P H I L OSOPH Y OF M I ND

AN E S S AY

TH E ME TAPH YS I CS OF PS YCHOL OGY

G E O RG E TRU M B U L L L A DD
P R O F E SS O R OF PH I LO S O PH Y Y AL E U N IV E R SITY

NEW Y O RK
C H A RL E S S C RI B N E R S S ON S

18 9 5
C H A R LE S S C R I B NE R

S S ONS .
H eilig ac ht wir di G i t r b r N m i
en e e s e , a e a e n s n d un s D u n st ;
Wi i r d ig ehr wir d i M i t r b r f r i i t i
en e e s e ,
a e e s t ns di e Ku n st .

UH LAN D .
 P RE FA CE

\H I S book is an e ssay i n the s p e culative treatment of cer

I
f

tai n problem s , s ugge s ted but not u s ually di s cu s sed i n

the cour s e of a thorough empirical s tudy of mental phe
momena .
I n a s much a s the s e problem s all relate to the real
nature a n d actual performa n ce s a n d relation s of th e human
mind the e ss ay may properly be calle d metaphy s ical
,
.
L et
it be co n fe ss ed then that the author co me s forward with a
, ,

treati s e in m e taph y s ic s i n the more s peci al meaning of

,

that term I thi n k howev e r that i n s pi t e of th e marked

.
, ,

di s favor i nto which all metaphy s ic s has fallen i n certain

quarter s no detailed apology for as king reader s f o r s uch a
,

treati s e need be off e red in i t s P refac e I n deed the r s t t wo

.
,

chapter s of the book are occupie d in s h owi ng how inevitable

i s the dema n d which the s cience o f p sychology make s for a
further philo s ophical di s cu ss ion of all its princi pal problems .

If then thi s d ema n d i s not made perfectly clear by the more

, ,

detailed di s cu ss ion which foll ow s it would be quite u s el e s s to

,

put it forward un s upported at the begi n n i n g o f my ta sk i n

, ,

the hope of produci n g a favorable r s t impre ss ion i i pon r e

l a ctant intellige n ce s .

A s to the ki n d of met a phy s ic s whi ch it i s de s igned to o ffer ,

two or three prelimi n ary remark s s e em important A n d r s t. ,

o f a ll i t i s t o be open and und i s guised

,
Of all
. bad m e ta
viii P RE FA C E
phy s ic s the very wors t i s likely to be that which i s unavowed
,

and concealed s ometime s ev e n from the author him s elf

, ,

while a s yet he i s e n gage d i n critici s ing th e m e taphy s ical

view s of other s o r i n denouncing metaphy sical e s s ay s in
,

general N o one who s e p e ace of mi n d i s s ure to be di sturbe d

.

by a n y attempt howe ver carried ou t at thi s form of r e e c

, ,

tive thinking should v e n ture b eyond the titlepage a n d table

o f content s o f thi s volum e On the other hand however I .
, ,

wi sh to be held re s po n s ibl e for t wo thi n g s which are required

i n order to e n title to r e s pect every treati s e o f a s imilar char
acter The s e are r st t h e s tatement o f the fact s and law s
.
, , ,

scie n ti cally e sta bli shed to which the s pecul at iv e di s cu s s ion ,

co n sta n tly refer s for i ts o wn ground s in ex perience A nd .

for m e taphy s ic s which h a s n o fou n datio n s in inconte stable

experi e nce I have a s little re s pect a s h a s a n y o n e But
,
.

be s id e s thi s con sta n t appeal to fact s and to law s e mpirically

e stabli sh e d s ound rea s oni n g i s i n di spen s able fo r th e deriva
,

tion of acceptable conclu s ion s in any metaphy s ical enterprise .

A ny reader o r critic therefore who will point ou t viola

, , ,
~

tion s of either of the s e t wo requirement s will be entitled ,

to grateful recogn itio n for h i s s ervice no le ss by the author ,

than by the re a der s of thi s volume .

A f e w word s co n cer n ing the relati on s which thi s book su s

tain s to pr e c e di n g work s by the s ame author will be helpful
for i ts b e tter u n d e r standi n g In s ome s ort the enti re volume .

may be r e g a rd e d a s i n co n tinuati o n o f a s erie s of work s 1

on p s y chology or the s ci e nce of mental ph e n om e n a Thi s
, .

s ci e n c e which a s a s c i e n ce i s a n d eve r mu s t remai n chi ey

, , , , ,

de s criptiv e s tart s ma n y i n quirie s regardi n g the re a l n ature

,

and r e lation s to the ext e rnal world , and e s pecially to the

1 E l e m e n ts o f P h ysi ol ogi ca l P sych ol ogy , u li
1 887 f P h y i l gi l P y
O t nes o s o o ca s
r h ol og y, 1 89 1 ; Psy ch ol ogy Descrip tiv e
, d E xpl
an t ry 1 8 9 4 ; P ri m r
an a o f , e o

P s yc h l gy
o o ,
1894 .
( All publi h s ed by Ch S rib r
as . c S ) ne
'
s on s .
 P RE FA C E ix
body of that s ubj ect of all the phenomena which we are
, ,

accu stomed to call the mind The partial co n siderati on
.
,

at lea st of s uch inquirie s i s extremely diffi cult to s eparate

m
,

fro the attempt at anything like a comprehe n sive treatment

o f p s ychology But th e s e very i n quiri e s can be carried only
.

a little way before they become s o inextricably mi n gled with

comprehen s ive probl e m s i n general philo s ophy a s to make u s
aware that we are already at s ome di stance from that form
of di s cu s s ion whi ch i s appropriate to a descripti ve s cie n ce .

The di s covery j u s t noted s how s the nec e ss ity which every

atte mpt at a metaphy s ic s of mental phe n ome n a fe e l s of
borrowing certai n co n cl u s ion s fro m the ge n eral e ld of phil
o s ophy . Thi s nece ss ity i s made appare n t and it i s al s o ,

acted upon in the chapter s on the reality the identity the

, , ,

unity and the permanence of th e mind a n d on the real

, ,

relation s o f the mind to th e bodily o rgani s m H e nce the .

di s cu s s ion s of thi s volume not infrequently refe r to view s

briey s tat e d o r hinted at i n a work on ph i IOS Opli y by the l

same author .

The nature of p sychol ogy however , and the nature of ,

philo s ophy and especially the nature of the r e lation s exi s ting
,

betwee n the t wo are s uch a s to make it unde s irable if n ot

, ,

impo s s ibl e to con sider in on e book all the metaphy sical prob
,

lem s whi ch thi s empi rical s cie n ce s ugge st s Ind e ed the .

,

whole s phere of phil o s ophical s t u d v s carc e ly d oe s more than

thi s. A s om e what but n ot wholly arbitrary selection of
problem s had therefor e to be mad e ; and their detaile d di s
, ,

c a s sio n was th e n brought u n de r the o n e title

Philo s ophy ,

o f M ind

.The rea s o n s for the se l e ction a r e made s uf cie ntly
clear i n the cour s e of the di s cu s s ion it s elf .

Fi n a lly I do n ot b e liev e that s p e cial s tud e n t s of p s ychol ogy

, ,

whether b e gi n ner s or adv a n ced s tuden t s a n d thoughtful men ,

1 I tr du ti
n o c on to P hil osoph y , 189 0
. Ch as . S mi b ne r

s S ons .
X P RE FA C E
generally , lack i nterest in the m e taphy s ical inquirie s which
are undertake n in thi s treati s e Th e fa s hion o f de n ounci n g
.

the s tudy of metaphy s ic s o r o f the theory o f knowledge or

, , ,

i ndeed o f any group o f the profou n der philo s ophical p rob

,

lem s i s more the schola sti c fad o f bla s mi n d s or the
, ,

r e fuge o f weak and s el sh s pirit s than the re s ult o f any ,

ge n ui n e lack o f i n tere s t on the par t of the multitude o f

,

thi n ker s in the earne st di s cu s s ion of the s e problems Such

,
.

per s o n s b e come agno stic o r r e s ort to a demand for u n q u e s

,

t i on i n g faith at the point whe re they them s el ve s begi n to be

,

ba fed or tired i n the e ff ort at thinki ng A s to the limit s .

a n d validity of k n owledge men will al way s eagerly i nquire .

To rebuke them for thi s s eem s i n the light of the hi s tory ,

o f human rea s o n like s olemn trii n g I n the face of the

,
.

regna n t agno stici s m n o i n qui rie s can b e more obligatory or

,

more important than tho s e which co n cern a theory of cog

n i t i on . A nd while s o man y i n the name of s cience are
, ,

d enyi n g the reality unity and po s s ibility of a permane n t

, ,

exi stence of the h u man mind and are re s ol vi n g i ts entire

,

bei n g into a s tream of m e chanically a ss ociated e pi ph en o

mena thrown o ff from the mol ecular machinery of the
,

cerebral hemi sphere s it i s n ot an i nopportune time , or a

,

wholly u s ele s s and thankle ss ta s k to propo s e a serious r e ,

di s cu ss ion l ike that undertaken i n thi s volume .

G E OR G E T R UM BULL LADD .

YA L E U m v s n s rr r , Ne w H a ve n , 1895 .
 TA B L E OF C ON TE NTS

C H A PT ER I

PSYCH O L O G Y A N D TH E PH I L O S OP H Y OF M ND I
PAGE

Th Opi i
e f
n on o Kan t Psych ol ogy
wi h u M ph i u pi t o t eta y s cs
Ass m t on s

i v lv d
n o Th C ur
e t k by t he P hy i l i
o S se
I it ia en e s ca c en ce s n con s s e nc e s

f
o M r H uxl
.
y P uli r Di f u let i f P y h lecgy P r f r Ha
ffdj g c es o s c o o o e sso o n

ri ti i d Vi w f P r f r J m
c c se e M F1
s o y P i ti x mi d
o esso a es . 011 1 n o 8 os on e a ne

P ri ipl f P y h ph y i l P r ll li m
nc e o s C tr t d Vi w
c o- s ca a a e s on as e e s

C H A P T ER II

P S YC H O LO G Y A N D TH E P H I L O S O PH Y or M I N D ( conti nu ed)

Di ff ic ul t i es e x
C ur p Vi w f V lk m
a m i ne d Th e t w o o ses o en e s o o an n

Vi w f Wu dt Th t ru C pt i f P y h l gy U f M t
e s o n e e on ce on o s c o o se o e a

ph y i l A u mp ti i P y h l gy P y h l gy
s ca ss N t LS i
on s n s c o o s c o o as a a ura c e n ce

N t ur f P hil ph y R l ti
a e o f P hil ph y t th p rt i ul r
os o e a on o oso o e a c a

S i M r S p r Vi w f P hil ph y S p i l R l ti f P y

c en c e s . ence s e o os o ec a e a on s o s

ch l gy t P hil
o o ph y Br h f M t ph y i i v lv d Th P r b
o o so a nc es o e a s cs n o e e o

hl m e f P hil
s o phy Of M i d
9
. o so n

C H A PT ER III

TH E C O N C E PT or M IN D
P opula r u se o f th e t e m r
I quiry P y h l gy
Mi nd S ta n dpo i nt for n s c o o

no t m r d t i e ef C t t All m t l li f
oc r n e A t i i t y N t ur
o on e n en a e an c v a e

of C pt i i g r l N t r f S l f k wl dg F rm t i
on ce on n en e a d a u e o e -
no e e o a on an

D v l pm t
e e o f th pt f M i d F l
en o i d qu t Vi w
e c on ce o n a se or na e a e e s

ex m i d Th hig h r K wl dg f S l f
a ne e e no e e o e
 C H A P T ER IV

REA L TY M ND TH E I OF I
PAGE

Th e pt f R li ty K wl dg d R l i ty rr l t Of l B i g
con ce o ea no e e an ea co e a es r ea e n s

in g r l Wh t i i t t b R l l Th F u d ti i xp ri
en e a a s o e ea

e o n a on s n e e e n ce

R li tyea i m pl i t f S l f
an iu Of r g i t iv M m ry
ca e o e -
c onsc o sn ess e co n e e o

A d f r t iv T hi ki g S p t i l
n o e ec d Ag eti V i w ri t i i d
n n ce ca an nos c e s c c se

t r t d R li ty f T hi g T ru N t ur f t h m i d R li ty

Th e co n as e ea o n s e a e o e n s ea 1 13

C H A P T ER V

TH E I D E N T I T Y A N D S O C A LL E D D O U B L E
C O N SCIOU S N E S S OF ,
-

C O N S C I O U S N E SS
Th e ep t
conc f I dent i ty Th oi d ti ty whi h T hi g h v e Im m t e en c n s a an e n

Id i m pli t Of i d ti ty Th
ea an ca e p t f S l f s l f m e P rm i
en e co n c e o e a se -
sa e s

s ibl Ch g s i P r li ty
e an e ll d Id t i ty f T hi g d of M i d
n e son a so- c a e en o n s an n s

C on t ra sted P h en om en a
ll d D ubl C i u A d th o f so ca -
e o e on sc o sness
"
n e

t ru i t i Att it ud t w rd t h m P ri ipl f p y hi l A ut m t
e sc e n c e o a e nc e o s c ca o a

i m
s Ph m

f I pir t i
en o P ie na Ob oi t ns a on , ossess on ,

s ess on , e c .

Dr m t i S u d ri g f t h E g P l y f Chil d r Ph m

a a c n e n o f e o a o en eno en a o

Dr m ea E xp ri
s f A t r Ph m e f P r ph t i m
e n ce P r ll l
o c o s eno en a o o e s a a e

fr m E thi l C i u
o E xpl
ca ti f Hyp t i m L
ons c o f P
sn ess ana on o no s oss o er

son al Id t i ty en

C H APT ER VI

M D TH E U N I T Y OF IN

Th e conc e pt f U ity Th u i ty whi h T hi g h v U i t ry B i g f

o n e n c n s a e n a e n o

M i d D v l pm t f m t l u i ty E thi l C lu i fr m t h f r
n e e o en o en a n ca on c s on s o e o e

g i g i v tig t i
o n n P ibili ty f D gr
es a f R l i ty
on s A d f m t l o ss o e ees o ea n o en a

U i t ry B i g
n a T l l gi l P ri ipl i v lv d S i m pli i ty d I di
e n e eo o ca nc e n o e c an n

vi ibili ty f M i d
s o n

C H A P T ER V II

M D N BODY IN A D

R li ty f
ea R l ti o i g r l At t m p t t
e a m t ph y i l
on s f
n en e a e s a a n on - e a s ca u se o

t h P ri
e ipl f C u t i
nc Curr t e o pt i f C u t i i th P h y i
a sa on en c o n ce on o a sa on n e s

l S i
ca Vi w f Ph m li m I w f th C rv t i
c en c e s e d o en o en a s .a o e on s e a on an

C rr l ti f E rgy Ori gi f t h
o e a on o p t f C u ti D v l p
ne n o e c on ce o a sa on e e o

m t f th
en pt f C u t i W rk f I t l l t up th W rl d
o e co n c e o a sa on o o n e ec on e o

f T hi g P ri ipl
o n f S u f i t R
s S mm ry f R ul t
nc e o

c en ea son
"
u a o es s
 C ON TEN TS xi i i

C H A P T ER V III
MI N D AND BOD Y ( con ti n u ed)
PAGE

Cl asses of P h en om ena C rl
di sc u ss e d P h en om ena of C on co m it ant or e a

ti on ll d r j t d N b lu t C m i t
so -ca e ,
d m
e ec e t r bl o a so e o n co a n ce e on s a e

F ti
on na f tw on pt B dy d M i d D v l p m t f t hi Bi
o o con ce s, o an n e e o en o s

p rt i t i
a Di mp t i
on or Th pt f B dy A b t r t i Th
re on e con ce o o an s ac on e

B dy l y f rm lly di i t fr m N t ur Al l M t ph y i i v lv d i
o on o a st n c o a e e a s cs n o e n

t h V li d t y f t h i
e a bi p r t i t i
i o I f b dy
s mi d F -
a on n u e n ces o o on n ac

t r i m t l Li f
o s n t r pr
en a t d i t h b d il y B i I
e no f mi de esen e n e o as s n u en ces o n

onb dy o Dy m g ti I u f Id
na Th P ri ipl f
o- e n e c n e n ce o e as e nc e o

Sug ti gI u
es fr m F li g d W ll
on n ences o ee n an i

C H A P T ER IX

MATE RI SP I R IT U AL I S M
A LISM A ND

U se of Term s defe n de d L i m i t f t h Di u is o Th e f ur F rm s f s pe
e sc ss on o o o en

l t iv
a p ie O in M t on a e ri li sm S piri t u l i m M i m d Du li m d ed
a , a s ,
on s , an a s e n

P iti os f M t ri li m
on t t d
o d di ua e d I m p r bil i ty f
a s s a e an sc sse n co a a o

phy i l d p y hi l ph m P i t i
s ca an s c f Bu h r V gt
ca t 1 e no en a os on s o c ne , o , e a .
,

cri t i i d Out m f M t ri li m u i t lligi bl M t ph y i f M

c se co e o a e a s n n e e e a s cs o a

t i li m
er a x m i d P it i
s e f m i ti
a neS piri t li m t t d A dos on o on s c ua s s a e n

it Ts t ri t i i d
ene s c A imi m x m i d d r j t d M t ri li m
c se n s e a ne an e ec e a e a s

an d Sp i ri t u li m m u t u ll y d t ru t iv
a s a es c e

C H APTE R X
D U A SM MO NI SM AND LI

h
M t d f
e urr
o t Mo i m
c Th A g teni i m f M i m
on s
Th um pti e n os c s o on s e ass on

f Ab lu t M i d ju t i d Vi w f P r f r H di g ri t i i d Th '

o so e n s e e s o o ess o o n c c se e

pri ipl f P r ll li m x m i d A d i t T rm f u d i t h r i
nc e o a a e s e a ne n s e s o n e e n

d qu t
a e u m i g
a e P r p rti li t y
or n i ppr pri t T rm
e an n o o ona an na o a e e

F t i m p t ibl wi t h th
ac s n co m pl t E a x t i e f t hi P ri ipl Th e co e e e n s on o s nc e e

I d t i ty h y p th i
en d i t h u i t lligibl
-
o es sTh C
gi t py
en s n e n n e e e ase a a ns s

h l gi l M i m um m d
c o o ca p P i t i
on s f p u l t
s iv D u li m eOh u os on o s ec a e a s

j ti ect t h i p i ti
ons x mi d
o s os on e a ne

C H A P T ER XI
OR G D P MA E E M ND I IN AN ER N NC or I

Na tu r f th f ll wi g Di u i
e o e P r bl m f th Origi f M i d t t d
o o n sc ss o n s o e o e n o n s a e

Appli t i f t rm
ca f L li ty t M i d T r d u i Th ry x m i d
on o e s o oc a o n a c an eo e a ne

Tr mi i a ns f Mi d b u d i ty Cr t i T h ry x m i d
ss o n o n an a s r ea on eo e a ne
 C ONTENTS
P robl em of th e P e rm a n en ce of Mi nd st a t e d C on ce pt of P erman ence as

a ppli ed to Mi nd Th e T rip rti t

p rm t U i ty a e d ivi i f Ms on o an Th e e an e n n

of t h S ubj t f ll
e iu tt ec o f l l bi d i g R li ty f
a co n sc o s s a es P ri ipl nc es o a a n ea o

M i d P ibili ty f r lly xi t t b t U
n oss i u M i d Ph m
o ea e s en u n c o nsc o s n en o en a

of ll d u
so - ca i u C r br ti
e O l p ibl u
n con sc o i u E xi t
s e e a on n y oss e n c on sc o s s

ence o f Mi d B i g d B nm i g f M i d R l ti
e n f it m i d
an e co n o n e a on o n e n

t Ab lu t M i d
o so e n

C H A P T ER XI I
MA S M N D N NA T U R E
PL A C E OF N

I I

K t ri t i i m f th D t ri
an

s c c sf I m m r t li t y
o N t ur f Argu m t f I m
e oc ne o o a a e o en s or

m rt li ty f M i d
o a E xi t o f u n i u M i d S t uff f v lu
s en c e o n consc o s n -

o no a e

Vi w fr m th p y h ph y i l t dp i t N i ty f i t r du i g
e s o e s c o- s ca s an o n e cess or n o c n

th r C i d r ti T ru N t ur f M i d L i f R l t i
o e on s e a ons f m e a e o n -
e e a on s o an s

M i d t ph y i l N tur
n o A d ll y t t h B i g f t h W rl d
s ca a e n ,
na , o e e n o e o , con

id
s d Ab lu t M i d
ere as so e n

I ND E X
 P H I L OSOP H Y OF TH E M I ND

CHAPTE R I

PS YC H OL OGY AND TH E P H I LOS OP H Y OF MI ND

T i s n ow s omewhat more than a hundre d years S i nce the

ph i l o s oph e r K ant expre ss e d hi m s el f i n de s pai r ove r the
po ss ib i l ity of p sychology ever s ecuri ng title to a pl ace among
the e x act s ci e n ce s On e rea s on wh i ch i nuenced thi s great
.

