Steady-State Sinusoidal (AC) Analysis Many important applications in electrical engineering involve AC (sinusoidal) currents and voltages. Electric power is distributed worldwide using AC signals with a frequency of either 50 or 60 Hz (60 Hz in the United States). The transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves necessary in any wireless application involves AC signals. Even non-AC signals (such as digital signals) are commonly analyzed using Fourier analysis which is based on the fact that any time-variant signal can be expressed as the superposition of AC signals. When AC signals are initially applied to electric circuits (usually, via a switch), transient responses are produced in the circuit that decay to zero overtime. Circuit responses determined using steady-state AC analysis are those found after the transients responses have decayed to zero. Effective (RMS) Values of Periodic Signals Given an arbitrary periodic voltage v(4) applied to a resistor as shown below, the instantaneous power p() delivered to the resistor can be shown to vary with time. The instantaneous power can be written in terms of any two of the three circuit parameters given in Ohm’s law. v(t) R P(t) = v(t)i(t) = PCR = io) The average power(P,,)canbedetermined (S) ER by integrating the instantaneous power over = one period (7) and dividing by the period so that +t +7 zl eal a Prvg p(t)dt re i) v*(t)dt t where the integration interval begins at some arbitrary time t,,We would like to define an effective value for the periodic resistor voltage [Vj] that when inserted into the “DC” power equation, gives the average power in the resistor. That is (tT 2 eee f v?(t)dt = Ving f ‘ a T Thus, the effective voltage is designated at the root-mean-square or rms voltage (V,.,,). The term “root-mean-square” comes from the mathematical operation on the voltage (taking the square root of the mean of the square of the voltage). The same effective current definition can be made for a periodic current flowing through a resistor. The average power in terms of the periodic current is given by 1+T f P(tdt =1Z,R fy Solving this equation for the effective current gives (iP Ler, a f i(t)dt =1n, fo where the same mathematical operation is performed on the periodic current. Thus, the effective current is also designated as the rms current Cans).Effective (RMS) Values of AC Signals As previously shown, a sinusoidal current or voltage can be defined with three fundamental parameters: the amplitude (or peak value), the frequency and the phase angle. The AC voltage is given by v(t) = V,cos(wt+8) 1 ie where V, is the voltage amplitude, is the radian frequency and @ is the phase angle. —-v() © v(t) R Writing the resistor instantaneous power in - terms of the resistor voltage gives et! + pit) = “O. Et cos?(w1+8) Note that the peak instantaneous power is equal to V,,,°/R while the minimum instantaneous power is zero. The average power (P,,,) can be determined by integrating the instantaneous power over one period (7) and dividing by the period so that 1+T 1+T 1+T Pag == rf Od ae f Y v?(t)dt = Pt Yn f cos’(wt +0) dt where the integration interval begins at some arbitrary time f,. Making the following change of variable ot +8=or' = oe = dt = dt’ oO tt, ad =t,+8 © t=1,+T = t=t+T+® oO the average power integral becomes8 ered _ : _ peak 2061") dt! Ge Fe f cos*(w t’) dt’ e 4 o If we select the arbitrary start of the time interval to be the average power integral becomes 207 i peak 202") dt! = cos?(wt') dt re i) (or) avg 2 . ; _ Voc | T , sin(2@7) TR|2 40 | The second term in the last expression above is zero since @T=2nfT=2n = — sin(2wT)=sin(4n)=0 The average power in the resistor is then es 7] eileen “ TR {2 2R Thus, the average power in the resistor is one-half of the peak instantaneous power for any AC voltage. Equating the average power expression with the definition of the effective or rms voltage gives 2 2 = Voeak = Ui V, Pag = Po en ae AC voltage oe RoR mo ( age)The same derivation could be performed for an AC resistor current. The resulting relationship for the rms current is 2 _ 1 yg = = DgR > Tgy = PE (AC current) 29 mo Normally, in AC an analysis, we work with rms values of voltage and current, as opposed to peak values. If the complete signal representation is given, there is no confusion with regard to peak or rms values. However, when shorthand notation is used, we must be clear in the designation of the signal units. We use units of V-rms or A-rms for rms values. For example, the following source designations are equivalent. 