Loadflowandpanel Rev2014 1 170515175212

Load Flow Analysis
January 2014
2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

Outline
Load Flow Concept
Load Flow Requirements
Load Types in Power System
Load Modeling in ETAP
Generator Operation Modes
Generation Modes in ETAP
Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Study Case
Load Flow Analyzer
Reports
Wizards
Panel System
Load Flow Concept
Load Flow Concept
Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Analyzer
Reports
Wizards
Panel System
Load Flow Concept
Load Flow Objectives
Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
Size Equipments
Verify operation conditions based on limits
Validation of data in steady state condition

Load Flow Concept
Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
Voltage Profile
Power Flows
Current Flows
Power Factors
Voltage Drops
Generators Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
Generators MW Demand
Total Generation & Demand
MW & Mvar Losses

Load Flow Concept
Size Equipments & Determine Parameters
Cable
Capacitor
Transformer MVA Capacity
Transformer Tap Setting
Current Limiting Reactor Ratings
MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings
Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)
Generators Mvar Demand
Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV

Load Flow Concept
Verify operation conditions within limits
Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits of Equipment
Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the Maximum Ratings
Acceptable System MW & Mvar Losses
Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
Steady State Stability Limits

Load Flow Concept
Validation of data in steady state condition
Comparison of real time metered data with load flow results

Load Flow Concept
Load Flow Problem
Given:
Power consumption at all buses
Branch impedances in the network
Network Topology (Configuration)
Power production for each generator
Output:
Voltage magnitude and angle at all buses
Power flows on all the branches including power factors
Losses on all branches

Load Flow Concept
Non-Linear System
Calculation Process
Iterative Calculation
Assume Load Voltage VR
(Initial Conditions)
Assume VR
Calculate the Current I
Calc: I = Sload / VR
Based on Current
Calc: Vd = I * Z
Calculate Voltage Drop Vd
Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd
Re-Calculate Load Voltage VR
Re-use VR until results are within the specified precision

Load Flow Concept
Load Flow Calculation Methods
Newton-Raphson
Fast in speed, but high requirement on initial values
First order derivative is used to speed up calculation

Load Flow Concept
Adaptive Newton-Raphson
Fast in speed, but high requirement on initial values
First order derivative is used to speed up calculation

Load Flow Concept
Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method
Low Requirements on initial values
Slow in speed

Load Flow Concept
Fast-Decoupled Method
Two sets of iteration equations: real power voltage angle,
reactive power voltage magnitude in speed, but high
requirement on initial values
Fast in speed, but low in solution precision
Better for radial systems and systems with long lines

Load Flow Concept
Power in Balanced 3-Phase Systems
*
S 1 V LN I
S 3 3 S 1
3 V LL I *
P jQ
Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.

Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor Leading Power Factor Current and Voltage

Load Flow Concept
Leading & Lagging Power Factors
ETAP displays power factor in %
Leading power factor as negative
Lagging power factor as positive
Leading Lagging
Power Power
Factor Factor
P - jQ P + jQ

Load Flow Concept
3-Phase Per Unit System
Three phase power equation

S 3VI

V 3 ZI

Base calculations
kVA B
IB
3kVB
(kVB ) 2
ZB
M VAB
Per unit calculations

I actual Vactual
I pu Vpu 2
IB VB V o
S Bn
Z n
pu Z
o
pu
B
n
o
Z pu
Zactual
Spu
Sactual V B SB
ZB SB
Load Flow Concept
In ETAP:
The base rating is SB = 100 MVA
Base voltage at any point of the system is determined in respect

to the turn ratios of transformers
To determine base voltage:

kVB1
N1
kVB1 kVB2
N2
kVB2
Impedance of transformer in per unit:
X
Z pu x pu
X pu R R pu
X
2
X
1 R
R
Load Flow Concept
Example:
Base voltage calculation across a transformer in ETAP:
Branch impedances in LF report are in percentage
Turn ratio: N1/N2 = 3.31
X/R = 12.14

Load Flow Concept
Example (contd):
0.065(12.14) 0.06478
X pu 0.06478 R pu 0.005336
1 (12.14) 2 12.14
Impedance conversion to 11 MVA base
n stands for new & O stands for old values

