrumentation) or directly as resistance in the case of RTD's or mV in the case of
thermo couples. More and more the traditional signal from a single instrument is replaced by
a bus system. In most cases the I/O modules are not placed adjacent to the PLC but rather
in the field (junction boxes) or in the MCC. Such remote I/O's are connected via system bus
to the PLC.
The PLC can be expanded with various additional units. One very important unit is the
communication port. Such a port will in our day be an expansion due to the variety of
communication channels. A simple serial port (RS 232), a network e.g. Ethernet or possible
in future Bluetooth.
Physically all these elements are generally grouped and are interconnected via a system bus
or already with a field bus which performs a fast exchange of the necessary information
between the different units.
This arrangement provides great flexibility in hardware planning: if additional memory space
is required, for examples, it is generally sufficient to plug in an additional memory card. More
and more hot plugin is common. But this feature is not very practical in our industry and
would have to be used with great care. Additionally it must be noted, that once a system is
correctly set-up, hardware failures occur rarely.
The size of a programmable controller can be expressed by different figures. The most
important figure is the number of I/O which a programmable controller can handle. The
smallest units start at approx. 15 I/O, the biggest go up to 16'000 I/O.
The maximum memory size is another figure which, however is not any more of grate
importance, generally goes in parallel with the number of I/Os. Normal sizes range of up to 1
- 4 G.
The cycle time (see software) generally goes in parallel with the size of the memory used
and is generally expressed in milli seconds. The Holcim specification calls for a cycle time of
less than 150 ms. Rather than relining on cycle time a system can be specified in response
time.
The program memory, processor, counter, data memory and the input/output units are
interconnected. Here connection via bus has become standard practice. By means of this
bus the data are exchanged between data memory, processor and program memory.
and a state of the art Personal Computer industrialised or simply use the operator
station which in many system has not only the task of the HMI but may be used for
programming and configuration of the system
Programming units are very efficient, they are PC's of special industrial design, equipped
with large-area LCD or with a monitor. They can translate the functions entered by the user
in a higher-level programming language specifically intended for control tasks, e.g. as a list
of instructions (Fig. a), as functional diagram or contact diagram, direct into the machine
code of the control units. They can also translate from the machine code back into the
higher-level representation.
On the next page find a diagram showing the programming language and a comparison with
ladder diagram. Both these languages are high level languages but only used for industrial
purpose.
A control task can be expressed in different languages; the list of instructions (a) can also
be translated by simple programming units into a machine language understood by the
control system. The functional diagram (b) which is easier to understand by engineers and
the ladder diagram (c) which is very popular in USA, impose more exacting demands on the
programming unit.
At all events such units can be employed on-line, i.e. connected direct with the controller.
The programs to be entered in this case are usually entered direct in the programming
language of the controller, or for display purposes are read out of a memory. In on-line
operation it is also possible to perform test functions, fault location and program correction.
A further important function of the programming unit is the program documentation. Special
documentation software converts the programs into a form readily understood by the user
(auxiliary text, I/O description, comments, etc.). A printer connected to the system is able to
print out the documented programs.
The first schematic shows two switches in series. Both A AND B have to be closed to allow
the relay C to close. The second schematic in turn show that only one switch A OR B has to
close for the relay to engage.
Now what you just have learned on an ordinary schematic would look like the above ladder
diagram. Thus the first circuit A AND B to be closed for C to make. Note that B is closed
under normal condition. B could signify a rope wire switch, whereas A is the start button.
Now in an other PLC language called logic diagram the same schematics look different but
mean exactly the same: A and NOT B = C. And in the second picture A or B = C.
The next picture shows black box which executes various functions (And, Not, Or). Inputs
(A and B) are treated accordingly and the result transferred to the outputs (C and D). The
content of such a black box is called function or when large subroutine. Such a black box
may be fairly simple or very complex. Instead of programming the same function over and
over a subroutine is programmed once and then called up when required.