5cos(120at) V y2 As an example of peak and rms units, the residential voltage in the US power system is a nominal 115 V-rms at 60 Hz. Therefore, the peak value of the AC voltage is Vreat = V2 V ns = V2 (115) = 162.6 V It should be noted that this relationship between peak and rms values is only valid for sinusoidal signals. The peak to rms scaling factor for other time-varying signals must be determined according to the rms integral definition.Example (Triangle wave rms value) Determine the rms value of the general triangle wave voltage shown below. vd) [V] v2 T = ES f Pat = Tey 2 Voeat _ V peak 3 8AC Circuit Analysis and Phasors The mathematics associated with AC circuit analysis can be greatly simplified by transforming the instantaneous sinusoidal signals (in the time- domain) into complex-valued phasors (in the frequency domain). The real- valued instantaneous voltage and current [v(é) and i(d)] are transformed into the complex-valued phasor voltage and current [V and I] where we use boldface letters to denote a complex-valued phasor. Time-domain Frequency-domain (instantaneous quantities) (phasors) V(t) = VieqC08(@t+0,) => V= Vicar 48, I(t) = Lpeq4008(@t + 8,) T= Thea! 8, We will perform the AC circuit analysis in the frequency-domain and transform the results back into the time-domain. The primary advantage to performing the circuit analysis in the frequency-domain is the elimination of derivatives and integrals of currents and voltages which occur in the time-domain for inductors and capacitors. These time-domain derivatives and integrals transform into simple algebraic expressions in the frequency- domain. Time-Domain Frequency-Domain Integro-differential Algebraic equations in equations in terms of | <> terms of phasor | instantaneous currents currents and voltages | | and voltages | The transformation of a time-domain signal to a frequency-domain signal is based on Euler's identity. e/°t = cos(wf) + jsin(wt) (Euler's identity)A phasor voltage or current is completely described by its magnitude (V,,.44 or J...) and phase (8, or 0,) in the complex plane. Alternatively, phasors can be written in terms of real and imaginary components. The phasor voltage V in the figure above can be written in any of the following forms: Ves, peak =V,+jV, (real + imaginary) 26, (magnitude and phase) “Frm + IV peck Sin 8, [cos6, +jsin9,] 1) = Vea? Y eat When manipulating phasors, certain mathematical operations are performed more efficiently in magnitude/phase form (multiplication and division of phasors) while others are performed more efficiently in real+imaginary form (addition and subtraction of phasors)Assume that we are given two arbitrary phasors V, and V, as shown in the figure below. Vi=V,28,=7,, +54, V,=V, £8, = Vy, +iVay Addition (use real + imaginary) Vit Va = (Vip IV) * Vay + iV ag) = Vig + Vag) +1Ms * Von) Subtraction (use real + imaginary) Vs Va = Vay IV i) ~ Var * Vay) = Vay ~ Vay) +I Va Yaad Multiplication (use magnitude/phase) V,V,=(V,28,) (V,49,) = V,V,4(8,+ 8,) Division (use magnitude/phase)Given the general expressions for the instantaneous AC voltage and current [v(2), i(d)] defined by v(t) = Vee eak©OS( Ot +8,,) I(t) = Tpeq4608(@t+8,) the transformation of the instantaneous quantities into phasors (and the inverse transformation) may be determined by applying Euler’s identity. v(t)= V yeak©OS (Ot +6) = RelVreg "|= Re((v, peat’ lel] = Re[ Vel] i(t) =I, gOS (cot + 8,) a Relea] = Rel(i,. eal eca| = Re[Te!*"] The time-domain and frequency-domain signals are related by Time-domain Free = in (instantaneous quantities) (phasors) V(t) = Vege 00S(@t+8,) <=> V=V ic 9, (1) = I,.44008(t+0,) T= Iyeay! 