PHYS 263

Exercises with solutions

Jakob J. Stamnes

Department of Physics and Technology, University of Bergen, 5007 Bergen.

Tlf: 55 58 28 18. Fax: 55 58 94 40. E-post: JakobJ.Stamnes@ift.uib.no

Spring 2004
PHYS 263 side 1

Contents

I PHYS 263 4
1 Vector relations 5

2 Variable change in the wave equation 7

3 Laplacian operator for spherically symmetric functions 9

4 Waves and wave packets 11

4.1 Superposition of two harmonic plane waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2 Group velocity and phase velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3 Dispersion and energy propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 Connection between group velocity, phase velocity, and refractive index 14

5.1 Group velocity as a function of phase velocity and refractive index . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2 The group velocity is less than the speed of light in vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

6 Propagation in a dispersive medium 16

6.1 Propagation of a quasi-monochromatic wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.2 The shape and speed of the wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.3 Alternative way to proceed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

7 Polarisation and rotation of co-ordinate system 19

7.1 Maximum and minimum values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7.2 Rotation of co-ordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.3 Simplification of the expression for the ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

8 Phase velocity and group velocity for surface waves on water 24

8.1 Separation of variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.2 Dispersion relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
8.3 Phase velocity and group velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8.4 The phase velocity of surface waves in water of infinite depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8.5 The phase velocity of surface waves in water of finite depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.6 The refractive index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.7 The wavelength in water of infinite depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.8 The wavelength in water of finite depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
8.9 Refraction of waves that propagate towards a beach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

9 Fresnels formulas 33
9.1 Rewriting of Fresnels formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
9.2 The sign of the reflection and transmission coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

10 Reflectivity and transmissivity 36

10.1 Energy conservation for T E and T M components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
10.2 Energy conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
PHYS 263 side 2

11 Total reflection 1 39
11.1 Transmitted magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
11.2 Transmitted Poynting vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.3 Time average of the Poynting vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

12 Fresnels rhomb 44
12.1 Solution for sin i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
12.2 Phase difference of 45 , n = 1/1.52 = 0.6579 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
12.3 Phase difference of 45 , n = 1/1.49 = 0.6711 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
12.4 Maximum phase difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
12.5 Phase differences of 45 and 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

13 Total reflection 2 48

II FYS 263 del II 50

14 Reflection and refraction of a plane acoustical wave 51
14.1 Snells law and the reflection law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
14.2 Reflection and transmission coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
14.3 Comparison with electromagnetic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

15 Fourier representation of a real function 54

16 Convolution theorem, autocorrelation theorem, and Parsevals theorem 55

16.1 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
16.2 Autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
16.3 Parsevals theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

17 Angular-spectrum representation of a spherical wave (Weyls formula) 58

17.1 The angular spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
17.2 Weyls plane-wave expansion of a spherical wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

18 The Airy diffraction pattern 61

19 Integrated energy of the Airy diffraction pattern 62

J 2 (x)
19.1 Total differential for 1x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
19.2 Encircled energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

20 Fresnel diffraction through an infinitely large circular aperture 64

20.1 Change of variable: vt x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
20.2 Infinitely large aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

21 Diffraction by a half-plane 67
21.1 Detour parameter associated with the incident wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
21.2 Detour parameter associated with the reflected wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

22 Diffraction through a circular aperture axial intensity 70

23 Poissons spot 72
23.1 Diffraction of a spherical wave through a circular aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
23.2 Opaque disc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
23.3 Proof of Babinets principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
23.4 Axial field - incident plane wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
23.5 Axial field - incident spherical wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
PHYS 263 side 3

24 Fraunhofer diffraction at oblique incidence and interference between the fields

diffracted through two apertures 76
24.1 Fourier representation at oblique incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
24.2 Airy diffraction pattern at oblique incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
24.3 Aperture displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
24.4 Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
24.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
PHYS 263 side 4

Part I

PHYS 263
PHYS 263 side 5

Chapter 1

Vector relations

Show that:
5 (5 A) = 5(5 A) 52 A (1.1)

Solution:
We consider the x component on each side of (1.1), and start with the left-hand side

 

 ex ey ez 

[5 (5 A)]x =  5x 5y 5z 
 = 5y (5 A)z 5z (5 A)y
 (5 A)x (5 A)y (5 A)z 
x

= (5 A)z (5 A)(1.2)
y
y z

Considering the z component of (5 A), we have

 
 ex ey ez 
 
(5 A)z =  5x 5y 5z  = 5x Ay 5y Ax = Ay Ax (1.3)
 Ax
 x y
Ay Az 
z

Similarly, we get for the y component of (5 A):

(5 A)y = 5z Ax 5x Az = Ax Az (1.4)
z x

We substitute these two expressions into (1.2) and obtain for the x component on the left-hand side
of (1.1):

[5 (5 A)]x = [ Ay Ax ] [ Ax Az ]
y x y z z x
2 Ay 2 Ax 2 Ax 2 Az
= + (1.5)
xy y 2 z 2 xz
PHYS 263 side 6

For the right-hand side of (1.1) we have:

Ax Ay Az 2 2 2
[5(5 A) 52 A]x = 5x ( + + ) ( 2 + 2 + 2 )Ax
x y z x y z
2 2 2 2 2
Ax Ay Az Ax Ax 2 Ax
= 2
+ + 2
2

x xy xz x y z 2
2 Ay 2 Az 2 Ax 2 Ax
= + 2

xy xz y z 2
= [5 (5 A)]x (1.6)

Thus, as far the x component of (1.1) is concerned, the right-hand side is equal to the left-hand side.
The proof for the y or z component of (1.1) follows in a similar manner.
PHYS 263 side 7

Chapter 2

Variable change in the wave

equation

In chapter 4.1 in the lecture notes [?] the equation

2V
=0 (2.1)
pq

constitutes an important part of the derivation of a general solution of the wave equation.
Show that

2V 1 2V
2
2 2 =0 (2.2)
v t

can be written in the form:

2V
=0 (2.3)
pq

where p = vt and q = + vt.

Solution:

p = vt ; q = + vt. (2.4)

p q
= = 1

p
= v
t
q
= v (2.5)
t

The first term in 2.2 becomes:

PHYS 263 side 8

V V p V q V V
= + = +
p q p q
2
2V 2V 2V
   
V V V p V V q
= + + + = + + 2 (2.6)
2 p p q q p q p2 q 2 pq

The second term in 2.2 becomes:

 
V V p V q V V
= + = v
t p t q t p q
2V
     
V V p V V q
= v +
t2 p p q t q p q t
     
V V V V
= v (v) + v
p p q q p q
1 2V 2V 2V 2V
= 2 + 2 (2.7)
v 2 t2 p q 2 pq

Adding 2.6 and 2.7, we get:

2V 1 2V 2V
= 4 =0 (2.8)
2 v 2 t2 pq

which was to be proven.

PHYS 263 side 9

Chapter 3

Laplacian operator for spherically

symmetric functions

Show that the Laplacian operator has the following form in spherical co-ordinates for a function
with spherical symmetry (this form is used in section 4.2 in the lecture notes [?]):

1 2
52 f (r) = [rf (r)] (3.1)
r r2
where

p
r= x2 + y 2 + z 2 . (3.2)

Solution:
Consider first the left-hand side of (3.1), from which we have:

2 2 2
 
52 f (r) = 2
+ 2+ 2 f (r) (3.3)
x y z

Considering the first term in (3.3), we have:

f r x f
f = = (3.4)
x r x r r
where we have used that

r p 2 2x x
= x + y2 + z2 = p = . (3.5)
x x 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 r
Differentiating once more, we have

2
 
1 f
f = x
x2 x r r
 
1 f 1 f
= +x
r r x r r
PHYS 263 side 10
 
1 f 1 f r
= +x
r r r r r x
x2 1 2f
 
1 f 1 f
= + 2 +
r r r r r r r2
2 2
 
1 f x f 1 f
= + 2 . (3.6)
r r r r2 r r

In a similar manner we find that

2 y2 2 f
 
1 f 1 f
f = + 2 (3.7)
y 2 r r r r2 r r
2 2
 2 
1 f z f 1 f
f = + 2 . (3.8)
z 2 r r r r2 r r

By adding (3.6), (3.7) and (3.8), we obtain:

x2 + y 2 + z 2 2 f
 
2 3 f 1 f
5 f = +
r r r2 r2 r r
2 f 2f
= + 2. (3.9)
r r r

Consider next the right-hand side of (3.1), from which we have:

 
1 1 f
(rf ) = f +r
r r r r
1 2
 
1 f
(rf ) = f +r
r r2 r r r
2f
 
1 f f
= + +r 2
r r r r
2 f 2f
= + 2. (3.10)
r r r

Comparing (3.9) with (3.10), we see that the left-hand side of (??) is equal to the right-hand side,
which was to be proven.
PHYS 263 side 11

Chapter 4

Waves and wave packets

4.1 Superposition of two harmonic plane waves

Two harmonic, plane waves of equal amplitudes propagate in the positive z direction. One of the
waves has angular frequency 1 , wave number, k1 , and phase constant 1 , and the other has angular
frequency 2 , wave number, k2 , and phase constant 2 .
Find a formula for the sum of the two waves expressed in terms of the

Average frequency: = 12 (1 + 2 )

Average wave number: k = 12 (k1 + k2 )

Average phase: = 12 (1 + 2 )
Difference frequency: 4 = 1 2
Difference wave number: 4k = k1 k2 , and
Difference phase: 4 = 1 2 .

Solution:

V1 = a cos (k1 z 1 t + 1 ) (4.1)

V2 = a cos (k2 z 2 t + 2 ) (4.2)

VR = V1 + V2 = a [cos(k1 z 1 t + 1 ) + cos (k2 z 2 t + 2 )] . (4.3)

We use the following identity

x+y xy
cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos (4.4)
2 2
where we let

x = k1 z 1 t + 1
y = k2 z 2 t + 2 (4.5)
PHYS 263 side 12

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 4.1: The amplitude A(z, t) in (4.7) varies slowly compared with the factor cos(kz t + ).

so that
1 1 1 1
(x + y) =(k1 + k2 )z (1 + 2 )t + (1 + 2 )
2 2 2 2
= kz + t +
1 1 1 1
(x y) = (k1 k2 )z (1 2 )t + (1 2 )
2 2 2 2
1
= 2(4kz + 4t + 4)
1
VR = 2a cos(kz t + ) cos (4kz 4t + 4). (4.6)
2

4.2 Group velocity and phase velocity

Show that when / << 1, the sum VR of the two waves in (4.6) can be interpreted as a harmonic
plane wave that propagates in the positive z direction with phase velocity v = /k and with a slowly
varying amplitude that propagates in the positive z direction with group velocity vg = /k.
Sketch the sum of the two waves.
Solution:
The expression in (4.6) can be written:

VR (z, t) = A(z, t) cos(kz t + ) (4.7)

where

1
A(z, t) = 2a cos[ (kz t + )]. (4.8)
2

When << , the amplitude A(z, t) will vary slowly comapred with cos(kz t + ), as shown
in Fig. 4.1.
PHYS 263 side 13

We find the phase velocity for the sum of the two waves, which has period T = 2/ and wave-
lenghth = 2/k, by letting the phase be equal to a constant (since we consider a wave front) and
differentiating with respect to time:

kz(t) t + = constant

kz 0 (t) = 0


v = z 0 (t) = . (4.9)
k
We find the propagation velocity of the amplitude A(z, t) or the group velocity in the same manner.
The result is:

vg = . (4.10)
k

4.3 Dispersion and energy propagation

Show from the results in Exercise 4.2 that

1. vg 6= v in a dispersive medium.
2. vg = v in a non-dispersive medium.

Solution:
In a dispersive meduim k as a function of is given by:

c
k() = = = n() (4.11)
v() c v() c
1
k1 = k(1 ) = n(1 ) (4.12)
c
2
k2 = k(2 ) = n(2 ) (4.13)
c
1 1
k= (k1 + k2 ) = [1 n(1 ) + 2 n(2 )] (4.14)
2 2c
1
k = k1 k2 = [1 n(1 ) 2 n(2 )] (4.15)
c
We find the phase velocity and the group velocity from (4.9) and (4.10):

c[1 + 2 ]
v = = (4.16)
k 1 n(1 ) + 2 n(2 )
c[1 2 ]
vg = = . (4.17)
k 1 n(1 ) 2 n(2 )
From these two results we see that:

1. vg 6= v when n(1 ) 6= n(2 ), i.e. in a dispersive medium.

