Geotechnical Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers

Volume 165 Issue GE1 Geotechnical Engineering 165 February 2012 Issue GE1
Pages 312 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/geng.2012.165.1.3
The design of temporary excavation support Paper 900096
to Eurocode 7 Received 17/12/2009 Accepted 20/01/2011
Keywords: codes of practice & standards/excavation/temporary works
Markham

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

The design of temporary

excavation support to
Eurocode 7
Paul David Markham MSc, CEng, FICE
Director, RNP Associates Limited, Sutton Coldeld, UK

This paper examines how Eurocode 7 relates to the design of temporary excavation support. It is shown that total
stress design and the net available passive resistance method described in Ciria Report 104 can produce inconsistent
results, which must be carefully checked for sensitivity to the soil parameter values used. Many temporary
excavations are designed using moderately conservative soil parameter values and a limit equilibrium method of
analysis with a lumped factor of safety of 1.5. It is concluded that design in accordance with Eurocode 7 produces
higher propping forces than design using this approach, but that Eurocode 7 produces propping forces over 60%
lower than design in accordance with Ciria Report C580.

Notation Where frames or props are used, proprietary equipment available

cu undrained cohesion for hire will usually be used (Figure 1).
cu;d design value of undrained cohesion
ka active pressure coefficient The major differences between the design of temporary and
kac active pressure coefficient permanent excavation support include the following.
kp passive pressure coefficient
kpc passive pressure coefficient j Temporary works are required for a comparatively short time,
Psls value of the prop force derived from the SLS load case thus in fine-grained soils it can be appropriate to use total
ua pore water pressure on active side of wall stress parameters for the design rather than effective stress
up pore water pressure on passive side of wall parameters
F partial factor for an action j The design has to be undertaken based on the ground
G;dst partial factor for a permanent destabilising action investigation report for the permanent works. Often this
G;stb partial factor for a permanent stabilising action report has not been conceived or written for the design of

a active earth pressure temporary excavations; the necessary information for design

p passive earth pressure

va total vertical stress on the active side of the wall

vp total vertical stress on the passive side of the wall

v9a effective vertical stress on the active side of the wall

v9p effective vertical stress on the passive side of the wall

1. Introduction
Eurocode 7 (EC7) (BSI, 2004a) is now the sole national and
European standard for the design of geotechnical works and its
use is mandatory on publicly funded work. There are several
design guides to EC7 (Bond and Harris, 2008; Department for
Communities and Local Government, 2007; Frank et al., 2004),
which state the general manner in which EC7 is applied. This
paper will specifically refer to the design of routine excavation
support, usually carried out by a contractor as part of the
construction process, and is based on the authors experience of
the design and checking of temporary works schemes. These Figure 1. Typical small temporary excavation supported by trench
excavations are supported by the use of steel trench sheets or sheets and proprietary frames
steel sheet piles with or without support from frames or props.

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Geotechnical Engineering The design of temporary excavation
Volume 165 Issue GE1 support to Eurocode 7
Markham

of such structures is absent and there is not time to conduct a
supplementary site investigation. Where suitable site
investigation data are not available, then it would not be
possible to do a design in accordance with EC7.
j The excavation is in the upper layers of soil. The ground in
this area often consists of fill, made ground, disturbed ground,
head or recent deposits that do not form coherent beds.
Owing to a lack of suitable case histories, it is usually
difficult to base the design on case histories from previous
excavations in similar material.
j These temporary excavations are usually less than 6 m deep.
BS 8002:1994 (BSI, 1994) has not been widely adopted by
designers of sheet pile walls (Puller and Lee, 1996). Therefore,
temporary works design of retaining walls uses a hybrid of
several methods. Gaba et al. (2003) recognised that there was a
multitude of guidance for designers and that this advice was often
contradictory, and therefore aimed to summarise both best prac-
tice and the alternative design methods in Ciria Report C580.
This was published before the publication of EC7 and is not
compatible with EC7 on some issues, such as factors of safety for
stability and strut design.
usually treated as unfavourable throughout. However, towards the
toe of the wall the soil on the retained side becomes favourable
because it prevents rotation of the toe of the wall and reduces
bending moment in the wall and reduces prop loads. It is not
clear where the soil changes from being unfavourable to favour-
able and using the principles of EC7 different partial factors
should be applied to each of these actions, which would make the
calculations unnecessarily complex. When favourable and unfa-
vourable actions come from the same source, EC7 allows the
same partial factor, F, to be applied to all those forces; this
reduces the complexity of the calculations and has become known
as the single source principle.
For retaining walls, in cohesionless soils, the active and passive
earth pressures are calculated from the formulae
active pressure