8, Note that given an arbitrary voltage or current phasor in the frequency- domain, the corresponding instantaneous quantity is found by multiplying the phasor by e“ and taking the real part of the product. v(t) = Re[ Vel®] i(t) = Re[ Ie!"Impedance of Circuit Elements The impedance of a circuit element is defined as the ratio of the phasor voltage across the element to the phasor current through the element (units = Q). We can determine the impedance of resistors, capacitors and inductors using the time-domain terminal characteristics for each element. Resistor Impedance Time-domain Frequency-domain . eo _ |e vat) SR Vi, & Zp va(t) = Vea ©0S(@t+8,) Va =V year’ 8, vet) — Voeae _ ip(t) = = cos(wr+8 Tnp= "20 ig(t) =H = 2 cos(or+8,) T= B28, Zp Vr - Vjeak 0, Th peak / Q “ROY Z,=R Note that the resistor voltage and current are in-phase (same phase angle). The resistor impedance is purely real and is independent of frequency.Capacitor Impedance Time-domain + fic) v(t) | Ee V(t) = V peak 00S (wt + 8,) ‘peak’ = Cl-oF, sin(or+8,)] = OCV,,c08(wt+8, +90) I= 0CV, ‘pear 4 (8, + 90°) Zo= ls Vea £9, Z(8, +90) OCV eat Note that the capacitor voltage and current are out of phase by 90° (the capacitor current always leads the capacitor voltage by 90°). The capacitor impedance is purely imaginary and is inversely proportional to frequency. The capacitor impedance is very large at low frequencies and very small at high frequencies.Inductor nce Time-domain . jo v(t) SL I(t) = Teak ©OS(@t + 8;) =L[-o1,,,Sin(wt+0,)] =oLl ‘peak’ Note that the inductor voltage and current are out of phase by 90° (the inductor current always /ags the inductor voltage by 90°). The inductor impedance purely imaginary and is directly proportional to frequency. The inductor impedance is very small at low frequencies and very large at high frequencies. cos(wr+8, +90") Frequency + i Vi EZ, I, = Teak 8, V = OLD ay 4 (0, +90") ~~ Z,-— oT _ OLD y/ (8, #90?) Tear“ ®y = L290’ =joLGeneral Complex Impedances While the impedance ofa resistor is purely real and the impedance of inductors and capacitors are purely imaginary, combinations of these elements produce impedances that are, in general, complex. The general impedance Z can be written in terms of real and imaginary components as Mi p = =R+jX (Q) I where R is the resistance and Xs the reactance. Resistors contribute to the real part (resistance) of the general impedance while ideal capacitors and inductors contribute only to the reactance. 1 Zp=R Z,=joLl Z R Lad jac Note that the reactance of an inductor is positive while the reactance of a capacitor is negative. Alternatively, we can define the inverse of impedance which is defined as admittance (¥). ff Y =G+jB (OorS Vee oe) - Zz The real part of the admittance (G) is the conductance while the imaginary part of the admittance (B) is the susceptance. The admittance of a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor are 1 1 y, ¥,=joCAC Circuit Analysis Techniques The basic circuit analysis techniques that have been demonstrated for resistive circuits are also valid for AC analysis. These techniques include KVL, KCL, voltage division, current division, nodal analysis, mesh analysis, Thevenin and Norton equivalent sources, source transformations, and superposition. In addition, all circuit elements are governed by a current/voltage relationship that follows Ohm’s law: V=IZ Given an AC circuit where all sources operate at the same frequency, the procedure to perform AC analysis follows three basic steps. (1) Replace all instantaneous sources by their phasor equivalents (2) Replace all passive components by their impedances at the source frequency. (3) Analyze the circuit using standard circuit analysis techniques. Series/Parallel Impedances and Admittances Consider N passive elements in series with an AC source. The : frequency-domain equivalent circuit T eat (source in phasor form, passive Z\V, elements replaced by impedances at the source frequency) is shown below. The : phasor voltages across the individual zn VAUA impedances are ye 1 V, =1Z, V,=1Z, ely, Vy =AZ, N NApplying KVL around the series circuit gives VeV Vy + +Vy =T[Z,+Z,+~+Zy] =1Z, Thus, the N impedances in series can be combined into one equivalent impedance reducing the circuit to the voltage source in series with Z,,. Zo =Z,+Z,+~+Zy (series impedances) Consider N impedances in parallel as shown in the figure below. Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit givesThe equivalent impedance is given by 1 N 1 st,tle-. Z, + (parallel iimpedances) a Zo Zz, Note that each of the terms in the parallel impedances equation could be replaced by its respective admittance to yield.. ee H¥,+Y,+-+¥y (parallel admittances) Example (AC analysis, series RC circuit) Determine the voltage v,(¢) in the RC circuit using AC analysis assuming v,(t) = V_,4COS@t (V). Time-domain Frequency-domain >aRCc V= Vyea £0"_ ll Ve" Vest To ]@RC The instantaneous capacitor voltage is found by multiplying the phasor capacitor voltage by e” and taking the real part of the result. V, v(t) = Re peak __ pjot 1+jaRC = Re| —Y peat 1 =JORC gjor 1+j@RC 1-joRC V, = 24 __ Re {(1 - wRO) [cos(w#) +jsin(w#)]} 1+(@RCY = eat __ [cos(wt) +@RCsin(w2)] 1+(@RCYExample (AC analysis, series and parallel impedances) Determine the currents i,(0), i,(¢) and i,(0) in the circuit below using AC analysis. C= 50 UF Ry i) 1 : v,()=12cos( 10002) vG) Transformation of the instantaneous source into a phasor source: v,(t) = 12cos(10007) V = V,=1220°V Element impedances at the source frequency (w = 1000 rad/s): _ Z,,=R, =2Q Zp, = Rs =40 Z,,=jol, =j(1000)(2x10") =j2 Q Z,,=jol, = j(1000)(6x10") = 76 Q Le = © FOC (1000)(250« 10") Cc Circuit redrawn with phasor quantities labeled:Ve12c0 vt We can combine series impedances to reduce the circuit above to the following circuit. 44j2.Q V=1220°V where Z,,=20 ‘eq! Zug =(24]2)Q Zags =(-4 +4 +76) = (4 +72) {> The equivalent impedances Z.,:, Zs and Z.,; can be combined into a single impedance [Z,,, in series with (Z,,. in parallel with Z,,,)] given by var0v Z, Z, eg3 Z, Zug 2 Zig # pecieeee Zea * LogsSpy CRAIGS) py (GRAY) “ (24J2)+(4+j2) (6 +j4) _2(6+4) + (44712) _ 16 +j20 (6 +4) 6+j4 = 25.6 ¢ 51.3? =3.55/17.6° Q 7.21 £33.7° The phasor current J, drawn from the voltage source V, is a. a We can use current division to determine the phasor currents J, and J,. Z. I, =1, —®@— =1332-63° A bat Lon + Legs 7 1, =1, ——*8— =2.10 2 -24.8° A Lan a Zags The corresponding time-domain currents are i,(t) = 3.38cos(10002-17.6°) A i,(t) = 1.33cos( 10001 -6.3°) A i,(1) = 2.10cos(10001-24.8°) A If we wish to verify that KCL holds true for our AC analysis results at a particular node, we cannot simply check the current amplitudes. The different phase angles (time shifts) on the currents mean that the peak currents do not occur simultaneously. We can evaluate the instantaneous currents at an arbitary time to verify KCL. Another alternative is to graphically plot the phasor currents (and voltages) on a phasor diagram.The phasor diagram for the currents I,, Jy and I, is shown below. The KCL relationship for these currents is T=E+t, We see that the current phasors add in the proper way (like adding vector forces and determining the resultant force with the parallelogram law). The same concept can be used to verify KVL around any loop in an AC circuit. Phasor currents and voltages can be shown on the same phasor diagram to graphically illustrated the phase differences between these quantities.Example (AC Mesh Analysis) Determine the currents in the previous example using mesh analysis. We first define mesh currents J, and J, matching those currents defined in the previous example. ve220 VC Writing the KVL equations for the two meshes gives mesh 1 ~ 12 - 27, - (2+j2)U, -£,) =0 mesh 2 0 = (2 +f2)()-I,) - (-j4 +4 +76), = 0 Rearranging terms gives (4+72)1, - (2 +72)K, = 12 (2+j2)f, - (6+/4)L, =0 The equations in matrix form are i, 1, (44j2) -(2472) (24j2) -(6 +4) 12 0Solving for the mesh currents gives 12 -(2+j2) “(644 1-2 COI 5387-176 (4+j2) -(2+j2) (2+j2) -(6+/4) (4+j2) 12 (242) 0 (4472) rae (2472) -(6+74) = 133 2-6.3°A The third phasor current J, is related to the mesh currents by I, =1, ~1,=2.10 2 -24.8° AExample (AC Nodal Analysis) Determine the currents in the previous example using nodal analysis. The problem can be solved by defining one unknown phasor node voltage WV). j4Q 20 nov, by | AWW je Ik j2a z40 V=1220° V+) 20 Esa Applying KCL at the single node yields the following equation. 1 2 2472 44j2 12-y, Y, v, node 1 ~ = + Grouping terms involving the unknown node voltage and solving for V; gives 1 1 + V, =6 2+j2 44j2 1 1 ao 2 _ The phasor currents are given by12-¥, = 3.38 /-17.6°A V, 133 2-6.3°A 4+j2 Vy, =—L =2.10 2-24.89 A 2+)2 3 Example (AC Analysis / Thevenin equivalent circuit) Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the circuit below assuming that = 10 rad/s. i=50cos(or+45°) A(T) R Transformation of the instantaneous source into a phasor source: i,(t) = 50cos(10*r +45?) A = T,=50245° A Element impedances at the source frequency (w = 10* rad/s): Z,= R= 4002Z,=joL =j(10\(10%) =710 Q Z- 7 Sue 1 © jeC (10*(5x10") 1=50245° A(t) The open-circuit phasor Thevenin voltage (V,) is V,=1,R = (50.245) 400 = 2104245 V The Thevenin impedance (Z) is found after zeroing out (open-circuiting) the current source., = F10)(920) 499 - 200. 409 = (400 +20) 710 -j20 = “0 ‘The resulting Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown below. (400+20) @ Zz, ) V,=2x10'245° V G [__o The relationship between Thevenin and Norton equivalent AC circuits is V-1,2, so that the current source in the Norton equivalent circuit is V, =49.9242.1° A r= FZAC Power The voltage and current associated with any element in an AC circuit can be written in general form as VD) = Voeat cos(wr + 8,) i(d =1, Ireak cos(wt + 8,) where 0, and 6, are the phase angles of the voltage and current, respectively. The instantaneous power is in the circuit element is given by the product of voltage and current so that PO) = VDI = Vyeatl peak COS (Ot + 8,)cos(wr + 8,) Using the trigonometric identity, [cos(b,-6,) + cos(,+,)] cosh, cos, the instantaneous power becomes V reat, P= oe [cos(8, - 0,) + cos(2wr + 8, + 8,)] Note that the instantaneous power p(*) is represented as the sum of a DC (time-invariant) component and an oscillatory component at twice the frequency of the instantaneous current i(#) and voltage v(¢). Thus, the instantaneous power in an AC circuit element is oscillatory. According to our passive sign convention on power, positive values of p(#) represent real power being delivered to the element while negative values of p(?) represent power being supplied by the element. The time average power (P) in watts for the circuit element is defined as the integral of the instantaneous power over one period, divided by the period, or t,+T Pee f p@a %Inserting the expression for the AC instantaneous power gives 1tT Val, Ps ; f a [cos(8, - 8,) + cos(2or + @, + 0,)]dt % vo. tT t+T Gare cos(8,-0,) f dt f cos(2wt +6, + 8,) de t fo fo The first integral in the previous equation is equal to the period 7 while the second integral is equal to zero (the integral of a cosine function over two periods). The time average power for the circuit element becomes ae P = —Pesk peak cos(Q, - 0.) If we express the peak voltage and current in terms of rms values, Voeat V2 Vins Tpeat. = V2 Tams the time-average power becomes P= Vonclims©08(8, - 9;) rms*rms This equation shows that the time-average power is maximum when the cosine function is unity (when the voltage and current are in phase). The product Of Vix/n is the maximum possible available power and is designated as the apparent power. The cosine function in the average power expression is designated as the power factor (PF). According to the average power expression, the power factor is the ratio of average power (real power) to the apparent power. P Vins! rms" rms PF = cos(6, - 8,) = According to the power factor equation, the time-average power in a capacitor or an inductor is zero given the +90° phase difference between the voltage and the current in these elements.Complex Power and Power Factor The power factor defines the time-domain relationship between real and apparent power in terms of the instantaneous voltage and current phase angles. In the frequency-domain, we define the concept of complex power using the