2. In a non-dispersive medium n(1 ) = n(2 ) = n, so that
c
vg = = v. (4.18)
n
PHYS 263 side 14

Chapter 5

Connection between group velocity,

phase velocity, and refractive index

5.1 Group velocity as a function of phase velocity and re-

fractive index
Show that the group velocity vg can be expressed in terms of the phase velocity v and the refractive
index n() in the following manner:

1 1 dn()
= + . (5.1)
vg v c d

Solution:

d 1 dk
vg = = (5.2)
dk vg d

c
k = = = n = n()
v cv c c
1 d n() dn
= ( n()) = +
vg d c c c d
1 1 dn
= + . (5.3)
vg v c d

5.2 The group velocity is less than the speed of light in vac-
uum
Given that

r
B
n= 1 ; B>0 (5.4)
2 0 2
show that vg < c when < 0 .
PHYS 263 side 15

Solution:

B
n2 = 1 ; B>0 (5.5)
2 0 2
dn B 2
2n =
d ( 2 0 2 )2
dn B
= . (5.6)
d n( 2 0 2 )2

We substitute this result in (5.3) to obtain

1 1 B
= +
vg v c n( 2 0 2 )2
c B 2
= n+ . (5.7)
vg n( 2 0 2 )2

Because B > 0, we see that vcg > n. But when < 0 , it follows from (5.5) that n > 1. Thus, we
have vcg > 1 or vg < c, which was to be proven.
PHYS 263 side 16

Chapter 6

Propagation in a dispersive
medium

Consider a polychromatic plane wave that propagates in the z direction in a dispersive medium, so
that
Z
1
u(z, t) = u(0, )ei[k()zt] d. (6.1)
2

It follows from (6.1) that in the plane z = 0

Z
1
u(0, t) = u(0, )eit d (6.2)
2
so that
Z
u(0, ) = u(0, t)eit dt (6.3)

where u(0, ) is the frequency spectrum of the plane wave in the plane z = 0. Let the frequency
spectrum u(0, ) have its maximum value at = 0 , and let u(0, ) fall off rapidly from this value,
so that we may represent k() by the first two terms in a Taylor series around 0 :

dk 
k() = k(0 ) + ( 0 ). (6.4)
d =0

6.1 Propagation of a quasi-monochromatic wave

Show that when we neglect terms of higher order than those retained in (6.4), we can express u(z, t)
in (6.1) as follows:

 
i0 z 1
v1 z
u(z, t) e v0 g0 u 0, +t (6.5)
vg0
where

0 d 
v0 = ; vg0 = . (6.6)
k(0 ) dk =0
PHYS 263 side 17

Solution:
By using the information given in the exercise, we may write:
!
1  0 0
k() = k(0 ) + ( 0 ) = + (6.7)

d 
 v0 vg0 vg0
dk =0

so that
   
1 1 z
k()z t 0 z + t (6.8)
v0 vg0 vg0
which upon substitution in (6.1) gives:

Z
1
1


i0 z v1 i vz +t
u(z, t) e v0 g0 u(0, )e g0 d. (6.9)
2

Because of the Fourier transform relation given in (6.2), (6.9) becomes

 
i0 z 1
v1 z
u(z, t) e v0 g0 u 0, +t . (6.10)
vg0

6.2 The shape and speed of the wave

Give a physical interpretation of the result in (6.10).
Solution:
v0 and vg0 are the phase velocity and group velocity, respectively, at angular frequency 0 . The
result in (6.10) shows that when u(0, ) has its maximum value at 0 and falls off rapidly from its
maximum value of u(0, 0 ), then, except for a phase factor, u(t) will not change its form, and u(t)
will propagate at the group velocity.

6.3 Alternative way to proceed

Show that the same result as in (6.10) can be obtained by considering
Z
1 z
u(z, t) = u(0, )ei c f () d (6.11)
2

where

ct
f () = [n() ] ; = (6.12)
z
and expanding f () in a Taylor series around 0 to the first order, i.e.

f () = f (0 ) + f 0 (0 )( 0 ). (6.13)
PHYS 263 side 18

Solution:
ct
f () = [n() ] ; =
z

dn
f 0 () = n() +
d
= n() + n0 () (6.14)

Thus, we have
f 0 (0 ) = n(0 ) + 0 n0 (0 ) (6.15)
so that (6.13) gives

f () = f (0 ) + f 0 (0 )( 0 )
= 0 [n(0 ) ] + [n(0 ) + 0 n0 (0 )]( 0 )
= 02 n0 (0 ) + [n(0 ) + 0 n0 (0 )]. (6.16)

Further, we have:

d 1 dk d   n()
vg = = = n() = + n0 ()
dk vg d d c c c
1 n(0 ) 0 0 1 0 0
= + n (0 ) = + n (0 ). (6.17)
vg0 c c v0 c

from which we obtain:

 
0 1 1
0 n (0 ) = c ; vg0 = vg (0 ) ; v0 = v(0 ). (6.18)
vg0 v0
By combining (6.16) with (6.18), we get

 
c 1 1 c 1 1
f () = 02
[ ] + n(0 ) + 0 [ ] (6.19)
0 vg0 v0 0 vg0 v0
 
1 1 1 1
= 0 c[ ] + n(0 ) + c[ ] . (6.20)
vg0 v0 vg0 v0

By substituting the expression for f () in (6.20) into the expression for u(z, t) in (6.11), we get

Z
1
 c ct
iz0 [ v1 v 1 ] i z +c[ v 1 v1 ]
u(z, t) = e 0 u(0, )e c v0 z
g0 g0 0 d
2
Z
iz [ 1 1 ] 1 i[ vz +t]
= e 0 v0 vg0 u(0, )e g0 d. (6.21)
2

Finally, we get from (6.21) and 6.2

 
iz0 [ v1 v 1 ] z
u(z, t) = e 0 g0 u 0, +t . (6.22)
vg0
PHYS 263 side 19

Chapter 7

Polarisation and rotation of

co-ordinate system

7.1 Maximum and minimum values

Show that the ellipse (Eq. (15), page 25 in Born and Wolf [?]):

x2 y2 x y
2
+ 2
2 cos = sin2 (7.1)
a1 a2 a1 a2
has the following maximum and minimum values:

ymaks = a2 for x = a1 cos

ymin = a2 for x = a1 cos
xmaks = a1 for y = a2 cos
xmin = a1 for y = a2 cos . (7.2)

Solution:
We consider y as a function of x and define the function F (x, y(x)) as follows:

y2 x2 x y
F (x, y(x)) = 0 ; F (x, y(x)) = 2 + 2
2 cos sin2 . (7.3)
a2 a1 a1 a2

By implicit differentiation (as in chapter 13.7 in [?]) we have:

F
F F dy dy x
+ =0 = F . (7.4)
x y dx dx y

Thus, we get

dx F
=0 for y= = 0. (7.5)
dy y
PHYS 263 side 20

a2
Further, we have that F y = 2 a1 x cos , implying that x has a maximum or minimum value for
y = aa21 x cos . By substituting this in (7.1), we find that the minimum or maximum value x2e for x2
is given by:
h i
a2
xe2 [ aa21 xe cos ]2 xe a1 xe cos
+ 2 cos = sin2 (7.6)
a1 2 a2 2 a1 a2
which gives

xe 2 = a1 2 (7.7)
or

xmaks = a1 for y = a2 cos

xmin = a1 for y = a2 cos . (7.8)

We can find the minimum and maximum values for y by solving (7.1) with respect to x2 and then
differentiating with respect to y and following the same procedure as above. But due to the symmetry
in (7.1) with respect to the exchange of x and y as well as of a1 and a2 , we obtain the desired result
by making these exchanges in the result given above:

ymaks = a2 for x = a1 cos

ymin = a2 for x = a1 cos .
(7.9)

7.2 Rotation of co-ordinate system

Show that by rotating the co-ordinate system an angle , so that

x = cos sin ; y = sin + cos (7.10)

the coefficients in front of the term in the equation obtained from (7.1) as a result of this rotation
will disappear if satisfies the relation

a2
tan(2) = tan(2) cos ; tan = . (7.11)
a1

Solution:
We write (7.1) in the form:

a2 2 x2 + a1 2 y 2 2a1 a2 xy cos = a1 2 a2 2 sin2 . (7.12)

By letting

x = cos sin ; y = sin + cos (7.13)

we get
PHYS 263 side 21

Figure 7.1: Co-ordinate system rotated an angle .

a2 2 x2 = a2 2 [ 2 cos2 + 2 sin2 2 sin cos ]

a1 2 y 2 = a1 2 [ 2 sin2 + 2 cos2 + 2 sin cos ]
2a1 a2 xy cos = 2a1 a2 cos [( 2 2 ) sin cos + (cos2 sin2 )].
(7.14)

By substituting (7.14) into (7.12), we see that the coefficients in front of the cross term will disappear
provided

(a1 2 a2 2 )2 sin cos 2a1 a2 cos (cos2 sin2 ) = 0

2 2
(a1 a2 ) sin(2) 2a1 a2 cos cos(2) = 0. (7.15)

This gives:

2a1 a2 cos
tan(2) = . (7.16)
a1 2 a2 2

We now introduce tan = a2 /a1 , so that

2 tan 2 aa21 2a1 a2

tan(2) = 2 = a2 2 = 2 2
. (7.17)
1 tan 1 ( a1 ) a1 a2

Thus, we have

tan(2) = tan(2) cos . (7.18)

PHYS 263 side 22

7.3 Simplification of the expression for the ellipse

Show that in (, ) co-ordinates (7.1) can be written as follows:

b2 2 + a2 2 = a2 b2 (7.19)
where

a2 = a2 2 sin2 + a1 2 cos2 + 2a1 a2 cos sin cos

b2 = a2 2 cos2 + a1 2 sin2 2a1 a2 cos sin cos . (7.20)

Solution:
By substituting (7.14) into (7.12) and choosing such that the cross term disappears, we obtain:

2 [a2 2 cos2 + a1 2 sin2 2a1 a2 cos sin cos ]

+ 2 [a2 2 sin2 + a1 2 cos2 + 2a1 a2 cos sin cos ]
= a1 2 a2 2 sin2 . (7.21)

Thus, we have

b2 2 + a2 2 = a1 2 a2 2 sin2 (7.22)
where

b2 = a2 2 cos2 + a1 2 sin2 2a1 a2 cos sin cos

a2 = a2 2 sin2 + a1 2 cos2 + 2a1 a2 cos sin cos . (7.23)

It remains to show that a2 b2 = a1 2 a2 2 sin2 . By use of the formulas

1 + cos(2) 1 cos(2)
cos2 = ; sin2 = (7.24)
2 2
we get

2b2 = a2 2 (1 + cos(2)) + a1 2 (1 cos(2)) 2a1 a2 cos sin(2) (7.25)

which gives

1 2
b2 = [a + a22 + A] (7.26)
2 1
where

A = (a2 2 a1 2 ) cos(2) 2a1 a2 cos sin(2). (7.27)

Similarly, we find that

1 2
a2 = [a + a22 A] (7.28)
2 1
PHYS 263 side 23

so that

1 2
a2 b2 = [(a + a22 )2 A2 ]. (7.29)
4 1

From Exercise 7.1 we have

2a1 a2 cos
tan(2) = (7.30)
a1 2 a2 2
which gives

2a1 a2 cos a21 a22

sin(2) = ; cos(2) = (7.31)
B B
where

B = (a1 2 a2 2 )2 + (2a1 a2 cos )2 . (7.32)

By substituting (7.31) into (7.27), we obtain

a1 2 a2 2 2a1 a2 cos
A = (a2 2 a1 2 ) 2a1 a2 cos
B B
B
=
B

= B (7.33)

which upon substitution in (7.29) gives:

1
a2 b2 = [(a1 2 + a2 2 )2 B]
4
1
= [(a1 2 + a2 2 )2 (a1 2 a2 2 )2 (2a1 a2 cos )2 ]
4
1
= [4a1 2 a2 2 (1 cos2 )]
4
= a1 2 a2 2 sin2 . (7.34)

Substitution of this result in (7.22) gives:

b2 2 + a2 2 = a2 b2 (7.35)

where a2 and b2 are given in (7.23).