a k a
v9a ua
passive pressure

p k p
v9p up
2. Eurocode 7
2.1 Application of the partial factors
Eurocode 7 is a limit state and partial factor code which adopts Substituting the usual formula for effective stress and rearranging
the same philosophy as the other structural Eurocodes, with to separate the effects of earth and water pressure, the formulae
actions subject to different partial factors depending on whether become:
they are favourable (or stabilising) or unfavourable (or destabilis-
ing). For example, when treated as an action, earth pressure is
a k a
va ua 1
k a
subject to the partial factors G;fav 1.0 for a favourable action
or the partial factor G 1.35 for an unfavourable action. On a
propped wall (Figure 2) the soil on the retained side of the wall is and

Unfavourable permanent
geotechnical action, G 135
Actual earth pressure Earth pressure according
distribution (indicative) to active earth pressure theory
Actual earth pressure
distribution
Favourable permanent
geotechnical action, G 100
Surcharge, Q 0

Earth pressure according to

passive earth pressure theory

Figure 2. Propped retaining wall showing that it is not clear

where the earth pressure changes from being an unfavourable
action to a favourable action

4
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1

p k p
vp up 1
k p traffic loading. BSI has also published NCCI for structures
Since ka is generally less than 1.0, these formulae show that the
vertical total stress on the active side of the wall,
va , and the
water pressure on the active side of the wall, ua , are both
unfavourable, since they increase the pressure on the active side
of the wall. On the passive side of the wall, as the vertical total
stress,
vp , increases so the passive pressure increases, hence the
vertical total stress is favourable. However, since kp is greater
than 1.0, the term (1
kp ) is negative and water on the passive
side reduces the passive resistance; hence it is unfavourable. To
avoid applying different partial factors to the earth and water
pressures it is simplest to use the single source principle.
2.2 Comparable experience
Eurocode 7 places considerable value on comparable experience,
which is defined in clause 1.5.2.2 as follows.
Documented or other clearly established information related to the
ground being considered in design, involving the same types of soil
and rock and for which similar geotechnical behaviour is expected,
and involving similar structures. Information gained locally is
considered to be particularly relevant. (BSI, 2004a)
Therefore, to use comparable experience, the soil and the scale of
the structure must be similar. However, there is a shortage of case
histories for shallow excavations, which limits the circumstances
in which comparable experience can be applied (Driscoll et al.,
2008). Consequently, an alternative method is required (Section 3).
2.3 Deformation
Eurocode 7 requires the engineer to assess deformation when this
could have an effect on neighbouring structures. Where there are
sufficient geotechnical data available, sufficient time for the
analysis and appropriate engineering expertise, then deformation
can be calculated using the finite-element (FE) method of analy-
sis. However, the data and time are not usually available for FE
analysis for these routine excavation supports. Therefore, defor-
mation is best assessed on the basis of case history data such as
the charts by Clough and ORourke (1990).
2.4 Guidance
Previous standards, such as CP2:1951 (Institution of Structural
Engineers, 1951) and BS 8002:1994 (BSI, 1994), attempted to
provide the designer with rules for design and the geo-
technical information necessary to do the design. EC7 provides
only the rules for design to ensure safety and economy
(Simpson and Driscoll, 1998) and allows the engineer consid-
erable scope regarding choice of method. Therefore, the
engineer is required to consult other references to non-contra-
dictory complementary information (NCCI) such as Ciria
Report C580 (Gaba et al., 2003). The British Standards
Institution is also publishing NCCI for structures subject to
The design of temporary excavation
support to Eurocode 7
Markham
subject to traffic loading in PD 6694-1 (BSI, 2011) which
says very little about embedded retaining walls and refers the
reader to Ciria Report C580 (Gaba et al., 2003).
This leaves the engineer in a difficult position as illustrated by
an international workshop (Orr, 2005: p. 4) which was held to
review ten geotechnical examples that had previously been
distributed to members of the European Technical Committee 10
(ETC10). The committee members prepared solutions to the
design examples and the solutions showed a considerable spread