phasor voltage and current. The complex power can be shown to be directly related to the power factor. Given the rms phasor voltage and current in an arbitrary circuit element defined by 8, os : V = Vy, £8, = Vinge" = Voy 6086, + 8iN8,) = Vong *F Ving T= Ig, £0, =Iiyg@? = Tyg 008, +78iN8,) = Lp *HTimag we first define the complex power (S) by taking the product of the phasor voltage and the complex conjugate of the phasor current. The conjugate of the phasor current is used in order to express the complex power in terms of the power factor angle (8,-6,). S=Vr The complex conjugate of the current is T° = Leas Fina = Ans( 6280, ~ j8808,) = Iigg 7! = Ig 2-8, Inserting the complex conjugate of the current into the complex power expression gives S= VT = (Vins £8,) Tims 4-9;) = VinsLoms (8, ~8;) = Vg lmge er rms rms: The complex power can be separated into its real and imaginary components using Euler’s identity. ef) = cos(@, -8,) +jsin(®, - 8,)The complex power becomes S = Vypslins608(8, - 8;) rms*rms + JV instmsSin (8, -8;) = P +7Q where the real part of the complex power (P) is the same time-average power expression found using instantaneous quantities. The real part of the complex power is commonly referred to as the real or average power and can be expressed as the product of the apparent power and the power factor. P = Re{$} = Vou Lpmg008( 0, -9,) = VinneLing(PF) rms rms: rms*rms| real or average power, ‘The imaginary part of the complex power (Q) is commonly referred to as the reactive or quadrature power. reactive or Im{S} = 6,-8 Q = Im{S} = Vipul Sin (8, ~8;) le power Note that the magnitude of the complex power is the apparent power. IS =|Prstims rs rs of] 5 Wier The properties of the complex power and its components can be defined concisely in the complex plane using the power triangle.Power Triangle (Complex power) DS] = Von rms P =|S|cos(6,-98,) Q=|S|sin(®, -8;) PF = cos(0, - 8;) The angle of the complex power (0,~6,) delivered to a particular load is related to the load impedance according to V=IZ 7 SE L(8,-0,) = RIX rms V R= |Z|cos(0,-9,) (resistance) L X=|Z|sin(0,-,) (reactance) Note that the impedance angle is identical to the angle defined in the power factor equation. Thus, this angle is commonly referred to as the power angle. Given that the resistance is always positive and the reactance can be positive (inductive) or negative (capacitive), the range of the impedance angle (and the power factor angle) is (-90° to +90°). Since the cosine function is an even function, this leads to an ambiguity in the power factor definition for positive and negative angles. This ambiguity is resolved by designating the power factor as either leading or lagging, according to the phase of the current with respect to the voltage.Inductive Load (lagging PF) V=Vins£ 0, Im T=Iyy£8; > Re Reactance is positive Reactive power is positive Current lags voltage (6,- 8)>0 Capacitive Load (leading PF) Ting 20; V= Vinge By Reactance is negative Reactive power is negative Current leads voltage (6,- 0) <0Complex Power (unit The complex power, real power and reactive power all have units equivalent to the product of voltage and current. In order to differentiate between these quantities, we define three separate unit designations for the three components of power. Complex power unit= VA —_(Volt-Ampere) Real power P unit = W (Watt) Reactive Power Q unit= VAR — (Volt-Ampere -Reactive) Example (Complex power and power factor) For the source in the circuit shown below, determine (a.) the apparent power (b.) the power factor (c.) the real power (d.) the reactive power (e.) the complex power and (f.) draw the power triangle. Circuit solution: j4.Q 1, = 3.38 L-17.6° A 201 h, I, =1.33 2-63? A 1, =2.10 £-24.8° A V=1220°V Source terms (rms): v.