Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 1

The exchange integral

Eex 2 J eS1 S 2
If Je is positive energetically
favorable to align spin parallel

Fe: 4 spins/atom in effect only 2.2!

At Tc the thermal energy is equal to Eex

Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 2

Magnetic Domains:
Ferromagnetic Materials
Not all iron possesses a net permanent magnetization without any external
field!
Take a piece of iron heat it above TC and let it cool down without any magnetic
field present, what do you think will happen to the magnetization?

It will not possess a net magnetization!

Magnetic domains cancel each other out and prevent a net magnetization.
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 3

Magnetic Domains:
Ferromagnetic Materials

In a magnetic domain all the spins are aligned to

produce a magnetic moment in one direction.

Here a single crystal of iron has permanent

magnetization. The crystal is like a bar magnet.

The potential energy stored in a magnetic field or

magnetostatic energy, can be reduced by:

Dividing the crystal into two domains with

magnetizations in opposite directions.

The external magnetic field lines are reduced:

Less potential energy stored in the magnetic field.
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 4

Magnetic Domains: magnetostatic energy

This arrangement is energetically favorable because

the reduction of magneto-static energy outweighs the
introduction of a domain wall (or Bloch wall).

Between the two domains the magnetization

changes from up to down
The spins are rotated over 180.

This requires energy, remember the exchange energy favors parallel spins.
There is a higher potential energy around the Bloch wall compared to the
bulk of the crystal. Why?

How thick do you think such a

This wall is not one atom thick it is typically several hundred of atomic
spacing thick or of the order of 100nm.

wall is?
A larger wall thickness
Whowill increase
thinks the Who
1 atom? excess energy
thinks in the
1 um? Whowall.
thinks 1mm?
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 5

Magnetic Domains: magnetostatic energy

The magnetostatic energy due to the field lines can

be reduced further with closure domains which
eliminate the external field lines.

These domains have 90 walls:

the magnetization is rotated over 90 through the
wall.

Again the potential energy has increased

with the introduction of new walls.

There is a natural balance between these two processes

Creation of walls higher PE

Creation of domains lower PE
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 6

Magnetic Domains: magnetostatic energy

This process will result in many domains without any net

magnetization.

The size and shape of these domains depend on several factors like
size and shape of the overall sample.

Iron particles of about 10 nm have only one domain and are therefore
permanently magnetized, creating walls cost too much energy!
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 7

Magnetic Domains: magnetostatic energy

The magnetization is normally along one of the

preferred directions in which the atomic spin
alignment is easiest.
For iron this is along the [100] directions
(how many of these directions are there?).

These are called the easy directions. The domains Single Fe Crystal
have magnetization along these easy directions.

The magnetization along an applied field occurs by the

growth of domains with magnetization (M) along the
applied field (H), here we take H along the easy
direction.

The Bloch wall migrates to the right

Net effect: the crystal has an effective magnetization M along H. Spins in

the wall and in region B are gradually rotated by the applied field.
Magnetization requires motion of the Bloch wall!
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 8

Bloch walls are named after the physicist

Felix Bloch (1905-1983)
Bloch was born in Zrich, Switzerland. He was educated there
and at the Eidgenssische Technische Hochschule, also in
Zrich. Initially studying engineering he soon changed to physics.
Graduating in 1927 he continued his physics studies at the University of
Leipzig, gaining his doctorate in 1928. He remained in German academia,
studying with Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, Niels Bohr and Enrico
Fermi.

After spending the academic year 1930-31 with Heisenberg in Leipzig,

Bloch wrote his Leipziger Habilitationsschrift. This is a monumental
paper on exchange interactions and remanence in ferromagnetism that
includes much more than those two topics.

In 1933 he left Germany, emigrating to work at Stanford University in 1934. In

1939, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. During WW II he
worked on atomic energy at Los Alamos National Laboratory, before resigning
to join the radar project at Harvard University.
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 9

Felix Bloch (1905-1983)

Post-war he concentrated on investigations into nuclear induction and nuclear
magnetic resonance, which are the underlying principles of MRI. He and
Edward Mills Purcell were awarded the 1952 Nobel Prize for "their
development of new ways and methods for nuclear magnetic precision
measurements."
In 19541955, he served for one year as the first Director-General of CERN.
In 1961, he was made Professor of Physics at Stanford University.