'

thi n ker to s uch a s tate of m i nd w a s th e i n h e r e n t l ack of

powe r a s he thought on the part of p s ychol ogy to put o ff

the trad iti onal i ncertitude of metaphy s i cs a n d to put on the

,

robe of mathemati c s It i s certai nly a si gn i cant fact to nd

.

at the end of th e century an al mo s t complete change of vi ew

a s to the n ature o f thi s s tudy For perhaps the maj or ity o f
.

tho s e s tudent s who s e opi n i on i s be s t worth con s i derati on now

hol d , not only that the s ci ence of mental phe n omena s houl d
d i s pen s e wi th metaphy s i c s but that i n i ts m ode r n f er nti i t h a s
/

ac tu al ly shown that i t c an d o so ; whi l e an e s s enti al charac

'

t e r i s t i c of t h e new p sych ol ogy i s u ndoubte dly the l arge
and methodi cal u s e wh i ch it make s o f e xperi m e ntati o n an d

s tati s ti cs
. Th i s experi mental and s tati s ti cal study of m e n tal
phenomena i mpl i es o f course the e xerci s e of that arm by
, ,

whi ch alone al l the e xact s ci enc e s tri umph , name ly ,

mea s ureme n t an d mathemati c s It woul d s eem then that

.
, ,

thi s f or a ti me dethroned but now re i n s tated queen h a s su c

c e e de d i n ch ang i ng h e r ve s tu re i n a manner wh i ch Kant
,

con s i dere d he r very natu re to rende r foreve r i mpo s s ibl e .

2 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O PHY OF M IN D
A more careful exami nati on both of the current practi ce
and of the hi s tory of Opi n io n howeve r S how s that the real
, ,

state of the ca s e i s by no mea n s s o clear or s o s ati s factory .

For the obvi ou s truth i s that not a few of tho s e wri ter s wh o
cry ou t mo s t l oudly a n d un s pari n gly agai n s t th e admi xture
of metaphy s i c s w ith s ci enti c p s ychol ogy are them s elves

often the gr e ate s t tra n s gre s s ors i n thi s very regard Indeed , .

th e i r practi ce s ugge s t s the not unk i ndly s arca s m that th e

metaphy s i cal hypothe s e s and tenet s wh i ch they th i nk it

i nd i s pen s able to exclude from the s cience o f mental phe
n om e n a are sol e ly th o s e of the i r opponent s A nd s o i t .

come s about that i n s ome treati s e s by such writer s on ps y

c h ol o gy the soi l i s r s t o f al l cl eared w i th more or le ss
,

decl amati on of al l those nox i ou s weed s of phi l o s ophy wh i ch

,

m i ght otherwise m i x i n a n d S po i l the purity of the e mpi ri ca l

science ; then ne xt th e s eed of thi s pu re sci ence i s d i l i gently
, ,

sown before ou r del i ghted eye s as i t comes fre sh from

,

numerou s phy s i ol ogi cal and p sycho phys i cal l aboratori e s or

-
,

from the brai n s ferti l e i n conjecture of th e auth or h i m s elf

, ,
.

Yet s omehow when the total crop i s ready for the harve s t
, ,

not a f e w s prout s of metaphy s i c s a r e sti l l found to h ave crept

into it . Stran ge to tel l however they are chi ey of s peci es
, ,

whi ch ouri s h be s t on ju s t that s oi l wheneve r room h a s been

,

made for them by the clearance of pre e xi s ti ng speci es -

.

It can s carcely be clai med then that the practi ce of the

, ,

advocate s of a s ci e n ti c p sychol ogy wh i ch S hal l keep it s el f

clear of a ll metaphy s i cal impl i cati ons h a s a s yet taught u s
preci s e ly how to s ecu re s o d e s i rabl e a r e sult .

A n d i f we turn from ex ampl e to theory ( f or wh o d oe s n ot

i ncl i ne to teach other s better than he hi m s el f practi s e s i n
matte r s of thi s k i nd the c a s e d oe s not even the n seem
much better For i n general i t i s tho s e very p s ychol ogi sts
.
, ,

who have been mo s t con dent of the po ss ibi l ity of freei n g

sci enti c p s ychology from al l i nvesti ture Of m e taphy s i c s
wh o have gi ve n u s le a s t i nt e ll i gent and cal m d i s cu ss i on of
 P S Y C HOLO GY AN D TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 3

the real and permane n t rel ati on s betwee n the two The i r .

practi ce the refore , too Often seems dependent on a lack of

,

con s i s te nt theory .

There are several forms of s uch i ncons i stency whi ch are

connecte d with d i fferent forms of conceale d or repres s e d ph il
os oph i ca l opi ni on .A s agai n s t the metaphy s ics of ol d fa s h -

i one d rati onal p s ychology s o cal led s ome write rs ad vocate
,
-
,

empi ri cal p s ychology without metaphy s i c s o r p s ychol ,

o gy w ithout a s oul But i n half con s ci ous recogn iti on Of
.
-

the truth that to walk con s i s tently al ong thi s li ne of abnega

ti on woul d bri ng them to the realm whe re ther e e x i st s noth
i ng but gho s t s and d ream s of gho s ts they s oon s how a ,

d i s po s iti on t o u s e P rofes s or Jame s s e x pre ss i ve word s

to pul l the pall ove r the p s ychi c half of the phenomena .

They requi re for the e ffecti ve work i ng of the i r p s ychol ogi ca l

theori e s at l east s o much metaphy s i c s a s consi s t s i n the as
s umpti on o f an entity cal led the brai n o n who s e acti vity or
,

i nuence they can lay the re s pon s ibi l i ty for mental phenome na .

They also tak e the i r vi e ws of cau s at i on s eri ou s ly and i n a truly

ontol og i cal way, S O l ong a s they are deal i ng w i th s tate s of c on
s ci ou sn e s s i n systemati c depende n ce upon precedi n g s tate s of

a phy s i cal o r chemi cal sort B ut when they are faced about
.

by the acknowledged s equence s of othe r phenomena and are ,

compell ed to con s i de r whethe r s tates of con s c i ou s ne s s can ,

a s i s ord i nari ly s uppo s ed be real cau s es of s ub s equent phy
,

s i c a l and chemi cal changes then the i r enti re the ory of c a n

,

s ati on i s deftl y ad apted to the clai m s of the s hal l owe s t

phenomenal i s m .

Othe r wri ters i ndeed , set ou t wi th the pronounced a n d

,

ho n e s t attempt to hold fa s t to the purely sci enti c poi nt o f

vi ew i n whi chev e r of the two p ossi ble d i r e c ti on s we con s i der
,

the all ied yet d i s parate s eri es of mental and phys i cal ph e
n om e n a.
,
If f or exampl e the q uesti on be as to what ner ve
,

commoti on s or l ocal i mpai rment s i n parti cul ar area s of the

ce rebrum are r e gul arly followed by changes i n the phenomena
 4 P S Y C HOLO G Y A N D T HE P H I LO S O P H Y OF M IN D
of con s ci ousne s s ; or a s to what k ind s amount s a n d ti me
, ,

rates of vari ou s sti mul i , whe n appl i ed to the pe ri phery of th e

nervous sy s tem , are succeede d by deni te known cha n ges i n
the qual ity i nten s ity and ti me rate of me n tal s tate s
, ,
-
then ,

the s e i nve s ti gator s propose fai thfully t o s tate the fact s an d ,

to let the general i zati on s from the m stan d a s mere orderly

s e q uences betwee n the two cl a s s e s of phen omena But i f .

the que s ti on be a s to what movement s of the mu s cle s i n ne r ,

v a t i on s of organ s of s e n s e ,
determ i nati on s o f qual iti e s and
change s of perce i ved thi n g s d i sturbance s of ce rebral func
,

ti on s ; o r of the ci rculatory re s pi ratory and d i ge s ti ve s ys

, ,
~

tem s wi th all th e capi l lary and s ecret ory acti viti e s co nnecte d
,

ther e with ; or a s to what more s u bti le organi c change s an d

modi cati on s of every form o f ti s s ue ( s uch as b i rth mark s -
,

sti gmata a n d epi l epti form hyper ae sthe s i a or hal l uci nati on s
, ,

reacti on s of the p sychi c cel l s S O cal led ) foll ow certai n forms

-

of con s ci ou s ne s s cal le d emoti on s p a ss i on s de s i re s deeds of

, , ,

wi ll and s ugge s te d or xe d i dea s why then t oo

,

, , ,

these wri ter s accept the Obl i gati on to be equal ly re ady to a c

knowl edge mere s equ e nce s i n fact between d i ff ere n t cla s s e s
of phe n omena It i s the bu s i ne s s of s c ie n ce s a y they s i mply
.
, ,

I t o di s cover actual orderly correl ati on s between phenomena .

A nd i f thi s be true of al l s ci ence as s uch why sh oul d i t n ot

, ,

i b e true of the parti cul ar s ci ence of p s ych ol ogy ?

I t w i l l be ou r pu rpose l ate r on to con s i de r i n d etai l the

vari ous a ss umpti o n s i nvol ve d i n the la s t of the po s iti o n s
ju s t m enti oned It i s far from ou r pr es e ng pur pos e to n d
.

If a u l t w ith s uch a po s iti on . I t h a s i ts ow n ju s ti cati on ;

although thi s ju s ti cati on w il l be s een to be only temporary
an d parti al N or are i ts advocate s to be blamed becau s e
.

they habitually u s e langu age a n d a s s ume subord inate pr e m

i se s that are th oroughly s u u s e d wi th metaphysi c s ; f o r al l
thi s bel o n g s to the very nece ss iti e s of the ca s e N 0 one can .

even talk about mental phen omen a and about the i r dependence
upon b rai n s tates or upon cha n gi ng s ti mul ati ons under psy
-
 P S Y C HOLO G Y AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 5

Ch e - phys ical laws without a ss umi ng the real e x i s te nce of both

m i n d s an d th ing s and the real ity of i nte ractio n be twee n them
, .

What i s me ant by s uch a complex network of a ss umpti o n s ,

-
t ha t i s s ometh ing which on e m a y pu r s u e p s ychol ogi cal

s c ie nce w i thout k nowing and even w ith out con s i der ing at al l .

It i s pre ci s ely th i s questi on of mean i ng whi ch a sc i enti c ,

as d i sti ngui s he d from a nai ve and natural metaphys i cs , ai ms
to i nvesti gate .

G rav e fault i s t o be found howeve r with a con s i derable

, ,

numbe r of th i s l atte r cla s s of wri ter s on the s ci ence of psy

ch ol ogy for the u nthi nk i ng way i n wh i ch they adopt the S o

called purely s ci enti c po i nt of vi ew yet grave r fault a s , ,

h as already bee n ind i cated f o r the i r fai lure to abi de by i t

,

con s i s tently For they too a s a rule fai l to kee p the

.
, , ,

adopted poi nt of vi ew of a dual i s ti c phen omenal i s m A nd .

,

after al l metaphy s i c s h as been thru s t ou t o f the front door

of the t e mple o f sci ence they are found somewhat cla u des
,
~

t i n e l y admi tting s ome o n e favorite form of metaphy s i c s by

the rear d oor .

The s acred preci ncts have i ndeed be en i ndustri ou s ly ri d

of that metaphy s i c s of D ual i s m wh i ch a ll unsoph i s ti cated

sci e n ce ad opts But th e hi gh pri e s t o f the e s tabl i s hment i s

.
-

nally d i s cove re d o n h i s knee s i f n ot i n th e mai n s c i en

,

t i c a u la at l ea s t i n s ome ante cham be r o r s i de apartment,

,
-

-
before th e altar o f M oni s m N ow f or an avowe d meta
.
,

phy s i ci an the re i s nothi ng s h a meful a bout thi s ; but i t i s

s carcely the ri ght thi ng to be done by o n e wh o h a s l i fted u p

h i s vo i ce before t h e ve ry thre shol d of the temple i n warn i n g

aga in s t al l metaphy s i c s Such conduct ce rtai nly l ead s the
.

by s ta n de r s to the s u s pi ci on of ulteri o r moti ve s o f a conceal ed

phi l o s oph i cal k i nd What the s e moti ve s u s ual ly are w i l l be
.

mad e more clear l at e r on ; and h ow far they seem to u s suf

c i e n t to ju s ti fy s uch an atti tude o f wor s hi p w i ll al s o be
expl ai n ed W e a r e n ow s i mply argu i ng i n the i nte re s ts of
.

i ntel l igence and candor ; a n d we bel ieve that these t wo qual i

6 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O PHY OF M IN D
ti es ought to characteri ze the s tudy of the sci ence of my
ch ol og y as of al l the other s ci e n ce s .

It would s eem without s peci al re s earch a s though a cer

m
, ,

tai metaphy s i c s were th e natural and nece ss ary

accompani ment of every sc i e nt i c approach to the s tudy of
me n tal phenomena Thi s form i s of c our s e an u ncri ti cal
.

common s e n s e D ual i s m P s ychol ogy a s sume s that thi ng s

-
.

are an d mi nd s are ; and that w i thi n certai n l i mit s deter
,

m i ned by the s o cal led natu re of both they act cau s ally
-
,

upon each other Th o s e h appe n i ngs wh i ch are a s cri be d to

.

thi n gs a n d tho s e whi ch are a s cri bed t o mi nd s are never r e

, ,

garde d by s ci e n ce wi thout metaph y s i c s a s m er e ph e n omena ;

o r rather the very word
, ,
phenomen a nece ss arily s ugge s ts
a n d i mpl i es bei ng s of wh i ch a n d to w h i ch th e phenomena are .

That i s to say what s ci ence cal ls th e phenomena
,
are ,

after all i n fact regarded a s the ob s erved mode s of the

, ,

behavi or of real be i ng s both Of mi nd s and of th ings A nd s o

, .

lo n g a s the s tudent of mental s ci ence mai ntai n s thi s atti

tude he remai n s on the grou n d occupi ed by the s tu dents of
,

al l the natural s c i ences The s tudy of p s ych ol ogy a s a natu

.

ral sci ence i s not real ly th e n the pu r s u it of a knowledge of

, ,

correlati ons betwee n phenomena wh ol l y wi thou t a n y m e ta

p h y si cs wha tev e r ; it i s rathe r the pu r s ui t of thi s s ci ence with

only s u ch m e tap hy si cs a s i s nai vely a s sumed i n all sci enti c

i nqui ry P s ych ol o gy may then , f or the ti me bei n g i f
.
,

o n e i s only wi ll i ng to le ave i t so be called a natural s c i
,

ence ; but only as i t i s fou n d e d u pon a natural u n criti cal , ,

and u n r e e ct i n g metaphy s i c s H ow fa r p sych ology can

.

s ucce ss ful ly be p u rsued i n thi s way w e s hall al s o con s i der

l ate r on .

It i s i n s tructi ve although s omewh at di s he arteni ng for the

, ,

ardent advocate of a purely s ci enti c p s ych ol ogy to c o n trast

the practi ce and theori es of hi s c ol l eague s w ith th o s e of the
stu dent s of th e pri nci pal phy s i cal sci ence s A l l remember .

h ow N ewton wh o h i m s elf dabbl ed s omewhat t oo fre e ly i n

 P SY C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 7

rathe r poor met a phy s i cs i ss ued t o phys i cs a warn i ng

a gai n s t al l metaphy s i c s ; and no d oubt h i s s ucces s ors i n phy

s i ca l i nvestigati on at the pr e s ent d ay s uppo s e them s elve s in ,

the mai n to be careful ly observi n g the warn i ng Of thi s great

,

ma s ter A t any rate they are s en s i ti ve enough to what they

.
,

con s i de r the i mmea s urable superi ority of thei r o wn s ci ence s

when contra s ted w ith even the mode rn ende avor s i n th i s ,

regard of the most advanced p s ychol ogi cal s ci e n ce Occa

,
.

s i on a l l y however wh i le s peak i ng with i l l concealed contempt

-

, ,

o f the o ld psychology as mo s tly compo s ed of worthl e s s

metaphy s i c s they hol d ou t the hand wi th a charmi ng s how

,

of cord i al ity toward the new p sychol ogy ; and th i s becau s e

the l atter o ff ers to them the promi s e Of exhi biti n g i n s e i en ,

t i c form what i t can accompl i s h by u s e of scienti c

,

method s ,
wi thout metaphy s i c s .

I f i t were ou r pre s ent purpose to d i s cuss problems i n the

phi l o s ophy of nature o r the metaphy s i cs of phy s i c s rathe r ,

than i n the phi lo s ophy of m ind o r the metaphy s i c s of psy

c h ol og y we s hould pro t by gi vi ng a detai led criti cal e x a m i
,

nati on to the s e cl ai m s Of s upe ri ori ty on the part of the

phys i cal s ci e nce s It i s enough n o w to a i r m that the modern
.

phy s i cal sci ence s are very far i ndeed from bei ng capabl e of
e xhibi ti ng them s el ves s y s temati cal ly a s s tri pped of al l meta
phy s i cs . O n th e contrary the mo s t s tupendou s m e ta ph y I -
,

s i ca l a s s umpti ons and i mpl i cati on s a re woven i nto th e i r I

s tructure throughout Inste ad of bei ng m e r e formula s f or
.

stati ng uni form sequences among phen omena they are d e ,

s c r i pt i on s and explanati ons o f exp e ri ence s wh i ch appeal at

e very s te p to i nvi s ibl e and my s teri ou s enti ti e s to hi dde n ,

and ab s tru s e forces to tran s acti on s th at are a s s umed to tak e

,

pl ace among bei ng s wh o s e ex i s tence and m od e s o f behavi or

can never become i n any s en s e of th e word s i mmed i ate
, ,

d ata o f s en s uous k nowledge A hi gh place of honor

.
,

although doubtle s s on e to b e obtai ned only after enduri ng

the pangs of a prol onged cruc i x i on awaits that ph i l os oph i,
8 PS Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O PH Y OF M IN D
ca l bi ol ogi s t , or ph i lo s opher su f ci ently acquai nte d with
t hat
sc i e nti c bi ol ogy who s ubjects the modern d octri ne of evo
,

l u ti on to a thoroughly criti cal analy s i s w i th a v i e w t o ,

detect a n d to e s ti mate i t s metaphy s i cal a ss umpti on s When .

s uch a on e appe a r s i f hi s criti ci s m turn o u t mai n ly de s tru o

,

t i ve , i t w i l l be i ntere s ti ng to know how much wi ll r e mai n of

the s o cal led s ci ence of evoluti on ; but i f the criti ci s m be
-

f avorabl e an d con s erv ati ve i n re s ult i t i s s afe t o s a y th at ,

thi s result w i l l be attr ibuta bl e t o the fact of the s ci enti s t s

havi n g bui lded better a s metaphy s i ci an s than they k ne w

a s mere s ci enti s t s .