Example:
A: Operator command: Turn motor left
B: Plant feedback: Limit switch left reached
C: Control system command: Turn motor left
D: Operator information lamp: Device in position left
Program Short
1. Input A
2. AND NOT Input B
3. Equals Output C A AND NOT B = C
4. Input B
5. Equals Output D B=D
The next function has a time component included (the cycle time is neglected). Thus when
something has to happen only after a certain time has elapsed functions have to be
programmed with timer (e. g. stop conveyer 2 only after 30 seconds running empty time).
Subroutines or function blocks are state of the art. Most suppliers of hard- and software have
function blocks in there program. A function block may be a complete motor module or even
as complex as an actuator module. These modules not only take care of the logic part (start
stop) but as well of the visualisation like mimic and alarm message.
Example Timer:
A: Operator command: Turn motor left
B: Plant feedback: Limit switch left reached
C: Control system command: Turn motor left
Program
1. Timer X = 30 seconds
2. Input A
3. Equals timer X
4. Timer X
5. AND NOT input B
6. Equals output C
The time diagram shows how the input A which only last for very short time is with the aid of
a timer prolonged to the desired time (e. g. 30 seconds).
Motor control - Programmable controller: Language, structured programming
Criteria i n p Remarks
Visualisation X Only marginal differences between
various suppliers
High level bus X Common for all system
The schematic on the next page shows the principle devices in a automation and motor
control system, i. a. visualisation, PLC, and I/O rack with field devices. The main assertion to
be made from this schematic is the difficulty to distinguish between an individual and a
proprietary system. Both systems (although supplier claim different) consist of a computer
(PC) for the upper level control and a PLC for the motor control. The proprietary system has
only one programming and configuration terminal whereas in an individual system each level
has its own programming and configuration device. However this seeming advantage is
overcome by the dependency to a supplier (e.g. life cycle of equipment).
7.8.1 General
The system is well represented and generally known in the country
Spare parts are guaranteed obtainable at least for 10 years
The system must be capable for expansions in order to integrate future adaptations
The dimensions of equipment permit the replacement of existing facilities
7.8.4 Inputs/Outputs
Decentralised peripherals connected with the CPU by a field bus (possibly an optical
link)
24 V DC single-ended inputs/outputs with common ground
4-20 mA analogue inputs/outputs, PT 100 (resistance) or thermo couples (mV).
Digital I/O for fast speed signals (kWh counts, speed measures).
I/O capabilities for electrical signals
Capable of extension up to 2000 inputs and outputs
Modern process automation systems in conjunction with motor control can contribute a lot to
the enhancement of the efficiency of plant operation. Nevertheless, the degree of the most
feasible level of automation has to be carefully evaluated. And most important: even the
highest automated plant needs a good maintenance in order to run efficiently. Or in other
words: The most luxurious process control system with the most brilliant graphic displays
cannot guarantee smooth operation if it does not receive reliable, correct information from
the sensors. And to achieve this reliability highly skilled and motivated personnel has to form
an integral part of your automation system.
By Wolfgang Kornberger, CE
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................187
2. SENSORS (INSTRUMENTATION) BASICS .................................................................187
2.1 Terminology .....................................................................................................189
3. SIGNAL TRANSMITTER ...............................................................................................195
4. SIGNALS........................................................................................................................198
5. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION..............................................................................................199
5.1 Current output ..................................................................................................199
5.2 DEAD ZERO and LIVE ZERO.....................................................................200
5.3 Power supply....................................................................................................202
5.4 4-wire and 2-wire transmitters..........................................................................202
5.5 Non-isolating and isolating transmitters ...........................................................204
6. CONTROL, ALARMING AND DISPLAY .......................................................................209
7. MEASUREMENT USED IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY ................................................209
7.1 Temperature.....................................................................................................209
7.2 Pressure...........................................................................................................214
7.3 Flow (gas and liquids) ......................................................................................214
7.4 Level.................................................................................................................215
7.5 Weighing ..........................................................................................................218
7.6 Analytical measurements .................................................................................224
7.7 Electrical energy and power measurements ....................................................225
7.8 Field devices ....................................................................................................231
CORRECT
(-A) (+A)
Test -
Terminals Power-Supply
Amplifier
NOISE TWISTED WIRES
= =
~
~ ~
~ Transmitter
Mechanical transmission
of the pressure signal
No Line Losses
(Impressed Current)
Very High Noise Immunity
"Live Zero" Supervision
Process line Possible
+ -
Recommended !