The process of magnetization in ferromagnets had been studied

experimentally by R. Becker, who investigated domain structure and
how it varied as magnetization proceeds.
A vital step in understanding this process involved the boundary wall
between domains and the manner in which it could move. Bloch
worked out the thickness and structure of the boundary walls, and the
wall structure became known as the "Bloch Wall." In a space of a few
hundred angstroms the magnetization could reverse direction, and
this proved to be energetically more favorable than a complete reversal
at the boundary.
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 10

Magnetic Domains Wall Energy and Thickness

In current literature there is still state of the art research being reported on
the study of Magnetic Domains: PRL one of the leading physics journals
reported the study of wall magnetization in Ni in 2006!
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 11

Magnetic Domains: magnetocrystalline anisotropy

For a single iron crystal
Ferromagnetic crystals have magnetic anisotropy:
magnetic properties are different along different crystal directions.

We saw for iron the easy direction is

along the [100] directions in the BCC
crystal. The spin magnetic moments
align with each other easiest if they
all point in one of the easy directions.

As observed in the M versus H

graph, magnetization rapidly
increases and saturates with an
applied field of 0.01T

If we want to magnetize along [111],

the hard direction, then we have to
apply a stronger field to reach the
same extend of magnetization.
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 12

Magnetic Domains: magnetocrystalline anisotropy

If we want to magnetize an iron sample in the [111] direction this will start
easily. All the spins that are not aligned in the easy directions will rotate
and align along the [111] direction.

But from P onwards the spins have

to be rotate away from their easy
[100] directions. This takes energy!

Magnetization along the [100]

direction requires the least energy.
The excess energy required to
magnetize a unit volume with
respect to the easy direction is
called the magneto-crystalline
anisotropy energy Denoted by K.
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 13

Magnetic Domains:

Exchange interaction
Magnetization direction (Easy/Hard)
Magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy K
Saturation magnetostriction coefficient sat
Material Crystal Eex kTC Easy Hard K sat
(meV) (mJ cm3) ( 106 )
Fe BCC 90 <100>; <111>; cube 48 20 [100]
cube edge diagonal 20 [111]
Co HCP 120 // to c axis to c axis 450
Ni FCC 50 <111>; <100>; 5 46 [100]
cube cube edge 24 [111]
diagonal

Iniron
In which
these material will the
walls are typically 100 Bloch
nm thick wall
but in be thicker?
Co they are thinner
Fe, Co
since or Ni? energy is larger.
the anisotropy
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 14

The magnetostatic energy can be reduced with the

introduction of domains which eliminate external
field lines.

The potential energy increases with the

introduction of Bloch walls.

Eex 2 J eS1 S 2
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 15

Magnetic Domains: Domain Walls

We saw that a domain wall consists out off several hundred atomic spacings.
Imagine if it was between two atoms
The spins would be rotated over 180 requiring excessive exchange
interaction.

Here we see a
cartoon
representation of a
typical 180 Bloch
wall between
domain A and B

Exchange forces between neighbouring atomic spins favour very little

relative rotation. This would result in very thick walls for 180 rotation.

BUT This would mean many magnetic moments are orientated away from
the easy direction requiring excess energy or anisotropy energy K.

Balance: Exchange energy Anisotropy energy

Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 16

Magnetic Domains Wall Energy and Thickness

As we saw the Bloch wall energy end thickness depend on two main
factors:
Exchange energy Eex (J/atom), needed to rotate two spins 180 with
respect to each other.
Magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy K (J/m3)

To calculate the potential energy Uwall of a Bloch wall of unit area and
thickness we need to calculate Uexchange and Uanisotropy.

It takes energy to rotate one spin with respect to an other spin. Since the
change from atom to atom is very small a thicker wall means less
contribution to Uexchange, i.e. it is inversely proportional to . At the same time
Uexchange is directly proportional to the exchange energy :

Eex
U exchange

Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 17

Anisotropy energy contribution Uanisotropy is attributed to

the spins pointing away from the easy direction. A large
requires a lot of energy since many spins are pointing
away from the easy direction.

Uanisotropy is proportional to and K (the magnitude

of this anisotropy energy):

U anisotropy K
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 18

Magnetic Domains Wall Energy and Thickness

Potential domain wall energy as a function of wall thickness .

Potential energy
of a domain wall
depends on the
exchange and
anisotropy
energies as well
as the wall
thickness.

There is a minimum
in wall potential at
the optimum
thickness .

Balance: Exchange energy Anisotropy energy

Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 19

Magnetic Domains Wall Energy and Thickness

There are N = /a atomic layers in the wall (a the inter atomic spacing).
Since the spins rotate over 180 across the wall, the angular change per
atomic layer is 180 /N.
2 Eex
The Potential energy is now given by: U wall K
2 a
The minimum potential energy can now be calculated;

dU wall 2 Eex 2 Eex

K 0 '
d 2 a 2
2aK
/area

In Ni
With Eex kTC , K 50 kJ/m3, a 0.3 nm
we find: 68 nm.
And Uwall 7mJ/m2
This simple approach gives values
close to more accurately calculated
values of 40 nm and 3 mJ/m2.
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 20

Magnetostriction
By applying stress on a ferromagnetic crystal we will change the inter
atomic spacing along the stress direction but also along other directions.
Change the exchange interaction between the spins,
leading to change in magnetization properties
The Reverse:
The application of a magnetic field will causes changes in physical
dimensions of the crystal.
Applying a magnetic field along the easy [100] direction of an iron crystal
will cause the crystal to extend along this direction but shrink along the
transverse directions [010] and [001].
The longitudinal strain l/l along the
direction of the magnetic field is called
magnetostriction constant . It
depends on the crystal direction and
can be positive or negative.

extension contraction
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 21

Magnetostriction
can also depend on the applied field and can change sign if the field
increases.

For a fully magnetically saturated crystal also reaches saturation called,

Saturation magnetostriction strain sat. We saw earlier typical values are
10-6-10-5

The crystal lattice strain energy associated with magnetostriction is called

the magnetostrictive energy, typically less than the anisotropy energy.

How would you make a ferromagnet with zero magnetostriction?

Mix metals like Fe and Ni so that they cancel each other out when placed in
a magnetic field so that becomes zero.

Material like CoO-Fe2O3 which possess large values of (10-4) can be

used in sensor applications based on magnetostriction effect.
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 22

Magnetic Domains:

Exchange interaction
Magnetization direction (Easy/Hard)
Magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy K
Saturation magnetostriction coefficient sat

Material Crystal Eex kTC Easy Hard K sat

(meV) (mJ cm3) ( 106 )
Fe BCC 90 <100>; <111>; cube 48 20 [100]
cube edge diagonal 20 [111]
Co HCP 120 // to c axis to c axis 450
Ni FCC 50 <111>; <100>; 5 46 [100]
cube cube edge 24 [111]
diagonal
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 23

Domain wall motion

Lets consider a single ferromagnetic crystal with
several domains. There will be motion of domains
to allow favourably domains to grow along the
magnetization direction.

Crystals are not perfect The grow of these domains will be influenced
by the presence of crystal imperfections and impurities!

In a 90 Bloch wall due to magnetostricion there is change in distortion of

the lattice Complicated Strain & Stress distribution.

Dislocations and point defects have strain

and stress around them:
They will interact with the domain walls.

If they meet each other; the compressive

and tensile strains will cancel resulting in
an unstrained lattice and hence lower
strain energy Pinning near dislocation
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 24

Domain wall motion

When a Bloch wall approaches a non-
magnetic (non permanent magnetization)
impurity the impurity becomes
magnetized,

The magnetostatic energy is lowered

and the Bloch wall is pinned by the
impurity now it takes more effort to move
the Bloch wall again.

The movements of a domain wall is therefore

NOT smooth, it snaps loose every time when
there is enough energy (greater field).

These movements cause lattice vibration this

results in energy loss through heat loss
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 25

Polycrystalline Materials
M H
Commonly used magnetic material are poly crystalline;
They contain many grains of various orientations and sizes (micron level)
The structure depends on the thermal history and way of machining.

Single Domain The domain structure in each grain will

depend on the size and shape of the grain
and on the magnetization of its neighbours.

Small grains can be single domain;

What is the size where the grains can be
Multiple single domain?
Domains
Near Bloch wall dimensions ~ 100 nm.

Most other grains will have multiple

domains.
Grains of an unmagnetized Typically heating above TC and cool down to room
polycrystalline iron temperature results in no net magnetization
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 26

Polycrystalline Materials
M H
If we now apply a small magnetic field (0H) along the +x direction
The domain walls with a component of M along +x direction will grow,
resulting in a small net magnetization. Oa
As we saw before, when applying a
larger field, impurities will pin the Bloch
walls resulting in irregular growth of the
domains.
This is called the Barkausen effect

As a wall snaps free and suddenly

moves there are two main processes
that lead to heat generation:

1) Changes in lattice distortion due to

magnetostriction creating lattice waves
2) Changes in magnetization causing eddy
currents Joule heating
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 27

Polycrystalline Materials
M H
Increasing the magnetic field further will eventually result in single domains
with the magnetization pointing in a easy direction, point c. Only some of
the grains will have their magnetization pointing along the applied field H

By increasing the magnetic field beyond c will force the magnetization in the
grains to rotate and align along the
applied field. When all the grains are
aligned along H the specimen reaches
saturation magnetization Msat point d

If we now decrease the magnetic

field the grains would jump back
and align with the nearest easy
direction when the field is removed
there is a permanent magnetization
of the specimen; remanent or
residual magnetization Mr point e
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 28

In order to demagnetize the specimen we would have to apply a magnetizing

field in the reverse direction.

To completely demagnetize
the specimen a field Hc, or
coercive field has to be
applied (point f).