It i s vai n to endeavor to break the forc e Of the pre s ent c on

tenti on by rem i ndi ng our s el ve s th at the s tude n ts of natu ral
science r e gard all S O cal led enti ties real cau s e s an d trans
-
,

acti on s whi ch neve r have themsel ve s become or can become

,

phenomena, i n the l i ght s i mply of permi s s ibl e and helpful

hypothe s e s L et th i s be at once conceded ; and let i t al s o
.

be conceded that thi s way of i ntroduci ng hypothe s e s i n th e ,

e ff ort to nd a more complete expl anat i on of actual e x pe r i

e nce ( of the phe nome n a i f on e i s pl e a s ed by i n s i s ti ng on
,

thi s word ) i s s ci ent i cally l egi ti mate It wi l l s carcely be

, .

seri ou s ly mai ntained howeve r that by hyp othe ti ca l e ntiti e s

, , ,

cau s e s and tran s acti on s the men of s ci ence mean m er e

, ,

hypothe s e s that i s a ss umpti on s a s pure and s i mpl e state s

,
-
,

of the hypothe s i zi n g m ind a s nothi ng m ore than the con

,

s c i ou s n e ss of i deati ng a n d rea s oni ng i n a certai n wa

y and of ,

feel ing bette r sati s e d i f only abl e to h i t upon a certai n way

of i deati ng and rea s oni ng For e x ampl e on e m a y cal l the
.
,

l umi n i ferou s ethe r a hypotheti cal enti ty But by thi s .

o n e only me an s that i t i s an e ntity about the e xi s tence of

whi ch and the tran s acti on s i n whi ch we h ave n o i mmed i ate

, ,

and certai n knowl edge On e cannot s e e i t hear it ta s t e or

.
, ,

s mel l o r touch i t But i f on e i s perm it t ed to a ssu me s uch

.

an e nti ty and s uch and s uch tran s acti on s i n th i s e n tity the n

, ,

on e can the bette r account for e xi stence s and tran s acti on s of

 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 9

whi ch on e h a s i ndubitable knowledge The a ssu m e d entity .

i s a s su me d a s an en ti ty ; and s uch an a ss umpti on cannot

be made w ithout metaphy s i cs .

Or to take another e x ample : What phys i ci s t thi n k s Of the

s o called
-
atom s a s mere i deas i n h i s o wn mi nd i ntro ,

du c ed i nto hi s dream about a real an extra mental world , ,
-

i n the i ntere s ts s i mply of an i deal con s i s tency ? The rather

doe s s c i e n ce i ncl i n e to mai ntai n that the thi ngs s een heard , ,

s mel led ta s ted and touched are them s e lve s a t le a s t r e l a

, ,

t i v e ly phenomenal ; an d that the be i ng s betwee n and i n

whi ch the rel a t i vely re al tran s acti on s occur are j u s t the s e
tran s cendent and pe rmanent the s e al l potent but yet hypo ,
-

theti cal e ntiti e s It i s say s th i s natu ral s ci e n ce these

.
, ,

n on phe n ome n al and never to b e phenomenal entiti e s wh i ch

- - - -
V
d o the rea l work o f the re al world .

It i s i n thi s frank and courageous but totally u n cri ti cal

metaphy s i c s rather than i n i ts s ucce s s i n d i s pe n s i n g w ith
,

al l metaphy s i c s that the pre s ent s upe ri ority o f the phy s i cal
,

sci ence s to p sychol ogi cal S ci ence largely con s i s t s ; for i t i s

such m etaphy s i c s and i t al one wh i ch i s the appropri ate
, ,

out t of the s tudent of nature who wi she s to con ne hi m s e lf

to s ci e n ti c i nve s ti gati on, wi thout avowedly maki ng excur ~

s i on s i nto the el d s o f ph i l osophy I ts fundamental and .

ed s t m ol p g i c a l a s s u m jg i
u n qi e
i ti qn '
epi g k
pt g s bri e y th i s :
' w

Kn owledge i s to be h ad by work i ng i n the ri ght way for i t ; |

and by knowled ge i s understood the mental repre s enta
ti on o f thi ngs and events a s they real ly are A nd i f the .

que s ti on i s rai s ed What the n i s the r ig ht way to w ork

, ,

fo r knowledge ? the s u i e i e n t practi cal answe r con s i st s i n

poi nti n g ou t the way i n which othe rs ha ve al ready at t ai ne d
knowled ge .

But the correl ate d ontol ogi cal a s sumpti on th e other

s i de as i t were of the epi s temologi cal a s s umpti on
, ,
i s that
thi n gs really are that tran s a cti on s actual ly take pl ace and
, ,

that cau s es actual ly opera te ( and by re al ly o r actually
 10 P S Y C HOLOGY AN D TH E P H I LO S O P H Y OF M IN D
i s here u n doubtedly meant extra mentally a s th e y are
-

kn own to b e to tak e plac e and to Operate Nor , u n l e s s he i s

, ,
.

i n ue n c e d by s ome s u s pi c i on of dange r to othe r ph i l os oph i

cal tenet s hel d i n re s erve a n d chi ey connected wi th eth ical
and rel igi ous tenet s doe s the s tudent of the phy s i cal
,

sc i e nce s he s itate to apply both the epi s temol ogi cal and th e
ontologi cal po s tul a te s to h i s own m i nd and t o the m i nd s of
othe r m e n A s a man o f s ci ence S i mply he has doubt
. ,
I
ne ither of hi s ow n re al e x i s tence the s ame s elf s omeh ow
,

Ithat he wa s ye s terday an d eve n year s ago n or of h i s abi l i ty

,

t o know hi m s elf a s he really i s M ore over, he doe s n ot .

thi nk h i m s elf obl i ged , i n th e i n tere s t s of any s ch ola s ti c

metaphy s i cal th eory to he s i tate about ad opti ng th e ord i nary
,

common s en s e metaphy s i cs
- Surely i t woul d be scant cour
.

te s y i n hi m to deny that the col le ague s with wh om h e

t d i scu s ses the nature of lumi n i ferous ethe r and the e q u i v a ,

Il e n ce s and performance s of the atom s are them s elve s real ly ,

Ie x i s t e n t mi nd s s ta n d i ng i n actual rel ati on s of fri endl y

,

li n te r cou r s e to h i m s elf .

It i s i ndeed true that s ome authori ti es i n th e phys i cal

, ,

sci ence s parti cul arly if they are engaged i n compo s i ng

,

unu s ual ly volum i nou s and profound treati s e s th i nk i t n e ce s ,

s ary to have a few word s of reck oni ng wi th s o cal led meta -

phy s i c s i n a more formal way In thi s ca s e the i r cu s tom i s

.
,

t o a n nou n ce a po s i ti on of thoroughgoi ng agn o s ti ci s m re s pect

i ng the fundamental a s sumpti on s and concepti on s wi th whi ch
they w i ll soon be found deal i n g i n th e s e s ame treati s e s For .

e xampl e t he i r reader s are told at once w i th a b eco m i ng

, ,

a n d i mpres s i ve s ci e nti c mode s ty that natural s ci en ce d oes

,

not k n ow o r even ai m to k n ow what matte r real ly i s or
, , ,

what matt e r i s p er s e etc N ex t come s the confe s s i on that

,
.

e n ergy too i s a word i n the use of wh i ch s ci ence de s i re s
, ,

to g e t r i d o f a ll m e taphy s i cal i mpl i cati ons ; here als o sci ence

ack n owl e dge s n e ither th e Obl i gati on nor the abi l ity to tell what
that i s real i s meant by the term i t s o con s tantly empl oy s
 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IND 11

But before on e i s even able to i nqu i re whether there can be

sc i ence where there i s no knowledge ; and whether al l
k nowledge that i s re al ly k n owledg e i s not knowledge of th a t

wh i ch really i s and really occur s ; and whethe r k nowledge

of anyth i ng er se i s not a c on tr a d i cti o i n a dj e c ti vo and
p
whethe r s uch sweepi ng agno s ti ci s m d oes not nece ss ari ly lead
to the Opi n i on that the sy s tems of modern phy s i cal s ci ence
are themselves n o bette r than merely half con s i s tent dre am
i ng s ; and what thi s enti re bi g book and a ll the other bi g
book s produce d by s i mi l ar authoriti e s are about i f noth i n g ,

i s known as to the real nature of matter and as to the real ity

s e t forth by the s c ienti c hypoth e s i s of the con s ervati on
and correl ati on of en e rgy ,
ou r author h as probably pai d
-

h i s tribute to metaphys i cs and i s proce edi ng qu i etly on h i s

,

way wi th the legi timate w ork of hi s parti cul ar s ci ence Thi s .

S imply mean s that he h a s dropped back i nto the po s iti on of

a common s en s e and uncri ti cal D ual i s m i n respect of hi s
-

metaphy s i cal a s s u mpti on s a n d metaph ys i cal concepti on s .

A nd s uch a s h a s al ready been repeatedly s ai d i s the l e g i t i

, ,

mate phi lo s oph i cal po s iti on of the work er i n s ci ence only .

If howeve r ou r authority i n n atural s ci ence at any

, ,

poin t i n h i s ow n i nve s ti gati on s come s i nto cl o s e co n tact with

some que s ti on whi ch pri mari ly bel ongs to the empi ri cal
sci ence of p sychol ogy, but whi ch i s i n h is mi nd connected
wi th the ol ogi cal and rel i gi ou s problem s o r with ph i l OS Oph i
,

cal vi ew s i n the real m o f eth i cs and conduct the n i t i s not

,

unl ikely th at h i s more obvi ou s atti tude toward s o cal led -

metaphy s i c s w i ll u ndergo a s u dden and mark e d change Of .

po ss i b i l iti es of thi s s ort the writi ngs of M r H ux ley to.

sel ect on e e xampl e from many a ff ord many i ntere s tin g

and i n s tructi ve i llu s trati on s When d i s c ou r s i ng ex clu s ively
.

about the bone s of extinct an i mal s and t e ll i ng u s h ow they

,

demo n s trate th e theory of evoluti on and pu t i t on a par for cer

tai nty of knowledge with the l aw of gravi tati o n o r about the ,

structure and functi ons of l i vi ng ani mals con s idere d a s pu r e

 12 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I L O S O P HY OF M IN D
mechan ism t o be e x pl ained i n accordance wi th the hypothesi s
of the conservati on and corre l ati on of phys i cal energy , th i s

celebrated authority i n natural s ci ence i s obvi ou s ly a c om

1
m on s e n s e real i s t of the dual isti c type
-
H e d i s cours e s con
.

cerning what he hi m s el f has don e and what he h i m s elf k now s

, ,

w ith n ai ve metaphys ical a s s umpti o n that tran s acti on s i n

the real world of th i ngs actually s tre tch i ng ove r va s t e xten
,

s i on s of S pace and ti me are be ing correctly s e t forth

, B ut let .

some que s ti on ari s e a s to the free dom of the human ani mal ,

o r as to the rel ati on of brai n and mi nd o r a s to the s o

,

cal le d real ity of the l at te r and h ow qu i ckl y doe s M r

, .

H uxley show a d i s po s iti on to change h i s ph i lo s oph i cal poi nt

of v i ew with al l i ts i mpl i ed ten et s " I n deed s o rapi d s ome
, ,

times i s h i s metaphy s i cal metamorph o s i s that s e veral qu i te

di s ti nct standpo i nts may be taken i n the c ourse of a fe w
page s For fi rst perhaps we S hal l nd h i m ann ouncing
.
, ,

hi m s elf an agn o s ti c of the type of the Kanti an wh o h a s only

foll owed h i s ma s te r through the rst ed iti on of the C ri tique
of P ure R eason

,
and who lay s e mphas i s on the de s tructi ve
cri tici s m and i ts negati ve outcome whi le rejecti ng the su b
,

sequent attempts of the C ri ti que of P racti cal R eason to

n d room f or a metaphysi cs of morals and rel i gi on .

a non,
he i s a mate rial i s t re al ly s o however he m ay be
, ,

i ncl i ned to accept or re jec t the n ame ; f or he i s found vi rt u

al ly a s s uming the real ity of the brai n and the whol e nervous
syst e m and of th e othe r enti ti e s belongi ng t o the natural
,

s ci ence of man whi le m ai ntai nin g that al l mental phenom

,

ena must be regard e d so l ely as phenomen a o f the b rai n ,

me re e pi phenomena -
.Or yet agai n a s ti l l m ore a s tound
, ,

i n g ch ange i n the fun damental me taphy s i c s of th i s faci l e

re a s one r takes place ; and now he appears i n a garb s i m u l a t
i ng the i deali s t of the advance d Berke leyan type A l l th a t .

we can i mmedi ately and c e rtai nly k now i s n ow decl ared t o

be o u r o wn i dea s or s tate s of con s c i ous ne ss a propo s iti o n
,

f rom whi ch a re tu rn t o the posi ti on that n o knowledge of

 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 13

real ity at al l i s pos s ibl e o ffer s no i n s uperabl e d if culty So . .

vari e d are the metaphy s i cal performances of the man of sc i i -

en ce when f or s ome rea s on o r othe r he gives up th e u n cr i t i

, ,

cal duali s ti c met a phy s i c s whi ch i s s o becomi ng to h i m and ,

e nters s elf consc i ously upon the mazy terri tory of s chol asti c
-

theorie s "
Bpt j gh we may now a sk wi th i ncreased eagerne s s an d
y ,

perhap s w ith s omewh at i mproved i ntel l igence s hall not

psychol ogy be cu l ti vate d a s a purely natural s ci en ce , o n

ePthesame nai ve D ual i s m a s that whi ch we have

seen ri ghtly to characteri ze the metap hys i cal a ss umpti on s of

the stude nt s of the othe r natural sc ience s ? I f thi s can be
d one wh y s hal l not p sychol ogy al s o boa s t of be i ng at last
,

what Kant s eemed to thi nk i t neve r coul d become namely, ,

a s cience w i thout metaphy s i cs ? A nd why d o not the

wr ite r s wh o are most anx i ou s t o e s tabl i s h the i r cl ai m that
ps y chol ogy i s a purely n atural sc i ence the msel ve s frankly
adopt an d cl i ng to th i s dual i s ti c po s iti on ?
Th e rea s on s for the s omewh at vac i ll ati n g and l arge ly n u
sati s factory pract i ce o f p s ychol ogy , i n i ts recent attempts t o
bu i ld it s el f u p a s a s ci ence with out meta physi c s are partly ,

h i s tori cal . The re can be n o d oubt that an excee di ngly

promi s i ng and al ready fru i tful m ovement i n new l i ne s of
psychologi cal re s e a rc h characteri z e s the modern era S ome .

of the l eade r s of th i s moveme nt have i ndee d been qu i te too

ready to forget the l arge accumul ati ons for a tru ly i nducti ve
and s ci enti c p sych ol ogy whi ch even unde r the exce s s i ve
, ,

dom i nati on of s peci al metaphy s i cal v i ew s were made by ,

me n of the p reced i ng e ra Thi s seems les s strange and

.

basely ungrat eful howeve r i f attenti on i s call e d to th e

, ,

recent ri s e a nd rapi d advance s of what i s s omewhat too

boa s tful ly cal le d the new pyschol ogy It wa s only i n .

1 83 5 that E H Weber publ i s he d hi s art i cles i n W agner s

. .

H a n d wer te rb u ch ; an d Fe ch n er s rst great work
,

Elemente de r P s ychophy s ik d i d not appe ar unti l 1 8 6 0

, .
11
-
P S Y C HOLOGY A N D TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
Now , i t i s of cour s e al mos t wholly i n connecti on wi th the
i nve s ti gati on a n d d i s cu s s i on of the p s ycho phy s i cal l aw
-

con n e ct e d wi th th e s e name s that the modern s ci ence of

ex act mea s urement o f mental phenomena h a s bee n deve l
oped Only for s o s hort a ti me then h a s the s cie nce of
.
, ,

p sychol ogy b e e n endeavori n g i n earnest to put on the robe

o f mathemati c s ; although hu n d reds of sk i lful and d i l i ge nt

workmen wi th pati ent e n durance t hrough hu ndred s o f

,

thou s and s of experi ment s have been c ontributing pi ece

,

meal a s i t were to the con s tructi on of th i s rob e

, ,
.

In detai led scienti c s tudy of the natu re ori gin and , ,

deve lopm e nt of sen s e percepti o n the i mmortal monograph s

-
,

of H elmh oltz L ehre v on den Ton e m p n du n ge n

and

H andbuch der P hysi ologischen Opti k deserve a s

pi oneer s the place of honor ; but these appeared i n the i r
r s t complete form n o e arl i er than 1 86 2 and 1 8 6 7 r e s pe c
t i v e ly . On the physi ol ogi cal si de the al most worthle s s and
hi ghly mi s lead i n g phrenol ogy Of G al l and S pu r zh e i m had
t o provok e a l ong a n d d etermi n e d react i on ; an d i t w a s not
unti l the experi ment s of Frit s ch a n d H itzi g i n 1 8 7 0 that
the bare fou n dati on s Of the modern s ci ence of l ocal i zati on of
cerebral fu n cti on were r s t lai d Wi th th e excepti on of
.

certai n exceedi n gly fundamental matte r s about whi ch the ,

r s t a n d si mple s t co n clu s i on s are sti ll i nvo lve d i n n o l ittl e

doubt the e xperi mental i nve s ti gati on of the s o called
,
-

hi ghe r mental phenomen a cann ot be s a i d eve n to h ave

begu n to a s sume the form of attempt at e xact mea s urement .

G en e ral n erve phy s i ol ogy wh i ch may i n ti me become a

-
,

hel pful handmai d to the under s tand ing of al l cl a sses Of

p sycho s e s and e s peci al ly the parti cular nerve phy s i ol ogy of
,
-

the cerebral centre s cannot a s yet truthfully be cl ai med

,

t o be a s ci ence ; whi l e a s for hyp n oti s m p sych i atry

, ,

cri mi nol ogy and much o f the tribu t e whi ch anthropol o gy

, ,

race p sychology and th e comparati ve p s ychol ogy of the

-
,

lowe r an i mals assume to pay to a truly sc i enti c treatment

 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 15

of human mental l i fe why , the le ss sai d about th i s i n th e

,

f orm of sc i e n tic clai ms the bette r .

