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Diameter ( A )
Figure 1. Wave functionsfor n = 1. 2,3, and 4. where: n = the number of waveleneths in the distance 2a, h
= Planck's constant, rn = mass o f i h e electron, and a = di-
ameter of the containing sphere. The wave functions for such
a system are well known(2) and are shown for n = 1,2,3,and
4 in Figure I
his-model suggests that the atom is stable because there
Merely confining an electron to a certain, restricted volume is an equilibrium established between the tendency of the
endows it with this energy of containment. If the electron were electron to be drawn to the nucleus due to electrostatic at-
not confined, it would have a lower energy. Therefore, the traction and the tendency of the electron to leave the nucleus
electron seeks to escape its confinement. Thus, the contain- due to its desire to escaue its confinement. For this model. the
ment energy is the factor that makes the electron of an atom total energy of the atom, E T is~ ~
tend to escaue from its nucleus.
When we add a nucleus to the box, which already contains
an electron, the electrostatic attraction lowers the potential
energy, and the total energy becomes a combination of this
wotential enerav -. and the containment enerev -- (kinetic en- nZh"e2
E.Tot=---
kg~). 8ma2 r,,,
In light of this model for the atom, the students' original
where "r,,," should be some average value between zero7 and
question can now be answered as follows:
An atom is made up of a positively charged nucleus and one or more We assume here that the barner to escape from the box is infinite,
negatively charged electrons around the nucleus. Since the nucleus but that within the box there are no forces llmiting the position of the
and the electron are of different charges, naturally they attract one particle.
another and tend to come together. However, an electron is not only The word "orbital," introduced by Mulliken, is used to describe
a particle; hut also it behaves as a wave. Because this is true, we can
visualize the electron not as a discrete particle, but rather as a diffuse individual wave function solutions to the Schroedinger equation.
For a onedimensional box, the equation is obtained as follows:
cloud af matter and electrical charge around the nucleus. As the
electron and nucleus come closer together that is, as the electron is
confinedmore and more (and the electran cloud becomes smaller and
smaller), the wavelength of the electron must become shorter and
shorter so that it can "fit" into the confining space. As its wavelength Position of nucleus
becomes shorter, the electron's,energy increases. Eventually, the
energy possessed by the electron due to its confinement becomes
sufficiently great that the electrostaticpotential energy can no longer Electron wave for n = 1
continue to draw the electron and nucleus closer together. At that
point an equilibrium is established in which the atom is stable and
in which the electron neither goes toward the nucleus (electron cloud
becoming smaller) nor does it escape from the nucleus (electron cloud
becoming larger).
Quantitative Presentation To give the maximum electron density at the nucleus, "a" must be equal
The factor that tends to bring the electron and nucleus to- to 112. Then p = h l k KE = p2/2m = V/2mh2 = V/8ma2
gether is electrostatic attraction It may be noticed that at r,,, = 0 it appears the potential energy
term becomes infinite. Because of the uncertainty principle, however,
r,, can never be equal to zero and therefore the potential energy term
cannot become infinite.
F o r n = l a n d Z = l , a =1.963A.
Thus, indeed this very simple model yields a stable atom.'O
Figure 2. Plot for a hydrogen-like atom ( 2= 1).
There is a minimum in the E T curve, ~ ~ and a t the min-
imum: