BASIC SURVEYING INSTRUMENts

Most fieldwork done by an Engineering Aid(especially at the third- and second-class levels)is
likely to consist of field measurements and/orcomputations that involve plane surveying
ofordinary precision. This section describes the basicinstruments, tools, and other
equipment used forthis type of surveying. Other instruments used formore precise surveys
will also be described briefly.Surveying instruments come in various forms,yet their basic
functions are similar; that is, they are all used for measuring unknown angles anddistances
and/or for laying off known angles anddistances.

MAGNETIC COMPASS. A magnetic compass is a device consisting principally of a circular

compass card, usually graduated in degrees, and a magnetic needle, mounted and free to
rotate on a pivot located at the center of the card. The needle, when free from any local
attraction (caused by metal), lines itself up with the local magnetic meridian as a result of the
attraction of the earth’s magnetic North Pole.

The magnetic compass is the most commonlyused and simplest instrument for
measuringdirections and angles in the field. This instrumenthas a variety of both
civilian and militaryapplications. The LENSATIC COMPASS (available inyour Table of
Allowance) is most commonly used forSEABEE compass courses, for map orientation,
andfor angle direction during mortar and field artilleryfires.In addition to this type of
compass, there areseveral others used exclusively for field surveys. The ENGINEER’S TRANSIT
COMPASS, located betweenthe standards on the upper plate, is graduated from0° through
360° for measuring azimuths, and inquadrants of 90° for measuring bearings (fig.
11-4).Notice in figure 11-4 that the east and west markingsare reversed. This permits
direct reading of themagnetic direction.The compass shown in figure 11-5 is
commonlycalled the BRUNTON POCKET
TRANSIT. Thisinstrument is a combination compass
and clinometer.It can be mounted on a light tripod or
staff, or it maybe cradled in the palm of the
hand.Other types of compasses can also be
found insome surveying instruments, such as the
theodoliteand plane table.

Figure 11-4.-Engineer’s
transit compass. (left)

Figure 11-5.-A Brunton

pocket transit. (right)
ENGINEER’S TRANSIT A primary survey fieldwork consists of measuring horizontal
and vertical angles or directions and extending straight lines. The
instruments that can perform these functions have additional refinements (built-in) that can
be used for other survey operations, such as leveling. Two types of instruments that fall into
this category are the engineer’s transit and the theodolite. In recent years, manufacturing
improvements have permitted con- struction of direct-reading theodolites that are soon to
replace the vernier-reading transits. However, in most SEABEE construction, the engineer’s
transit is still the major surveying instrument.

The transit (fig. left) is often called the

universal survey instrument because of its uses.
It may be used for measuring horizontal angles
and directions, vertical angles, and
differences in elevations; for prolonging
straight lines; and for measuring distances by
stadia. Although transits of various manufacturers
differ in appearance, they are alike in their essential
parts and operations. The engineer’s transit contains
several hundred parts. For-descriptive purposes,
these parts may be grouped into three
assemblies: the leveling head assembly, the
lower plate assembly, and the upper many plate
or alidade assembly (fig. 11-7).

THEODOLITE
A theodolite is essentially a transit of high
precision. Theodolites come in different sizes
and weights and from different
manufacturers. Although theodolites may
differ in appearance, they are basically
alike in their essential parts and operation.
Some of the models currently available
for use in the military are WILD
(Herrbrugg), BRUNSON, K&E, (Keuffel &
Esser), and PATH theodolites. To give you
an idea of how a theodolite differs from
a transit, we will discuss some of the most
commonly used theodolites in the U.S.
Armed Forces. One-Minute Theodolite The
1-min directional theodolite is essentially
a directional type of instrument. This
type of instrument can be used,
however, to observe horizontal and
 vertical angles, as a transit does. The theodolite shown in figure 11-12 is a compact,
lightweight, dustproof, optical reading instrument. The scales read directly to the nearest
minute or 0.2 mil and are illuminated by either natural or artificial light. The main or essential
parts of this type of theodolite are discussed in the next several paragraphs.

(fig left) one minute theodolite

SURVEYING TAPES
Tapes are used in surveying to measure horizontal, vertical, and slope distances. They
may be made of a ribbon or a band of steel, an alloy of steel, cloth reinforced with metal, or
synthetic materials. Tapes are issued in various lengths and widths and graduated in a variety of
ways.
Metallic Tapes
A metallic tape is made of high-grade synthetic material with strong metallic. strands (bronze-
brass-copper wire) woven in the warped face of the tape and coated with a tough plastic
for durability. Standard lengths are 50 and 100 ft. Some are graduated in feet and
inches to the nearest one-fourth in. Others are graduated in feet and decimals of a foot to
the nearest 0.05 ft. Metallic tapes are generally used for rough measurements, such as
cross-sectional work, road-work slope staking, side shots in topographic surveys, and
many others in the same category. Nonmetallic tapes woven from synthetic yarn, such as
nylon, and coated with plastic are available; some surveyors prefer to use tapes of this
type. Nonmetallic tapes are of special value to power and utility field personnel, especially
when they are working in the vicinity of high- voltage circuits.