The con s ci ousnes s of the average s tudent of psychol ogy i s

then ( not wholly unwarrantab ly ) apt to become s omewhat
co nfu s e d a s to the relati ons whi ch al l the s e form s of th e
phenomena s u s ta i n to e ach other a s to the d i s cu s s i on of the
,

wi der problem s of ph i l o s ophy and a s to h i s ow n ri ghts and

,

d uti es whi le tak i ng the part of a n avowe d i nve s ti gator of thi s

b ranch of natural s ci ence N or i s the confu s i on l e ss ene d
.

when the more fundamental prel i mi nary d i s cu s s i on s of the

ri ght p s ychol ogi cal method s and of the s afe and s ati s factory
,

u s e of tho s e methods deemed ri ght i n them s elve s are ,

thrown upon h i m . M ore ove r t h e S hadow of portentous

,

ethi cal and pe rhaps also rel i gi ous problem s, th at s e em s ome

h ow l i k ely to get mi xed u p with h i s attemp t s a t a n
empi ri cal s ci ence ove rawe s or s ti mulate s o r angers h i m
, .

What on e th i nk s i s true o r ou ght to be true w ith re s pect

, ,

to the ori gi n and e xpl anati on of the s o cal led co n s ci ou s ne ss -

of freedom ,
o r the co n s ci o u s ne ss of s el f o r the con s ci ous ,

ne s s of the ought doe s n ot parti cul arly concern one s
,

i nve s ti gati on of the pi s tils and r a ceme s of a pla n t Of th e ,

scal e s and ns of a sh or of th e chem i cal an d phys i cal

,

c on s ti tuti on Of a rock etc ,

But i f i t i s a ca s e of laboratory
.

work i n i nve s ti gati on Of the phenomena of voluntary atten

ti on or of con s ci ou s ch oi ce i t i s d if cul t t o e xclude the
,

i nuence of phi l o s oph i cal prejud i ce s M ore ove r the pur s u i t

.
,

of the s ci en ce of p s ychology w ithout metaphy s i c s ( i n a s much

as th i s wi thout metaphy s i cs s o ofte n practi cally become s
equ i valent t o the re je cti on of al l metaphy s i cs e xcept the
pu r s uer s own ) i s u ndoubtedly often e mbarra ss ed by the

lack of thorough trai ni n g on the p sych ol ogi st s part Not

.

a fe w of the young men who have been s et to i nvesti gate

s peci al problem s i n ou r newly fou n d e d psych ol ogi cal
l aboratories h ave n o adequate acquai ntance ei the r w ith
ph i l o s ophy or wi th human p s ychol ogy as pursued from i ts
16 P S Y C HOLO G Y AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
vari ou s poi nt s of v i ew ; wh i le the p sych ol ogi cal and
phi l o s oph i cal i n s i ght and attai nment s of mo s t phy s i ol ogi s t s
and phy s i ci an s i nto who s e h and s ch i ey i s commi tted the
,

r s t treatme n t of abnormal an d path ol ogi cal mental phe

momen a are s carcely worth me n ti oning i n thi s con n ecti on
,
.

But there i s yet an ot h er potent re a s on for the marked

S h amefacedne s s and lack of con dence ca n dor and thor , ,

o u gh n e ss whi ch be long to the attitude of much modern

p sych ol ogy toward metaphys i cal as s umpti o n s and meta
phy s i cal s peculati on s The rea s on i s partly t o be foun d i n
.

the i n uence whi ch p sychol ogy has rece i ve d from certai n

le ad ing forms o f natural sci ence In s ome re s pect s thi s .

i nu e nce h a s undoubtedly been s ti mulati ng and s a l u tary .

It h a s a ss i s te d to correct the former too preval ent method

of attempting to deduce the mental phenomena , thei r
connecti o n s and accepted e xplanati on s from preconce i ved ,

noti on s a s t o the nature acti viti es and rel ati on s of the

, ,

s oul . It h a s al s o spurre d on i n ve s ti gati o n i nto the attempt

at i ncrea s ed accuracy i n the ob s ervati on of p s ychi c fact s ; i t

i n general i zati on Of cou rs e al s o without the k nowl edge

.
, ,

whi ch phy s i c s chemi s try and phys i ol ogy have recently

, ,

acqui red upon a gre a t vari ety of fact s l aw s and i mproved , ,

a t or y method s w oul d be qu i te i mpo s s i bl e Th e l audabl e .

de s i re at last to ri val the othe r olde r and bette r e s tabli s hed

empi ri cal sci ences has undoubte dly contri bute d many good
result s al ready ; i t promi s es yet a l arge r numbe r i n the
futu re of s ci enti c p sychol ogy .

On the othe r hand the i n uence of the phy s i cal an d

,

natural s ci ence s u pon mode rn p s ychol ogy has been by n o

mean s whol ly beneci al Thi s however has n ot been the
.
, ,

fault chi ey of the students of the s e sci ence s ; i t has been

 P S Y C HOLOGY A N D TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 17

the fault ch i e y as far a s one may s peak of fault at al l

of the s tude n t s of p s ychology . A n d here we may note i n
them a certai n h alf surrender, or too ti mi d and deferenti al
u se,
of the i r o wn pecu l iar psychol ogi cal s tandpoi nt Thi s .

s tandpoi nt i s and al way s mu s t remai n the s ame I t i s that .

Of d i s cri mi nati ng con s ci ou s ne ss turned upon the phenome n a

of con s ci ou s ne ss . No attempt at s o cal led -
objecti ve
o bse rvati on o f me n tal phe n omena can eve r i n the lea s t
d i m i ni s h the nece ss i ty whi ch bel on gs to the very nature o f
p sych ol ogi cal s cience to regard the s e phe nomena alway s from
the poi nt o f vi ew of i ntro s pe cti on al s o Only i n r e pr e
.

s e n t a t i v e s e lf con s ci ou s ne ss can we eve r know what

-
the
\

phenomena of consc i ousne s s real ly are The p i l i ng u p of

.

expe ri mental re s ult s the e n la rg i n g of col lecti ons of stati s

,

ti c s th e anthropol ogi cal and other objecti ve
, d ata , al l
a ss i s t the s ci e nce of p sych ol ogy only i n s o f a r a s they
h e l p th e p sychol ogi s t more e xten s i vely accu rately a n d pro
, ,

f ou n dl y t o an alyze thi s re pre s e ntati ve s elf consci ousne s s

-
.

For the world i n wh i ch h i s s ci ence moves i s ever m i rrored

i n h i s own s oul ; a n d i f he r s t goe s out s i de to col lect and
.

arrange s i gn s of the co n s ci ou s proce s s e s of othe r m i nds he ,

mu s t al way s c ome back to h i s own con s ci ou s ne s s to i nterpret

the meani n g of the s e s ign s .

Whe n then a n y s tudent of p sychol ogy th rough fear of i

, , ,

bei ng con s i de red too s ubje cti ve o r too met a phy s i cal n e g l e cts l ,

to culti vate o r depreci ate s a n d denou n ce s the analyti c of a

trained i ntro s pecti ve ob s erve r he i s i n a fai r way s oon to
,
v
be foun d o ffe ri n g for sale h i s ow n pecul i ar bi rth ri ght ; and (
the chance s are very largely i n favor of h i s exchangi ng th i s I
b i rthr i ght for some me s s of hal f cooked pottage
-
.

M or e ove r the ove rpowe ri ng sen s e of the re i gn of l aw a s

, ,

thi s re i gn i s mai ntai ned i n the physi cal real m ; the feel i ng
o f awe before the sacred pri nc i pl e o f the co n s e rvati on and

correl ati on of ene rgy as though i t were a near a pproach t o

,

bla s phemy t o sugge s t that t h i s pri nci ple may b e utterly

2
18 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
i nadequate ( not t o s a y total ly i rrelevant ) t o s e t forth
rel ati o n s of p s ychi c phenomena ; and i n g e ne ral the dete r
m i nati on not to cl ai m s ci en tic attai nment s for p s ychol ogy
unti l S h e i s cl othed from head to foot i n the garb of
mathemati c s all the s e thi ngs have ex erci s ed an u n duly
,
-

depre ss i ng i nuence on modern p sychol ogy I t i s t o b e .

hope d that p s ych ol ogi s t s may some d ay dwell at peace w ith

phy s i ci st s and phy s i ol ogi st s n ot S i mply by a du mb s u b ,

mi ssi on to the i r formula s a s suf ci e nt f or th e s ci enti c

treatment of mental phen omena but on term s of a ge n u ine ,

equ al ity Indee d i t i s po ss ibl e that some day the forme r

.
,

m a y S ho w the latte r n ot a few th ing s whi ch they need t o

kn ow f o r the more succe s s ful pur s u i t of the i r own s ci ences .

The foregoing cri ti ci s m has been e x cepti ng the me n ti on

of M r H uxl ey s name

. qu i te general and i mp e r s o n al It .

w i l l now be bri e y e n forced and i l lustrated by s everal

s el ected e x ampl es It i s ve ry far from ou r i n tenti on h ow
.
,

eve r i n sel ecti n g for detai led ex am i nati on the Opi ni o n s and
,

practi ce of P rofe s sor H Off di n g P rofe s s or Jame s and M

'

.
, ,

Flournoy a s r e s pe cts the rel ati on s of s c i e n t i c p sych ology

,
.
,

an d met a phy s i c s to h ol d any on e of these wri ter s up t o

,

obl oquy On the contrary the rea s on s whi ch m i ght i n duce

.
,

a criti c undertak i ng ou r pre s ent ta s k to n ame the s e three

gentlemen are for the m o s t part d i sti nctly hon orable t o
, ,

them .

Of P rofessor H o ff di n g l
i t may b e sai d that i n deni ng,
-

CT OI d g

'

t
w

s
p y l y as h e s ci ence o f m i nd o r agai n of that , , ,

wh i ch thi n k s feel s and wi ll s i n contra s t w ith phy s i cs a s

, , ,

the s ci enc e Of that whi ch m ov e s i n s pace and occupi es

s pace he at r s t take s i ntel l i gently and frankly t h e s tand
,

poi nt Of uncri ti cal du al i s ti c metaphy s i c s The deniti on .

pl ai nly a ss umes n ot merely th e e x i s t e nce of
,
mental

phe n ome n a but of m i n d a s the s ubject of th e s e phe
,

n om e n a M i nd i s s poke n of as that wh i ch thi nk s feel s

.

, ,

1 ul
O t i nes of P sych ol ogy , p . 1 .
 P S Y C HOLO GY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 19

an d w i l l s ; and m i nd i s s e t i n contra s t w i th that whi ch

occupi es s pace and wi th whi ch s ci enti c phys i c s deal s

, .

Such an uncri ti cal D ual i s m h a s already been d e cl are d to be

the atti tude pre emi nently t for th e s tudent of me n tal phe
-

n om e n a wi thout any met a phy s i cs beyond that whi ch al l the

sci ence s empl oy M ore ove r the true p sychol ogi cal method
.
,

is thu s from the start Openly e s pou s ed ; f o r we are told 1

that

i f we wi s h to gai n a k nowle dge of con s ci ous l i fe we mu s t ,

s tudy i t above all

,
wh e re i t i s d i rectly acce s si bl e to u s
, ,

name ly I n ou r o wn co n sci ousne ss

,

L at e r on i t i s men .
,

t i on e d a s the meri t Of the Engli s h s chool t o have s hown that
p sych ol ogy i s i ndepende n t of metaphy s i cal S pecul ati on
It .

i s a s d i s ti nct i n ai m from the s tudy of exte rnal n ature an d
2
from metaphy s i cal s pecul ati o n that the author proposes to
exhibi t psychol ogi cal i nqu i ry .

I n the n ext fol l owi ng chapte r upon M i n d an d Body

, ,

however H off d i n g proceed s to ju sti fy h i s s tan dpoi nt a s

,

purely empi ri cal o r phenomenal not metaphy s i cal or onto ,

l ogi cal ; and to sepa ra te i t as s ci enti c from the popular, ,

mode of appr e hen s i on

whi ch i s ,
h e truly s ay s
a

compound of experi ence and metaphy s i c s Th i s procedu r e .
,

Of cour s e result s i n a c ompl ete departure from the poi nt of

,

v i ew Of the r s t chapter ; f or i t s poi nt of vi e w w a s, a s we /

h ave al ready s een no othe r tha n thi s same popul ar ( and yet
,

empi ri cal ly s ci ent i c ) standpoi nt wh i ch n atural ly lead s to

an admi xture of ex peri ence and metaphysi c s
A nd n ow .
,

i n s tead Of remi n d ing us of the contra s t betw e en that whi ch

i s the s ubject of p s ychose s and that wh i ch m ov e s i n s pace
and occupi e s s pace the whol e di s cu s s i on s et s ou t w ith the
,

a s sumpti on that th e val i d ity i n real ity o f thi s contra s t i s

itsel f to be te s te d by ce rtai n conjectu ral phy s i ol ogi cal l aw s ,

and e s peci al ly by the pri nci pl e of the con s ervati on and corre
l ati on of ( phy s i cal ) e n e rgy Becau s e the d i s cu s s i on cannot
.

sustai n the s tra i n of the und oubted fac ts of the contra s t ,

1 O t u li n es o f Psych ol o gy , p . 11 .
3 Ibid p.
, . 16 .
 20 P S Y C HOLOGY AND P H I LO S O P HY

TH E OF M I ND

wh at bre ak s down i s not the attempt to ju s ti fy the l aws

where they plai nly do not belo n g but the very contrast ,

i t s elf A nd now i t i s announc e d that i n the mental a s i n

.
1

the materi al world we h ol d fa s t
,
n ot to the contra s t
, ,

whi ch wa s formerly decl ared to de ne the ve ry natur e of the

s cience of p s ychol ogy and the very e s s ence of the p sy c h o l o g i

cal s tandpoi nt, but to the l aw of conti nu ity I A nd S O the

i dentity hypothe s i s i s a f rmed t o be tri umpha n t at the
ve ry begi nn ing Of a p sych ologi cal i nqui ry whi ch ori gi nal ly

profe s s ed to mai ntai n a s ta n dpoi nt purely empi ri cal or

phenomenal n ot metaphy s i cal o r ontol ogi cal
, .

What n ow i s thi s S O cal le d i denti ty hypothe s i s thus
, ,
-
,

nai vely s ub s titute d for h i s formerly avowe d D ual i sm by a

writer on purely sci enti c p sychol ogy ? Why i t regards ,

the s e worlds " the mental and the m ate ri al "a s two mani
e st a t i on s of on e and the s ame bei n g both gi ven i n e x pe ,

r i enc e We shal l i n d u e t im eS hOwth at the m o s t avoweedly

hi gh a n d dry ontol ogi cal dogmati s m contai n s few declar a
-

ti on s more ob s curely n ot to s a y uni ntel l igi bl y metaphy s i cal

, ,

than thi s Even at thi s poi nt i t i s e v i de n t that n othi n g but

.

the fear Of mi s under s tandi n g 2 deters H Off di n g from a ck n ow l

e dgi ng h i s v i ew a s the new Spi n ozi s m
A nd w a s not .

Spi noza then a metaphy s i ci an and above al l an on tol og i
, , ,

cal ph i l o sopher ? H owev e r thi s may be we have certai n l y

,

Ib een led by a very sh ort road to a po s iti on i n marked contrast

Iw i th a n y purely empi ri cal s tandpoi nt .

A fter thi s tai nt of ori gi nal tran s gre ss i on due to commerce ,

betwee n p sychol ogy a s a s ci ence and mon i sti c metaphy s i c s ,

h a s been admitted i n to the very l i fe bl ood of P rof e s sor -

H Off d i n g s p s ych ol ogi cal i nqu i ry on e mu s t n ot be s u rpri se d

,

to nd i t r e p e atedly break i ng to the s u rface throughout the

s tructural devel opment of the i nqu i ry it s el f A m on g the .

s everal mark e d i n s ta n ce s of such a corrupti ng e ff e ct of

metaphy s i c s u pon the pu ri ty of h i s empi ri cal s ci ence ,
1 Ou t li s of P ych ol gy p 6 6 2 Ibi d
ne s o , . . p 68 .
, . .
 P S Y C HOLO GY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 21

a S i ngl e s electi on w i l l qu ite s uf ce In hi s i ntere s ti ng .

and abl e d i s cu s s i on of the P sy chology of the W i ll ,

1

H Off di n g s tarts wi th a fai r amount of del i ty to p s ycho

l ogi cal s c i ence as deali ng pri mari ly with the phenomen a
of co n s ci ou s ne s s But when he come s to the cl i nch w i th
.

that profound probl em whi ch certa i n fact s u s u al ly i ncluded

by p sychol ogi cal cla s i cati on unde r the te rm
s Will
o ff e r to detai led re ecti v e study we nd hi m abandon i ng ,

not o n ly the stri ctly p s ychol ogical s tandpoi nt but al s o the ,

very el d of metaphy s i c al a s s umpti on s whi ch mo s t natur

al ly s urround s thi s s ta n dpoi nt For i n an unqual i ed way ,
2
just after admi tti n g that S O l ong a s we kee p to the

purely e mpi ri cal grou nd of what before and duri ng the ,

acti on tak e s pl ace i n and before con s ci ou s nes s i t i s n ot

, ,

p os s ible t o demons trate the val i d i ty of th e cau s al l aw i n

the S phere of the wi l l or Of the mental l ife i n ge neral
,

3 i ndul ges i n the

H off di n g followi ng metaphys i cal d i cta

P sych ol ogy l i ke e ve ry other s ci ence mu s t be de t e r m i n i

, ,
-

i st i c ; that i s to s a y i t mu s t s tart from the as s umpti on "

,

that the c a usal l aw hol ds good even i n the l i fe of the w i l l

ju s t a s thi s l aw i s a s sumed to be val i d f or the remai ni ng ;
con s ci ou s l i fe and for m ateri al n atu re .

H ow thorough H Off d i n g conce i ve s the l i kene s s o r i denti ty

to be ( a s i mpl i e d by the word s ju s t as ) i n the re i gn of
cau s al l aw withi n both the p sychol ogi cal and the phy s i cal
real m s we may gathe r only too ce rtai nly from utte rance s
,

w hi ch i mmedi ately fol l ow F or e xample we

. are l
to d z
,

It d oe s n ot matt e r whethe r the b reach of c au s al ity i s great

o r s mal l " that i s i n t h e phe nomen a of s o c a lled W i l l
,
-

the qu e s ti on i s on e o f pri nci pl e A wei ght s uspended by a .

stri n g fall s to the gr ou n d whethe r the s tri ng i s cut i n o n e

5
place or i n many A n d a gain . Indeterm i n i s m c oni cts , ,

not only w ith p s ych ol ogy but al s o wi th phys i ol ogy "

,
s i c",

l Ou t li n es o f Psy ch ol ogy , vii pp 3 08 ff

. . .
2 Ibi d pp 3 44 f
.
, . .