in the range of results. It was concluded (Simpson, 2005) that
some of the spread was due to contributors applying additional
measures on top of the requirements of EC7, for example using
values of =9 lower than required or applying additional
penetration beyond that required by the equilibrium equations.
However, it is necessary to apply additional measures that are
not covered by EC7 to deal with the likes of passive softening,
arching, minimum effective fluid pressure, eccentricity of load
on props or accidental load on props. Therefore, owing to the
lack of definitive NCCI, engineers will apply existing guidance
in an inconsistent manner, which could result in unsafe or
uneconomic designs (Simpson, 2005).
2.5 Selection of soil parameter values from test results
Historically, there has been little guidance to the designer on
how parameter values should be selected (Simpson and Driscoll,
1998) and engineers have always had to use engineering
judgement to obtain parameter values. The precise method of
doing this has not been well defined, but EC7 attempts to
provide some guidance to the engineer on this subject by
suggesting that parameter values can be obtained using statistical
techniques. The guidance is to be welcomed, but in practice the
statistical techniques are difficult to apply and a large number of
test results is required to produce meaningful results. Geo-
technical engineers, by definition, have put their time and effort
into the study of geotechnics and few geotechnical engineers
will also have studied statistics to a sufficiently high level to be
able to apply these statistical techniques (Simpson and Driscoll,
1998); consequently, the use of statistical methods is not
appropriate on the majority of projects (Department for Commu-
nities and Local Government, 2007). The exception is on large
projects where there is an abundance of high-quality ground
investigation data and a team can be built up to include
statisticians. This does not apply to the small, temporary
excavations under consideration. So, although these statistical
methods cannot be used directly, they can be used to show the
way in which engineering judgement should be heading (Dris-
coll et al., 2008).
2.6 Accidental overdig
It is usual to make some allowance for accidental overdig in
design. This is commonly 10% of the depth of excavation below
the bottom strut, up to a maximum of 0.5 m (see BS 8002:1994
(BSI, 1994) and BSC (1997)). Control of dig level during
5
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1
excavation of a cofferdam is very good. Overdig costs money to
excavate, more money to dispose of the arisings, and the overdig
has to be replaced with expensive concrete, hence site manage-
ment has incentives to minimise overdig. Where 75 mm of
blinding is specified, the target dig level can be 10 mm high so
that there is never any overdig.
EC7 allows the depth of accidental overdig to be determined by
risk assessment, in which case the following factors should be
taken into consideration.
j Total depth of excavation.
j Depth below bottom frame.
j Is it possible to get a digger into the excavation to bottom
up? (Figure 3)
j Is the ground easy to trim to the required level, or is it likely
to come out in irregular lumps (e.g. weak sandstone)?
j Will the excavator driver work from outside the cofferdam?
j Will the excavator driver be able to see where he is digging
or will he rely on a banksman?
j Will there be experienced supervisors on site throughout the
construction period?
j Can remedial action be taken in the event that distress to the
cofferdam is noted?
Where risk assessment shows that it is not necessary to consider
accidental overdig in the design, then a sensitivity analysis should
be undertaken to examine the effects of accidental overdig and care
must be taken to ensure that the result of analysis is still reasonable.
Additionally, the requirement for supervision and construction
control measures must be specified in the geotechnical design
report (Bond and Harris, 2008). Construction control measures
would include a monitoring system with clear trigger levels. The
Figure 3. Trimming formation in an excavation where there can
be good control of the dig level and little or no accidental overdig
6
The design of temporary excavation
support to Eurocode 7
Markham
monitoring frequency must be stated and reflect the level of risk
and mode of failure.
2.7 Design in fine-grained soils
The indicative design working life of a temporary structure is
stated in Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design, BS EN 1990:
2002 (BSI, 2002) as 10 years. This is only indicative and
designers can use other values for the design life, but the designer
has to be able to justify the adoption of a shorter design life. The