PHYS 263 side 24

Chapter 8

Phase velocity and group velocity

for surface waves on water

The propagation of linear, harmonic surface waves in water of constant depth is governed by the
equations

52 (x, y, z) = 0 ; d<y<0 (8.1)

(x, y, z)
2 (x, y, z) + g =0 ; y=0 (8.2)
y
(x, y, z)
=0 ; y = d (8.3)
y
i
(x, z) = (x, 0, z). (8.4)
g

The symbols in the equations above have the following meaning:

= 2/T ; T is the period,

d = water depth,
= velocity potential,

(x,z)
y=0 x eller z

y=-d

Figure 8.1: Surface waves

PHYS 263 side 25

g = acceleration of gravity, and

= displacement of the water surface from the position y = 0, which is its position at rest.

The velocity v of a water particle is given as

v = 5. (8.5)

8.1 Separation of variables

Use separation of variables to find the solution of (8.1). Thus, express as a product

= A(y)B(x, z) (8.6)
where A only depends on y and B only depends on x and z, and show by substitution into (8.1)
that

2 A(y)
k 2 A(y) = 0 (8.7)
2y
 2
2

2
+ 2 + k B(x, z) = 0 (8.8)
x2 z

where k 2 is a separation constant.

Solution:

2 2 2
 
52 = + + A(y)B(x, z)
x2 y 2 z 2
 2
2 2


= A(y) 2
+ 2
B(x, z) + B(x, z) 2 A(y) = 0
x y y
1 2 A(y)
 2 2

1
= + 2 B(x, z) = k 2 (8.9)
A(y) y 2 B(x, z) x2 y

where k 2 (the separation constant) must be a constant because the left-hand side of the equation
depends on y only, while the right-hand side depends on x and z. Thus, both sides must be equal
to the same constant, which we here have denoted by k 2 . Equation (8.9) gives the following two
equations:

2
( k 2 )A(y) = 0 (8.10)
y 2
2 2
( 2
+ 2 + k 2 )B(x, z) = 0. (8.11)
x y
PHYS 263 side 26

8.2 Dispersion relation

Show that

A(y) = C cosh[k(y + d)] ; C = constant (8.12)

satisfies (8.3) and (8.10). Substitute this solution into (8.2) and show that the dispersion relation,
i.e. the relation between and k is as follows:

2 = gk tanh(kd). (8.13)

Solution:
First we show that A(y) satisfies (8.10). From (8.6) we have for :

= A(y)B(x, z) = C cosh[k(y + d)] B(x, z)

= C sinh[k(y + d)]B(x, z)|y=d = 0 (8.14)
y
which was to be proven.
The general solution of (8.10) is

A(y) = C1 eky + C2 eky . (8.15)

By choosing

1 kd 1 kd
C1 = Ce og C2 = Ce (8.16)
2 2
we get

1  k(d+y) 
A(y) = C e + ek(d+y) = C cosh[k(y + d). (8.17)
2
Since A00 (y) = k 2 A(y), which follows by differentiating the expression above twice, we see that (8.10)
is satisfied. By substitution of the expression for above into (8.2), we get

 2 
B(x, z) cosh[k(y + d)] + gB(x, z) Ck sinh[k(y + d)] y=0 = 0 (8.18)
which gives

2 cosh(kd) + gk sinh(kd) = 0 (8.19)

or

2 = gk tanh(kd). (8.20)
PHYS 263 side 27

8.3 Phase velocity and group velocity

Find the phase velocity and the group velocity.
Solution:
Phase velocity:

1p
v = = gk tanh(kd)
k r k
g
v= tanh(kd). (8.21)
k

We obtain an alternative expression by writing

2 gk tanh(kd)
v = = =
k k k
g tanh(kd)
=

gT tanh(kd)
= . (8.22)
2

Differentiating (8.20), we get

 
d 1
2 = g tanh(kd) + k d (8.23)
dk cosh2 (kd)
which gives the group velocity
 
d 1g kd
vg = = tanh(kd) + . (8.24)
dk 2 cosh2 (kd)

8.4 The phase velocity of surface waves in water of infinite

depth
Show that when the water depth increases, so that kd , then the phase velocity approaches the
following limiting value

g
v v0 = T (8.25)
2

whereas the group velocity approaches the limiting value

1
vg vg0 = v0 . (8.26)
2

Solution:
When kd , we have
PHYS 263 side 28

lim tanh(kd) = 1 (8.27)

kd
kd
lim =0 (8.28)
kd cosh2 (kd)
so that we get

r
g g
v = v0 = = (8.29)
k0
1g 1
vg = vg0 = = v0 . (8.30)
2 2
2 g
Since = T , we get v0 = 2 T , which was to be proven.

8.5 The phase velocity of surface waves in water of finite

depth
Show that vg < v also when the depth is finite.
Solution:
From (8.24) we have

 
1g kd 1g kd
vg = tanh(kd) + = tanh(kd) 1 +
2 cosh2 (kd) 2 sinh(kd)
cosh(kd) cosh2 (kd)
1g 2kd
= tanh(kd)[1 + ]. (8.31)
2 2 sinh(kd) cosh(kd)

Since [cf. (8.20)]

2 g
v2 = = tanh(kd) (8.32)
k2 k
we have

g kg v2
tanh(kd) = tanh(kd) = = v. (8.33)
k /k
Also, 2 sinh(x) cosh(x) = sinh(2x), so that we get
" #
1 1
vg = v 1 + sinh(x)
; x = 2kd. (8.34)
2
x

Since sinh(x)/x > 1, as shown below:

sinh(x) 1 X x2n+1 X x2n
= =1+ >1 (8.35)
x x n=0 (2n + 1)! n=1
(2n + 1)!
we find that vg < v, which was to be proven.
PHYS 263 side 29

8.6 The refractive index

The refractive index for water waves is defined as

v0
n= (8.36)
v
where v0 is the phase velocity in water of infinite depth given by (8.30). Note the similarity with
light waves, in which case v0 corresponds to the speed of light in vacuum. Show that n can be
expressed as

n = coth(nk0 d) (8.37)
where

2 4 2
k0 = = = . (8.38)
v0 g gT 2
v0
(Hint: Use that k = v = v0 v = k0 n.)
Determine n numerically for T = 12 s and d = 100 m and for T = 12 s and d = 25 m.
Solution:

q
g
v0 k0
n= = pg . (8.39)
v k tanh kd
With k = k0 n we get

g
2 k0 n
n = g = (8.40)
k tanh kd tanh(nk0 d)
or

n = coth(nk0 d) (8.41)
which was to be proven.
To determine n numerically from the transcendental equation in (8.41), we let x = n and = k0 d,
so that (8.41) becomes

x
g(x) = x coth(x) = f (x) = 0 (8.42)
tanh(x)
which implies that

1
f (x) = tanh(x)
= 0. (8.43)
x
We may use Newtons iterative method, illustrated in Fig. 8.2, to solve (8.43). Starting with
x = x1 , we see from Fig. 8.2 that

f (x1 )
f 0 (x1 ) = (8.44)
x1 x2
or
PHYS 263 side 30

Figure 8.2: Newtons method

f (x1 )
x2 = x1 (8.45)
f 0 (x1 )
so that the iterative solution becomes

f (xj )
xj+1 = xj ; j = 1, 2, 3, . (8.46)
f 0 (xj )
The starting value x1 we can find by sampling f (x) to determine when the function changes sign.
In the present case we obtain by differentiating the expression for f (x)

1
f 0 (x) = 2 + 2. (8.47)
cosh (x) x
Numerically determined values for n:

T = 12 s d = 100 m n = 1.00721
T = 12 s d = 25 m n = 1.3547. (8.48)

8.7 The wavelength in water of infinite depth

Find an expression for the wavelength 0 in deep water for a harmonic plane surface wave with
period T . Determine 0 when T = 10 s and T = 15 s.
Solution:
2
Using k0 = 0 and (8.38), we get

2 (2)2 1 gT 2
= 0 = . (8.49)
0 T2 g 2
PHYS 263 side 31

1 m
T = 10s 0 = 9.81 2 100s2 = 156m (8.50)
6.28 s
1 m
T = 15s 0 = 9.81 2 225s2 = 351.3m. (8.51)
6.28 s

8.8 The wavelength in water of finite depth

Determine the wavelength for the wave in water of constant depth d expressed in terms of 0 , d,
and the refractive index n. Compute for T = 12 s and d = 100 m and for T = 12 s and d = 25 m.
Solution:

0 0
= = . (8.52)
n coth( 2nd
0 )

For T = 12 s and d = 100 m, we have that n = 1.00721, so that

0 gT 2 9.81 (12)2 224.83

= = = = = 223.22 m (8.53)
n 2n 6.28 1.00721 1.00721

and for T = 12 s and d = 25 m, we have n = 1.3547, and hence

0 gT 2 9.81 (12)2 224.83

= = = = = 165.96 m. (8.54)
n 2n 6.28 1.3547 1.3547

8.9 Refraction of waves that propagate towards a beach

A plane wave with a period T = 12 s propagates from infinitely deep water towards an area with a
constant finite depth of d = 25 m. The angle of incidence i (see Fig. 8.3) is 30 . Use Snell0 s law
for water waves (n1 sin i = n2 sin t ) to determine the angle of refraction t .
Solution:
For T = 12 s and d = 25 m, we have n = 1.3547, and hence

sin i sin 30
sin t = = = 0.369 t = 21.66 . (8.55)
n2 1.3547
This change of direction explains why a wave that travels towards a beach irrespective of its
direction of incidence changes its direction such that the wave crest finally becomes parallel to the
beach.
PHYS 263 side 32

n=1
1

d=
8

t
i
d=25m

Figure 8.3: Vertical view.

Figure 8.4: Horisontal view.

PHYS 263 side 33

Chapter 9

Fresnels formulas

9.1 Rewriting of Fresnels formulas

Use Snells law to show that the Fresnel formulas for reflection and transmission

2n1 cos i n2 cos i n1 cos t

TTM = ; RT M =
n2 cos i + n1 cos t n2 cos i + n1 cos t
2n1 cos i n1 cos i n2 cos t
TTE = ; RT E = (9.1)
n1 cos i + n2 cos t n1 cos i + n2 cos t
can be expressed as follows:

2 sin t cos i tan(i t )

T TM = ; RT M =
sin(i + t ) cos(i t ) tan(i + t )
2 sin t cos i sin(i t )
TTE = ; RT E = . (9.2)
sin(i + t ) sin(i + t )

Solution:
We start by considering the expression for T T M , and we use Snells law n1 sin i = n2 sin t to rewrite
it as follows

2n1 cos i
T TM =
n2 cos i + n1 cos t
2n1 sin i cos i
=
n2 sin cos i + n1 sin i cos t
i

2n2 sin t cos i

=
n2 sin cos i + n2 sin t cos t
i

2 sin t cos i
= . (9.3)
sin cos i + sin t cos t
i

Next, we show that sin x cos x sin y cos y = sin(x y) cos(x y):
PHYS 263 side 34

sin(x y) cos(x y) = (sin x cos y cos x sin y)(cos x cos y sin x sin y)
= sin x cos x(cos2 y + sin2 y) sin y cos y(sin2 x + cos2 x)
= sin x cos x sin y cos y.
(9.4)

Using (9.4), we may rewrite (9.2) as follows

2 sin t cos i
T TM = . (9.5)
sin(i + t ) cos(i t )

For the refelction coefficient for T M waves we have

n2
n2 cos i n1 cos t n1 cos i cos t
RT M = = n2
n2 cos i + n1 cos t n1 cos i + cos t
i
sin
sin t cos i cos t sin i cos i sin t cos t
= sin i
=
sin t cos i + cos t sin i cos i + sin t cos t
sin(i t ) cos(i + t )
= (9.6)
sin(i + t ) cos(i t )

where we have used (9.4) in the final step. Thus, we have

tan(i t )
RT M = . (9.7)
tan(i + t )

For the transmission coefficient for T E waves we have

2n1 cos i 2 cos i

T TE = = sin i
n1 cos i + n2 cos t cos i + sin t cos
t

2 sin t cos i
=
sin t cos i + cos t sin i
2 sin t cos i
T TE = . (9.8)
sin(i + t )