3 Ibid pp
.
,
. 3 45 f . Ibi d p 3 46 .
, . .
5 Ibi d p 3 4 7
.
, . .
 22 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
i nasmu ch as it enters i n to i rreconci lable contradi cti on wi th
the pri nci pl e of persi s ten ce Of energy i n the organi c " si c"

p rovi n c e If a vol iti on w ith out a ca u s e i s admi tted , the n

.

th e functi o n s of the brai n and of the nervou s s y s te m mu s t

be al l owe d to ori ginate without a cau s e
N e ither from the .

poi n t of vi ew of p sycho l ogy a s the s ci e nce of p sychi cal

phe n ome n a n or from that of any po s s ibl e form s of m e t a ph y
,

s i ca l d octrine as to the nature Of phy s i cal or p sychi cal

be i n g a s to the nature an d real ity of the S O cal led cau s al
,
-

l aw or a s to the r e a l c on n e ct i on s of body and m i nd do w e

, ,

now que s ti on the s e ra s h s tateme n t s Of P rofe ss or H off d i n g .

We s i mply a sk What h a s now become o f p sychol ogy a s a

,

pure ly empi ri cal or phenomenal n ot m etaphy s i cal or onto ,

l ogi cal s ci ence ? What has become of the nai ve an d rel a

,

t i v e l y ju s ti abl e metaphy s i c s whi ch co n s i d e r s i t as a s ci en ce

of that wh i ch th i nks feel s and wi l l s , ,
i n c ontrast ,

?
wi th that w ith wh i ch s ci enti fi c phy s i c s deal s
L ater on when the attempt i s m ade to d e al thoroughly
,

w i th the metaphy s i c s of the i dentity hypothe s i s we shal l -
,

a s kthi s authori ty to S how sati sfactory rea s on why the on e

real ity t o whi ch the contra s ted phenomena ( p s ych i cal a n d
phy s i cal ) are ref e rred mi ght n ot po ss ibly ch oo s e to fol l ow
,

the pri nci pl e Of the con s ervati on and correl a ti on Of e n e rg y i n

on e of i t s contra s te d a s pe cts and decl i n e to foll ow i t i n the
,

other Ju s t now we are mere ly force d to the concl u s i on th a t

.

P rofe ss or H Off di n g S attempt at a purely s ci enti c p sych ol ogy

real ly begi ns w ith a mi s ch i evou s co n fu s i on Of s c i ence and

metaphy s i c s and end s w ith a yet more mi s chi evou s co n fu s i on
,

wor s e confoun ded Nor can the re s ul t b e e xcu s e d a s an

.

hone s t but nece s s ar i ly u n s ucce s sfu l attempt to treat th e

sc i ence of mental phenomena with out met a phy s i c s or at , ,

most only wi th s uch metaphy s i c s a s i s l egitimat e i n al l

,

sci enti c i n qu i ry The fai lure pl ai nly mu s t be a s cri bed to

.

a covert c or t to i ntroduce i n to p s ychol ogy s chola s ti c and

doubtful metaphy s i cal a ss umpti on s wh i l e cl ai mi ng to conduct
Ia purely sci enti c i nqu i ry .
 P S YC HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 23

SO vari ed and s h ifti n g are the metaphy s i cal s tandpoi nts

of P rofe s sor J ame s i n h i s volumi nou s treati s e on p s ychol ogy

as to i nduce the bolde s t criti c to he s itate before af rmi ng

that he h a s detected and comprehende d them al l ; nor do we

thi nk that th e most fri en dl yc riti c woul d readi ly venture to
S ho w how they can al l be hel d togethe r i n a pe rfect harmony .

A t the very begi nni ng thi s write r i s m ore than u s ual ly

,

l ively i n h i s warn i ng agai n s t i ntroduci ng metaphy s i cs i nto

ps ychol ogy when treated a s a n atu ral s ci ence I n the .

P reface we a re tol d : 1
M etaphys i c s fragme n tary i r r e s pon , ,

s ible and half awake , an d uncon s c i ou s that s h e i s m e t a ph y

,
-

s i ca l
,
spoi l s two good thi ngs whe n s h e i njects her s elf i nto

a natural s ci ence W i th al l thi s w e perfectly agre e ;
.

e s pec i al ly with the suggesti on th at i t i s fragmentary ,

i rre s pon s ible and half awake metaphy s i c s wh ose corrupt
,
-
/
r

i ng i nuence ove r every form o f n atural s ci ence and ,

e s pe ci al ly over p s ychol ogy i s ch iey to be fe ared On the

,
.

othe r hand we al s o bel i eve th at thorough re s pon s ible and "

, , ,

wi de awak e metaphy s i c s i s a good thin g ; of such meta
-

phy s i cs whe n i t i s con s ci ou s ly a n d i n te lli g e n t l y and not
, ,
,

clande s tine ly o r di s hone s tly combi ne d with s ci ence we s e e

, ,

l ittl e rea s on to fe ar any corrupting i n ue nce ove r any form

o f natu ral s ci ence .

That P rofe s s or J ames d oe s n ot propo s e to tre at h i s subj ect

as a s ci enc e wholly wi thout a n y metaphy s i c s whateve r,
he h a s al r e ady i nformed u s at the top o f thi s s ame page ;
for he h a s af rmed that p sych ol ogy a s a natural s ci ence
a ss ume s for i ts data ( si c) ( 1 ) t houg hts a n d f e e l i ng s and
, ,

( 2) a p hy si c a l wor ld i n ti me a n d S pace w i th whi ch they

,
,

coex i s t a n d wh i ch ( 3 ) t hey k
, n ow N ow i t mi ght ea s i ly be .
,

clai med that for psychol ogy a s a perfectly pure empi ri cal
sci ence ( de s cri pti on and e xplanati on ) Of the phenomen a of
2
con ci ou ne ss ( o r state s of con s c i ousne ss ) as such , only the
s s

1 Th e P ri n cipl e s of Psych ol ogy , i p

. . vi .
2 So Pr f
o e s so rJ a m e s d e n es i t t o b e i n h i s s ma ll r w rk
e o ,

P sych ol ogy , p . 1 .
 24 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
rst of these data namely
thoughts and feel i ng s as
, ,

i nclud i ng of c our s e tho s e state s Of con s ci ou s ne s s wh i ch

, ,

w e cal l
k nowl e dge are ne ce s s ari ly to be a ss umed .

The a s s umpti on of a phy s i cal worl d i n t i me and s pace ,
w ith whi ch th e s e th ought s and f e e l ing s c o e x i s t i s i ndeed a -
,

ju s ti able a s s umpti on for p sychol ogy a s i t i s for every othe r

,

form of natu ra l s ci ence It i s h oweve r a metaphy s i cal

.
, ,

a ss umpti on ; but i t i s ju s t that metaphy s i cal a ss umpti on

w h i ch i n P rofessor Jame s s l arge and l oo s e way Of stati n g

,

i t co n s ti tute s on e enti re half Of a crude u n criti cal D ual i s m

, , .

M ore ove r from the purely psychol ogi cal poi nt of vi ew there
,

i s probably n o othe r s ubje ct the treatm e nt Of whi ch by thi s

author i s more unsati s factory than tho s e very s tate s of
con s ci ou s ne s s or ,

bette r sai d m ode s Of the acti vity of

m i nd whi ch are call ed kn owled ge The a s s umpti ons I
.

kn ow ,

Y ou know etc an d the a s s umpt i on i n general

,
.
,

that sci enti c knowl edge i s attai nabl e and actual are i ndee d ,

legi ti mate for p sychol ogy a s f o r e very other form of

,

n atural s ci ence . A t the s ame ti me , i t i s a ch i ef obl iga

ti on and a s upremel y di f cult ta s k f or p s ych ol ogy a s an
empi ri cal sci e n ce t o trace the genesi s and deve lopment of
knowl edge P rofessor J ame s h a s n owhere i n h is s paci ous
.

volume s ful ly recogn i zed thi s Obl i gati o n much l e ss per ,

formed thi s task It m ay be S u s pecte d that the rea s on f or

.

at l ea s t i n part i n the complete

i

Ith i s i s to be fou n d

"i nab i l ity of al l ce rebral p sychol ogy to throw even a
"gl i mm er Of li ght u pon the p s ychol ogi cal not to say the ,

e pi s t e m o l og i c a l , proble ms i nvol ve d i n s u ch s tate s o f c on

I
s e rou s ne ss .

A fte r having once recogni zed and approv e d the opinion of

P rofes s or James with reference to h i s fundamental m e ta ph ys i
cal a ssumption s a t the t op Of this remarkable page we are the ,

more a s tonished to read what he s ay s at the bottom of the

s ame page . For i n the s entence which follow s the warning

against such metaphysic s a s s poils the natural s cience of
 P S Y C HOLOG Y A ND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 25

psychology we h ave the theory of a s piritual agent brought

,

forward a s a leading ex ample It i s ju s t s uch metaphy s ic s
.

a s thi s
,
we are told which corrupt s the p sychol ogy book s
, .

But why thi s ex ce s s ive te nderne s s i n the P reface toward

the metaphy s ical po stulate of a mind a s ( to quote ag a i n the
phra s e of H Off d i n g ) that which think s feel s a n d will s
, ,

unle s s indeed to be a that which etc i s fundamentally
, ,
-
, .
,

di ff e rent from being an agent ; and to think fe e l and ,

will i s s omething n ece ss arily other than to be S piritual On .

the contrary if the a s s umption of a phy s ical world i s the

,

legitimate and nece ss ary metaphy s ical standpoint Of phy s ics ,

the a s s umption of a me n t a l being ( or S piritu a l age n t ) i s

the equally legiti m ate a n d nece s s ary metaphy s ical s ta n dpoi n t

Of p sychology But we have already repeat e dly declar e d that
.

both a s s umption s co n s titute the equipment i n natu ral meta

phy s ic s with which eve ry s tudent Of natural s cience whether
o f phy s ic s o r o f p sycho l ogy nece s sarily s tart s his scientic

inqui ry .

Thi s vacillation betwee n the philo s ophical s tandpoint which

denie s all metaphy s ics t h e right to m i x with p sychology and ,

that which af rm s the right s of the metaphy s ic s of phy s ics ,

but denie s all right s to the metaphysics of m e n tal s cience ,

characterize s the e n tire treati s e of P rofe s s or J a me s Th e .

total re s ult i s rende re d even more co n fu s ing by large admix

ture Of philo s ophic a l sympathy with tho s e s tude nt s o f m e ntal
life wh o op e nly a f rm a n d intelligently defend t h e a s s um ption

of a s piritual ag e nt wh o s e are the p sychical ph e n o m e na
, ,

but who i s not to be identi e d eithe r with the s u m tot a l o f -

the s e phenome n a r e gard e d con te n t w i s e o r with the s u b jec t

,

Of the phy s iological and cerebral phenom e n a In many pl a c e s .

Profe s s or Jam e s s eem s t o hold that thi s i s not onl y the

legitimate pr e liminary a ssumption but the very la s t word
,

of s cience a n d philo s ophy upon the matter .

To prove ou r s omewhat s weeping accusation Of incon s i s t e n cy

would s carcely be nece s s ary for tho s e who have studied The
26 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O PHY OF M IN D
P ri n ciple s of Psychology mo s t carefully
We mu s t conte nt .

our s elve s with citing only on e or two of the ma n y po s s ible

illu s trations A chapter on The R elation s Of M i n d s to Other
1
.

Thing s i n a p sychological treati s e is from i ts very nature
a m e taphy s ical di s cu s s ion In thi s di s cu ssion P rofe ss or
2
.

Jame s a i r m s that wherea s when I perceive Orion I am only

c og n i ti v e ly and not dy n a m i ca lly pre s ent there becau s e I
, , ,

work n o e ff e ct s to my brai n I am dy n amically pre s ent
, ,

ina s much a s my thought s and f e eling s s eem to react upon the

proce s s e s thereof Of cour s e nothing could be more agreeable
.
,

to the mo s t advanced ad vocate Of the theory o f a s piritual

agent than s uch a s entence a s thi s ; for it af rm s that the
S piritual agent not only exi st s but work s e ffect s and that ,

, ,

t oo upon the cer e bral proce s s e s

,
By s uch a clai m the mod .

ern hypothe s i s Of the con s ervation and correlation o f energy ,

and all the current weak attempts so to u s e it in an on tol ogi

cal way as to contradict the plaine s t di cta of ou r ordinary
experience are giv e n a private coup d e g r ace E s pecially is
,
.

materiali s m inicted with a deadly wound i n the place where

it i s accu s tomed to repre sent it s elf a s i nvulnerable Still .

furthe r o n 3 we are told that the p s y chologi s t s attitude toward
cognitio n i s a thorough going D uali s m
It s uppo s e s two
-
.

element s ( rath e r bei n gs ) mind knowi n g and thing known

, , ,

and treat s them a s irred u cible N either get s ou t Of it s elf o r .

i nto the othe r neither i n any way i s the othe r neither m a k

,
es ,

the othe r .

Furthe r however a s to the rel ations o f mi n d and brain

, , ,

P rofe so r Jame s r e fu ses to add anythi n g to what h a s been

s

s aid i n the precedi n g two ch a pter s What h oweve r i s ou r .

, ,

S urpri s e on refre shing ou r memorie s a s to what ha s been

,

said i n the s e chapters to n d that th e compari s on s how s

,

n ot s o much mere addition or s ubtraction a s a totally di fferent

metaphy s ical point o f view For in on e of the s e preceding .

1 Th e P ri ncipl es o f P sych ol ogy , v ol . 1 . c h p vi i i

a . .

2 Ibi d p.
, . 214 .
3 Ibi d p .
, . 21 8 .
4 Ibi d p
.
, . 21 6 .
 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 27

chapte r s the so calle d M i n d Stu ff Theory is di s cu s s ed ;

1 -
-

and i n the cour s e of the di s cu ss ion th e author tak e s occa s ion

to s p e ak Of the
C onnecti on betwee n M ind a n d Brain

( pp. 1 7 6 There we are a s s ured that the V ie w which regards

the total s tate of con s ci ou s ne s s a s corre sponding to the
entire activity of th e brain will be adopted and n ot de pa r te d I
from duri n g the remaind e r of the book The reaso n give n .

for adopting thi s vie w i s i ts s uppo s ed s uperio r val ue a s a

purely s cienti c and non metaphy s ical hypothe s i s
-
.

I n a s ub s equent brief mention Of the Soul Theory -
,

although admitting that thi s form of m et a phy s ic s h a s its

marked advantage ina s much a s it give s u s a being or
,

2
medium i n which the manifold brain proce ss es may
,
-

combine thei r e ffect s P rofe ss or Jame s reiterate s h i s de

,

termination to hol d fa s t by the th e ory of blank , unmediated

proce ss e s a s the last word Of a p sy chol ogy that will co n tent
,

it s elf with scientic verities and avoid un s afe metaphy s ical ,

hypothe s i s By keeping to thi s empirical paralleli s m i t is

.
,

declared o u r p sychology remain s po s itivi stic and n on meta

,
-

phy s ical C e rtainly , lrow ev e r it i s a s omewhat far cry fro m

.
,

thi s po s ition to that i n which o n e makes hol d to S peak of

one s s e lf a s worki n g e ff ect s u pon one s brain or a s dyna ,

m i ca lly reacting u pon the cerebral proce s s e s N or doe s this .

all e ged empirical parall e li s m i n s o far a s i t i s actually ,

a dhered to and m ade u s e o f turn out at all n o n metaphy s ical

,
-
.

I n almo s t every ca s e on the contrary where thi s theory i s put

, ,

to the te s t i t turn s ou t to be o n ly anothe r way of i ntroduci n g

,

th e s ame metaphy s ical s tandpoint to which w e have already

called atte n tion a s adopted by the P reface ; that i s to s a y ,

the exi s te nce of the brain and o f i ts proce s s e s i s a s s umed a s

a part a s the primarily important part , o f that phy s ical
,

world in time and s pace with which th e thought s and
feeli n g s coexi s t I t i s the o n ly reality to which all s ort s of
.
,

mo s t highly c on jeCtT rfr a l performa n ce s are freely a s cribed in

1 Th e P ri ncipl es of P sych ol ogy , v ol . 1 . c h p vi

a . .
2 S ee pp . 18 1 f .
 28 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
the int e re s t s of s cie n tic expla n ation But a s to a n y a s s umed .

reality for the s piritual ag e nt for the s oul o r the mind for , ,

I th e s ubject Of the thought s and f e eling s why s uch meta

, ,

phy s ic s i s caref ully avoided Wheth e r we like the word or .

not thi s i s undoubtedly the po s ition Of materiali s m

,
.

He n ce ari s e s P rofe s s or Jame s s ideal of a s cienti c treat

me n t of mental phenomena a s po ss ible o nly i n the for m of

1
a cerebral p sychology ; hence hi s fra n k declaration that

nothing re s embli n g a s cience of p sychology at pre s ent

exi s t s H ence nally h i s inti mate philo s ophical alliance

.
, , ,

whenever he i s p re ss e d for h i s ulti mate thought s with the ,

metaphy s ical s ta n dpoin t of M r H od gs on i n treating of psy .

ch ol og i c a l problem s Indeed we are told out a n d out and

.
, ,

f
i n italicized print , at the clo e O the following chapter that 2
'

s ,

it i s the relation s of the s ubj ective data Of the thought s an d ,

feeling s to thi n g s and t o the brai n ( bu t not to on e another

,

o r to the that con stitute the s ubj ect matter of -

psychologic s cience .

The point s of view and of approach to thi s s ubj ect held by

M Flournoy i n h i s intere s ti n g mo n ograph di ff er widely from
.
3

tho s e of P rofe ssors H Odi n g and Jame s a s already di s cu ss ed , .

Thi s writ e r although he give s to h i s work the title M eta

,

phy s ic s and P sychology undertake s to bani sh all metaphy s ics

, ,

good or bad ( if we may for the time bei ng conti n ue to agree

with P rofe ss or Jame s i n holding that th e re i s s u ch a thing

po s s ible a s good metaphy sic s ) forever from the arena Of ,

p sychological inqui ry H e will have non e of i t whether it be

.
,

con s idered a s i n troduced i n the form Of a s s umptio n s eithe r

t o be di s proved o r veri ed by the progre s s Of s cienti c inqui ry ,

o r in the form of s pecul ation s ari s ing i n th e cour s e Of the

i nqui ry or profe s s ed in the i n t e rest s Of fuller explanation of

,

ackn owledged p s ychic facts The general principle on whose .

1 S ee t h e l
c o se o f h i s sm a ll b k oo . Ibid p 19 7
2 .
, . .

1 M e ta p h ysi q u e e t
'

Psy c h l gi p Th
o o e, ar . F l ur y D t ur m d i
o no , oc e en ec n e, etc

Ge ev e
n . 1 89 0 .
 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O PHY OF M IN D 29

proud shoulders i s to be laid the ta s k of this e x e r c i s i n g man

date i s called the P rinciple Of C oncomitance or of P sycho

,

phy s ical P aralleli s m

Thi s principle i s declared to be at the
.

very ba s e of mod ern p sychology .

It i s not quite clear to begin with what M Flournoy mean s

, ,
.

by s peaking of his pri n ciple a s s erving a s the ba s e of

p sychol ogy , whether for ex ample we are to under s tand

, ,

that it i s o n e of tho s e n e ce ss ary but n on metaphy s ical pre -

suppo s ition s which all empirical s cience may m ak e ; o r

w hethe r it i s a principle inductively derived but admitted to ,

be true by all students of p sychology who s e opinion it i s worth

while to take into ou r account P ersonally we S hould be .
,

s orry to bel ieve that the latter i s the author s meaning ; for

he him s elf h a s done u s the honor to quote u s and thi s i n ,

conjunction with a n o le ss di stingui shed authority than Pr o

fe s s or Wu rrdt a s among the few remaini n g
, s a va n ts who
deny the ab s ol utely u n iver s al extent i n application Of thi s S O
called principl e of paralleli s m 1
D enying thi s principle is
.

de ned by M Flourn oy a s the equivalent of holding that the

.

phenomena of p s y chic life Show plai n token s of an activity

properly s piritual having the function of elaboratin g the data
,

o f s en s e comparin g them etc ; and that su ch activity or

, , .

function i s independent of the organic proce sse s .