significance to a temporary retaining wall is that a small
cofferdam can be installed, excavated and removed within a few
weeks or months. For the design of excavation support in London
clay, undrained conditions are commonly assumed for durations
up to six months (Gaba et al., 2003). However, clause 9.6(3) of
EC7 states that for silts and clays water pressures should
normally be assumed to act behind the wall. . .[corresponding] to
a water table at the surface of the retained material. This
produces the same water pressures as assuming a water-filled
tension crack (Figure 4) for the full depth of the wall. Where
water is not expected, EC7 does not contain any rule regarding
minimum effective fluid pressure (MEFP) of the retained soil, but
the UK National Annex (BSI, 2004b) does refer to Ciria Report
C580 (Gaba et al., 2003) as a source of NCCI, which does
require MEFP.
Where there is experience of excavations in similar soil, mixed
total and effective stress design is recommended in Ciria Report
C580 (Gaba et al., 2003) in conjunction with pore water pressures
obtained from a flow net and passive softening. Where there is no
potential for recharge, either at excavation level or within the
soil, on the passive side of the wall, the recommended depth of
passive softening is 0.5 m. Further recommendations are made in
Ciria Report C580 (Gaba et al., 2003) where there is potential for
recharge below formation, possibly by sand or silt layers. How-
ever, in this case, the appropriateness of design assuming
undrained conditions is questionable, which leads to the conclu-
Figure 4. Tension crack adjacent to an excavation
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1
sion that the depth of passive softening should be taken as 0.5 m
whenever the design is based on undrained parameters; alterna-
tively, undrained parameters should not be used. This should be
used with the assumption that there is zero adhesion between the
pile and the soil so kac kpc 2.0.
2.8 Thermal effects
Props are affected by temperature because the ground, on the
retained side, restrains the props against thermal expansion.
This paper is concerned only with comparatively shallow sheet
pile walls and, for a frictional soil, passive resistance is
proportional to depth. Therefore, for a frame near ground level,
supporting a sheet pile wall, there will not be much restraint to
temperature effects, so prop loads should not be greatly affected
by temperature. For example a 10 m long prop, with a 258 rise
in temperature would lengthen by 3 mm (1.5 mm at each end).
This would result in the force in the prop being slightly higher
than the active force, but still, probably, less than that due to
the earth pressure at rest. This leads to the conclusion that
temperature changes have little effect on prop loads supporting
flexible walls (Twine and Roscoe, 1999). However, using the
values suggested in Ciria Report C580 (Gaba et al., 2003), a
10 m long, 305 mm 3 305 mm 3 97 kg/m universal column
propping a flexible wall in stiff soil would have a temperature
effect of 300 kN in addition to the prop force from the stability
analysis. The method described in Ciria Report C580 (Gaba et
al., 2003) was based on measurement of prop loads in strutted
excavations and the method does not take account of the depth
of the prop below ground level. For deeper props there will be
more restraint, but for shallow props supporting sheet pile walls
there is less restraint from the ground and the method in Ciria
C580 could be conservative.
2.9 Workload
Eurocode 7 has been criticised for requiring additional work from
the engineer. However, for the relatively simple excavations under
consideration, the amount of additional work is small in compari-
son to the overall amount of work required (Table 1).
Existing requirements based on Ciria Report C580 (Gaba et al., 2003)
Understand the requirements
Assessment and selection of soil parameter values
The assessment of the load in the support system at an overall factor of safety
of unity
The assessment of the design wall depth at a factor of safety of 1.22.0
depending on the method of analysis chosen
Where required, the serviceability load case
Check sensitivity to accidental overdig and variation in soil parameter values
Production of written calculations
Production of drawings
Table 1. Comparison of the analysis required by EC7-1 and
existing requirements
The design of temporary excavation
support to Eurocode 7
Markham
2.10 Factors applied to water pressure
Eurocode 7 is not definitive regarding the factors that should be
applied to water pressure, and the engineer is left with consider-
able scope regarding the factors to be used and the water levels to