For the reflection coefficient for T E waves we have

sin i
TE n1 cos i n2 cos t cos i sin t cos t
R = = sin i
n1 cos i + n2 cos t cos i + sin t cos t
sin t cos i sin i cos t
=
sin t cos i + sin i cost
sin(i t )
RT E = . (9.9)
sin(i + t )
PHYS 263 side 35

9.2 The sign of the reflection and transmission coefficients

Provided that i and t are real angles, determine under what circumstances T T M , RT M , T T E , and
RT E are positive and negative. What physical interpretation do we associate with negative values?
Solution:
We assume i og t are real agles and that 0 i < 2 ; 0 t 2 . Then 0 i + t and hence
sin(i + t ) > 0. Further, we have that cos(i t ) = cos i cos t + sin i sin t > 0, and therefore
T T M og T T E are always positive. To analyse the the reflection coefficients we first assume that

n2 > n 1 or i > t RT E < 0

If i + t < we have : RT M > 0
2

and if i + t > : RT M < 0.
2
(9.10)

Next, we assume that

n2 < n 1 or i < t RT E > 0

If i + t < we have : RT M < 0
2

and if i + t > : RT M > 0.
2
(9.11)

A negative value for a reflection coefficient implies that there is a phase change of between the
incident and the reflected wave.
PHYS 263 side 36

Chapter 10

Reflectivity and transmissivity

10.1 Energy conservation for T E and T M components

From the formulas for the reflectivities and the transmissivities, given by

sin 2i sin 2t tan2 (i t )

T TM = ; RT M =
sin2 (i + t ) cos2 (i t ) tan2 (i + t )
sin 2t sin 2i sin2 (i t )
T TE = ; RT E = (10.1)
sin2 (i + t ) sin2 (i + t )

show that

T T M + RT M = 1 ; T T E + RT E = 1. (10.2)

Solution:

tan2 (i t ) sin2 (i t ) cos2 (i + t )

RT M = =
tan2 (i + t ) sin2 (i + t ) cos2 (i t )
sin 2i sin 2t
T TM = 2 i
sin ( + t ) cos2 (i t )
sin 2i sin 2t + sin2 (i t ) cos2 (i + t )
RT M + T T M = . (10.3)
sin2 (i + t ) cos2 (i t )

Thus, we have

N
RT M + T T M = 1 + (10.4)
D
where

N = sin 2i sin 2t + A D
A = sin2 (i t ) cos2 (i + t )
D = sin2 (i + t ) cos2 (i t ). (10.5)
PHYS 263 side 37

Next, we use the formula sin x cos x sin y cos y = sin(x y) cos(x y) to obtain

A = sin2 (i t ) cos2 (i + t ) = (sin i cos i sin t cos t )2

D = sin2 (i + t ) cos2 (i t ) = (sin i cos i + sin t cos t )2
A D = 4 sin i cos i sin t cos t = sin 2i sin 2t (10.6)

which shows that N = 0, and hence that

T T M + RT M = 1 (10.7)
which was to be proven. For T E polarisation we have

sin2 (i t )
RT E =
sin2 (i + t )
sin 2t sin 2i
T TE = (10.8)
sin2 (i + t )

N
RT E + T T E = 1 + (10.9)
D
where in this case

N = sin 2i sin 2t + A D
A = sin2 (i t ) = (sin i cos t sin t cos i )2
D = sin2 (i + t ) = (sin i cos t + sin t cos i )2
AD = 4 sin i cos t sin t cos i = sin 2i sin 2t . (10.10)

This shows that N = 0, and hence that

T T E + RT E = 1 (10.11)
which was to be proven.

10.2 Energy conservation

Show that

T +R=1 (10.12)
where

R = RT M cos2 i + RT E sin2 i
T = T T M cos2 i + T T E sin2 i . (10.13)

Solution:
It follows from (10.13) that
PHYS 263 side 38

R + T = (RT M + T T M ) cos2 i + (RT E + T T E ) sin2 i (10.14)

but since

T T M + RT M = 1 (10.15)
and

T T E + RT E = 1 (10.16)
we get

R + T = cos2 i + sin2 i = 1. (10.17)

PHYS 263 side 39

Chapter 11

Total reflection 1

Consider a harmonic, plane wave that is incident upon a plane interface under an angle of incidence
i that is greater than the critical angle ic , so that we have total reflection. The components of the
electric field are then given by (see section 9.3.5 of [?]):

Ext = T T M E T M i cos t ei(kx xt) e|kz2 |z

Eyt = T T E E T Ei ei(kx xt) e|kz2 |z
i
Ezt = sinn T T M E T M i ei(kx xt) e|kz2 |z (11.1)

where

1 n2
kx = k1 sin i = sin i ; n= <1
n v2 n1
ip 2 i
kz2 = k2 cos t ; cos t = sin n2 . (11.2)
n

11.1 Transmitted magnetic field

Show from Maxwells equation (with 1 = 2 = 1)

1 t
5 Et = H (11.3)
c
that the transmitted magnetic field Ht has the following components:

Hxt = n2 cos t T T E E T Ei ei(kx xt) e|kz2 |z

Hyt = n2 T T M E T M i ei(kx xt) e|kz2 |z
Hzt = n1 sin i T T E E T Ei ei(kx xt) e|kz2 |z . (11.4)

Solution: First we determine Ht from Maxwells equation

1 t
5 Et = H (11.5)
c
PHYS 263 side 40

kr kt

r =i
t ^n

i
n2<n1

i
k n1

Figure 11.1: Refraction near the critical angle of total reflection.

which with a time variation of eit gives:

1
Ht = 5 Et ; k0 = . (11.6)
ik0 c
Since

t
Et = Et0 ei(k rt) (11.7)
we get

5 Et = ikt Et (11.8)
so that

1 t
Ht = k Et . (11.9)
k0

For the z component of Ht we have:

1
Hzt = (kx Eyt ky Ext ) = n1 sin i Eyt (11.10)
k0
since ky = 0 and kx = k1 sin i = n1 k0 sin i . Thus, we have

Hzt = n1 sin i T T E E T Ei ei(kx xt) e|kz2 |z . (11.11)

For the y component we have:

1
Hyt = (kz2 Ext kx Ezt ). (11.12)
k0
PHYS 263 side 41

Since k E = 0, and hence

kx t
Ezt = E (11.13)
kz2 x
we get

kx 2 t k2 2 t
 
1 1 1
Hyt kz2 Ext kx Ezt = kz2 Ext + 2
+ kx 2 Ext =



= Ex = kz2 E
k0 k0 kz2 k0 kz2 k0 kz2 x
k22
= T T M E T M i cos t ei(kx xt) e|kz2 |z = n2 T T M E T M i ei(kx xt) e|kz2 |z .
k2 cos t k0
(11.14)

For the x component we have

1 kz2 t
Hxt = (ky Ezt kz2 Eyt ) = E (11.15)
k0 k0 y
since ky = 0. Thus, we get

Hxt = n2 cos t Eyt = n2 cos t T T E E T Ei ei(kx xt) e|kz2 |z . (11.16)

11.2 Transmitted Poynting vector

Show that the Poynting vector of the transmitted field

c t
St = E Ht (11.17)
4
has the following components:
c
Sxt = n1 sin i e2A {(E T Ei )2 (T T E )2 e2i + ((T T E ) )2 e2i + 2|T T E |2
 
16
+(E T M i )2 (T T M )2 e2i + ((T T M ) )2 e2i + 2|T T M |2 }
 

(11.18)
c
Syt = n1 sin i e2A E T M i E T Ei = T T M [T T E ]

(11.19)
4
c n n 2 o n 2 oo
Szt = n2 | cos t |e2A (E T M i )2 = T T E ei + (E T Ei )2 = T T M ei (11.20)
8
where

A = |kz2 |z ; = kx x t. (11.21)

Solution: Since the Poynting vector is given as the vectorial product of E and B, we must use real
quantities. Thus, we express the electric field components as follows

1  TM
Ext = E T M i eA cos t ei + (T T M cos t ) ei

T
2
1  T E i
Eyt = E T Ei eA T e + (T T E ) ei

2
i 1  T M i
Ezt = sinn E T M i eA e + (T T M ) ei .

T (11.22)
2
PHYS 263 side 42

Similarly, we express the magnetic field components as:

1  TE
Hxt = n2 E T Ei eA cos t ei + (T T E cos t ) ei

T
2
1  T M i
Hyt = n2 E T M i eA e + (T T M ) ei

T
2
1  T E i
Hzt = n1 sin i E T Ei eA T e + (T T E ) ei

(11.23)
2
where
A = |kz2 |z ; = kx x t. (11.24)

Since cos t is purely imaginary, (cos t ) = cos t , so that we have

1  T M i
Ext = E T M i eA cos t e (T T M ) ei

T
2
1  T E i
Eyt = E T Ei eA T e + (T T E ) ei

2
i 1  T M i
Ezt = sinn E T M i eA e + (T T M ) ei

T (11.25)
2
and
1  T E i
Hxt = n2 E T Ei eA cos t T e (T T E ) ei

2
1  T M i
Hyt = n2 E T M i eA e + (T T M ) ei

T
2
1  T E i
Hzt = n1 sin i E T Ei eA T e + (T T E ) ei .

(11.26)
2

The components Sxt , Syt , and Szt of the Poynting vector are given by:
c
Sxt = [E t H t Ezt Hyt ]
4 y z
c
Syt = [E t H t Ext Hzt ]
4 z x
c
Szt = [E t H t Eyt Hxt ]. (11.27)
4 x y
Substitution from (11.25) and (11.26) into (11.27) gives
c 2A 2
Sxt = n1 sin i {(E T Ei )2 T T E ei + (T T E ) ei

e
16
2
+(E T M i )2 T T M ei + (T T M ) ei }

(11.28)

c 2A
Syt = n1 sin i cos t E T Ei E T M i { T T M ei + (T T M ) ei T T E ei (T T E ) ei
  
e
16
T T M ei (T T M ) ei T T E ei + (T T E ) ei }
  

(11.29)

c 2A
Szt = n2 cos t {(E T M i )2 T T M ei (T T M ) ei T T M ei + (T T M ) ei
  
e
16
(E T Ei )2 T T E ei + (T T E ) ei T T E ei (T T E ) ei }.
  

(11.30)

Carrying out the multiplications, we get

PHYS 263 side 43

cn1 sin i 2A
Sxt = {(E T Ei )2 (T T E )2 e2i + ((T T E ) )2 e2i + 2|T T E |2
 
16 e
+(E T M i )2 (T T M )2 e2i + ((T T M ) )2 e2i + 2|T T M |2 }
 

cn1 sin i cos t 2A

Syt = E T M i E T Ei (T T M ) T T E T T M (T T E )
 
8 e
cn2 cos t 2A
Szt = {(E T M i )2 (T T M )2 e2i ((T T M ) )2 e2i
 
16 e
+(E T Ei )2 (T T E )2 e2i ((T T E ) )2 e2i }.
 

(11.31)

This expression for Sxt is equal to the one given in (11.18). To show that the expressions for Syt
and Szt given above are equal to those given in (11.19) and (11.20), respectively, we note that
cos t = i| cos t | and use the relation i(z z ) = =z, which is valid for any arbitrary number z.

11.3 Time average of the Poynting vector

Show that the time-average of the z component of the Poynting vector vanishes, i.e.

< Szt >= 0, (11.32)

and that the time-averages of the x and y components are given by:

cn1 sin i 2A  T E 2 T Ei 2
< Sxt > = ) + |T T M |2 (E T Ei )2

e |T | (E
8
i
cn1 sin 2A
< Syt > = | cos t |E T M i E T Ei = (T T M ) T T E .

e (11.33)
4
What is the physical explanation of this result? (Time averaging implies integration over an interval
t
R T0 t
T 0 that is much larger than the period T = 2 1 0
, i.e. < S >= 2T 0 T 0 S dt, where T >> T .)