Now , to the pr e ci s e phra s ing of the clause ju s t quoted it

may s afely be pre s umed that both the write rs in que stion
would interpose well founded Objections N either o f them
-
.

woul d be willing to be committe d to the view , an d S O far

a s can readily be s hown neithe r of them h a s e ve r ex pres s ed
the view that p sychic activitie s or function s are i n the s tricter ,


s en s e of the word ever totally
,
i n d ep en d en t o f the org a nic ,

that is the cerebral proce ss e s Furthe r than thi s we will

, , .

not attempt t o answer for P rofe ss or Wundt ; and f or th e

an s wer i n its fulle r form which we Sh ould wi sh to make
, ,

for our s elves reference mu s t be had to some of the late r

,

1 M ta ph si u e et Ps ch ol ogi e p 6
y q y , . .
30 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
chapter s of the pre s ent treati s e It will n ow s u ffi ce to s ay that
.

obviou sly i t i s not modern experimental p sychology alone ,

with i ts e l a borate sy s t e m of mea s u reme nt and p sycho phy s ics -

,

but all p sychology of all time s and eve n the commone s t ,

knowledge of th e unl e arned man about h i s own mental life ,

which correlate s s tate s o f co n s ciou s ne ss content wi se with ,

-
,

the character o f the s timulu s that produce s the m On e doe s .

n o t n eed to be a psy c h ol og i st of the type trained i n the modern

l a boratory to k n ow that when one s nge r s are in the crack

o f a d oor , the more within limit s the p re ss ure of the
, ,

door i s i n crea s ed the greater grow s the pai n ; o r that ten

,

candle s make thing s brighter than o n e candle ; o r that the

weight which i s heavier whe n th rown i n to the s cale s ordi
, ,

n a r i ly f e e l s heavie r to the mu s cle s s kin , and j oi n t s o f the ,

man who lift s it I n deed the common impre ss io n really i s

.
, ,

i n ma n y re s pect s more likely to ov e rdo than to underd o the

,

e s timate Of the strictne s s Of thi s correl ation It i s d if cult .

for m e n ge n erally to be co n vi nced f or ex amp l e that there i s , ,

so much d i ff erence a s actually exi s t s between the s ubj ective

time rate o f the s en s atio n o r th e ex act temporal po s ition at

-
,

which it s trike s i nto the s tream of con s ciou s ne s s and the ,

objective time rate or temporal po s ition Of the occasioni n g

-

s timuli . S O too everybody know s that the kin d of s e n s ation s

, ,

on e h a s depend s upon or to avoid metaphy s ic s Of even
,

the we ake s t s avo r we will sa y i s correlated with the

, ,

ki n d Of e xternal e xciteme nt s which act u pOn the end organ s -

of s en s e H e re again it is tho s e far Ob s cure r i n uence s

.
, ,

whi ch d o n ot belo n g t o the Obviou s external correlation s , an d

which eve n modern p sychology can only S peak of with any
cle a r i ntelligibility by employing p sy cholog i ca l te rm s ( s uch a s
imagination feeling de s i re inte ntion etc ) that are overlooked
, , , ,
.

in the popular e s timate .

It i s a long and weary journey however from this point , ,

of view to the concl u si on that all m an s p s ychic life , especially
when regarded on the s ide , not of pa ssi ve content but of ,
 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 31

those activitie s and f unction s which develop into the S O called -

higher facultie s i s i n l ike manner s trictly correlated with

, ,

n ot to sa y d e termined by the phy s ical s eries , S uch a concl u .

sion i s certainly not i n accordance with the popular vie w n or ,

d o we believe it to be the vie w warranted by the mo s t minute

s t u dy of p s ycho phy s ical d ata afte r the modern m e th od s
-
At .

any rate it c a n be s ai d to s erve a s a ba s e for modern
,

p sychology o n ly a s it i s put there by inve s tigator s who have

already grievou s ly departed fro m the s trictly s cie n ti c po s i
tion and have i ncontinently taken u p with the m e taphy s i c s of
,

ou r modern p s ycho physical Spinozi s m -

.

But we have alr e ad y s aid that the di s tinction of M Flour .

noy con si s t s chie y i n h i s de riving fro m thi s acknowled ged

principle Of conco mitance or complete p sych o phys ical ,
-

paralleli s m a cru shing refutation a s he think s Of all meta

, , ,

phy s ic s what e ve r For he goe s on to declare that thi s p sycho

.
1

phys ical principle like Janu s pre s ent s two oppo s ed faces
, ,
" ,

o f which one looki n g toward the future s miles at s cience

, , ,

while the other turned toward the pa s t show s i ts teeth at

, ,

metaphy s ics . N o w it doe s n ot appear to be s imply bad

,

metaphy s ic s which n eeds to be war e of the growl and bite of

thi s new born p sycho phy s ical J a nu s it i s a ll metaphy sic s
- -
,

metaphy s ic s a s s uch A s to wh a t M Flournoy u n der stand s

. .

by metaphysic s the reader can s carcely claim to learn from
,

h i s de n ition Thi s run s a s all the worl d but the m e t a ph y

.
,

s i c i a n s them s el ve s are agreed : M e taphy s ic s i s th a t Of which

tho s e who li sten und e rs tand nothing an d which h e wh o S pe a ks ,

doe s not him s elf understand It would s carc e ly con si s t

.

with co u rte sy to the audience ( the s e word s we re originally

s poken ) , or to the S peake r him s elf to take thi s facetiou s d e ,

n i ti o n of metaphy s ic s too seriou s ly ; for the l a rge r part o f

the remai n de r of thi s treati s e i s taken up with a critical d i s

c u ss i o n of the principal metaphy s ical hypothe s e s conce rning

the union of the s oul and the body A n d thi s di s cus s ion i s
.

suf ciently clear for any i ntelligent reader to comprehend .

1 M
t ph ysi q u e et Psych ol gi e p 6
a o , . .
32 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
N o w it will at once be said i n defence
,
M Flournoy that , Of .
,

w e mu s t con s tantly bear i n mind h i s intention already a n

n oun c e d namely to S ho w how thi s fundamental an d i n vu l
, ,

n e r a bl e p sycho phy s ical principle

-
i s i ncon s i stent with the
tenure of any and every form of metaphy s ic s B ut here two .

important thing s are to be noticed ; and both Of the m bring

back th e practical and theoretical di f cultie s whi ch stand i n
the way Of every attempt wholly to s eparate s cienti c p sy
c h ol o gy from the in u ence o f philosophical s peculation Fir s t .
,

the critici s m Of a n y rejected metaphy s ical hypothe s es has

it s elf n o force a s critici sm a n d no meani n g a s l a n guage with
, ,

o u t admitting the i n uence Of other accepted metaphysical

standpoint s a s the critic s own part Indeed i n g e ne ral we .
,

suppo s e it to be s trictly true that n o p a r ti cu la r ten et or sy s

te m f
o ten e ts i n m e ta p hy si cs be g a i n sa i d or e v en d i scu ssed
ca n

wi thou t f s ome
a do ti oth er m e ta hy si ca l te n et or sy s tem of
p on o
p
ten ets .It follow s that n o consi s tent champion o f s cience ,
pure and S imple and wholly wi thou t m e ta p hysi cs can ever
,

,

even d raw h i s s word to sl a y th e met a physical ogre u nle ss he

r st come withi n the real m a n d put on the armor of meta , ,

phy s ic s Otherwi s e h i s s word and he him s elf are but phan

.
,

tom s ; and h i s work of lre wi n g down the metaphy s ical

hypothe s e s n ot o n ly i s but mu s t i n con s i stency be regarded
,

by him s elf a s being like that which goe s on i n Valhalla In

, .

other word s and to Change the gure of s peech the re i s n o

, ,

critical cure for bad and in suf cient metaphy s ic s but good
and co n s i s tent metaphy s ic s .

B ut s econd M Flournoy s very propo sal of the psycho

, , .

phy s ical principle a s de s tructive of metaphy s ic s is itself inca

pab l e of the statement and application which he gi ve s to it ,

unle s s it be take n i n a m e taphy s ical way It i s it s elf the very .

s cienti c principle on which both metaphy s ical materiali s ts

and metaphy s ical s pi rituali st s ba s e thei r conclu s ions P e rhap s .

i t would be more correct to call it the metaphy s ical principle

upon which both materiali s m and spirituali s m base themselve s ,
 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O PHY OF M IN D 33

by empha sizing each on e only on e half of thi s principle -

.

It i s properly speaking , n ot at all an i nductive principle which

,

its elf serve s a s the ba s e for the modern e mpi rical science
o f p s ychology . Only by the entire cour s e Of thi s treati s e
can the full force of ou r critici s m of M Flou rnoy s po s ition .

be made obviou s But b oth the foregoing point s of critici s m

.

will n ow be illu strate d ; and we s h all con s ider them i n the

Order above mentioned a s putting the easier ta s k rs t
, .

H ow i n evitably every author a s s ume s the metaphy s ical s tand

point , and take s for granted the validity of s ome ( h i s o wn , Of
cour s e ) metaphysic s whenever he critici s es the metaphy s ic s Of
,

othe r peopl e i s well illu strated by M Flou rn oy in h i s remarks

,
.

1
on P lre n o m e n i s m Thi s i s the term cho s en for that form
.

of metaphy s ical hypothe s i s which carrie s ideali s m to the

length o f s olipsi s m I ts conclu sion i s

.

M y state o f con ,

s c i ou s n e ss that i s all the reality
,
Or , i n other word s i t s
.
,

hypothesi s reduce s matter to a pure repre s entation o f ou r
con s ciou sne s s a n idea
,
P erhap s a more thorough prelimin
.

ary i nve s tigation of the i nqui ry , What is metaphy s ic s ? woul d

have sugge s ted to the author the foll o wing conclu s ion : W ith
o u t totally without any metaphy s ic s whateve r that i s ,

preci sely what all reality whether S O called matter o r S O called

,
- -

mind become s But conversely a s s omehow given or i m pl i

,
.
, , ,

c a te d , in the state o f con s ciou s ne s s rega rded a s my state , ,

and n ot by any po s sibility regarded m er e ly as s ta te all reality , ,

whether of matter o r of mind e xi s ts ,

.

The que stion we are n o w i nterested however i n di s cu ss ing , ,

i s M Flou rno y s method of e s cape from wh at he i s plea sed t o f

.

call the met a phy s ical hypothe s i s o f ph enomeni s m o r s olip s i s m , ,

without re s ort o n h i s own part to metaphy s ic s The nal .

wrench of thi s modern advocate of p sychological s cience a s

n ot the s pon s or o r the heir but the e xecutioner Of all onto
,

l ogical h ypoth e se s ; f r om the clutche s of the metaphy s ical ogre ,

is accompli shed i n the following somewhat J oh n s oni a n styl e .

1 M ta ph si u e e t P
y q ych ol ogi e pp 3 7 f
s , . .

3
34 P S Y C HOLO G Y AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
It is not material things howeve r who s e re a lity can be
, ,

demonstrated by kicking them or by s triking the m with ou r ,

cane s after the fashion of ordinary commo n s e n s e realism ,

,
-

which M Flournoy i s chi ey a xious to ave H e admits

.
n s 1 .

that the real exi s tence of the very bread he eat s mi ght be

spared if the me n tal ph e nomena vulgarly called s eeing ,

tou ching and e ating bread could be con stantly followed by

,

the mental phenomenon whi ch I cal l n o l ong e r be i ng hu ng r y

a n d be i ng r e i n vi g or a te d Surely ideali s m n eed feel no alarm
.

at this poi nt ; for there never w a s a s olip s i s ti c ogre of so vora

cio n s metaphy s ical maw a s to wish t o deprive u s of thi s kind
o f bread .

But there are othe r i nte re st s ( touching real entitie s and of

a metaphy s ical s ort ) which thi s criti c of ph enomeni s m cannot
s o lightly s urrender .For he goes on to s ay with a feelin g i n ,

which all metaphy s icians whether ideali s t s o r duali s t s would

, ,

ful ly share : To admit howeve r that my wife my children

, , , ,

all huma n ity pa st pre s ent and future are only divers e
, , , ,

group s of my s en s atio n s and idea s that no se n timent of ,

love o r hate exi s t s out s ide of tho s e wh ich I directly e x pe

r i e n ce that there are no other E g os than my o w n
,
that ,

I alone with my actual memorie s or hope s compri s e all

, ,

R eality , brrr "the bare idea of thi s s olitude give s m e

a chill i n the s pine ; an d I a m not a s toni shed that all the
phenomeni st philosophers are in fact unfaithful to thei r

s y s tem .

The s entences ju s t qu oted undoubtedly land thei r author on

the othe r s ide of the barriers erected by the advocates of
ide a lism when pre ss e d to the li mit s of s olip si s m But wh o .

d oe s not s ee that M Flou rn oy h a s employed in order to su r

.
,

mount th ese barrie rs the s oari ng wing s o f the metaphysics o f

,

s entime n t ? We h ave no objection to mingling s entiment freely

with phil o s ophy i f o n ly it be done i n s uch a way a s to s u ff u s e

,

wi th warmth and col o r the body of a s ou n d reective thinking ;

1 M t ph
y iqu e et P sych l ogi
a s p 42 o e, . .
 PS YC H OLOGY A N D TH E P H I LO S O P HY or M I ND 35

or , convers ely , if reecti ve thinking be employe d to ex poun d

the mea n ing of tho s e u n iver s al and u nalt e rable s entiments
which belong to the s piritual s ub stance of humanity But if .

M Flournoy s uppo s e s that on e can logically and con s i s tently

.

f
u nd o the conclus io s o what he call s the metaphy s ic s of
n

phenomeni s m without help from s ome other form of met a ,

phy s ical hypothe s i s why the n he h a s him s elf shown the

,

impo s s ibility of carrying ou t h i s own s uppo s ition To po s it .

somehow call th e act of po s iting by the term knowledge ,

infe re n ce
faith
,

hypothe s i s or what y ou will the
, ,

reality of a world of mi n d s pa s t pre s ent and future all

, , , ,

sta nding i n act u al relation s toward each othe r thi s i s to be ,

m e tap hy si ca l i n the mos t por tentou s fa s hion

,
Furthermore .
,

u nle ss s u ch an act o f po s iti n g i s to be made a m e r e act o f wil

ful and u nintelligent po s iting its rea s on s mu s t be e xamined

,

and defende d against critici s m ; i ts nature and import must

be r e ecti v e ly di s cu ss ed But s uch di s cu ss io n i s metaphy sic s
.
,

in the technical s en s e of the word s ; it furni she s the very

body of a well rea s oned and critical Ideali s m
-
.

It would n ot be di f cult to show that i n hi s critici s m and

rejection o f th e other co n t e s ti n g metaphy s ical hypothe se s ,

of Spirituali s m M ateriali s m and M oni s m

, ,
M Flournoy , .

is equally though perhap s not quite s o glaringly incon si s tent

, ,
.

The refutation of them a l l n e ce s s arily lead s the refute r to

a ss u me oth e r metaphy s ical standpoint s th a n tho s e which he

i s refuting .But we now pa s s to the othe r a n d le s s obviou s

s tatement which w a s made above ; we propo s e t o s how how

the very principle of concomitance or p s ycho phy s ical paral -

l el i s m a s here acc e pted and defended is all s u ff u s ed wi th
, ,

metaphysic s A s might be expected from the gen e ral habit

.

o f writ e r s who maintain too thoughtles sly the n e ce s s ity o f a

p sycholo gi cal s cience wholly without metaphysic s M Flou r , .

n oy s various statement s and explanation s of thi s principl e
carry hi m from on e metaphy s ical s tandpoint to anothe r i n a
quite bewild e ri n g way .
36 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
The m eani ng of the fundamental p sych o phys i cal pri n -

c i pl e wh i ch i s to g ive the c ou ol e g r ace t o al l metaphy s i cs

p
i s s tated by M Fl ourn oy i n the foll owi ng c ompact and i ntel
.

1
l i gibl e way E ve r y p sy ch i ca l p hen om en on ha s a de ter mi n a t e

p yh s i c a l con c om i t a n t The ful ler s tatement o f mean i n g

.

ru n s a s fol l ow s : That i s to s a y the total ity of i nteri o r ,

event s thought s senti ment s vol i ti on s etc , whi ch con s ti

, , , , .

t u te s wh at we c a l l the l i fe of ou r s oul o u r p s ych i c or mental ,

l i fe i s acc ompani ed by a p aral lel seri e s of modi cati ons i n

,

ou r bod i ly organi s m and parti cu l arly i n ou r n ervou s s ys

,

tem ; and thi s i n such a way that each term of th e p sych i c

s eri e s depend s upon a de ni te term of the phy s i ol ogi cal

s eri e s ; to each s tate o f con s ci ou s n e s s corre s po n d s a s pec i al

mole cul ar s tate of ou r b rai n a det e rm i nate group of phy s i

,

c o chem i cal ph e n omena e ffectuated i n the cel l s or bre s of

-

o u r cerebral s ub s tance

N ow ju s t s o l ong a s th i s s tate
.
,

ment i s u n de rs tood i n a total ly n on metaphy s i cal way i t -

,

s imply a f rm s th e regul ar sequence of on e clas s of phenom

ena upon anothe r cl a s s of phen omena Phenomena calle d

th ought s senti ments vol iti on s etc

, , depend upon phe
,
.
,

n om e n a cal led phys i co chemi cal -

o r mol ecul ar s tates of the
,

brai n ; and of the s e t w o i t i s i mpo ss ibl e to de n y that we

,

kn ow the on e ( th e thought s etc d i rectl y and i ndubi tably
,
.

a s phenome n a whi l e the other ( the s e cal led phy s i co chem i

,
- -

c al phenomena ) are only k nown i n an e xtremely uncertai n ,

fragmentary and conjectural fa sh i on But what i s mo s t

,
.

i mportant to noti ce i s th at s o l ong a s the stri ctly p sycho

,

l ogi cal and non metaphy s i cal standpoi nt i s held the l atter
-
,

cl as s of phenome na can be k nown on l y a s they fal l un de r

th e former cla s s ,

that i s as thoughts a bou t ( or, rathe r
, ,

for the mo s t part somewhat wi l d and i rregul ar gue ss e s and

,

half conce i ve d fai ths a bou t etc

-
A nd n ow on e m i ght catch
,
.

at th i s l a s t word and a sk about wh at ? Oh about the

,

,

brai n and its cel ls and bres , and about phys i co chemical and -

1 M ta ph si u e e t P s ch ol ogi e p 5
y q y , . .
 P S Y C H O LO G Y AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY . OF M IN D 37

othe r mole cul ar changes But, agai n we i n s i st that u nless .