be used. This is discussed by Bond and Harris (2008) and they
show five different ways in which EC7 can be interpreted
regarding water levels and partial factors. Some of the interpreta-
tions make the calculations very difficult or lead to unrealistic
situations and Bond and Harris (2008) go on to suggest the
following approach, which is both realistic and reliable. When
earth pressures are factored, the same partial factor (G 1.35) is
applied to the earth and water pressure, which is calculated using
the highest normal water level (i.e. the characteristic value).
Alternatively, when the factor G 1.0 is applied to the effective
earth pressure, the same factor is applied to the water pressure
but the water pressure is calculated using the highest possible
water level. This level can be obtained by applying a margin to
the characteristic water level.
3. Reliability of existing methods
The difficulty of obtaining accurate predictions of design effects
using numerical methods is illustrated by the benchmarking of
the software Plaxis (Schweiger, 2009). Several engineers used
Plaxis to analyse a strutted retaining wall where the constitutive
model, the soil parameters and the geometry were predefined.
Users were then free to make decisions regarding the type of
elements to use, the tolerance settings, groundwater modelling
and the extent of the grid. The range of calculated maximum
displacement varied between 12 and 28 mm. The calculated
bending moment ranged from 25 to 51 kN m and the calculated
strut force ranged between 84 and 124 kN/m. Where engineers
have to make decisions regarding the software to use, the soil
parameter values, the constitutive model and the mesh, then there
would be a greater range of calculated values. Software for FE
analysis is complex, and incomplete understanding of the consti-
tutive model was at least partially responsible for the Nicoll
Highway collapse (Karlsrud and Andresen, 2007). Schweiger
(2009) concluded that the results of a FE analysis need to be
Requirement of EC7-2
As existing
As existing
DA1-C1,
DA1-C2
As existing
As existing
Production of geotechnical design report
As existing
7
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1
checked very carefully and that experience is necessary for
obtaining reliable results from such an analysis.
These excavations are usually designed by the contractor as part
of the construction process using the site investigation report
commissioned for the permanent works design. On most small
schemes the only laboratory test results available are the results
of index tests and quick undrained triaxial tests. Accurate values
of the stiffness parameters for numerical design are not generally
available and the engineer either has to use approximate input
data or, preferably, use a simple method of design with the soil
parameters that are available (Gaba et al., 2003). Therefore, a
simple robust method is needed for temporary works design. EC7
allows design by calculations; adoption of prescriptive measures;
experimental models; load tests; or by an observational method.
Numerical methods may not give realistic results and can give a
false impression of accuracy; the distributed prop load method
(DPL; Twine and Roscoe, 1999) is not appropriate for excava-
tions less than 6 m deep, neither is the observational method. The
remaining option, use of a limit equilibrium method, provides a
simple, robust design method with an established history of
successful use.
Several comparisons have shown that calculation methods do
not predict actual behaviour well for either limit equilibrium
methods of analysis or for numerical methods of analysis (Day
and Potts, 1989; Gaba et al., 2003; Kort, 2002; Lambe and
Turner, 1970). The comparisons also show that the high
factors of safety recommended by Gaba et al. (2003) in Ciria
Report C580, are necessary for a safe design; however, these
factors are not always used in temporary works design (see
Section 4).
Prop
50 m
10 m
d
pp kp d kac cu 50 20d pa ka v k ac c u 100 20d 2 25 50 20d
Figure 5. Extreme sensitivity when using the strength factor
method
8
The design of temporary excavation
support to Eurocode 7
Markham
3.1 Problems with total stress design
There are problems with the gross pressure method where, in a
total stress analysis, the factor of safety reduces as the pile length
increases. With the strength factor method, a related problem can
arise in which there is extreme sensitivity of the calculation
when, on the retained side, the vertical effective stress at
formation is about four times the undrained cohesion below
formation (assuming ka kp 1.0, kac kpc 2.0 and the same
soil on both sides of the wall) (Figure 5). This is because the
active pressure,
a k a
v9a k ac cu and the passive pressure,