2
o VB S Bn
2
13.8 100
o
Z n
pu Z pu n o (5.33 10 3 j 0.06478) (0.1115 j1.3538)
VB B
S 13.5 5
%Z 100 Zpu 11.15 j135.38
The base voltage of the branch impedance (Z1) determined by

transformer turn ratio
kVutility 13.5 VB2 (4.0695) 2
VB 4.0695 ZB 0.165608
3.31
N 1 MVA 100
N 2

Load Flow Concept
Example (contd) :
Zactual (0.1 j1)
Zpu (0.6038 j6.0382)
ZB 0.1656
%Z 100 Zpu 60.38 j603.8
Load flow report generated by ETAP for branches:

Load Flow Concept
Exercise-A1

Load Flow Overview
Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Analyzer
Reports
Wizards
Panel System
ETAP load flow required data
General Equipment Data
Element ID
Nominal / Rated kV
Bus:
%V and Angle
Load Diversity Factor
Branch:
Branch Z, R, X, or X/R values and units, tolerance, and
temperature, if applicable
Cable and transmission line, length, and unit
Transformer rated kV and kVA/MVA, tap, and LTC settings
Impedance base kV and base kVA/MVA

ETAP load flow required data
General Equipment Data
Element ID
Nominal / Rated kV
Bus:
%V and Angle
Load Diversity Factor
Branch:
Branch Z, R, X, or X/R values and units, tolerance, and
temperature, if applicable
Cable and transmission line, length, and unit
Transformer rated kV and kVA/MVA, tap, and LTC settings
Impedance base kV and base kVA/MVA

Load Flow Overview
Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Analyzer
Reports
Wizards
Panel System


Load Flow Overview
Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Analyzer
Reports
Wizards
Panel System
Constant Power (kVA) Loads
Induction Motor
Synchronous Motors
Lumped Load
Power output remains constant regardless of

voltage variations
Lumped loads are combination of constant
power & constant impedance loads

Constant Impedance Loads
Static Load
Motor Operated Valve
Lumped Load
Capacitor
Harmonic Filter
Power & Voltage relation:P V 2
In Load Flow Harmonic Filters may be used as capacitive
loads for Power Factor Correction.
MOVs are modeled as constant impedance loads because
of their operating characteristics.
1996-2008 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 31
Example:
Motor Nameplate Calculation
kWRated HP 0.7457
kVARated
PF Eff PF Eff
kVARated
FLA3
3 kV
kVARated
FLA1
kV
Mtr 2 : PF 90%, EFF 85%

200 0.7457
kVARated 194.95
0.9 0.85
194.95
FLA3 234.48
3 0.48
194.95
FLA1 406.14
0.48

Example (Contd):
Load Calculation
kVA ( kW ) 2 ( kVar ) 2
kW
PF
kVA
kVA
I 3
( 3 kV )
kVA
I1
kV
Load1 : PF 90%, kVA 59.6
kW 59.6 0.9 53.64
kVar (59.6) 2 (53.64) 2 25.97
59.6
I 3 71.69
3 0.48
59.6
I1 124.16
0.48
Constant Current Loads
Current remains constant regardless of
voltage variations
DC Constant current loads are used to test
Battery discharge capacity
AC constant current loads may be used to
test UPS systems performance
DC Constant Current Loads may be
specified in ETAP by defining Load Duty
Cycles

Constant Current Loads (Contd):

Load Type Summary

Generic Loads
Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive Load

Load Flow Overview
Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Analyzer
Reports
Wizards
Panel System
Synchronous Generator & Control System

Generator Excitation System
AVR: automatic voltage regulation
Feedback voltage from generator terminal
Comparison of feedback to reference
voltage in AVR unit
Fixed: fixed excitation (no AVR)

Governor Operating Modes
Isochronous:
This governor setting allows the generators power output to be
adjusted based on the system demand
Frequency (speed) is constant per systems nominal frequency
Droop:
This governor setting allows the generator to be Base Loaded, meaning
that the MW output is fixed at

Isochronous Mode

Droop Mode
Loading Governor
@60Hz Set Point
0% A
25% B
50% C
75% D
100% E

Droop Mode Equal Settings

60Hz and constant loading of
400MW
Equal load sharing
G1 = G2 = 200MW
Droop Mode Unequal Settings
Increase G1 governor setting by
0.3Hz
G2 governor setting must
decrease by 0.3Hz
Unequal load sharing
G1 = 150 MW; G2 = 250MW