Solution: Because

T0
sin(2T 0 ) T
Z
1
e2it dt = ( 0) (11.34)
2T 0 T 0 4 T
terms in (11.31) that include e2i will disappear on time averaging over an interval such that
T 0 >> T . Thus, we have

< Szt > = 0

cn1 sin i 2A
< Sxt > = e ((E T Ei )2 |T T E |2 + (E T M i )2 |T T M |2 )
8
cn1 sin i | cos t | 2A T M i T Ei
< Syt > = e E E ={(T T M ) T T E }. (11.35)
4
This means that the time average of the energy flux is zero in the z direction. The energy propagates
in directions parallel to the interface and in the plane of incidence as long as the polarisation is either
normal to the plane of incidence (E T M i = 0) or parallel to the plane of incidence (E T Ei = 0). But
in general we have < Syt >6= 0.
PHYS 263 side 44

Chapter 12

Fresnels rhomb

Fig. 12.1 shows a Fresnels rhomb, which can be used to produce circularly polarised light from
linearly polarised light or vice versa. The required phase difference of = 90 can be obtained
through two successive total reflections, each introducing a phase difference of 45 . For a single
total reflection the phase difference is given by the fomula
p
cos i sin2 i n2
tan = (12.1)
2 sin2 i
n2
where i is the angle of incidence and n = n1 < 1.

12.1 Solution for sin i .

Solve (12.1) with respect to sin i , and show that

q 12
n2 + 1 (n2 + 1)2 4n2 (1 + tan2 2 )
sin i =
. (12.2)
2(tan2 2 + 1)

Solution: From (12.1 we get

sin4 i tan2 = (1 sin2 i )(sin2 i n2 )
2

0 = sin4 i (tan2 + 1) (n2 + 1) sin2 i + n2
2

linerpolarisert lys

n2<n1
i i
i n1
sirkulrpolarisert lys
Figure 12.1: Fresnels rhomb
PHYS 263 side 45
q
n2 + 1 (n2 + 1)2 4n2 (1 + tan2 2 )
sin2 i =
2(tan2 2 + 1)
q 12
n2 + 1 (n2 + 1)2 4n2 (1 + tan2 2 )
sin i = . (12.3)
2(tan2 2 + 1)

12.2 Phase difference of 45 , n = 1/1.52 = 0.6579

For n21 = 1
n = 1.52 determine those angles of incidence which give a phase difference of 45 .
Solution: When n12 = 1
n = 1.52 and
2 = 22.5 , we get by substitution into (12.3):

sin i+ = 0.81371 i+ = 55.45752

sin i = 0.73790 i = 47.55312 . (12.4)

12.3 Phase difference of 45 , n = 1/1.49 = 0.6711

Repeat the task in exercise 12.2 for n21 = 1.49, and explain the result.
Solution: For n21 = 1.49 the expression inside the square root in (12.3) becomes negative. This
means that in order to obtain a phase difference of 45 in one single total reflection, n21 must be
larger than 1.49.

12.4 Maximum phase difference

Show from (12.1) that has a maximum value m for i = im given by

2n2
sin2 im = (12.5)
1 + n2
and that m is given by:
m 1 n2
tan = . (12.6)
2 2n

Solution: From (12.1) we see that = 0 when i = ic (critical angle of incidence) and i = /2
(grazing incidence). Between tese two angles there is an angle of incidence i = im which gives a
maximum phase difference of = m , where m is determined by

d 
= 0. (12.7)
di i =im

Since = 2 arctan[tan( 2 )], we have from (12.7)

d 2 d
=
(tan ) = 0. (12.8)
di 1 + tan2 2
di 2
PHYS 263 side 46

This means that

" p #
d d cos isin2 i n2
(tan ) = 0 =0
di 2 di sin2 i
i cos i
sin2 i [ sin i (...) + cos i sin
p p
] cos i (...)2 sin i cos i
(...)
= 0.
sin4 i
(12.9)
p
We multiply the last result by sin2 i n2 sin3 i to obtain

sin2 i (sin2 i n2 ) + sin2 i cos2 i 2 cos2 i (sin2 i n2 )

= 0

2 i 2 i 2 i 2 2 i 2 i 2 i 2 i 2
(sin + cos )(sin n ) + sin cos cos (sin n ) = 0

2 i 2 2 2 i
sin + n + n (1 sin ) = 0

2 2 2 i
2n (1 + n ) sin = 0
(12.10)
d 

so that d i i = im = 0 gives:

2n2
sin2 im =
1 + n2
2
2n 1 n2
cos2 im =1 = . (12.11)
1 + n2 1 + n2
By substitution of this result into (12.1), we get

q
2n2 2
m 1 n2 1+n2 n 1 n2
tan = 2n2
= . (12.12)
2 1 + n2 1+n2
2n

12.5 Phase differences of 45 and 90

1
What minimum value of n12 = n is required to obtain a phase difference of

1. 90 or
2. 45 ?

1n2
Solution: From Exercise (12.4) we have that tan 2 tan 2m = 2n , from wich it follows that:

n2 + 2n tan 1 0
2

2
(n + tan ) 1 + tan2
2
2 2
PHYS 263 side 47

r

n 1 + tan2 tan
2 2

1 1
n12 = q . (12.13)
n 1+ tan2 2 tan 2

1. = 90
2 = 45 and tan 2 = 1 so that

1
n21 = 2 + 1 = 2.4142. (12.14)
21

1 21 2
2. = 45
2 = 22.5 and tan 2 = 1cos
sin = 1

2
= 2 1, so that
2

1 1
n21 q = q = 1.4966. (12.15)
1 + ( 2 1)2 ( 2 1) 1 2 + 2(2 2)
This result agrees with our finding in Exercise 12.3 showing that the expression inside the square
root in (12.1) becomes negative for n12 = 1.49.
PHYS 263 side 48

Chapter 13

Total reflection 2

Consider reflection and refraction of a plane wave at a plane interface between two media, and let
n2 n1 , as illustrated in Fig. 13.1. From Snells law

n1 sin i = n2 sin t (13.1)

or
sin i n2
sin t = ; n= 1 (13.2)
n n1
it follows that when i > ic , where sin ic = n, then sin t > 1. Thus, t must be a complex number.
Show that t = + i, where

=
2
s 2
i
sin sin i
= ln 1 . (13.3)
n n

Solution: We start with s

p sin2 i
cos t = 1 sin2 t = 1 . (13.4)
n2
Since n < sin i when i > ic , we have
s 2
t sin i
cos = iA ; A= 1. (13.5)
n

Further, we have cos t = cos( + i) = cos cos(i) sin sin(i), and since

ei(i) + ei(i) e + e
cos(i) = = = cosh()
2 2
ei(i) ei(i) e e
sin(i) = =i = i sinh() (13.6)
2i 2
we get
iA = cos cosh i sin sinh (13.7)
and hence

cos cosh = 0 (13.8)

sin sinh = A. (13.9)
PHYS 263 side 49

kr kt

r =i
t ^n

i
n2<n1

i
k n1

Figure 13.1: Refraction close to the critical angle.

Since cosh 6= 0, we have from (13.8) that cos = 0, or that = 2, implying that (13.9) gives:

1
sinh = (e e ) = A
2

2
e + 2Ae 1 = 0


2A 4A2 + 4 p
e = = A A2 + 1. (13.10)
2
Since e > 0, the lower sign must be disregarded, so that we have
p
e = A2 + 1 A

hp i
= ln A2 + 1 A

s
2
sin i sin i
= ln 1 . (13.11)
n n
PHYS 263 side 50

Part II

FYS 263 del II

PHYS 263 side 51

Chapter 14

Reflection and refraction of a plane

acoustical wave

Consider two media that are separated by a plane interface and that have densities 1 and 2 and
sound velocities v1 and v2 . In linear acoustics the sound pressure p(r, t) is the solution of the wave
equation
1 2
(52 2 2 )p(r, t) = 0. (14.1)
v t
Therefore, a plane time-harmonic acoustical wave can be expressed as follows
p(r, t) = Re{p(r)eit } (14.2)
where
p(r) = p0 eikr . (14.3)
Here the amplitude p0 is a constant. A plane harmonic pressure wave is incident upon a plane
interface as illustrated in Fig. 14.1. The incident wave pi (r) is given by
i
pi (r) = pi0 eik r ; ki = kxi ex + kzi ez . (14.4)
The incident wave gives rise to a reflected plane wave and a transmitted plane wave of the same
frequency, i.e.
pr (r, t) = Re{pr (r)eit }
r
pr (r) = pr0 eik r ; kr = kxr ex + kyr ey + kzr ez
pt (r, t) = Re{pt (r)eit }
t
pt (r) = pt0 eik r ; kt = kxt ex + kyt ey + kzt ez . (14.5)
The particle velocity v is given by:
v = Re{vq (r)eit } (14.6)
where
1
vq (r) = 5 pq ; (q = i, r, t) (14.7)
iq
with i = r = 1 and t = 2 .
The boundary conditions that must be satisfied at the interface z = 0, are that the pressure p and
the component of the particle velocity normal to the interface, i.e. v ez , both must be continuous
across the interface, i.e.
 i
p + pr pt z=0 = 0

 i
(v + vr vt ) ez z=0 = 0.

(14.8)
PHYS 263 side 52

kr
kt
r t
z
i

ki 2 v2
1 v1

Figure 14.1: Incident, reflected, and transmitted wave.

14.1 Snells law and the reflection law

Derive Snells law and the reflection law.
Solution: For the boundary conditions in (14.8) to be valid the phase of the different terms must
be equal, i.e.  i 
ik r z=0 = [ikr r]z=0 = ikt r z=0
 
(14.9)
or
kxi xex = kxr xex + kyr yey = kxt xex + kyt yey . (14.10)
Because the condition in (14.10) must be satisfied for all values of x and y, we must have that
kyr = kyt = 0, and hence that kxi = kxr = kxt . Thus, ki , kr , and kt must lie in the same plane (the
plane of incidence), and the projection of kq onto the interface must be the same for q = i, q = r,
and q = t.
Reflection law:
kxi = kxr i = r . (14.11)

Snells law:
kxi = kxt k1 sin i = k2 sin t n1 sin i = n2 sin t . (14.12)

14.2 Reflection and transmission coefficients

Determine the reflection coefficient
pr0
R= (14.13)
pi0
and the transmission coefficient
pt0
T = . (14.14)
pi0

Solution: The wave vectors are given by:

ki = kxi ex + kzi ez = kxi ex + kz1 ez

kr = kxr ex + kzr ez = kxr ex kz1 ez
kt = kxt ex + kzt ez = kxt ex + kz2 ez . (14.15)
PHYS 263 side 53

By use of the result from Exercise 14.1 we have

 i
p + pr pt z=0 = 0 pi0 + pr0 pt0 = 0

(14.16)
 
 i r t
 1 kz1 i r kz2 t
(v + v v ) ez z=0 = 0 (p p0 ) p = 0.
i 1 0 2 0
(14.17)

or

1+R = T
kz2 1
1R = T (14.18)
kz1 2
which have the solutions
22 kz1
T = (14.19)
2 kz1 + 1 kz2
2 kz1 1 kz2
R = . (14.20)
2 kz1 + 1 kz2

14.3 Comparison with electromagnetic waves

Compare the results with the reflection and transmission coefficients for a plane electromagnetic
wave.
Solution: The reflection and transmission coefficients for an electromagnetic T E wave are given
by:

22 kz1
T TE = (14.21)
2 kz1 + 1 kz2
2 kz1 1 kz2
RT M = . (14.22)
2 kz1 + 1 kz2

Thus, permeability plays precisely the same role here as the density does in the acoustical case.
The reflection and transmission coefficients for acoustical waves are the same as for electromagnetic
T E waves when we replace the permeability in the latter coefficients with the density .
PHYS 263 side 54

Chapter 15

Fourier representation of a real

function

Given the Fourier transform pair

Z
1
f(t) = f ()eit d
2
Z
f () = f(t)eit dt (15.1)

show that when f(t) is real, we can express f(t) as follows

 Z 
1
f(t) = 2Re f ()eit d . (15.2)
2 0

(Hint: Start by showing f () = f ().)

Solution: Since f(t) is real, it follows that f(t) = f(t) , and hence
Z

f () = f(t)eit dt

Z
f () = f(t)eit dt = f (). (15.3)

In addition we have
Z 0 Z 
1
f(t) = f ()eit d + f ()eit d . (15.4)
2 0

In the first integral we let , and thus we obtain

Z 0 Z 0 Z Z 
f ()eit d = f ()eit d = f ()eit d = f ()eit d . (15.5)
0 0

Thus, we have
Z  Z   Z 
1 1
f(t) = f ()eit d + f ()eit d = 2Re f ()eit d (15.6)
2 0 0 2 0

since z + z = 2Re{z} holds for any arbitrary complex number.