p k p
v9p k pc cu are about equal. Therefore, for the conditions
stated, the net pressure below formation,
p

a  0, which
makes the results of calculations oversensitive to small variations
in the parameter values used. This type of problem is always
present with total stress design; the inclusion in the calculation of
MEFP, tension cracks and passive softening complicates the
matter, but the same oversensitivity occurs for some combinations
of circumstances. For example, a propped wall with a 5 m
retained height has been analysed using the factor on strength
method (Table 2) with allowance for passive softening, a MEFP
of 5 kN/m3 and a water-filled tension crack. The driving depth, d,
increases from 5.88 m to 12.26 m as the undrained cohesion is
decreased from 38 kPa to 36 kPa. This is due to the net pressure
below formation being close to zero when the factor of 1.4 is
applied to the strength of the clay. Therefore, total stress design
must be used with caution with the factor on strength method and
the results should be checked for sensitivity to the parameter
values used. This problem also occurs when using the net
available passive resistance method as described in Ciria 104
(Padfield and Mair, 1984). The undue sensitivity only affects the
driving depth of the piles; the prop load and moment in the sheets
are only affected in proportion to the parameter values (Table 3).
Surcharge, w
20 kN/m3
ka kp 10
kac kpc 20
cu 25 kPa
Active pressure
v 100 kPa
Geotechnical Engineering The design of temporary excavation
Volume 165 Issue GE1 support to Eurocode 7
Markham

cu : kPa Factor on strength cud : kPa Driving depth, Maximum moment: Prop load:
d: m kN m kN m

38 1.4 27.14 5.88 145 81

36 1.4 25.71 12.26 207 99

Table 2. Oversensitivity when using total stress design with the

gross pressure method of analysis

cu : kPa Factor on strength cud : kPa Driving depth, Maximum moment: Prop load:
d: m kN m kN m

56 1.4 40 1.04 36 29
49 1.4 35 1.83 48 30
45 1.4 32 4.02 44 32
43 1.4 31 6.78 46 33

Table 3. Oversensitivity when using the net available passive

resistance method of analysis as described in Ciria Report 104
(Padeld and Mair, 1984)

4. Comparison with existing methods of
design
A comparison has been made, for a range of frictional soils,
between the output from a design to EC7 with the output of a
design to Ciria Report C580 for a propped wall (Figure 6).
Design approach 1 (DA1) has been used for the analysis of
ultimate limit states (ULSs) to EC7. This requires the analysis of
two ULS cases, referred to as combination 1 (DA1-C1) and
combination 2 (DA1-C2). In addition, the serviceability limit
state (SLS) must be considered. In DA1-C1 the main partial
factors are applied to the actions (loads); this is a similar
approach to that used in the other structural Eurocodes. The
engineer can choose where in the calculation to apply the partial
factors and for this comparison the calculations have been carried
out using characteristic values and the effects factored. This
applies the same partial factor to active pressure, passive pressure
and water pressure and is known as the single source principle.
Surcharge 10 kPa
10 m
Using characteristic values for the soil parameters in this manner
results in a calculated factor of safety for toe stability of 1.0 for
DA1-C1. In DA1-C2 the main partial factors are applied to the
material propertie (i.e. the shear strength of the soil). Therefore,
the toe depth is almost always determined from the DA1-C2
calculation.
The water level for each design situation must be assessed by the
engineer, but for this example of temporary excavation support
the highest possible water level has been taken as the character-
istic value. Therefore, the margin suggested by Bond and Harris
(2008) and discussed in Section 2.10 has been taken as zero and
the characteristic value of water pressure has been used in the
calculations (G 1.0). A factor of safety of 1.0 (using design
values) has been used in the equilibrium calculations to determine
the pile length. For both the analysis to EC7 and Ciria C580, the
excavation depth has been taken as 5.4 m in the ULS load cases,
which is a 10% increase on the actual depth below the frame to
allow for unplanned excavation. The serviceability load case has