Pressure Vacuum
Terminology
output Accuracy
Maximum positive
deviation
Downscale
characteristic
Accuracy: A number of quantity (usually expressed in % full scale) which defines the maximum error.
Calibration: The ascertain by the use of a standard the locations at which scale or chart graduation of an
instrument should be placed to correspond to the required value.
To adjust the output of an instrument to bring the desired value within a specified tolerance.
Deadband: The range throughout which an input can be varied without initiating response. Deadband is usually
expressed in percent of full span.
Deadtime: The interval of time between initiation of an input and the start of the resulting response.
Damping Reducing of the oscillation of a process input or the output of a controller.
Drift: Undesired change of an output over a period of time.
Deviation: Departure from a desired or expected value also difference between measured value and true value.
Error: (see drift) Error = indication minus true value
= setpoint minus measured value
Elevated Zero: A range where the zero value is greater than the lower range value.
Feedback: Positive answer to a demand in change
Gain: Is the ratio of an output change to an input change. (Reciprocal to proportional band).
Hysteresis: The maximum difference between the upscale and downscale indications of the measured signal
during a full range traverse for the same input.
Downscale
characteristic
Upscale characteristic
input
Full scale traverse
0 Input % 100%
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(Alarm limits for example are equipped with a hysteresis in order to prevent repeated signals
around the alarm point).
Actual functional
characteristic
(average between
upscale and
downscale Straight line (specified
readings) functional characteristic)
input
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0 +100 00t o
t o100
100 00 +100
+100 100
100 ---
---
Suppressed
Suppressed
+20 +100 Suppression
Suppression
Zero
Zero 20
20toto100
100 20
20 +100
+100 80
80 Rati
Ratioo==.25
.25
Range
Range
Elevated
Elevated
-25 0 +100
Zero
Zero -25
-25toto+100
+100 -25
-25 +100
+100 125
125 ---
---
Range
Range
-100 0
-100
-100toto00 -100
-100 00 100
100 ---
---
Elevated
Elevated
-100 -20
Zero
Zero -100
-100toto-20
-20 -100
-100 -20
-20 80
80 ---
---
Range
Range
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Maximum repeatability
Downscale
characteristics Repeatability
Upscale
characterisitcs
input
Full range traverse
0 100%
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Response
output
100%
62.3%
0% tim e
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For additional information regarding PID control refer to the relevant paper in the process
technology department.
Sensitivity: (see deadband and gain).
Signal to Ratio of signal amplitude to noise amplitude.
Noise Ratio:
Span: The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range
values.
Suppressed The zero value of the measured variable is less than the
zero: lower range value. (Zero does not appear the scale).
Time constant: Time required for an output of an instrument to complete 62.3
% of the total rise or decay.
Zero: Zero point of scale (to be calibrated frequently due to zero
shift resulting in parallel shift of the input output curve).
SO 2, N O X Infrared Absorption 2
CO Infrared Absorption 4
2200 Digital
= 3000 Sensors
Around 900
Analog
+ 2000 Control Elements
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75 ACTUAL INDICATION:
0
(12) 150C 0C
(4) (4mA)
(0) (20) (mA)
= LOOP IS WORKING
"LIVE ZERO"
Similar on a computer display !
75 ACTUAL INDICATION:
0
(12) 150C FAILURE !