PHYS 263 side 55

Chapter 16

Convolution theorem,
autocorrelation theorem, and
Parsevals theorem

Let G(kx , ky ) and g(x, y), and also H(kx , ky ) and h(x, y) be Fourier transform pairs so that
Z Z
A(kx , ky ) = a(x, y)ei(kx x+ky y) dxdy

 2 Z Z
1
a(x, y) = A(kx , ky )ei(kx x+ky y) dkx dky (16.1)
2

if we let a and A stand for either g and G or h and H.

16.1 Convolution
Prove the convolution theorem
 2 Z Z Z Z
1
G(kx , ky )H(kx , ky )ei(kx x+ky y)
dkx dky = g(x0 , y 0 )h(x x0 , y y 0 )dx0 dy 0 .
2
(16.2)
Solution: We denote functions of (x, y) by lower case letters and their Fourirer transforms, which
are functions of (kx , ky ) by capital letters. Thus, the Fourier transform of a function a(x, y), denoted
by A(kx , ky ), is defined as follows
Z Z
A(kx , ky ) = a(x, y)ei(kx x+ky y) dxdy = F{a(x, y)}. (16.3)

The inverse Fourier transform is given by

 2 Z Z
1
a(x, y) = A(kx , ky )ei(kx x+ky y) dkx dky = F 1 {A(kx , ky )}. (16.4)
2

The integral Z Z
f (x, y) = a(x0 , y 0 )b(x x0 , y y 0 )dx0 dy 0 (16.5)

PHYS 263 side 56

is a correlation or a convolution integral depending on whether we use the upper or lower sign on the
right-hand side of (16.5). By expressing b(x x0 , y y 0 ) in (16.5) by means of its Fourier transform,
we find
(  Z Z )
Z Z 2
1 0 0
f (x, y) = a(x0 , y 0 ) B(kx , ky )ei(kx (xx )+ky (yy )) dkx dky dx0 dy 0 . (16.6)
2

We exchange the order of the integrations to obtain

 2 Z Z Z Z 
1 0 0
f (x, y) = B(kx , ky ) a(x0 , y 0 )ei((kx )x +(ky )y ) dx0 dy 0 ei(kx x+ky y) dkx dky
2
(16.7)
or 2 Z Z

1
f (x, y) = B(kx , ky )A(kx , ky )ei(kx x+ky y) dkx dky . (16.8)
2

By combining (16.5) and (16.8) with a = g and b = h, and using the lower sign in both equations,
we obtain the convolution theorem:
 2 Z Z Z Z
1
G(kx , ky )H(kx , ky )ei(kx x+ky y) dkx dky = g(x0 , y 0 )h(x x0 , y y 0 )dx0 dy 0 .
2
(16.9)

16.2 Autocorrelation
Prove the autocorrelation theorem
 2 Z Z Z Z
1 2 i(kx x+ky y)
|G(kx , ky )| e dkx dky = g(x0 , y 0 )g (x0 x, y 0 y)dx0 dy 0 . (16.10)
2

Solution: By choosing a = g and b = g (x, y) we obtain from (16.5) and (16.8) with the lower
sign:
Z Z  2 Z Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
g(x , y )g (x x, y y)dx dy = G(kx , ky )B(kx , ky )ei(kx x+ky y) dkx dky
2
(16.11)
where Z Z
B(kx , ky ) = F{g (x, y)} = g (x, y)ei(kx x+ky y) dxdy. (16.12)

By the change of variables x x and y y, we get:

Z Z Z Z 

B(kx , ky ) = g (x, y)ei(kx x+ky y) dxdy = g(x, y)ei(kx x+ky y) dxdy = [G(kx , ky )]

(16.13)
which upon substitution in (16.10) gives the autocorrelation theorem:
 2 Z Z Z Z
1
|G(kx , ky )|2 ei(kx x+ky y) dkx dky = g(x0 , y 0 )g (x0 x, y 0 y)dx0 dy 0 . (16.14)
2
PHYS 263 side 57

16.3 Parsevals theorem

Prove Parsevals theorem
 2 Z Z Z Z
1
|G(kx , ky )|2 dkx dky = |g(x, y)|2 dxdy. (16.15)
2

Solution: The desired result follows from the autocorrelation theorem by setting x = y = 0
in (16.14).
PHYS 263 side 58

Chapter 17

Angular-spectrum representation
of a spherical wave (Weyls
formula)

My work has always tried to unite the true with the beautiful and when I had to choose one or the
other, I usually chose the beautiful. Hermann Weyl.
The field associated with a diverging spherical wave with centre at the origin is given by

eikR p
u(x, y, z) = ; R= x2 + y 2 + z 2 . (17.1)
R
In the plane z = 0 we have 2 2
eik x +y
u(x, y, 0) = p . (17.2)
x2 + y 2
According to the angular-spectrum representation, we have
 2 Z Z
1
u(x, y, z) = U (kx , ky )ei(kx x+ky y+kz |z|) dkx dky (17.3)
2

x eller y

Figure 17.1: Wave fronts of a diverging spherical wave.

PHYS 263 side 59

where the angular spectrum U (kx , ky ) is given by

Z Z
U (kx , ky ) = u(x, y, 0)ei(kx x+ky y) dxdy (17.4)

and where q
k 2 kx2 ky2 for k 2 > kx2 + ky2
kz = q (17.5)
i k2 + k2 k2
x y for k 2 < kx2 + ky2 .

17.1 The angular spectrum

Show that the angular spectrum of a spherical wave can be written
Z
U (kx , ky ) = 2 eikt J0 (q, t)dt (17.6)
0

where
q 2 = kx2 + ky2 . (17.7)

Solution: Substituting (17.2) in (17.4), we have

2 2

eik x +y i(kx x+ky y)
Z Z
U (kx , ky ) = p e dxdy. (17.8)
x2 + y 2
We make the change of integration variables

x = r cos
y = r sin
dxdy = rdrd
p
x2 + y 2 = r (17.9)

and let

kx = q cos
ky = q sin
q
kx2 + ky2 = q (17.10)

to obtain
Z Z 2
U (kx , ky ) = eikr eiqr cos() ddr
0 0
Z
ikr
= 2 e J0 (qr)dr. (17.11)
0

17.2 Weyls plane-wave expansion of a spherical wave

Use the formulas Z 
0 0<b<a
J0 (ax) sin(bx)dx = 1
(17.12)
0 b2 a2
0<a<b
PHYS 263 side 60

and
1

Z a2 b2
0<b<a
J0 (ax) cos(bx)dx = a=b (17.13)
0
0 0<a<b

to show th at U (kx , ky ) in (17.6) can be written

2i
U (kx , ky ) = . (17.14)
kz
Use this result to find a plane-wave expansion of a spherical wave.
Solution: We start by rewriting (17.11) as follows:
Z Z 
U (kx , ky ) = 2 J0 (qt) cos(kt)dt + i J0 (qt) sin(kt)dt . (17.15)
0 0

q p
i) Consider first the case in which kz2 > 0. Then we have k = kx2 + ky2 + kz2 = q 2 + kz2 > q, so
that (17.12) and (17.13) give: Z
J0 (qt) cos(kt)dt = 0 (17.16)
0

Z
1 1 1
J0 (qt) sin(kt)dt = p =q = (17.17)
0 k2 q2 k2 kx2 ky2 kz

where we have used (17.5). Substitution of these results in (17.15) gives

2i
U (kx , ky ) = . (17.18)
kz
p
ii) Consider next the case in which kz2 < 0. Then k = q 2 |kz |2 < q, so that (17.12) and (17.13)
give [cf. (17.5)]
Z
1 1 i i
J0 (qt) cos(kt)dt = p =q = q = (17.19)
0
2
q k 2
kx2 + ky2 k 2 i kx2 + ky2 k 2 k z

Z
J0 (qt) sin(kt)dt = 0 (17.20)
0

which upon substitution in (17.15) give

2i
U (kx , ky ) = . (17.21)
kz
Substitution of (17.21) in 17.3 gives
2 Z Z
ei(kx x+ky y+kz |z|)
 Z Z
1 2i i(kx x+ky y+kz |z|) i
u(x, y, z) = e dkx dky = dkx dky
2 kz 2 kz
(17.22)
which is Weyls plane-wave expansion of a spherical wave exp{ikR}/R.
PHYS 263 side 61

Chapter 18

The Airy diffraction pattern

Show that Z 1  
1 2J1 (v)
J0 (vt)tdt = . (18.1)
0 2 v
Hint: The following recursion formulas apply to Bessel functions:
d  n+1
= xn+1 Jn (x)

x Jn+1 (x)
dx
d  n
= xn Jn+1 (x).

x Jn (x) (18.2)
dx

R1  
1 2J1 (v)
Solution: We are to show that I = 0
J0 (vt)tdt = 2 v . By the change of integration variable
x = vt we get: Z v
1
I= 2 xJ0 (x)dx. (18.3)
v 0
0
From the first of the two recursion relations with n = 0 it follows that: [xJ1 (x)] = xJ0 (x), so that
we get:  
1 v J1 (v) 1 2J1 (v)
I = 2 [xJ1 (x)]0 = = . (18.4)
v v 2 v

2J1 (v)
Note: limv0 v = 1.
PHYS 263 side 62

Chapter 19

Integrated energy of the Airy

diffraction pattern

J12 (x)
19.1 Total differential for x

Use the recursion formulas in Exercise 18 with n = 0 to show that

J12 (x) 1 d 2
= [J (x) + J12 (x)]. (19.1)
x 2 dx 0

d

Solution: From dx xn+1 Jn+1 (x) = xn+1 Jn (x) with n = 0 we get:

d
{xJ1 (x)} = xJ0 (x) = J1 (x) + xJ10 (x). (19.2)
dx
J1
We multiply by x on both sides of (19.2) to obtain

J12 (x)
= J1 (x)J10 (x) + J0 (x)J1 (x). (19.3)
x
d
From the recurrence relation dx {xn Jn (x)} = xn Jn+1 (x) with n = 0 we get J00 (x) = J1 (x),
which upon substitution in (19.3) gives:

J12 (x)
= J1 (x)J10 (x) J0 (x)J00 (x)
x
1 d 2
= [J (x) + J12 (x)]. (19.4)
2 dx 0

19.2 Encircled energy

Fraunhofer diffraction through a circular aperture gives rise to the Airy diffraction pattern, so that
the intensity is given by
 2
2J1 (v)
I(v) = C (19.5)
v
where C is a constant and where v is a dimensionless co-ordinate given by
a
v=k r. (19.6)
z2
PHYS 263 side 63

Here r is the distance from the optical axis z = 0 to the observation point. The integrated energy
E(v0 ) inside a circle with dimensionsless radius v0 is given by the integral of I(v) over the circular
area, i.e. Z Z v0 2 Z v0
E(v0 ) = I(v)vdvd = 2 I(v)vdv. (19.7)
0 0 0

The ratio of E(v0 ) to the total energy is called the encircled energy, and is given by
R v0 J12 (v)
E(v0 ) v dv
L(v0 ) = = R0 J12 (v)
. (19.8)
E()
0 v dv

Use the result from (19.1) and the limiting values:

J0 (0) = 1
J1 (0) = J1 () = J0 () = 0 (19.9)

to show that
L(v0 ) = 1 J02 (v0 ) J12 (v0 ). (19.10)

Solution: Apart from a factor 2C, which is the same in the numerator and denominator in (19.8),
we have
Z v0 2
J1 (v)
E(v0 ) = dv
0 v
1
= [J02 (x) + J12 (x)]v00
2
1
= J02 (v0 ) + J12 (v0 ) 1 .

(19.11)
2
Disregarding again the factor 2C, we have E() = 21 , so that

E(v0 )
L(v0 ) = = 1 J02 (v0 ) J12 (v0 ). (19.12)
E()
PHYS 263 side 64

Chapter 20

Fresnel diffraction through an

infinitely large circular aperture

From equation (11.2.7) in the lecture notes [?] we have for the field diffracted through a circular
aperture: Z 1
1 2
uI = C J0 (vt)ei 2 ut tdt (20.1)
0
where
a
v = k r
z2
a2
u = k
z2
2a2 i
C = e
iz2
r2
= k(z2 + ). (20.2)
2z2
Here a is the aperture radius, and the incident field is a normally incident plane wave, as illustrated
in Fig. 20.1.