,

M Fl ournoy i nte n d s to adopt the metaphy s i cal s tandpo i nt

.

of common s en s e D ual i sm - he mu s t cla ss hi m s e lf for the

,

present wi th the advocate s of that very phe nome n i s m wh i ch

he refutes by yi ng aloft on the wings of metaphys i cal
s enti ment .

H owever plai n s i gns are not lack i ng of a n other m e t a ph y

,

s i ca l s tandpoi nt whi ch M Fl ournoy perhap s u ncon s ci ou s ly

.
,

1
but n o l e s s vi rtually a ss ume s ; f or he goe s on to s a y that
,

i f we s hould rever s e thi s propo s iti o n an d a frm Every , ,

phy s i cal phenomenon h a s a de termi nate psychi c c on c om i

tant we s hou ld d e part from the l imi t s of posi ti ve sci e n ce
, ,

and ente r upon metaphy s i c s wi thout re s erve No w for the .
,

r i ght to mak e thi s very rever s al and i ndeed for the i mpera ,

tive duty of maki n g i t i n the i nte rests both of logi c and of

,

sci ence we s hal l el s ewhere s tr e n uou s ly conten d

,
But wh at .

we n ow wi s h to k now i s h ow thi s refu s al i s con s i s tent with

,

a purely non metaphy s ical tenure of the celebrate d pri nci

-

pl e of p sycho phy s i cal paral l el i s m ? Surely he re on e m ay

-
,

say i t i s a l ame n tably poor r ul e that won t work b oth
,

way s an d i t mi ght be added work wi th equal ontologi cal
, ,

e i c i e n cy i n both d i r e cti ons The appropri ate exhortati on .

i rr e s i s ti bly sugge s t s i t s el f E ither s ti ck to your ph en om e .

ni s m o r else be cons istent i n your metaph ys i cs

,
But pre .

c i s e l y w ha t k i n d of m e ta p hy si c s i s to be s hown s peci al
2
favor b e come s very cl ear whe n we are tol d : It m ay be
sai d i n bri ef that the pri nci pl e of p aral lel i s m on whi ch ,

e xperi mental p sychol ogy i s f o unded a ss ume s beneath e very ,

phenome n on of con s ci ou s ne s s a correl ati ve phy s i ol ogi cal

phe n ome n on ; becau s e p s ychology i n orde r t o become a ,

po s iti ve s ci ence ought to become a s much a s po s s ibl e

,

n de e d ; i ts M

p h y s i ol og i ca l I . gra nd i deal accord ing to ,
.

Fl ournoy i s to b e come nothi ng but a branch of mecha n i c s
,
.

N ow i t may be that p s ychol o gy w i l l u lti mately have t o

,

1 M t ph iqu
a t P s h l gi p
e e1 3 2 Ibi d p 15
y y s c o o e, . . .
,
. .
 38 P S Y C H OLO G Y A N D T H E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D

sel l i ts sou l for so cheap 9 pri c e a s me chani cs i s l i kely t o
.

vb e abl e to pay ; although there be p sych ol ogi st s wh o d o n ot

propo s e to clo s e the bargai n ju s t at pre s ent : i f they mu s t
sell at all th ey are c ontent t o wai t for a l arge ri s e i n the
,

value of the c ommodi ti e s o ff e re d i n e xchange Ju s t at .

pr e s ent howeve r i t can s carcely be cl ai me d by any on e

, ,

who h a s su f ci e n t acquai ntance with fact s to be an a c k n ow l

edge d author ity that ce rebral phy s i ol ogy c on s titute s a l arge

,

e n ough s ci enti fi c co s mos t o i nduce a wi s e man t o take the

whol e of i t i n exchange for eve n a hypotheti ca l soul But .

h ow such an ex change wi l l eve r be e ff e cted total ly w ith out

metaphy s i c s i s wh at we nd i t parti cularly d if cult to com
prehend A n d have we not ju s t now s een M Fl ournoy h i m
. .

self expre ss i ng h i s wi l l ingn e s s t o s urrender th e ontol ogi cal

veri ty of h i s own dai ly bread i f only he ca n save that of ,

h i s w ife chi l dren and al l humani ty past pre s ent a n d
, , , , ,

future ? That i s to s a y when defendi ng ce rtai n s ouls i n, ,

\whom he has a practi cal i nte rest ,

agai n s t the de s tructi ve meta

phy s i c s o f phenomeni s m he i s a pronounce d metaphy s i ci an

,

Of the c ommon s e n s e ( albei t rathe r emoti onal ) real i s ti c

-
, ,

type . But now i n the i ntere s ts of a s o cal le d p s ych o
,
-

phy s i cal pri nci pl e of parall el i s m that w ork s e ffectual ly

only i n on e d i re cti on namely i n that of reduci n g the
, ,

s ci ence o f ps ychol ogy to a branch of m echani c s h e i s ,

ready to as s ume only the ontol ogi cal verity of brai n s h i s o wn ,

a n d we mu s t suppo s e those of
,
al l human i ty pa s t p re s ent
, , , ,

and futu re What woul d become of real brain s wi th out real
.

bread to nouri s h them o r what w oul d be come of ,
al l
humani ty con s i de re d a s devoi d of psychi cal real ity o r h ow ,

me n woul d wi n a n d d i stribute bread and grow brai n s unle s s

physi cal phe nomena d i d have a determi n ate p s ych i c c on
comi tant are not made qui te cl ear But what i s e x cee d
,
.

i n g ly cl ear i s s omethi n g more than th e s ame tende rne ss

wh i ch we foun d P rofe s s or Jame s d i s playi ng tow a rd the
ontol ogi cal i nte re st s of the phy s i cal hal f of the pri nci pl e of
 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 39

paral lel i sm . Indeed , the m e tap hy s i ca l s ta n d

p oi n t i n volve d i n
t hi s on e- si d e d wor i ng k of the p r i n cip le
f p a r a ll el i s m i s d e
o

n i te ly th a t of m e tap hy si ca l m a te r i a li s m Y et M Fl ournoy . .

e l s ewhere criti ci s es and rejects the metaphy s i cs of materi

al i e m ; and as we h ave seen he ad e pt s t h e s tandpo i nt of
, ,

a metaphy s i c s of spi ritual i deal i s m i n the i ntere s ts of h i s ,

fri ends and of al l h uman i ty .

Further i l lustrati on of a s i m i lar s hi fti ng of ph i l osoph i cal

po ints of v i ew, i n the ve ry e ffort to e s tabli sh a s ci ence of
psychol ogy whol ly without me taphysi c s i s a ff orded u s by ,

the way i n whi ch M Fl ournoy i nvari ably s peak s of phys i cal

.

sci ence and of i ts pr i nc i ple of the con s ervati on an d corre

l ati on of e ner gy H e r e h i s s tandpoi nt i s apparently that
.

of a common s e nse real i s t of the dual i s ti c type

-
B read .

e xi sts an d brai ns e x i st and a worl d of materi al objects

, ,

ex i st s and al l humanity e x i sts ; the l atter may k now the
,

f ormer may effectuate change s i n i t i n s pite of the fact

, ,

that the psycho phy s i cal pri nci ple , a s a s ci enti c pri nci ple ,
-

i s to b e taken ontol ogi cally i n only on e d i re cti on .

The vi e ws of the s e three auth ors have been di s cus s ed at

such l ength , and w ith s o much of somewh at s harply polemi
cal criti ci s m becau s e they are q u ite repre s entati ve of the
,

s ucce s s whi ch M oni s m , M ateri al i s m and P o s i ti vi s m are i ,

accu s tomed to attai n i n the e or t to treat p s ychol ogy a s a

|
purely natural s cience , wi thout any adm i xture of meta
phy s i c s whateve r .

On e can s carcely s uppre s s a pard onabl e feel ing of rel i ef

and s a ti s facti on on turn i ng to wri ters wh o, l ike Volkmann
a n d Wundt for e xample , openly m ai ntai n the r i ght t o
,

i n t roduce s pecul ative and metaphy s ical tenets i nto s ci enti c

y
p sychol ogy ; and wh o openly adopt s ome phi l osophi cal stand
poi nt and remai n standi ng i n i t and re ady to defend i t , i n
,

a con s i s te n t and i nte l l igible way S o fa r a s i t s eems n ec es

.

sary to refer to denite vi ews on the rel ati ons of p sych ol ogy
and th e phi l o s ophy of m i n d, as hel d by writers wh o set s o
40 P S Y C H O LO G Y AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
commendable an e x ampl e, th i s w i l l be done i n the fol l owi ng
chapter s.

Th e re s ult of ou r i nvesti gati on thus far has bee n to S how

h om mn t i s much of the practi ce Of the advocates of

p sychology a s a n atural s ci ence , wi th out metaphys i cs ;
what are the advantage s of the phy s i cal s ci ences as at ,

pre s en t pur s ue d when compared wi th p s ychol ogy i n re s pect

,

o f the i r method of mak i ng metaphy s i cal a ss umpti o n s ; and ,

at l ea s t i n a prel im i nary way , what k i nd of metaphysi cs

i s co n s i s tent w ith that uncri ti cal but whol ly justi able
approach to its problems whi ch p sychologi cal s ci ence as
such a ff ects A m ore careful e xami nati on mu s t n ow be
.

gi ven to tho s e re lati ons of psychol ogy and the ph i lo s ophy of

m in d wh i ch grow ou t of the very nature of both .
 C HAPTE R II

PS YCH OLOGY AND TH E PH I L OS OP H Y O F MI ND

( i
con t nu e d)

H E d if cultie s of a con s i s tent and not needle ss ly O ffen

s i ve practi ce i n treati ng p s ych ological pro blem s as
rel ate d to metaphy s i c s are s carcely s o great a s woul d s eem
to fol low from the example s cri ti ci sed i n the earl i e r
chapte r There are t wo ways of adj u s ti ng the s e d if culti e s
.
,

e ithe r on e of wh i ch ought to be fai rly s ati s factory to any

cand i d student of the s ubject . I n the r s t pl ace , o n e may
approach the ex ami nati on of me ntal phe nomen a w ith the
mode s t and un obtru s i v e metaphy s i cs of the man of sc i ence
wh o doe s n ot ai m to b e at the same ti me a ph il o s opher .

I n thi s way on e tak e s f or granted at lea s t to begi n with

, , ,

the e x i stenc e both of thi ng s and of mi nd s th e real i ty of

,

causal rel ati o n s betw e en the two and the po s si bi li ty of

,

knowi ng both what they and the i r rel ati on s real ly are .

L et i t be note d at o n ce howeve r that these a s sumptions

, ,

justify the expla n a ti on of mental phen omena by the d i s

c ov e r y of th ese change s i n thi ng s w ith wh i ch they are

connected and a s wel l by the hypothe s i s ( undoubtedly a meta

,

phy s i cal on e ) that they are phenomena of a be i n g wh i ch ex

i s ts and devel op s i n actual r e lati on s to the worl d of thi ngs ,

a n d wh i ch may be call ed the mi nd Such i s i ndeed the
.
, ,

matter of fact metaphy s i cal s tand poi nt a ssumed by eve ry

- -

worker i n p s ychology w h o i nve sti gate s s ome de ni te probl em

( let u s s a y of r e acti on ti me o r a ss oci ati on of i deas or
,
-
, ,

changes of a ffecti ve con s ci ou s ne s s i n the laboratory ; o r of

,
42 P S Y C HOLO G Y AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
the hypnoti c the i nsane the cri m i nal , i n s o cal le d real l i fe ;
, ,
-

or on the basi s of the d ramat i c representati on Of s oul l i fe i n -

n ovel s play s etc

, , To thi s same s tandpoi nt every i nve sti
.

gator u ncon s ci ou s ly adhere s s o long a s he doe s n ot try c on

,

sc i ou s l y and criti cal ly to be metaphy s i cal A nd n o on e .

nd s any fault w i th hi m for doi ng thi s I ndeed , the wr iter .

of an e n ti re treati s e o n mental phenomena even i ncl ud i ng ,

th e se phenomen a whi ch w e cal l o u r concepti ons of S elf
of

Thi ngs of T i me of Space of C au s ati on etc
,

,

, ,
.
,

may den itely adopt the s ame metaphy s i cal s tandpoi nt .

A nd s o far a s he adhere s to it , h e may be ju s ti e d i n clai m

i ng that he doe s not need the help o f S peci al metaphy s i cs at
al l , that he i s only taki n g the s tandpoi nt appropri ate to the
i nvesti gati ons of problem s i n p s ychol ogy con s i de re d purely
a s a natural sci ence Where h i s ch i ef d i f cultie s w i l l
.

begi n to show themse lve s and how he may best face o r ,

avoi d them w i l l be consi de red l ater on

,
.

But, agai n i t i s equal ly l egi ti mate that the w riter on

m
,
'

s ci e S ych ol ogy e s peci ally i f he propo s e to deal some

,

what thoroughly w i th the enti re round of p sychol ogi cal prob

l em s S houl d adopt s ome de ni ti ve metaphysi cal poi nt of
,

vi ew with i ts al l i ed as s umpti on s or reasone d conclu s i ons ;

,

and that he shou l d then mak e s uch use of i t a s can be sh own

to be helpful or neces s ary i n the e xplanati on of mental
phenomena S uch a course woul d u ndoubtedly i nvi te u h
.

fri endl y and perhap s contemptuous cri ti ci s m from arde n t but

i mmature advoc ates of p sychol ogy w i thout metaphy s ic s .

But why may not spe cul ati ve hypothe s e s of a n on t ol og i

cal characte r ( and i n truth , al l s pe cul ati ve hypothe s e s
,

have an ontol ogi cal characte r ) be a ppl i e d to the tentat i ve

expl anati o n of me n tal phe n om e na ? The s ame method i s not
thought i ncon s i st e n t with del ity t o the demands of s ci ence
i n al l other department s of i nve s ti gati on Why then .
, ,

S houl d d i s cri mi nati o n s be made of al l s ub ject s agai n s t

p s ychol ogy ? I n an s wer , i t wi ll be s hown i n due ti me that
 PS Y C HOLO GY AND TH E P H I LO S O PH Y OF M IN D 43

certai n metaphys ical hypotheses of a s peci al k i nd a r e ab so

l ute l y ind i s pen s abl e for both the de s cripti on an d the e x pl a
n ati on of certai n cla ss e s of mental phenomena Indeed , .

ontol ogi cal a s s umpti on s and ontol ogi cal concepti on s bel ong
to the essenti al nature of the ph e nomen a themselve s .

To i l lustrate th e po s iti on just taken , by the mo s t nearly

anal ogou s ca s e o f the phy s i cal s c i ence s : Is the ph y s i ci s t to
be frightened away from the a s sumpti o n that s ome s u b s ta n
tial be ing ( cal led M atte r
alway s havi ng quanti tati ve
m e a s u r e a b l e n e s s or

M a ss
,
and be i ng the seat o r vehi cl e

of a variety of mode s of En ergy al l c on s erv e d and c orre
,

l ated e xi s t s as the subject of the phenomena he ob s erve s

, ,

by a n outcry a gai n s t metaphy s i c s ? D oe s he not the rathe r

i ntroduce freely e nough othe r entiti es such a s l u m i n i f
, , ,

e r ou s ethe r ,
and perhap s electri city etc , i n the i nterests
,
.

o f h i s expl anatory sci ence of phy s i cal phenomena ? D oes

n ot chemi s try i n i ts m od ern form po s it , a s expl anatory
po s tulate s the ex i s tence of s ome s eve nty di ff erent k i nd s of
,

entiti es ( cal led atom s each pack ed ful l of capac iti e s and
potencie s ( the s o cal l e d natu re s of the atom s ) ? A nd i s
-

i t d e terred from doi ng thi s by any outcry agai n s t s uch a

mon s trou s amount of metaphy s i c s i n the ve ry heart a s i t ,

were of phy s i cal s c ience ? Nor i s i t parti cul arl y d i f cult

,

to s a y what rel ati ons mu s t be mai ntai ned between a l l

s uch s pecul ati ve and metaphy s i cal e lemen ts Of the body of

e xplanatory sci e nce and that body it s e lf Fi r s t a s a ll .

,

woul d admit the ob s erved facts the phenomena mu s t be

, , ,

a s ce rtai n e d a s they real ly ex i s t in the i r r e lati o n s of con

,

com itance and s e quence . Spe cul ati on mu s t not be all owed
t o d i ctate to the m what they s hal l be o r how they s hal l ,

occu r and recur ; on the contr a ry s pe cul ati o n i s i ntroduce d

,

i n the i n tere s ts of e xplai ni ng them Then the re are the

.

wel l kn own rules re s tri ct i n g and gu i d i ng the i n t r odu c

-

t i on i nto our s c i enti c knowl e dge s o cal l ed Of al l theory

,
-
,

and hypothe s i s s uch as the rul e of parci mony ( en ti a

,
44 P S Y C HOLO G Y AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY O F M IN D

n on m u ltip l i c a n d a ),
etc But the cal l may at any ti me be
.

i ssued , back to the facts that i s back to a n e w envi s

, ,

a g e m e n t of actual e xperi ence and to a more thorough a n ,

aly s i s of thi s e xperi ence ; and then forth agai n i f y ou , ,

w i ll , to enl arg ed and m od i ed specul ati ve and expl anatory

hypothe se s .

Now, n o val i d r e a s on can be assi gne d why a co n s i derable

amount of even S peci al metaphy s i c s S houl d n ot be emp l oyed
i n the e xplanati ons of p sychol ogi cal sci ence Indee d , thi s .

sc i ence wi l l be seen above al l other s to i nvite and almo s t

, ,

t o nece ss i tate such a method of study S uch a method i s .

that actual ly empl oye d wi th d i s tingu i s hed s ucce s s by the

two writers to whom c ommendatory reference was made at
the cl o s e of the la s t chapter i n the i r admi rabl e and volu
,

m i nou s treati ses on the sci ence of psychology On e of .

them Volkm ann makes promi nent the metaphys i cal h y

, ,

th i f the Soul as the re al ly ex i tent sub ject ( T g er )

'

p o es s o s o r r a

of the mental s tate s and a s reacti ng upon al l k i nds of

,

ex ci tement ( upon be i ng brought i nt o rel ati on w i th othe r
bei ng) i n th e form of mental representati on ( V or ste llen ) .

Th e othe r P rofes s or Wun dt although keepi ng h i s s pecula

, ,

ti ve tenet s more i n the background at rst , adopts the con

c e pt i on of the Soul as an actu al p s ychi c ene rgi zi ng as a ,

dynam i c an d s yntheti c real ity whi ch forms the ulti mate ,

e xplanati on of al l the phenomen a of co n s ci ous e xperi ence .

Th e metaphysi cal outcome as we l l as metaphy s i cal a ss u m p

,

ti on of Volkmann i s real ly a ce rtai n form of D ual i s m ;

,

although the author himself prefer s for i t anothe r name .

That of Wundt i s a certai n f orm of M oni s m to wh i ch the ,

title of Ide al re al i s m i s a ss i gned
-
.

I t woul d be unfai r not to s a y ungenerou s f o r the a dv o

, ,

cates of p sychol ogy w ithout metaphy s i c s to deny the very

h i gh s ci enti c meri t of the volumi nou s treati s e s wri tte n by
the two authoriti e s ju s t menti o n e d ; the fact i s that the i r
c hef s d oe u vr e s tand i n the very front rank of p s ychol ogi cal

-
 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY O F M IN D 45

sci ence . I n deed , V olkmann L e hr bu c h d e r P sy c holog i e 1 and

s

Wun dt
s G r u n d zii g e d er P hy si olog i sch en P sy ch olog i e are the V
2

two ma s terpi eces among modern G erman attempt s to deal

sci enti cal ly w i th the whole round of mental phen omena .