Many domains are generated

through nucleation from
point e to f.
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 29

Polycrystalline Materials M H
If we continue to increase the magnetic field further in the x
direction from point f onwards the behaviour will be similar to
the magnetization from point a to d.
We can now expect to reach saturation in point g. Reversing
the magnetic field (+x) will eventually bring us back to d.
Going round we now have a
saturation (major) hysteresis loop

Starting with un-magnetized material it first follows the

initial magnetization curve.

Following the magnetic field B (B =0M+0H)

We get the B versus H hysteresis curve
When M is saturated the magnetic field B will
increase slightly due to the permeability of free
space (0H). We get the B versus H behaviour.
The shaded area inside the hysteresis
loop is the energy loss per unit volume per cycle.
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 30

Polycrystalline Materials
Energy dissipation
The work done by the battery per unit volume to in-
crease the magnetic field by dB (as we saw before) is:

dEvol HdB Hl Ni
The total work done changing the field from B1 to B2 in
the core is:
B2

Evol HdB
B1

The work done to go from P to Q is the area PQRS

The energy returned to the battery going from Q to S (S
has the same magnetization as in P) is the area QRS
The energy difference corresponding to the hysteresis loop PQS, is due to
moving of domain walls (energy dissipated in the sample)
Chapter 89 PC2133 13 &14 31

Optical properties of Materials

Chapter 9

Is there a difference between

Radio waves and X-rays photos?
Chapter 89 PC2133 13 &14 32

Electro Magnetic (EM) waves

Radio: yes, this is the same kind of energy that radio stations
emit into the air for your boom box to capture and turn into your
favorite Mozart, Madonna, or Coolio tunes. But radio waves are
also emitted by other things ... such as stars and gases in
space. You may not be able to dance to what these objects emit,
but you can use it to learn what they are made of.

Microwaves: they will cook your popcorn in just a few minutes! In

space, microwaves are used by astronomers to learn about the
structure of nearby galaxies, including our own Milky Way!

Infrared: we often think of this as being the same thing as 'heat',

because it makes our skin feel warm. In space, IR light maps the
dust between stars
Visible: yes, this is the part that our eyes see. Visible radiation is
emitted by everything from fireflies to light bulbs to stars ... also
by fast-moving particles hitting other particles.
Ultraviolet: we know that the Sun is a source of ultraviolet (or
UV) radiation, because it is the UV rays that cause our skin to
burn! Stars and other "hot" objects in space emit UV radiation.
Chapter 89 PC2133 13 &14 33

EM waves
X-rays: your doctor uses them to look at your bones and
your dentist to look at your teeth. Hot gases in the Univers
also emit X-rays .
Gamma-rays: radioactive materials (some natural and
others made by man in things like nuclear power plants)
can emit gamma-rays. Big particle accelerators that
scientists use to help them understand what matter is
made of can sometimes generate gamma-rays. But the
biggest gamma-ray generator of all is the Universe! It
makes gamma radiation in all kinds of ways.
A Radio Wave is not a Gamma-Ray, a Microwave is not an X-ray ... or is it?

Radio waves, visible light, X-rays, and all the other parts of the electro-
magnetic (EM) spectrum are fundamentally the same thing, EM radiation.
Chapter 89 PC2133 13 &14 34

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

We arbitrarily define light as EM waves with wave length of: 100m < < 10nm

Optical properties
determine the interaction of
light with matter. The
refractive index (n) is a
good example; it
determines the speed of
light in a medium:

c
v EM Light waves
n
The refractive index depends on the dielectric polarization mechanism of the
material as well as the wave length .

The relation n-; dispersion relation is one of the most important

characteristics in optical devices.
Chapter 89 PC2133 13 &14 35

Light waves in homogenous medium

Light as an EM wave with time-varying electric and magnetic fields Ex and By
which propagate through space in such a way that they are always
perpendicular to each other and the direction of propagation z.

c
v
n

A simple representation of a traveling wave along z is given by:

E x E0 cos(t kz 0 )
Ex is the electric field at position z at time t
E0 is the amplitude
k is the propagation constant or wavenumber given by k = 2/
is the angular frequency
0 is the phase constant
Chapter 89 PC2133 13 &14 36

Light waves in homogenous medium

E x E0 cos(t kz 0 )
The argument (t-kz+0) is called the phase .
Ex describes a monochromatic plane wave of infinite extent traveling along z.

In all the planes

perpendicular to the
propagation z, the
phase of the wave is a
constant and therefore
the field Ex and By are
constant.

Faradays law tells us that a time varying magnetic field result in a time
varying electric field with the same frequency and vice versa.

The electric field Ex will be accompanied by a magnetic field By. With

the same frequency and propagation constant ( and k).