Steel Tapes
For direct linear measurements of ordinary or more accurate precision, a steel tape is required.
The most commonly used length is 100 ft, but
tapes are also available in 50-, 200-, 300-, and 500-
ft lengths. All tapes except the 500-ft one are band-
types, the common band widths being 1/4 and 5/16
in. The 500-ft tape is usually a flat-wire type. Most steel
tapes are graduated in feet and decimals of feet, but
some are graduated in feet and inches, meters, Gunter’s
links, and chains or other linear units. From now on,
when we discuss a tape, we will be talking about
one that is graduated in feet and decimals of a
foot unless we state otherwise. Some tapes called
engineer’s or direct reading tapes are graduated
throughout in subdivisions of each foot. The tape most commonly used, however, is the so-
called chain tape, on which only the first foot at the zero end of the tape is graduated in
subdivisions, the main body of the tape being graduated only at every 1-ft mark. A steel
tape is sometimes equipped with a reel on which the tape can be wound. A tape can be, and
often is, detached from the reel, however, for more convenient use in taping. Various types
of surveying tapes are shown in figure 11-36. View A shows a metallic tape; view B, a steel
tape on an open reel; view C, a steel tape or, a closed reel. View D shows a special type of low-
expansion steel tape used in high-order work; it is generally called an Invar tape or Lovar
tape.
Invar Tapes
Nickel-steel alloy tapes, known as Invar, Nilvar, or Lovar, have a coefficient of thermal
Figure 11-36.-Surveying tapes. expansion of about one-tenth to one-thirtieth (as low as
0.0000002 per 10F) that of steel. These tapes are used primarily in high-precision taping.
These tapes must be handled in exactly the same manner as other precise surveying
instruments. The alloy metal is relatively soft and can be easily broken or kinked if
mishandled. Ordinarily, Invar tapes should not be used when a steel tape can give the desired
accuracy under the same operating conditions. Invar tapes are used for very precise
measurements, such as those for base lines and in city work. When not in use, the tape
should be stored in a reel, as shown in figure 11-36, view D. Except for special locations where
the ground surface is hard and flat, such as roadways or railroads beds, the Invar tape is
used over special supports or stools and is not permitted to touch the ground.

PLUMB BOB
A plumb bob is a pointed, tapered brass or bronze
weight that is suspended from a cord for the general
purpose of determining the plumb line from a point on
the ground. Common weights for plumb bobs are 6, 8, 10,
12, 14, 16, 18, and 24 OZ; the 12- and the 16-oz are the
most popular. Typical plumb bobs are shown in figure
11-40. A plumb bob is a precision instrument and must
be cared for as such. If the tip becomes bent, the cord from
which the bob is suspended will not occupy the true
plumb line over the point indicated by the tip. A plumb
bob usually has a detachable tip, as shown in figure 11-40,
so if the tip becomes damaged, it can be renewed without
replacing the entire instrument. Each survey party member
should be equipped with a leather sheath, and the bob
should be placed in the sheath whenever it is not in use.
The cord from a plumb bob can be made more conspicuous
for observation purposes by the attachment of an oval
form aluminum target (fig. 11-41, view A). The oval target
has reinforced edges, and the face is enameled in
quadrants alternately with red and white. Also, a flat
rectangular plastic target may be used (fig. 11-41,
view B). It has rounded corners with alternate red and
white quadrants on its face. These plumb bob
string targets are pocket size with approximate
dimensions of 2 by 4 in.

Top- Plumb bob, cord, and target.

Bottom- types
 LEVEL ROD
A leveling rod, in essence, is a tape supported vertically and is used
to measure the vertical distance (difference in elevation) between a
line of sight and a required point above or below it. This point may be a
permanent elevation (bench mark), or it may be some natural or
constructed surface.
The leveling rod may be read directly by the instrument man sighting
through the telescope, or it may be target-read. Conditions that
hinder direct reading, such as poor visibility, long sights, and
partially obstructed sights, as through brush or leaves, sometimes
make it necessary to use targets. The target is also used to
mark a rod reading when numerous points are set to the same
elevation from one instrument setup

PANTOGRAPH
An instrument for copying plans, maps,
and other drawings, on the same, or on a
reduced or an enlarged, scale.
For the accurate transferring, reducing and
enlarging of drawings, plans, patterns, templates,
pictures, trade signs etc. Bar 500 mm long, made
of anodized light alloy, complete in case with
extensive accessories.

MARKING PIN
Made of 3/16-inch spring
steel, the 14-inch pins are
powder-painted red and
white, alternating at each
inch. There are eleven pins to a set.
Taping pins. A taping pin is a steel pin pointed on one end with a ring at the
other. Use taping pins for marking measured tape lengths on the ground.
This will help determine the number of tape lengths measured since the
last station. The ring and the upper part of the pin are painted red. The rest
of the pin is white. Taping pins are issued in sets of 11 pins each. Properly
used, taping pins will prevent a "missed" or "dropped" tape length, a
common mistake in distance
taping.

SEXTANT
A sextant is an instrument used to measure the angle
between any two visible objects. Its primary use is to
determine the angle between a celestial object and
the horizon which is known as the altitude. Making this
measurement is known as sighting the object, shooting
the object, or taking a sight. The angle, and the time
when it was measured, can be used to calculate a
position line on a nautical or aeronautical chart. A
common use of the sextant is to sight the sun at noon to find one's latitude. See celestial
navigation for more discussion. Since the sextant can be used to measure the angle between any
two objects, it can be held horizontally to measure the angle between any two landmarks which
will allow for calculation of a position on a chart. A sextant can also be used to measure the
Lunar distance between the moon and another celestial object (e.g., star, planet) in order to
determine Greenwich time.

PLANIMETER
A planimeter is a measuring instrument
used to determine the area of an
arbitrary two-dimensional shape.