been analysed using characteristic values and there is no

Prop
allowance for unplanned excavation.
50 m

19 kN/m3 The analysis shows (Figure 7) that for designs to EC7, the design
w 10 kN/m3 moment for high-friction soil (9 408) is obtained from DA1-
C1, whereas for the other three soils considered the design
Linear variation of moment is obtained from DA1-C2. This shows that it is always
hydraulic head
(BS 8002: 1994) necessary to check both load cases. The design prop load (Figure
8) for all the soils considered was obtained from DA1-C1.

Figure 6. Wall analysed for comparison of design to net pressure For design to Ciria Report C580, for the four soils considered,
method with design to EC7 the design moments and propping force are obtained from the
ULS analyses; in other words the prop forces from the ULS

9
Geotechnical Engineering The design of temporary excavation
Volume 165 Issue GE1 support to Eurocode 7
Markham

600
800 Design approach 1 combination 1
Design approach 1 combination 1

Design approach 1 combination 2 550 Design approach 1 combination 2

700 500 Ciria C580 ULS load case

Ciria C580 ULS load case
Ciria C580 SLS load case
Ciria C580 ULS moment derived from SLS 450
load case (i.e. SLS 135)
600
400

Prop load: kN
350
500
Moment: kN m

300

400
250

200
300
150

100
200
25 30 35 40
Angle of shearing resistance: deg

Figure 8. Comparison of results of design to EC7 with design to

100
net pressure method prop load
25 30 35 40
Angle of shearing resistance: deg

Figure 7. Comparison of results of design to EC7 with design to

net pressure method moment

14
analysis are greater than 1.35 times the prop force from the SLS Design approach 1 combination 1
analysis (Figure 8). However, this is not the case for all soils
13 Design approach 1 combination 2
and, as with design to EC7, it is necessary to check both load
cases. Ciria C580 ULS load case
12

The analysis to EC7 design approach 1 always produced higher

Driving depth: m

11
bending moments in the sheets than the analysis to Ciria Report
C580, by between 3% and 9% (Figure 7) and required longer
sheets (Figure 9) by between 40 mm and 690 mm (0.5% and 6%). 10
In practice, the sheets are selected from a limited range and are
sized for driveability as well as the moment produced from this 9
analysis, so this will not make much difference to the final
design. The pile length, in the EC7 calculations, was always 8
obtained from DA1-C2.
7
However, the analysis to Ciria Report C580 always produced
higher design values for the prop forces than the analysis to EC7 6
25 30 35 40
design approach 1 by between 61% and 65% (Figure 8). This is Angle of shearing resistance: deg
because of the large factors of safety (Table 4) applied at the end
of the calculation using the Ciria Report C580 method. Some Figure 9. Comparison of results of design to EC7 with design to
engineers might consider these factors of safety a model factor net pressure method driving depth
also to be applied to the output from a limit equilibrium