(4) (0mA)
(0) (20) (mA) = LOOP IS NOT WORKING
Under
Unde r + Overflow
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INPUT + +
+ Power
-
OUTPUT
- 3 2 1 - Supply
(mV) Typical:
Sensor U = 24V
500
+ -
- RL
Umi n : Minimum voltage Burden
required by the transmitter Typical: 0...600
(technically specified) for
24V Power Supply
_ U - U mi n
<
or RL 20mA
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Non-Isolatin g
Powe
Powerr Suppl
Suppl y ~ PLC
Non-Isolated =
ERROR ! Analogue Input
Inpu t
Transmitter + -
- Internal
T Resisto r
4...20mA +
= e.g. 31,25
or 125
Control
Earth
Machinery rs
Earth M et e
00
.g. 3
e
Protection Thermocouple
Tube VOLT
Earth Potential
Gas Duct
Difference
(e.g. 150V)
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Isolated ~
Power Supply
= PLC
Isolated + - Analogue Input
Inpu t
Transmitter - Internal
T 4...20mA Resisto r
+
= e.g. 31,25
or 125
Control
Earth
Machinery
Earth
Current Path Open !
No Induced
Error Current !
Protection Thermocouple
Tube VOLT
Earth Potential
Gas Duct Difference
(e.g. 150V)
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Everybody knows: a transformer can transform only alternating current (AC). Actually, thats
the reason why direct currents (DC) are first converted into AC, then transformed by the
Cement Manufacturing Course Version 2005 Volume 6 - Page 208
transformer and finally rectified again to obtain DC, reproducing exactly the DC at the
modules input.
Recommendation, Conclusion
The induced error current, caused by the earth potential difference or by lightning, can
cause erroneous measurements and equipment damage!
Do not use non-isolating transmitters!
The galvanical isolation in transmitter and power supply opens the induced error current
path!
Use only isolating transmitters! Galvanic isolation between signals and power supply.
7.1 Temperature
In the cement industry generally thermocouples, PT 100 resistance bulbs and pyrometers
are used. For kiln shell measurement, temperature scanners are often applied together with
a display system. These scanner systems range from a simple pyrometer connected to a
recorder or from a scanner head connected to a PC with an elaborated software giving
information about the shell temperature, interpretation about the inside of the kiln and even a
brick management and slip detection can be included.
7.1.1 Thermocouple
Mostly applied for temperature measurement in the cement industry are thermocouples
which use the peltier effect as measurement principle. A thermocouple consists of two
dissimilar metals. Between these metals a voltage is generated. The electro-motoric force
(emf) developed by a thermocouple depends on the temperature of both, the measuring
(hot) junction and the reference (cold) junction.
Important for a thermocouple is therefore:
R2 R3
Source = Source
R1 Rx
R3 R3
Rx Rx
Cable
= Lead resistance
1 2 1 2 3
Rx Rx
HEAT HEAT
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7.1.3 Pyrometer
The cement industry uses two types of pyrometers. The radiation pyrometer which detects
radiation through an optical lens system onto the thermopile or photo cell and the two colour
ratio pyrometer which compares the ratio of the radiation intensity of two different wave
lengths.
7.1.4 Scanner
The central feature of a scanner is a motor driven optical system which scans the entire kiln
with a certain frequency (e.g. 16 Hz). The front of the scanner measures parallel along the
axis of the kiln, in the back of the scanner a reference temperature is used to calibrate the
system.
7.4.2 Vibration
The vibration fork level probe is only used for a single point measurement. A driver induces a
vibration in the probe and a controller senses a change when material dampens the
vibration. The tuning fork is obtainable in two forms, one being the actual fork and the other
in form of a tube. The following problems may occur thus hampering the performance:
material stuck between the fork. Use a tube type to avoid this problem mostly occurring
with coarse material.
material coating the probe. Use the fork type probe since this problem takes place mainly
with fine material.
Source Detector
Source Detector
Source Reflector
= parallel with
= the source
Detector and detector
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Microwave level measurements are sensitive to moisture. In fact, microwave is used as well
for moisture measurement. The microwave source is so weak, that no danger comes from
Cement Manufacturing Course Version 2005 Volume 6 - Page 217
the measurement. (No cooking can be done with this microwave source, the energy emitted
is less than 25 mW.)
7.5 Weighing
Weighing and weigh feeder play an important role in the cement industry. To produce a good
cement quality, accurate weigh feeding of the different components is important. To bill the
customer agreeable again, weighing plays the key role. Already these two important
requirements show that for weighing two different ways are possible: the static weighing
(weigh bridge) and the dynamic weighing (weigh feeder).
The weigh bridge at the factory entrance is regarded as the most important and accurate
unit. The weigh bridge is in many countries subjected to stringent government regulation and
must be checked and calibrated on a regular base. For weigh bridges the measuring
principle applied is usually one or several load cells. Due to the strict government roles and
due to the simple measurement principle these scales usually are fairly accurate.
Small bins are as well placed onto load cells to weigh the contents. And, as long as the
construction is suitable, that is three load cells, free moving construction and protection
against wind, the measurement can be very accurate. The total weight (xy tons in the bin)
may not be accurate but loss in weight is accurate. Thus, for calibration of a weigh feeder or
for volumetric weigh feeding a loss in weight is well-qualified.
The next important weighing principle is the continuous measurement of material to
constantly feed an accurate amount of material, the dynamic weighing with weigh feeder.
Several principles are applied with different accuracy, different efforts for maintenance and
different prices.
Thus when selecting the weigh feeder the following points must be taken into consideration:
Accuracy required.
Mechanical suitability for the material and the environment.
Space availability (height and area). Especially building height can be reduced (cost
saving) with certain weighing arrangements and weighing principles.
Signal availability and signal transmission. (4-20 mA and digital signals or
communication via a bus system).
Maintenance that is time interval between calibration, access for calibration e.g. re-
routing of material onto a lorry, cleaning required, complexity of the control, spare parts
etc.
Measurement principle.
Silo discharge system. Most problems of inaccurate weighing arise from poor flowing
material.
mV
= =
Q = P* v x Variable
Speed
Drive
Q Totalizer
=
~
~
~
mA =
Feedrate indication
Q 4-20mA =
PID
-
Setpoint
+
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Also different methods of calibration are offered, but only the following are accurate and
repeatable: Run for e.g. 5 minutes material onto a lorry, weigh the lorry and calculate the
feed rate weight x 12 (if the calibration time was 5 min.). Thus when designing the weigh
feeders a means to calibrate onto a lorry must be included or alternatively weigh bins above
the feeders to calibrate with the loss in weight method which is a very accurate method too.
Q=
100 Tons
0 Tons Time t
G M 0 Min
Min..
Gravimetric 10 Min.
=
Feedrate
Volumetric
Feed
tons
Bin weight
Load zell
f
Controller Totalizer
U
dm t/h
dt Feedrate
Calculation differenciation
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Feedbin
Rotary feeder
Q= P* v
Air Transport
Transport
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F h
F deflection
measured
resulting F deflection
force F t/h Local indicator
V Remote
mA indicator
(4-20mA)
f
Totalizer
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In practice the impact flow meter is mostly applied together with a pre bin arranged with load
cells. This arrangement allows an automatically periodical calibration of the flow meter, in
order to compensate sticking material at the plate.
Nuclear Weigher
1 1 1 nuclear source
2 radiation
2 2
3 material bed
4 conveyor
3 4 3 4
5 detector
A m Absorption by the
5 5
material
A g Absorption by the
Absorption conveyor belt and
100% structure
Am
Ag 100%
0% Depth of material
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Due to a less thick material bed (3) the absorption measured by the detector (5) is lower.
The absorption (2) by the conveyor (4) is remaining constant and calibrated as zero.
7.7.1 Introduction
In the cement industry, the topic Energy will become more and more important. - In the
past until today the price for electrical energy is still low enough that nobody cares to much.
But the near future will show us the opposite. The energy consumption will still increase but
the energy production cannot follow this rising demand. Thus a bottle-neck will occur. The
power companies have already started to think about increasing energy prices and how to
introduce new tariff structures (Energy Exchange). Consequently, we have at least to
stabilise our energy consumption or, even better, decrease the consumption. The first step
will be to measure before other steps can be taken. - The following chapter treats this topic.
Ip
Iq
Fp F
Fq
F = resultant (actual) force
Fp = linear force
spring Fq = lateral force
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When measuring an electric circuit with a transducer the actual power is measured which is
required to drive a machine. The power company in turn produces the apparent power. If the
cosine is multiplied with the apparent power, the result is the actual power. The difference
between the produced and the consumed power is the reactive power.