20.1 Change of variable: vt x

Show that uI can be expressed as:
v
z2 ei
Z
2
uI = J0 (x)eiBx xdx (20.3)
ikr2 0

sirkulr apertur
ui =e ikz observasjons-
r punkt

Figure 20.1: Diffraction trough a circular aperture.

PHYS 263 side 65

where
z2
B= . (20.4)
2kr2

Solution: By the change of integration variable vt = x we get from (20.1):

C v
Z
1 x2
uI = 2 J0 (x)ei 2 u v2 xdx. (20.5)
v 0

Since
C 2a2 z22 z2
= ei = ei
v2 iz2 k 2 a2 r2 ikr2
2
u k az2 z2
= 2 = (20.6)
v2 kr2

k za2 r

we get from (20.5)

v
z2 ei
Z
2 z2
uI = J0 (x)eiBx xdx ; B= . (20.7)
ikr2 0 2kr2

20.2 Infinitely large aperture

When the aperture radius a becomes infinitely large, we get v = k za2 r , so that

z2 ei
Z
2
uI = J0 (x)eiBx xdx. (20.8)
ikr2 0

Use integration by parts together with the results

Z  2
2 1 b
sin(ax )J1 (bx)dx = sin
0 b 4a
Z  2
2 b
cos(ax2 )J1 (bx)dx = sin2 (20.9)
0 b 8a

to show that (20.8) can be written

uI = eikz2 . (20.10)
What is the physical interpretation of this result?
Solution: From (20.8) we have
v
z2 ei
Z  
2
uI = I ; I= J0 (x) eiBx x dx. (20.11)
ikr2 0

2
2
eiBx
We let u = J0 , v 0 = xeiBx v = uv 0 dx = uv u0 vdx, to
R R
, and use integration by parts
2iB
obtain
2
 Z 2
eiBx  eiBx
I = J0 (x)  J00 (x) dx. (20.12)
2iB  0 2iB
0

Since J0 (0) = 1, J0 () = 0 and J00 (x) = J1 (x), we get

 Z 
1 2 2
I= 1 J1 (x)(cos(Bx ) + i sin(Bx ))dx (20.13)
2iB 0
PHYS 263 side 66

which by use of the formulas in (20.9) give:

kr2
    
i 2 1 1 1 1
I= 1 2 sin i sin ; = . (20.14)
2B 2 4B 4B 4B 2z2

Since 2 sin2 x
2= 1 cos x, we get
         
i 1 1 i 1 1
I = cos i sin = cos + i sin
2B 4B 4B 2B 4B 4B
i i 1 2i i 1 kr2 i kr 2
ikr 2 kr 2
= e 4B = e 4B = 2i e 2z2 = ei 2z2 . (20.15)
2B 4B 2z2 z2

Substitution for I from (20.15) and for from (20.2) in (20.11) gives
r2
z2 eik(z2 + 2z2 ) ikr2 i kr 2
uI = e 2z2
= eikz2 . (20.16)
ikr2 z2

The physical interpretation of this result is that when the aperture is infinitely large, the incident
plane propagates along without obstruction of any kind.
PHYS 263 side 67

Chapter 21

Diffraction by a half-plane

The diffracted field resulting when a plane wave is normally incident upon the edge of a half-plane, is
given in terms of so-called detour parameters. The detour parameter i associated with the incident
wave is defined such that ( i )2 is the difference between the phase measured along the diffracted ray
and along the incident ray. Also, i is defined such that i > 0 in the shadow zone of the incident
wave, whereas i < 0 in the lit area. From this definition and Fig. 21.1, we have

( i )2 = k(s D) (21.1)
sgn( i ) = sgn(0 ). (21.2)

21.1 Detour parameter associated with the incident wave

Show from (21.1) and (21.2) that
1
i = 2ks sin ( 0 ). (21.3)
2

Solution: From (21.1) and Fig. (21.1) it follows that

D
( i )2 = ks(1 ) (21.4)
s
or
( i )2 = ks(1 cos( 0 )) (21.5)
q
which by the use of the formula sin x2 = 1cos 2
x
gives

1
( i )2 = 2ks sin2 ( 0 ). (21.6)
2
By use of (21.2) we therefore get
1
i = 2ks sin ( 0 ). (21.7)
2

21.2 Detour parameter associated with the reflected wave

The detour parameter r associated with the reflected wave is defined such that ( r )2 is the difference
between the phase measured along the diffracted ray and along the reflected ray. Also, r is defined
PHYS 263 side 68

0
skuggegrense

observasjons-
ki punkt
D

Figure 21.1: Detour parameter associated with the incident wave.

such that r > 0 in the shadow zone of the reflected wave, whereas r < 0 in the area that is lit by
the reflected wave. Draw a figure and show that
1
r = 2ks sin ( + 0 ). (21.8)
2

Solution: From Fig. 21.2 it follows that

( r )2 = k(s D) (21.9)

or
D
( r )2 = ks(1 ). (21.10)
s
Also, we see from Fig. 21.2 that
D
= cos (21.11)
s
and that
+ = 0 . (21.12)
Since = 2 , we get

+ 2 = 0

= 0 + 2 (21.13)

so that
1
( r )2 = ks(1 cos( + 0 2)) = ks(1 cos( + 0 )) = 2ks sin2 ( + 0 ). (21.14)
2
By definition r > 0 in the shadow zone of the reflected wave, i.e. r > 0 when < 2 0 (see
Fig. 21.2) or when 12 ( + 0 ) < . Thus, we have sgn( r ) = sgn[sin 12 ( + 0 )], and hence

1
r = 2ks sin ( + 0 ). (21.15)
2
PHYS 263 side 69

observasjons-
punkt
bjgje
front
s
D
0
skuggegrense

ki

Figure 21.2: Detour parameter for the reflected wave.

PHYS 263 side 70

Chapter 22

Diffraction through a circular

aperture axial intensity

When a plane wave is normally incident upon a circular aperture, the intensity in the diffraction
pattern is given by
 2 2  Z 1 2
a  i 12 ut2

I= 2
 J0 (vt)e tdt . (22.1)
z2 0
Show that along the axis v = 0 the intensity becomes

I = 4 sin2 (a2 /2z2 ). (22.2)

Sketch the axial intensity as a function of z2 in units of a2 /2. Give a physical interpretation of
this axial interference pattern and explain why the minimum intensity is zero and the maximum
intensity has the value of 4.
Solution: Since u = ka2 /z2 = 2a2 /z2 , the given expression for the intensity distribution becomes
 Z 1 2
i 21 ut2
 
I = u J0 (vt)e tdt . (22.3)
0

Along the axis v = 0 we have (since J0 (0) = 1):

Z 1 Z 1
1 2 1 2
A=u J0 (vt)ei 2 ut tdt = u ei 2 ut tdt. (22.4)
0 0

We let 21 t2 = x, so that tdt = dx and we get:

1 1 u
eiux  2 ei 2 1
Z 2
iux
A = u e dx = u = 2
0 iu 0 2i
u
iu i
u e 4 e 4 u
u
 
= 2ei 4 = 2ei 4 sin . (22.5)
2i 4
Thus, the axial intensity becomes

I = 4 sin2 (u/4) = 4 sin2 (a2 /2z2 ). (22.6)

The axial intensity has maxima when a2 /2z2 = (/2)m, where m = 1, 3, 5, . Thus, we may
write
(m) a2 1
z2max = ; m = 1, 3, 5, . (22.7)
m
PHYS 263 side 71

The axial intensity has zeros when a2 /2z2 = m, where m = 1, 2, 3, . Thus, we may write

(m) a2 1
z2min = ; m = 2, 4, 6, . (22.8)
m

When z2 is expressed in units of a2 /, the intensity has maxima for z2 = 1, 1/3, 1/5, 1/7, , and
minima when z2 = 1/2, 1/4, 1/6, 1/8, . As z2 increases beyond the value of a2 /, the intensity
decays monotonically to zero, and as z2 decreases below the value of a2 /, the intensity oscillates
faster and faster between the values of zero and 4. For an aperture radius of a = 1 mm and a
wavelength of = 0.5 m, we have a2 / = 2 m.
The physical interpretation of this axial interference pattern is that at any observation point on
the axis the distance from the edge to the observation point is the same for all edge-diffracted
rays. Hence the edge-diffracted waves interact to reinforce one another and the resulting wave due
to all edge points is of the same intensity as the incident wave. This explains why we get zero
minimum intensity at axial points where the edge-diffracted wave is out of phase with the incident
wave (destructive interference). The incident plane wave is of unit amplitude, and since the total
edge-diffracted wave has the same amplitude as the incident wave, we get a total amplitude of 2, and
hence an intensity of 4, at axial points where the edge-diffracted wave is in phase with the incident
wave (constructive interference).
PHYS 263 side 72

Chapter 23

Poissons spot

In the diffraction problem illustrated in Fig. 23.1 a point source in the half-space z < 0 radiates a
field ui which is incident upon an aperture A in the plane z = 0. When kR2 >> 1, the diffracted
field is given by Rayleigh-Sommerfelds first diffraction integral, i.e.

eikR2 z2
Z Z
1
uI = ui (x, y, 0) dxdy (23.1)
i A R2 R2
where p
R2 = (x x2 )2 + (y y2 )2 + z2 2 . (23.2)
i
For a normally incident plane wave u (x, y, 0) = 1, and we get
Z Z ikR2
1 e z2
uI = dxdy. (23.3)
i A R2 R2

If ui is due to a point source at (x1 , y1 , z1 ), we get

Z Z (ikR1 +R2 )
1 e z2
uI = dxdy (23.4)
i A R1 R2 R2
where p
R1 = (x x1 )2 + (y y1 )2 + z1 2 . (23.5)

x eller y

observasjons-
punkt i (x 2,y2,z2 )
(x,y,0) R2

z
R1

A
punktkjelde i (x 1,y1,z1)

z=0

Figure 23.1: Diffracted field due to a point source.

PHYS 263 side 73

23.1 Diffraction of a spherical wave through a circular aper-

ture
In the lectures we have shown that when a normally incident plane wave is diffracted through a
circular aperture, the first Rayleigh-Sommerfeld diffraction integral in (23.3) can be expressed as
Z 1
a2 1 2
uIA = iC1 2 J0 (vt)ei 2 ut tdt (23.6)
z2 0
where
a
v = k r
z2
a2
u = k
z2
x2 2 +y2 2
C1 = eik(z2 + 2z2 )
. (23.7)
Equation (23.6) applies provided that the paraxial approximation and the Fresnel approximation are
satisfied. Let x1 = y1 = 0 and use the same approximations to show that (23.4) can be expressed as
Z 1
a2 1 2
uIA = iC2 2 J0 (vt)ei 2 ut tdt (23.8)
z1 z2 0
where  
1 1
C2 = C1 eikz1 ; u = ka2 + . (23.9)
z1 z2
Solution: We use the paraxial approximation
z2 1 1
1 ; (23.10)
R2 R1 R2 z1 z2
and the Fresnel approximation
1 (x xj )2 + (y yj )2
R j zj + ; (j = 1, 2) (23.11)
2 zj
so that we get
xj 2 + yj 2 x2 + y 2 xxj + yyj
R j zj + + (23.12)
2zj 2zj 2zj
x1 2 + y1 2 x2 2 + y2 2 x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 xx1 + yy1 xx2 + yy2
R 1 + R 2 z1 + z2 + + + + . (23.13)
2z1 2z2 2z1 2z2 2z1 2z2
We let the point source lie on the axis, so that x1 = y1 = 0, and we introduce polar co-ordinates:
x = cos ; y = sin
x2 = r cos ; y2 = r sin (23.14)
so that (23.4) gives:
Z a Z 2
C2 kr k 1 1 2
uI = ei z2 cos()
dei 2 ( z1 + z2 ) d (23.15)
iz1 z2 0 0
where
C2 = C1 eikz1 . (23.16)
Letting = at, we get
1
a2
Z
1 2
uIA = iC1 2 J0 (vt)ei 2 ut tdt (23.17)
z1 z2 0
where  
ikz1 2 1 1
C2 = C1 e ; u = ka + (23.18)
z1 z2
which was to be proven.
PHYS 263 side 74

23.2 Opaque disc

Let the incident field be a normally incident plane wave, and let the circular aperture be replaced
by a circular disc. Show that the diffracted field then is given by

uIS = eikz2 uIA (23.19)

where uIA is given by (23.6).