=22 20° v-rms — 1,=338 ¢-17.6° A-ms v2 v2 = 8.4920" V-rms =2.39/-17.6° A-rms(a) [S| = Fup Lms = (8-49)(2.39) = 20.29 VA rms* rms (b.) PF = cos(®, - 8.) = cos(17.6’) = 0.953 lagging (c.) P= VyigLns©08(8, - 9,) = (20.29)(0.953) = 19.34 W (4) = VoggE ng Sin(8, ~ 8,) = (20.29)(0.302) = 6.13 VAR rms*rms (e.) S=P+jQ=(19.34 +7613) VA = VI" =(8.4920°)(2.39 2 17.6°) = 20.292 17.6" VA (f) _ ow \s\ Q=6.13 VAR 0,-0,= 17.6° P=1934W Example (Calculations using power triangles) Two loads are connected to a 1 kV-rms 60 Hz line as shown below. Load A consumes 5kW at a power factor of 0.90 lagging while load B consumes 10 kW ata power factor of 0.80 leading. Determine (a.) the real power delivered by the source (b.) the reactive power delivered by the source (c.) the source apparent power and (d.) the power factor seen by the source. Fine + wy ve 1 kV-rms 60 Hz @[P,=5 kW, PF,=0.9 lagging] (8, -0,), = cos 1(0.9) = 25.8° ee Q,=2.42 KVAR [P,=10 kW, PF,=0.8 leading] (0, -9,), = -cos”!(0.8) = -36.9° s,-—2 - 10-125 eva O, = 82 - Pz = 12.5? - 10? = 7.5 KVAR P,=10kW OQ, = -7.5 KVAR(@) P,=P,+P,=5+10=15 kW (b) — Os= O, +O, =2.42 - 7.5 = -5.08 KVAR (c.) So=fPe+Os=/1 (d) + 5.08? = 15.84 kVAR 15 = 0.947 leading 15.84 Power Factor Correction In a typical power system, the source (V, ) is connected to the load (Z,) through some sort of transmission line. The effect of this transmission line (including losses) can be approximated by a simple impedance (Z,) in series with the load as shown below. I-L,,,£0, => rms’ Tf we draw the power triangle for the load, we see that the apparent power (S| =Jin:Ynms) REcessary to deliver a particular value of real power P to the load increases as the power factor decreases. Given a constant source voltage, the only way to provide the higher apparent power is to supply a larger current which, in turn, increases the transmission line losses. What is necessary is a way of adjusting the PF to a higher level without introducing additional losses.The load power factor can be increased by the simple introduction of a parallel reactance which has the opposite sign of the load reactance. This reduces the reactive power without affecting the real power and increases the power factor. Since most industrial loads are primarily inductive, capacitive compensation is necessary for power factor correction.Example (Power factor correction) A load consumes 50kW at 0.60 lagging power factor when connected toa 10kV-rms (60 Hz) line. Determine the capacitance that must be placed in parallel with this load to increase the power factor to 0.90 lagging. 10 kV-rms 60 Hz cos(8,-0,),=0.60 = (,-6,), =cos!(0.60) = 53.13° a .rrr——C—=FEEDE Q, 2, tan(53.13°) = — 7 an ( ») Pp Q, = 50tan(53.13°) = 66.77 KVAR S, tan(25.84°) = Q ) p Q: Q, = 50tan(25.84°) = 24.21 KVAR : The reactive power that must be provided by the capacitor is Ly L ; | | P=50kW S..=jAQ =j(Q, -Q,) = =742.56 KVAR The reactive power in a capacitor can be written in terms of the voltage across the capacitor (V) as Ve Sco=Velo=Vel oo] = |Vel(iac) c Equating the expressions for capacitor power and solving for C gives GOQ=|VoP(joc) = c=—Ae o|VoP‘The required capacitance is 3 C= 825010" 1.13 uF (120) (104 Maximum Power Transfer in AC Circuits An arbitrary AC circuit connected to a complex load can be modeled by its Thevenin equivalent circuit to obtain the circuit shown below. Note that the Thevenin voltage source is defined in rms units. Zz, Fala V= Vins £8, y | & Z,=R, +X, Z,=R, +X, For maximum power transfer in an AC circuit, we want to maximize the real power delivered to the load (P,). The complex power delivered to the load (S, = VI,’ is (voltage division) (series current) ar VV; Z, _ VP 2, GEE +BY |Z,+2,2 7 “Tae zh RD Ps 8 t LEquating the real parts on both sides of the previous equation gives the real power delivered to the load. Vins Ry Vins Rr [Z,*Z,)? (RRP + (X, +X, P The real power in the load is maximized with respect to the load reactance by minimizing the denominator in the load power expression. This is easily done by choosing The resulting load power is Vins Ry (R,+R,P which is the same function that was maximized for resistive networks by choosing RLeR, ‘The requirements on the real and imaginary components of the load impedance for maximum power transfer show that the load impedance must be the conjugate of the Thevenin resistance for maximum power transfer. Z,=Z; (complex loads) The previous equation holds true for complex loads. In the event that only resistive loads are applicable, maximum power is delivered to the load when R,=|Z,| (resistive loads)Example (Maximum power transfer in AC circuits) Determine the load characteristics for maximum power transfer for the circuit shown below given (a.) a complex load impedance (b.) a purely real load impedance. j25.Q L. j100 QO 50Q v=10020 VE The Thevenin voltage (open-circuit voltage) can be found using voltage division: V, = 10020° i 100 (50 - 750) = 70.71 2 -45° V 00 +/100 The Thevenin impedance is the impedance seen at the circuit terminals after the voltage source is short-circuited, giving : 100)(j100) . Z, = 50 —j25 + (190)109) _ (199 +25) @ ' ae 100 +7100 Cy aa) (a) Z,=Z) = (100-25) Q (b.) — R, = |Z,| = 7100? + 25? = 103.1 QBALANCED THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS The voltages in the three-phase power system are produced by a large rotating machine (synchronous generator). In a balanced system, each of the three instantaneous voltages have equal amplitudes but are separated from the other voltages by a phase angle of 120°. The three voltages (or phases) are typically labeled a, b and c. The common reference point for the three phase voltages is designated as the neutral connection and is labeled as n. We may define either a positive phase sequence (abc) or a negative phase sequence (ach) as shown below. The three sources Vey, Vin and V., are designated as the /ine-to-neutral voltages in the three-phase system. Positive Phase Sequence Negative Phase Sequence Voy = Vong 120° Vay = Vins 120° Vig = Vong O° Van = Vemsl 0° > > Vey = Virgsl.- 120° Vin, = Vogl 120°LINE-TO-LINE VOLTAGES Analternative way of defining the voltages in a balanced three-phase system is to define the voltage differences between the phases. These voltages are designated as line-to-line voltages. The line-to-line voltages can be expressed in terms of the line-to-neutral voltages by applying Kirchoff’s voltage law to the generator circuit, which yields Vas = Van ~ Vin Vee = Vin - Ven Via = Ven Van Inserting the line-to-neutral voltages for a positive phase sequence into the line-to-line equations yields Vg = Vian ~ Vian = Vins £0? = Vn ~ 120° =V,,,[e" =e 72|= v, {1 ~ [cos(120") - jsin(120?)]} rel v3 =V. v3 +f 2 2 2 V, rms rms 8 = ¥3V pq, [1 230°] = V3 Vs £30?V, 10 = V am ~ Ven = Vong £120? = Vipys £120? bn = Vongle 72” - ef] = V,, {[.cos(120°) - jsin(120’)] - [cos(120”) +jsin(120%)]} 8]. V3V ye{ Z 90°] = Vin, [-2jsin(120°)] = V,,, = V3 Voins £90? Sr | =V/, [emt ertler { [cos(120?) + jsin(120”) - 1]} i 1.3 3 +3 ~V3+fl = Vong] GX =| = Voggg| ALE | = 3 Vppe] mS int | 7 V3 Pis| 5 6s fe = (3 Vins £ 150° Ifwe compare the line-to-neutral voltages with the line-to-line voltages, we find the following relationships, Line-to-neutral voltages Line-to-line voltages Vin =Vens £0” = (BV ys £30° Vee 21202 afte 2-90? Vn = Vis £ 120° 1 = V3 V iy, £150?Line-to-line es in terms Vy = VV ge™ V2 VB V 0” Veg BV ge” The equations above show that the magnitudes of the line-to-line voltages in a balanced three-phase system with a positive phase sequence are V3 times the corresponding line-to-neutral voltages and lead these voltages by 30°. = V3V. yo Vog= VW 150" yy Zine -—> Vin a Vy [Zy](16.67+ jo) n N fa) v, Tog = pt = 1082.40" 93,06 2 -3.24° A-nms ZigetZy 1767+j1 Typ = 23.06 £ ( ~3.24?-120°) = 23.06 ¢ ~123.24° A-rms Tg = 23.06 £ ( -3.24° +120) = 23.06 Z 116.76? A-rms(b.) The source currents in the delta-connected source are related to the line currents by Tas oi30" -j3.24? = Dat piso” - 23.06€ 7" 530" = 13,31 226.76" A-tms a 8 Ty= Jon oi0 2 23.06 11232" 8 B 1 116.76" T= 2 elo" - 23.0667" 630” = 13,312 146.76° A-rms “8 v3 Tyg 3 = 13.31 2-93.24? A-rms (c.) The 3- complex power delivered to the load is Soy =3 V oat oad = 3 Uigaa® toad) Moat = 3 igaa |Z toad = 3(23.06)* 16.67 = 26.59 kW Note that the complex power delivered to the load is real since the load was purely resistive. (d.)_ Ina similar fashion, the 3-¢ power delivered to the line is S35 = 3 Vine Mi Tine “line = 3 Dine Zine) Hine = 3 Mine |” Zine = 3(23.06)?(1 +/1) = (1.60 +/1.60) kVA =P +jQ Thus, the power lost in the line is 1.60 kW.