Main incomer -
level
MV
Department
level
LV LV LV LV LV LV
Process/non process -
level
M M M NP M M M NP M M M M NP M M M M NP M M M NP M M M M NP Special consumer -
level
P P P P P P
Legend:
= Charging measuring point
= Measuring point
HV = High voltage
MV = Medium voltage
Cement LV = Low voltage
Crusher Raw Mill Kiln Mill Dispatch NP = Non process
P = Process
M = Consumer (drives, .....)
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1 2 3 5 1 2 3 5
u v v
k l
U V V
R R K L
S S
(N) Single Phase Network (N) Single Phase Network
1 2 3 5 8 1 2 3 5 8
v u
u v
k l
U V U V
R R K L
S S
T T
Three Phase Network Three Phase Network
with Symmetrical Load with Symmetrical Load
1 2 3 5 7 8 9 1 2 3 5 7 8 9
v u
u v
k l
U V U V
R R K L
S S k l
T T K L
Three Phase Network Three Phase Network
with Asymmetrical Load with Asymmetrical Load
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Figure 1:
DAILY OPERATION
REPORT 14MARCH 92
PRODUCTION SPECITIC
-- -- -- - CONSUMPTION
---------------------------------
-- -- --
-- -- -- -- -- -
STORAGE
RUNTIME - - - - - - - - - - - - -
GATEWAY
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -
QUALITY
-- -- -- --
10
8
SALES
6
-- -- --- --- - - - -
4
-- -- --- --- - - -
2
Link to Administration
0
Summary Reports
OPERATION PROCESS
Optimization
Production
LINKman
Quality
SPC
Stock
DB
MAINTENANCE
Running Hours QUALITY
Failures Lab Data
Equipment Condition
ENVIRONMENT ENERGY
Emission Monitoring
Wastefuel OIL
(In some industries the term MES, Manufacturing Execution System, is uses also).
The sketch below shows the structure and interactions of the different mentioned systems.
Corporate HQ
(How is
Company business
Management Level ERP running ?)
day / month
Works Management
Level
hour / day
ERP
Plants
minutes / hour
TIS (How is plant
running ?)
Production and
Process Control Level LAB PCS (others) DISP
seconds / minutes
Legend: CIM = Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (system); ERP = Enterprise Resource Planning; TIS = Technical Information System;
LAB = Laboratory Information System; PCS = Process Control System; (others) as EMS = Emission Monitoring System and
HLC = High Level Control Systems; DISP = Automatic Dispatch System
3.2.1 General
In the CIM pyramid, a TIS is locate between the Company / Works Management Level
(ERP) and Production / Process Control Level (Plant Automation). The interaction between
those levels is as follows:
The tactical and strategic decision are made in the higher levels:
The computer systems on these levels must provide to management business data
and compiled and summarised plant information (process, production, equipment
and quality) (time range: days, month, years).
Operation of the plant is done from the lower level systems.
The computer systems on these levels must provide to plant responables immediate
accurate real-time process and process related information. (time range: seconds to
hours).
A TIS System does the automatic data acquisition and data pre-processing. It provides
tools for data evaluation, create reports, graphs and tables, for status and performance
analysis. It also serves as a data interface between Operation and Managing Level of a
plant and company.
Figure 3:
ERP (SAP)
Plant Admin. Server
User PC
(SAP, TIS, etc .)
LINK
man
With this approach, the process related data flows in a structured flow from bottom to top. All
systems are networked, manual data entry is minimised, data transfer speed and data
quality are maximised.
Figure 4:
TIS Server
File Server
Plant
Network
Control
Network X-Ray
Extended
Application
Functionality
HMC offers its assistance and experience for TIS Implementation in a plant or group:
audit
elaboration of (detailed) specifications and tender documents
evaluation of offers from different suppliers
general project assistance
detailed engineering of reports (optional)
training for plant personel (optional)
performing aceptance tests