Solution: When we replace an aperture with an opaque disc of the same shape, we can use Babinets
principle, according to which uIS = ui uIA , where uIS og uIA are the diffracted fields due to the
disc and the aperure, respectively. In the present case ui = eikz2 , and therefore we obtain (23.19).

23.3 Proof of Babinets principle

Let A be the aperture that is complementary to A, so that A + A covers the whole plane z = 0.
Then we have
Z Z  ikR2 
1 i e
uIA = u dxdy
2 A z 2 R2
Z Z  ikR2 
1 e
uIS = ui dxdy
2 A z 2 R2
Z Z  ikR2 
1 e
= ui dxdy
2 z2 R2
 Z Z  ikR2  
1 e
ui dxdy . (23.20)
2 A z2 R2

The first integral gives after the last equality sign in (23.20) gives ui , because the integration is over
the entire plane (i.e. no edge diffraction) and the final integral in (23.20) gives uIA . Thus, we have
Babinets principle, uIS = ui uIA .

23.4 Axial field - incident plane wave

Show that on the axis v = 0 we get from (23.19)
2
r


ik z2 + 2z
uIS = e 2 (23.21)

which implies that the intensity everywhere on the axis behind an opaque circular disc is the same
as the intensity of the incident plane wave! This bright spot is P oisson0 s spot, named after Poisson
who first predicted it on the basis of Fresnels wave theory. Poisson used this bright spot as a proof
against the wave theory. But when Arago soon afterwards carried out the experiment, he observed
the bright spot on the axis.
Solution: On the axis x2 = y2 = 0 we have [see (23.6)]:

2 a2
uIA = +ieikz2 uJ ; u=
z2
Z 1
1 2 1 2
J= ei 2 ut dt ; t = x tdt = dx (23.22)
0 2
PHYS 263 side 75
1 1 u
eiux  2 ei 2 1
Z 2
iux
J= e dx = =
0 iu 0 iu
u
uIA = eikz2 (ei 2 1). (23.23)

Thus, we have from (23.19)

u a2
uIS = eikz2 uIA = eikz2 +i 2 = eik(z2 + 2z2 ) . (23.24)

The intensity becomes

|uIS |2 = |uI |2 . (23.25)

23.5 Axial field - incident spherical wave

Repeat the derivations in Exercises 23.2 and 23.4 for an incident diverging spherical wave, so
that (23.8) applies. Consider the special case in which z1 = z2 and try to simplify the result as
much as possible.
Solution: According to Babinets principle we have uIS = U i uIA . At the point x2 = y2 = 0 on
the axis ui is given by:
eik(z1 +z2 )
ui = (23.26)
z1 + z2
and from (23.8) with x2 = y2 = v = 0 we get
u
a2 ei 2 1
uIA = ieik(z1 +z2 ) k . (23.27)
z1 z2 iu

Since u = ka2 ( z11 + 1

z2 ) [see (23.9)], we get

eik(z1 +z2 )+iu/2

uIA = ui + (23.28)
z1 + z2
so that n  o
a2
exp ik (z1 + z2 ) 1 + 2z1 z2 )
uIS = ui uIA = . (23.29)
z1 + z2
The on-axis intensity becomes
 2
1
|uIS |2 = = |ui |2 . (23.30)
z1 + z2
Thus, on the axis behind a circular opaque disc the intensity is the same as if the disc were removed!
If we let z1 = z2 , we get
 2
2 1 1
|uIS | = (23.31)
4 z1
which implies that the intensity at this observation point on the axis is one quarter of the incident
intensity at the center of the disc. When z1 >> z2 ,we get from (23.30)
 2 !2  2
2 1 1 1
|uIS | = (23.32)
z1 1 + zz21 z1
 2
where z11 is the intensity of the incident wave at the center of the disc, in accordance with the
result from Exercise 23.4.
PHYS 263 side 76

Chapter 24

Fraunhofer diffraction at oblique

incidence and interference between
the fields diffracted through two
apertures

In the lectures we have shown that the diffracted field in the Fraunhofer zone is given by
Z Z
C1 0 0
uI = ui (x, y, 0)t(x, y)ei(kx x+ky y) dxdy (24.1)
iz2

where  
x2 2 +y2 2
ik z2 + 2z2 kx2 ky2
C1 = e ; kx0 = ; ky0 = (24.2)
z2 z2
and where ui is the incident field and t(x, y) is the transmission function of the aperture. Let us
assume that t(x, y) has the value 1 when (x, y) lies inside the aperture A and the value zero when
(x, y) lies outside A.

24.1 Fourier representation at oblique incidence

Show that for an obliquely incident plane wave with wave vector

ki = kx i ex + ky i ey + kz i ez (24.3)

the diffracted field becomes Z Z

C1
uI = ei(Kx x+Ky y) dxdy (24.4)
iz2 A
where
Kx = kx0 kxi ; Ky = ky0 kyi . (24.5)

Solution: The obliquely incident plane is given by

ui = eikr = ei(kx
i
x+ky i y+kz i z)
(24.6)
PHYS 263 side 77

ki

0
z

Figure 24.1: The incident plane wave makes an angle 0 with the z axis.

which upon substitution in (24.1) gives:

Z Z
C1 i i 0 0
uI = ei(kx x+ky y) ei(kx x+ky x) dxdy
iz2
Z ZA
C1
= ei(Kx x+Ky y) dxdy (24.7)
iz2 A
where
Kx = kx 0 kx i ; Ky = ky 0 ky i (24.8)
which was to be shown.

24.2 Airy diffraction pattern at oblique incidence

Let ki lie in the (y, z) plane and make an angle 0 with the positive z axis, and let the aperture be
circular with radius a and with centre at x = y = 0, as shown in Fig. 24.1. Determine the diffracted
field in the Fraunhofer zone. Simplify the expression as much as possible, and compare the result
with that found previously for Fraunhofer diffraction through a circular aperture when the plane
wave is normally incident.
Solution: From the information given in the Exercise and from (24.8) we have:
ki = k sin 0 ey + k cos 0 ez
kx i = 0
kx2
Kx = kx 0 =
z2
y2
Ky = ky ky i = k k sin 0 .
0
(24.9)
z2
We introduce polar co-ordinates
Kx = K cos
Ky = K sin
" 2  2 #
x2 y2
K2 = Kx 2 + Ky 2 = k 2 + sin 0
z2 z2
x = at cos
y = at sin
dxdy = a2 tdtd (24.10)
PHYS 263 side 78

and get
Kx x + Ky y = Kat cos ( ) (24.11)
which upon substitution in (24.4) gives
Z 1  Z 2 
C1 1
uI = 2a2 ei(Kat cos ()) d tdt
iz2 0 2 0
Z 1
C1
= 2a2 J0 (Kat)tdt
iz2 0
Z 1
C1
= 2a2 J0 (vt)tdt
iz2 0
(24.12)

where s 
2  2
x2 y2
v = Ka = ka + sin 0 . (24.13)
z2 z2
Letting vt = x, we get Z 1 Z v
1
I= J0 (vt)tdt = J0 (x)xdx (24.14)
0 v 2 0

which by use of the relation [xJ1 (x)]0 = xJ0 (x) gives

J1 (v)
I= . (24.15)
v
Thus, the diffracted field becomes

C1 a2
 
2J1 (v)
uI = (24.16)
iz2 v

and the intensity distribution becomes

2  2
a2

2J1 (v)
I = |uI |2 = (24.17)
z2 v

where s 
2  2
x2 y2
v = Ka = ka + sin 0 . (24.18)
z2 z2
At normal incidence 0 = 0, we get:
a p
v = v = k r ; r= x2 2 + y2 2 (24.19)
z2
in accordance with the result we found previously.
Thus, at oblique incidence upon a circular aperture, we get an Airy diffraction pattern centered at
x2 = 0, y2 = y20 = z2 sin 0 z2 tan 0 , where the last approximation follows from the fact that 0
must be small for the paraxial approximation to hold. From Fig. 24.2 we see that the center of the
Airy diffraction pattern is at that point where the incident wave vector ki through the center of the
aperture hits the observation plane.
PHYS 263 side 79

ki

y20
0 Sentrum i
Airy mnsteret
z2 z

sirkulr
apertur

Figure 24.2: The center of the Airy diffraction pattern is at the point where ki through the center
of the aperture hits the observation plane.

y y=y- 1

A x=x- 1
s
0

Figure 24.3: The aperture A0 is displaced relative to A

24.3 Aperture displacement

Show that if we displace the aperture A in the plane z = 0 in (24.4) a distance s in a direction that
makes an angle 0 with the positive x axis, then the diffracted field u0I due to the new aperture A0
is given by
u0I = uI ei(Kx 1 +Ky 1 ) (24.20)
where
1 = s cos 0 ; 1 = s sin 0 (24.21)
0 0 0
is the origin in a displaced co-ordinate system (x , y ) that is related to A in the same way as the
original co-ordinate system (x, y) is related to A
Solution: A og A0 are identical apertures, which are displaced relative to one another, as illustrated
in Fig. 24.3. The diffracted field due to A0 is given by:
Z Z
C1
u0I = ei(Kx x+Ky y) dxdy. (24.22)
iz2 A0

Letting x0 = x 1 og y 0 = y 1 , we get
Z Z
C1 i(Kx 1 +Ky 1 ) 0 0
u0I = e ei(Kx x +Ky y ) dx0 dy 0
iz2 A0
PHYS 263 side 80
Z Z
C1
= ei(Kx 1 +Ky 1 ) ei(Kx x+Ky y) dxdy (24.23)
iz2 A

or
u0I = uI ei(Kx 1 +Ky 1 ) (24.24)
which was to be shown.

24.4 Interference
Use the result from Exercise 24.3 to show that the diffracted intensity due to both A and A0 is given
by  
1
I = 4I0 cos2 (24.25)
2
where I0 is the intensity due to A or A0 alone, and where

= Kx 1 + Ky 1 . (24.26)

Solution: The diffracted field uIt due to A and A0 becomes

uIt = uI + u0I = uI (1 + ei ) (24.27)

where = Kx 1 + Ky 1 and where uI is the diffracted field due to A alone. The intensity becomes:

It = |uIt |2 = |uI |2 (2 + 2 cos ) = 2I0 (1 + cos ) (24.28)

or

It = 4I0 cos2 (24.29)
2
where
I0 = |uI |2 . (24.30)

24.5 Example
Sketch the diffraction pattern given by (24.25) for the case in which we have two circular apertures
with radius a = 0.1 mm and normal incidence. Let the other parameters be 0 = 0, s = 1 mm, =
0.5 m, and z2 = 10 m. How large is the diameter of the Airy disc, and how many dark interference
fringes are there inside the Airy disc?
Solution: For two circular apertures I0 is the Airy diffraction pattern and cos2 21 gives straight
interference fringes that are oriented normally to the line connecting the two apertures. This is
illustrated in Fig. 24.4. The diameter of the Airy disc is given by D = 2r0 , where v0 = k za2 r0 = 3.83.
This gives
z  10
2
D = 2.44 = 2.44 0.5 106 m = 6.1 cm. (24.31)
2a 2 0.1 103
The factor cos2 12 gives a dark interference fringe when

1
= (n + ) ; (n = 1, 2, 3, ...)
2 2

= n2 + . (24.32)
PHYS 263 side 81

Figure 24.4: The Airy diffraction pattern due to one circular aperture with interference fringes
superposed upon it due to the interaction between the fields diffracted by two circular apertures of
the same size.

We have that

= Kx 1 + Ky 1 = Ks cos cos 0 + Ks sin sin 0 = Ks cos( 0 ). (24.33)

Normal incidence means that 0 = 0, and 0 = 0 means that A0 lies on the x axis (see Fig 24.3). If
y2 = 0 then (24.9) shows at Ky = 0, and then it follows from (24.10) that = 0. Substituting from
the third equation in (24.10) into (24.33), we have:
x2 2sx2
= Ks = ks = . (24.34)
z2 z2
Since x2 < 6.1 cm, we get on substituting the given values of s = 1 mm, = 0.5 m, and z2 = 10
m into (24.34)
< 2 12.2. (24.35)
Thus, there will be 12 dark fringes inside the Airy diffraction pattern.