Unequal Speed Droops

Initial operating frequency at
60Hz
Initial loading G1 = G2 = 350MW
Effect of load variations
Total increase of load by
350MW
Frequency drop by 0.5Hz
Unequal load sharing
G1 = 600MW; G2 = 450MW

Generator Modes in ETAP
Load Flow Overview
Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Analyzer
Reports
Wizards
Panel System
Generator/Power Grid operating modes used in LF calculation
Swing Mode
Governor in Isochronous mode
Automatic Voltage Regulator
Voltage Control
Governor in Droop Mode
Automatic Voltage Regulator
Mvar Control
Fixed Field Excitation (no AVR action)
PF Control
AVR Adjusts to Power Factor Setting

If in Voltage Control Mode, the limits of P & Q are
reached, the model is changed to a constant P & Q
load
Generator Characteristics
Operating
Exciter Governor
Modes
P Q V
Swing X X AVR Isoch
Voltage
Control X X AVR Droop
Mvar (PF)
Control X X Fixed Droop

Generator Capability
Curve
Q (Mvar)
S2=P2+Q2
Lagging Rated Operating
A Point
B
Motoring Generating
P (MW)
No AVR
Leading C
Fast AVR
D

Maximum and Minimum Reactive Power
Machine Rating (Power Factor Point)
Field Winding Heating Limit
Steady State Stability Curve
Armature Winding Heating Limit

Adjusting Steam Flow & Excitation Current

Generator Capability Curve
Field Winding
Machine Rating
Heating Limit
(Power Factor Point)
Steady State Stability Curve

Generator Capability Curve
Load Flow Loading Page
10 Different Generation
Categories for Every
Generator or Power
Grid in the System

Power Flow
V1 V1 1

V 2 V2 2
S V*I P jQ
V *V V1*V2 V2
2
1 2 *SIN ( 1 2 ) j *COS( 1 2 )
X X X
V1*V2
P *SIN ( 1 2 )
X
2
V1*V2 V2
Q *COS( 1 2 )
X X

Example: Two voltage sources designated as V1 and V2 are
connected as shown. If V1= 100 /0 , V2 = 100 /30 and X = 0 +j5
determine the power flow in the system.
V1 V 2 100 j0 (86.6 j50)

I
X j5
I 10 j2.68
I
V1I* 100(10 j2.68) 1000 j268

V2 I* (86.6 j50)(10 j2.68) 1000 j268
| I |2 X 10.352 5 536 var

The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a generator supplying real power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.
1 1
Power Flow S
( V E)
sin 0

X
2
( V E)
cos
V
X X
e power does not seem

t. Both generators are
eactive power to the 2
2
0
Real Power Flow
Reactive Power Flow

Reports
Load Flow Overview
Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Analyzer
Reports
Wizards
Panel System
Reports
Bus Voltage
ETAP displays bus voltage values in two ways
kV value
Percent of Nominal Bus kV
For Bus4:
kVCalculated 13.5 kVNomin al 13.8
kVCalculated
V% 100 97.83%
kVNo min al
For Bus5:
kVCalculated 4.03 kVNomin al 4.16
kVCalculated
V% 100 96.85%
kVNo min al
Reports

Reports
Lump Load Negative Loading

Exercise
Open LF-Example-A1
Follow instructions in LF-Example-A1.PDF

Load Flow Overview
Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Analyzer
Reports
Wizards
Panel System
Transformer Impedance
Adjust transformer impedance based on possible length variation tolerance
Reactor Impedance
Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance
Overload Heater
Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance
Transmission Line Length

Adjust Transmission Line Impedance based on possible length variation
tolerance
Cable Length
Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance

Adjustments applied
Individual
Global
Temperature Correction
Cable Resistance
Transmission Line
Resistance

Allowable Voltage Drop
NEC and ANSI C84.1

Load Flow Alerts

Load Flow Alerts
Bus Alerts Monitor Continuous Amps
Cable Monitor Continuous Amps
Reactor Monitor Continuous Amps
Line Monitor Line Ampacity
Transformer Monitor Maximum MVA Output
UPS/Panel Monitor Panel Continuous Amps
Generator Monitor Generator Rated MW