10
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1
Limit equilibrium calculations
SLS prop load (unfactored soil parameters) 1.85 3 calculated value
ULS prop load (factored soil parameters) The greater of:
1.35 3 Psls
1.85 3 calculated value
Table 4. Factors of safety for the design prop loads to Ciria
Report C580 (Gaba et al., 2003)
calculation to EC7. Additionally, it is recommended in Ciria
Report 104 (Padfield and Mair, 1984) that the prop loads from a
limit equilibrium analysis are increased by 25% to allow for
arching. However, neither the model factor nor the 25% increase
are written into EC7, so engineers can produce a design in
accordance with EC7 without using them; this means that a
design to EC7 would not have the same level of reliability as
existing design methods, which was one of the fundamental
requirements of EC7 (Simpson and Driscoll, 1998).
However, the frames for temporary excavations are often de-
signed using lower factors of safety than recommended in Ciria
Report C580. For routine excavation, it is common, throughout
the hire industry, to use moderately conservative soil parameter
values with a limit equilibrium method of analysis and apply a
lumped factor of safety of 1.5 to the analysis output to calculate
the ultimate frame load. This is equivalent to the analysis of the
serviceability loadcase and the calculations show that the ULS
prop load calculated to EC7 for these examples varies from
between 1.59 and 1.60 times that calculated from the service-
ability loadcase. Therefore, analysis of the serviceability load
case and a factor of safety of 1.5 on the frame load do not
produce a design with the same reliability as a design to EC7.
Limit equilibrium methods of analysis are not geotechnically
rigorous; usually the movement of the sheets is insufficient to
achieve the fully active or fully passive earth pressures on which
the methods are predicated. However, they do have the advantage
that they are simple to apply and robust in use. That is, the
factors of safety that are used with these methods are method
dependent and have been based on much experience to produce a
safe design. Any limit equilibrium method is permitted by EC7,
but the factors of safety (partial factors) for use with design to
EC7 have been predefined in the National Annex to EC7 (BSI,
2004b). In the past few years, the net available passive resistance
method of design (see Padfield and Mair (1984)) has been widely
used. However, its use with partial factors can produce incon-
sistent results (Table 3) and it may prove necessary to develop
another method that can be used with the partial factors of EC7.
5. Conclusions
Currently, in the UK, a variety of methods are used for the design
of temporary retaining walls and, in general, design is at working
load whereas the structural codes use partial factors. In that it is a
The design of temporary excavation
support to Eurocode 7
Markham
Soilstructure interaction calculations
1.0 3 calculated value
The greater of:
1.35 3 Psls
1.0 3 calculated value
limit state and partial factor code, EC7 is a major step forward in
standardisation, but the lack of prescriptive measures will lead to
much disagreement and uncertainty among engineers.
In the UK, only design approach 1 is permitted by the National
Annex to EC7-1 (BSI, 2004b). Even using a single method of
design, different interpretations of EC7 can produce very differ-
ent results. For example, passive earth pressure can be treated as
a resistance, a favourable action or a negative unfavourable
action, each of which produces a different result to the calcula-
tions. Water pressure can also be treated in several different ways
and a consistent approach is required, such as using the single
source principle, which removes some of the complexity of, and
is easier to use than, applying different partial factors to the
different parts of the earth and water pressure diagrams.
Some of the opposition to EC7 can be explained by conserva-
tism of geotechnical engineers and the unwillingness to change
existing practices that are known to work. Interpretation of EC7
produces disagreement, among engineers, regarding whether
numerical modelling is required and interpretation of the
individual clauses. Using EC7, it is necessary for the engineer to
refer to NCCI to complete the design. In the UK, Ciria Report
C580 (Gaba et al., 2003) is cited as NCCI; however, parts of
Ciria C580 are contradictory, so a partial rewrite is required
urgently, to ensure reliability in design and to ensure that EC7,
unlike BS 8002, is widely accepted by temporary works
engineers.
Currently, for cohesive soils, total stress design or mixed total
and effective stress design are often used for temporary excava-
tions. However, whenever total stress parameters are used on the
passive side of the wall, the analysis can become ill-conditioned
and a sensitivity analysis is necessary.
The routine method of design for small temporary excavation
support has become a hybrid method based on Ciria Reports 104
(Padfield and Mair, 1984) and C580 (Gaba et al., 2003). When
used with the partial factors of EC7, the overall factor of safety is
significantly less than recommended in Ciria Report C580 and
the results can be sensitive to the parameter values used, which
makes it essential to check the results for sensitivity to parameter
values and accidental overdig, as well as checking against the
output from an existing method of design.
11
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1
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