Protective Device Alerts
Protective Devices Monitored parameters % Condition reported
Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad

High Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad
Fuses Rated Current OverLoad
Contactors Continuous rated Current OverLoad
SPDT / SPST switches Continuous rated Current OverLoad

If the Auto Display feature is
active, the Alert View Window
will appear as soon as the
Load Flow calculation has
finished.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 69
Exercise
Open LF-Example-B1
Follow instructions in LF-Example-B1.PDF

Exercise
Load Flow Example B1
Part 1
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 71
Exercise
Load Flow Example B1 Part 2

Exercise
Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be fixed for proper
equipment operation and insulation ratings be met.
Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:

Transformer Replacement
Capacitor Addition
Transformer Tap Adjustment

Exercise
Create Under Voltage Method 2 - Shunt Capacitor
Condition Add Shunt Capacitor to Bus8
Change Syn2 Quantity to 6. 300 kvar 3 Banks
(Info Page, Quantity Field) Voltage is improved
Run LF Method 3 - Change Tap
Bus8 Turns Magenta (Under Place LTC on Primary of T6
Voltage Condition) Select Bus8 for Control Bus
Method 1 - Change Xfmr Select Update LTC in the Study
Case
Change T4 from 3 MVA to 8 Run LF
MVA, will notice slight
Bus Voltage Comes within
improvement on the Bus8 kV specified limits
Too Expensive and time
consuming

Exercise
MVAR Control
Vars from Utility Method 2 Add Capacitor
Add Switch to CAP1 Close Switch
Open Switch Run Load Flow
Run LF
Var Contribution from the
Utility reduces
Method 1 Generator
Change Generator from
Voltage Control to Mvar Method 3 Xfmr MVA
Control Change T1 Mva to 40 MVA
Set Mvar Design Setting to 5 Will notice decrease in the
Mvars contribution from the Utility

Exercise
Load Flow Convergence
Negative Impedance
Zero or Very Small Impedance
Widely Different Branch Impedance Values
Long Radial System Configurations
Bad Bus Voltage Initial Values

Exercise
Open LF-Example-A2

Advanced LF Topics
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
Load Flow Convergence
Load Flow vs. Optimal Power Flow

Advanced Topics
Review of Load Flow Study

Given generation, loading and control settings (Mwgen, Vgen, LTC,
Capacitor Bank, )
Solve bus voltages and branch flows
Check over/under voltage, device overloading conditions
Reset controls and run Load Flow again
Iterative process

Advanced Topics
Optimal Load Flow Approach

Given control setting ranges
Specify bus voltage and branch loading constraints
Select optimization objectives (Min. P Losses, Min. Q Losses, )
Solve bus voltages, branch flows and control settings
Direct solution

Advanced Topics
Control Variables
Load Tap Changer (LTC) Settings
Generator AVR Settings
Generator MW Generation
Series or Shunt VAR Compensator Settings
Phase Shift Transformer Tap Positions
Switched Capacitor Settings
Load Shedding
DC Line Flow

Advanced Topics
Objective Function:
Minimize Real Power Losses

- To minimize real power losses in the system
Minimize Reactive Power Losses

- To minimize reactive power losses in the system
Minimize Swing Bus Power

- To minimize real power generation at the swing bus(s)

Advanced Topics
Minimize Shunt var Devices
- To minimize var generation from available shunt var control devices
Minimize Fuel Cost

- To minimize total generation fuel cost
Minimize Series Compensation

- To minimize var generation from available series var control devices

Advanced Topics
Minimize Load Shedding
- To minimize load to be shed from the available bus load shed schedule
Minimize Control Movement

- To minimize total number of controls
Minimize Control Adjustment

- To minimize overall adjustment from all controls

Advanced Topics
Maximize Voltage Security Index
2n
AllBuses
Vi Vi ,avg
Voltage Security Index
i dVi
Where,
Vi ,max Vi ,min Vi ,max Vi ,min

Vi ,avg dVi
2 2

Advanced Topics
Maximize Line Flow Security Index
2n
AllBranches
Si
Line Flow Security Index i

Si
Where , dSi is the line rating
Flat Voltage Profile

- Voltage Magnitude difference between all buses is minimum

Advanced Topics
Constraints:
Bus Voltage Constraints
Branch Flow Constraints
Interface Flow Constraints

Exercise
Open LF-Example-A3

Exercise
Comparison of LF and OPF:

Panel System
Load Flow Overview
Load Flow Toolbar
Load Flow Analyzer
Reports
Wizards
Panel System
Panel Systems

Panel System
Panel Boards:
They are a collection of branch circuits feeding system loads
Panel System is used for representing power and lighting panels
in electrical systems
Click to drop once on OLV

Double-Click to drop multiple panels

Panel System
Representation:
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as an internal or
external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation

Panel System
Pin Assignment:
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections

Panel System
Assumptions:
Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3-Phase panel
circuit, the rated voltage of the panel circuit is (1/3) times the
rated panel voltage
The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire panel is (1/2)
times the rated voltage of the panel
There are no losses in the feeders connecting a load to the panel
Static loads are calculated based on their rated voltage

Panel System
Line to Line Connections

Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A A
B B
C C
IBC IB = IBC IC = -IBC
Load LoadB
Angle by which load current IBC lags the load voltage =
Therefore, for load connected between phases B and C: For load connected to phase B
SBC = VBC.IBC SB = VB.IB

PBC = VBC.IBC.cos PB = VB.IB.cos ( - 30)
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin QB = VB.IB.sin ( - 30)
And, for load connected to phase C
SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos ( + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin ( + 30)

Panel System
Info Page:
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of the
panel
Phase B shall be the highest

voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4-
wire delta connected system
(midpoint grounded)
3-Phase 4-Wire Panel


Panel System
Rating Page:
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
For IEC, Enclosure Type

is Ingress Protection
(IPxy), where IP00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel
Select ANSI or IEC

Breakers or Fuses from
Main Device Library

Panel System
Schedule Page:
Circuit Numbers with

Standard Layout
Circuit Numbers with

Column Layout

Panel System
Pin Assignment:
First 14 load items in the list are based on NEC 1999
Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the total panel
load
External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the element
type
For External links the load status is determined from the connected loads demand
factor status

Panel System
Rating Tab:
Enter per phase VA, W, or

Amperes for this load.
For example, if total Watts

for a 3-phase load are 1200,
enter W as 400 (=1200/3)

Panel System
Loading Tab:
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
For both internal and external loads, Amp values are

calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV

Panel System
Protective Device Tab:
Library Quick Pick -
LV Circuit Breaker
(Molded Case, with
Thermal Magnetic Trip
Device) or
Library Quick Pick

Fuse will appear
depending on the
Type of protective
device selected.

Panel System
Feeder Tab:

Panel System
Action Bottons:
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
Paste the entire content (of the

copied row) in the selected row.
This will work when the Link
Type is other than space or
unusable, and only for fields
which are not blocked.
Blank out the contents of the entire

selected row.

Panel System
Summary Page:
Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Non-Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Connected Load Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)
Code Demand Per Phase and Total

Panel System
Output Report

Panel System
Panel Code Factors
The first fourteen have fixed formats per NEC 1999
Code demand load depends on Panel Code Factors
Code demand load calculation for internal loads are done

for each types of load separately and then summed up

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Load Flow Analysis

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

2013 ETAP. PROPRIETARY, UNPUBLISHED, & CONFIDENTIAL

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Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.

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Per unit calculations

Base voltage at any point of the system is determined in respect

To determine base voltage:

Branch impedances in LF report are in percentage

Turn ratio: N1/N2 = 3.31

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Impedance conversion to 11 MVA base

n stands for new & O stands for old values

The base voltage of the branch impedance (Z1) determined by

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Load flow report generated by ETAP for branches:

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Power output remains constant regardless of

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Mtr 2 : PF 90%, EFF 85%

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Synchronous Generator & Control System

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Droop Mode Equal Settings

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Unequal Speed Droops

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Swing X X AVR Isoch

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Machine Rating (Power Factor Point)

Field Winding Heating Limit

Steady State Stability Curve

Armature Winding Heating Limit

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Steady State Stability Curve

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