N or doe s i t appear , i n ou r judgment that the qu al i ty of the ,

empi ri cal sci e nce of the s e p sychol ogi s t s h a s been s po i led ,

or even greatly i nj ured , by thei r frank and i ntel l i gent b ut ,

o n the whol e wel l re s trai ned u se of met a phy s i cal and s e c u

p ,

l ati ve hypothe s e s Thi s judgment i s mai ntai ned i n s pi te of

.

the d i s l ike s hown i n ce rtai n quarters to even that m od i e d

form of the H erbarti an real i s m wh i ch Vol kmann e mpl oy s ;
as well a s to the vari ou s concepti on s of p sych i c s ynthe s i s ,

appercepti ve functi o n etc wh i ch Wundt ad opt s i n s ubor ,

.
, ,

di n a t i on t o h i s general metaphy s i cal s tandpoi nt .

The practi ce of al l writer s who ai m at any great th orough

ne ss i n the treatment of p sychol ogi cal problem s e s peci ally ,

of cour s e tho s e whi ch pr s ent them s elve s i n the e ffort to

,

e
ex pl ai n the s o cal le d hi gher form s of mental functi oni ng
-

d i ff er s l argely i n re s pe ct of the metaphy s i c s i nvol ved a s

, ,

a matter of degree s Fo r thi s and other rea s on s i t wi l l .

serve ou r general pu rpo s e wel l to exami ne very bri ey the

Opi ni on s of Vol kmann and of Wundt on the u se of ph i l os oph i
cal s tandpoi nt s an d phi l o s oph i cal te net s i n the cu lti vati on
of sci e nti c p s ychol ogy We l eave t o the reade r the ta s k of .

compari ng thei r actual practi ce w ith that of the wri ter s

con s i de red i n the l a s t chapte r .

A w n u the pri mary and obvi ou s prob ,

l em of p sychology i s the e xpl anati on of p sychi cal phenom

e na But ex p la n a ti on i s further de clared to me an the
.

reducti on Of th e phe n omena of ou r i nne r world wh i ch are ,

gi ve n merely i n ti me to tho s e act ual e vents whi ch l i e a t ,

1 Le hrbu h d c pu kt
er Psyc h ol ogi e v om S ta n d n e d es Rea li mu d h g
s s un na c en e

ti sc h M th d
en ePh D Wilh l m V lk m
o s , v on . r . e o a nn, Ri tt r
e V lk m r ( 3 d
v on o a e d. ,

C Ot
'

h 1884en , A f urt h di ti ju t i u d)
. o e on s ss e .

1 G d ii g d
r un P h y i l gi h P y h l gi
z e er s o o sc en s c o o e , v on Wilh el m Wu ndt P ro fessor
,

d U i tat L ip ig ( 4 th d L ip ig
'

an er n v er s zu e z e e z ,
46 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY O F M IN D

the i r foundati ons ( d a s i hn e n e u G r u n de li eg e n d e wi r k li c h

G e sch e h e n e ) and the e s tabl i s hment of the l aw s accord i ng t o
,
1
whi ch the former fol l ow from th e latter S o then the .
, ,

que s ti on whethe r the de te rmi nati on of the n ature and e x i s

tence Of the s oul b e l ongs a s an i ntegral and legiti mate part,
,

to the probl em o f p sychol ogy d epend s upon whethe r o r n ot

the e xpl an a ti on of any of the phenomena i s condi ti one d i n
any way upo n ou r i n s i ght i nto the e x i s tence and nature of the
s ubje ct of al l the phenomena A nd whi le thi s que s ti on may
.

be for the ti me be i ng left unan s we red we mu s t at lea s t

, , ,

admi t that i ts i nve s ti gati on occupi e s i n p s ychol ogy a pos i

ti on paral l e l to that occupi e d by the metaphys i cs of matter
i n phy s i cal s ci ence .

No w i t i s not e a s y to se e how a p s ychol ogi s t who take s

,

the po s iti on of the sci enti s t for i n stance can con s i s , ,

t e n tl y object to th i s po s iti on Of V olkmann ; for, a s we have

s een ,
the former a s s u me s i n the i nte re s t s of the expl ana
,

ti on of p sychi c phenomena, th e ex i s tence of a brai n and of a

real worl d of obje ct s wi th mani fol d actual occurren ce s there
i n ( s o far as they are i n the brai n thou gh mo stl y of a hi ghly ,

or purely conj ectu ral s ort ) Only a s we h ave al s o s een

.
, ,

the s ci enti s t ofte n aband on s e arly the pecul i ar standpoi nt
o f p s ychol ogi cal s ci ence as Vol kmann doe s not ; a n d thus
,

d raw s near i n a pe ri l ou s ly fri end ly way if he doe s n ot

, ,

actually go whol ly over to the metaphysi c s of mon i s ti c

materi al i s m For Volkmann on the contrary the funda
.
, ,

mental pri nci ple s of p s ychol ogy are l ai d i n actual p s ychi c
e vent s 2
. A nd s o cl o s e i s the connecti on whi ch the meta
phy s i cal hypothe s i s Of a real soul as the s ubject of al l ,

the p sych i c phe n omena su s tai n s to the po ss i bl e i ntere st s

,

of s c i enti c e xpl anati on that the o l d d i vi s i on between

,

rati onal a n d e mpi ri cal psychology mu s t be abandoned .

M uch of what h a s bee n hel d to bel ong to rati onal p s ychol ogy

mu s t then be a ss i gned to metaphy s i cs rather than to psy

1 Le hrbu h dc er Psych ol ogi e
,
v ol . i pp
. . 2f .
2 Ibi d pp
.
, . 3 f .
 P S Y C H OLO G Y A N D TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF MI N D 47

ch ol ogy at al l ; and what shoul d be retai n e d as part of

the s ci ence of p sychology consi s t s only of s o much as
can be s ucce ssfully empl oyed i n the explan ati on of actual
phenome na .

The true method of p sychology, V olkma n n goe s on to

decl are i s the ge neti c ;
,
and thi s m e thod tr a ce s a n d ex
p la i n s t he d e ve lop m e n t o f m en ta l lif e by a com bi n a ti on of
e mp i r i ca l a nd e cu l a ti ve or m e ta hys i ca l r i n ci les Fo r
s
p p p p .

who woul d thi nk of clai mi ng that the general l aw s of

thi s l ife can be establ i s hed by i nducti on upon a bas i s of
actual facts wi thout mak i ng any u s e of s uch concept s a s
,
y
cau s al ity sub stance change , force se lf con s ci ou s ne s s ti me
, , ,
-
, ,

etc ? Indeed , i t i s ju s t s uch concepts a s the s e whi ch have

.

re al ity i n the i n te re s ts of explanatory sc ience rathe r th a n ,

tho s e whol ly barre n and ab s tract concepts of power s and
faculti e s with whi ch the o l d fa s hi oned psychol ogy so -

freely dealt .

Volkmann thu s arri ve s at the f ol l o wi n g j gfki n i ti on of psy

1
c h ol ogy . It i s that s ci ence whi ch s et s before itself th e
problem of e xplai ni ng the general cla ss e s Of p s ychi cal ph e
n om e n a ,
by mean s of the form s of mental representati on
as empi ri cally gi ven and by mean s of the s pecu lati ve c on
,

ce pt i on Of mental r e pre s entati o n accord i n g to the l aw s of

the l i fe of such r e pre s entati on It i s o f cou rs e the e ffort .
, ,

o f th i s con s ummate d i s c i ple of the Herbarti an p s ychol ogy

and H erbarti an m etaphy s i c s to e x pl r i n al l mental phenom
e n a a s due to on e mode of the s ou l s reacti on ( V or ste l len )
.

The s ou l i s i ndeed a s sume d a s th e sub ject of the s ta te s ;
, ,

but i t i s thi s pecul i ar m ode of the s oul s reacti on wh i ch both

giv e s un i ty to V olkmann s treatment Of p sych ol ogi cal s ci ence

,

and al s o furni sh e s the occa s i on for perpetual objecti o n s on the

part of tho s e wh o di ss ent from h i s the oreti cal poi nt o f vi ew .

P s ychol ogy he h old s can neve r be depri ved of i ts ne ce s s aril y

, ,

phi l osoph ical character ; on the othe r hand i ts metaphysi cs ,

1 Le hrbu h d P y h l gi
c er s c o o e , v ol . i p
. . 34 .
 48 P S Y C H OLO G Y A N D TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
is not to b e con s tructed a p r i or i but i n the i nterest s of
,

m ak i ng thi nkable what i s g i v e n to us a p os ter i or i
. Y et .

the s tandpoi n t s of p s ychol ogy and metaphy s i c s are di ff erent ; 1

metaphy s i c s an s wer s the same problems with the a ssu m p
t i on of a s pecu lati ve proce ss wh i ch p s ychol ogy an s wers with
the demon strati on of a hi s tori cal process But how can .

Vt h ey be kept wholly apart ? They cannot ; f or al l the prob

l em s o f met aphy s i c s and even al l the concepti on s of meta
,

phy si c s are p sychi cal products ; i ndee d the total i t y of

, ,

metaphy s i cal thi nk i ng i s nothi ng but a p sych ol ogi cal proce ss .

Even the concepti on of metaphy s i c s i t s elf i s po ss i bl e only

under the a ssu mpti on o f p sychologi cal s ci ence Y et thi s .

rel a t i on of the dependence Of metaphy s i c s on p s ych ol ogy

doe s not by any mean s depri ve the forme r of al l power to
render a s si stance to the l atter ; for ou r knowl edge of the
c orrec t ne ss of the objecti ve val i d ity and of the ae s theti cal
, ,

o r ethi cal as we ll a s epi s te mol ogi cal val ue of metaphysi cal

concepti on s i s by no means whol ly dependent u pon ou r

abi l i ty to d e mon s trate the hi s tori cal proce ss of the i r ori gi n
and devel opment M ore over, i t coul d be added although
.

Volkman n d oe s not i n s i s t u pon thi s a s he mi ght ,

that the
p sychologi s t wh o s tud i es and demon s trate s s uch a p sych o
l ogi cal proce ss cannot s tri p hi m s elf of the metaphys i cal
assumpti on s and concepti on s whi ch are e ss ent i al part s of hi s
own deve loped mental bei ng .

Volkmann then proceed s t o poi nt ou t and thi s may

alway s be d one to the c onfu s i on and contempt of al l attempts
to i n sti tute a cerebral p s ychol ogy whol ly without any meta
phy s i c s that the phy s i ol ogi cal hypothe s is i s i t s elf i n sep a
2
r a b l y connecte d wi th metaphy s i cal concepti on s It i s n ot .

nece ss ary to ou r pu rpo s e furthe r to fol l ow hi s di s cu ss i o n

of v i ew s con cern i n g the be i ng and n ature of the soul .

M ateri al i s m i s neatly and con s i stently c ri ti ci s ed f rom the

criti c s own phi l osophi c al poi nt of vi ew ; s o al s o Spi ritual

1 C m p r pp
o a e . 49 f
.

1 C mp r
o a e
pp 8 1 f
. .
 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY O F M IN D 49

i sm , m e ani ng by thi s the e xpl anati on of the body sole ly

from the s ta n d point of the a ss umed real i ty of the s oul The .

s ame ta s k i s t hen performed for that form of D ual i s m whi ch

den i e s the po ss i bi l ity of any mutual ly determi ni n g i n u

e n ce s or cau s al relati on s
,
betw e e n the body and the s oul ;
,

wh i l e at the clo s e of the s ecti on on M o n i s m the author s

ow n phi losophi cal sta n dpoi n t on the s e fu n damental que s

ti on s of s pecul ati ve p s ychol ogy i s d e ni ti vely announced .

It i s that of the p s ychol ogy of R eal i s m

Th i s a ssu me s the .

ex i ste nce Of s pi ri t a s re al and u ni tary b e i n g ; a n alyze s the

body i n to a sy s tem of uni tary bei ngs ; and then s how s how
the d e vel opment of the s pi ri t a s s oul take s pl ace through i ts
changi ng rel ati o n s wi th t h e body whi l e i t e s tabl i shes the
,

u n i ty of the s oul s l aw of acti vity upon the ba s is of th e

d i ff ere nce i n the nature of the tw o b e i n g s .

The amount of di s cu ss i on wh i ch P rofe ss or Wu n dt al l ow s

to di s pute d metaphy s i cal que s ti o n s i s re lati vely l e ss than
that al l owe d by Vol kmann ; wh i l e h i s u s e of the ad opt e d
phi lo s ophi cal s tandpoi n t and the ory of th e s oul s nature

i s n ot s o obvi ou s Thi s marke d d i ffe rence between the

.

t wo author s i s partly due to th e fact th a t the form e r pro

f es se dl y tre at s al l p sych i cal phenomen a s olel y from th e
phy s i ol ogi cal and experi mental p oi n t s of v i ew and al s o to ,

a di ff ere n ce i n trai ni n g outt and i n tere st s But Wundt

, , .
,

who i s k n own a s a l eadi n g authority i n phy s i ol ogi cal an d

expe ri me n tal p sychology h a s de nitely comm itt e d h i m s elf "
,

to th e opi ni on that i t i s i mpo ss ibl e to eff ect a compl e te

s eparati on bet w ee n p s y chol ogy and phi l o s ophy The rel a .

1
ti on between the two i s he af rm s s o cl o s e and pecul i ar
, ,

that the attempt at a part i ti on of sov e rei gnty re s ul t s i n a n

ab stract s chem e wh i ch i n the pre s ence of actual i ty mu s t
, ,

al way s app e ar un s ati s factory .

P romi n e nt among tho s e concepti on s wh i ch a ccor d i ng t o ,

P rofe s s o r Wundt , pre e x i s t for e ve ry attempt at s ci enti c

-

1
Sy s te m de r P hil osophi e ( Le ipzi g , pp . 5 , 21 f .
 50 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY O F M IN D

0

s ychol ogy ( p sy cholog i s che V or beg r i e ) i s that of the
'

p soul .

Thi s con cepti on i n s ome form mu s t b e adopte d by al l s ci en

, ,

t i c p s ych ol ogy When we approach any of i ts problem s,

.

s oul m e ans for I I S the s ub je ct to whi ch we attribute as ,
1
pred i cate s al l the p a rti cul ar facts of i nne r observati on
, .

U ndoubtedly too for the natural con s ci ou s ne ss a s i t ex

, , ,

pre ss e s i t s elf i n langu age the s oul i s not merely a s ub je ct,

i n the l ogi cal s e n s e but a su bsta n ce a real bei ng a s who s e

, , ,

mani fe s tati on s or tran s acti on s the s o cal led acti vi ti e s of the -

s oul are apprehe nded To t h e adopti on of this m e t a ph ys i
.

cal presuppo s iti on a s ci e n ti c p sychol ogy may po s sibly b e

l ed at the concl usi o n Of i ts ta s k ; but on e n teri ng upon that
task the author propo s e s s imply to regard the s oul as the
l ogi cal subject of i nne r experi ence Thi s seem s equ i val ent .

to the p ropo s al to u se the l anguage of common s en s e meta -

phy s i c s unti l the sci ence of psychol ogy h a s been pursued f a r

en ough t o e nabl e u s to e stabl i s h on an e mpi ri cal ba s i s a , ,

cri ti cal i nterpretati on an d e s ti mate of the real meani ng

an d value of that langu a ge .

R epeate dly howeve r, doe s i t become evi dent d uri ng the

, ,

cour s e of the s ci enti c d i s cu ss i on s wh i ch l l h i s t w o l arge

l v ol u m e s th at Wundt i s mak i ng use o f the s pecul ati ve
,

h ypoth e s i s wh i ch we j u s t attri buted to hi m I n th e i n tere s ts

l Of a ful ler expl anati on of ob s erved p s ychi cal phenomen a ,

2
A t the cl o s e of the tre ati se the re i s a bri ef di s cu ss i on of the
l eadi ng metaphy s i cal hypothe s es regardi ng the natu re of th e
s ou l
. M ateri al i s m Spi ritual ism and A n i mi sm the mean
, ,

i ng gi ven to the s econd of the three d i ff eri ng from that of

V olkmann are e xam i ned and d i s mi s s ed as u n s ati sfactory .

Th e a u th or s own vi ew i s then i ntroduced by a s tate ment of

'

the epi s t e mol ogi cal pri nc iple that only i nne r e xperi ence
po ss e ss e s for u s i mmed i ate real ity I de al i s m in u s t there .

fore always gai n a n i nd i s putabl e vi ctory ove r every contest

1 Gru n dzugs d . P h ysi ol ogi sch en Psych ol ogi e ( 4th ed . v ol . i pp
. 1 0f .

2 Ibi d .
, v ol. i i pp 626 ff
. . .
 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY O F M IN D 51

i ng vi ew Of the worl d although i t doe s not di s pen s e wi th

,

ou r obl i gati on to recogni ze al s o the real ity of the e xternal

worl d From the p sychol ogi cal s tandpoi nt the actual el e

.
,

ment of al l s pi ri tual functi ons s eem s t o Wundt to be on e an d

e ss enti ally the s ame acti vi ty i n whi ch s en s ati on and w i l l
,

ap p ear at work i n ab ori gi nal u ni on Thi s mo s t pri mary .

p sychi cal acti vi ty he de s i gn ates a s I mp u lse ( Tr i e b rathe r
than V or s te llen a s Volkmann holds )
,
From i t al l the .

forms of mental devel opment proceed even i ncl udi n g that ,

appercepti ve acti vity whi ch nal ly appears a s an i n de pen

dent proces s Thu s d oe s s c ienti c p sychol ogy lead to the
.

reproducti on i n cha n ged form of the A ri s totel i an de n iti on

of the Soul a s the pri me Entelechy of the l i vi ng body ;
for the phy s i cal devel opment mu s t be u nde r stood not a s the ,

ca u se but as the e ff e ct of the p s ychi cal devel opment

, .

The p sych o phy s i cal s ta n dpoi nt however mu s t be tak en

-
, ,

as s oon a s on e rai s e s thi s que s ti on : What i s the rel ati on i n

whi ch we are to conce i ve Of the p sychi cal a s s tand i n g toward
th e a ss umed ( metaphy s i cal ly ) s ub s tanti al ground of th e
phy s i cal ? The probl em for al l p sych o phy s i cal e xpl anati on -

o f m e ntal phenomena the refore bec ome s the probl em of s o

, ,

e xpand i n g the phy s i cal c oncepti on of s ubstance a s to com

prehend i n i t the man i fe st ati on of the p s ych i cal l i fe of thi s
compl i cate d s ub s tanti al comple x N ow from the purel y .
,

phy s i cal poi nt o f v i e w s i nce the el e mentary property of

,

phy s i cal s ub s tan ce i s moti on the m oved s ub stan ce i s r e

,

garded a s l i k e wi s e the s ubject ( Tr ag e r i n ) of the el e me n
tary p sychi cal phenomenon of i mpu lse But on i t s phy s i
, .

cal a s on its p s ych i cal s i de the l i vi ng body i s a un ity ; so

,

that nal ly therefore , ou r e nti re sci enti c i nve s ti gati on of

,

the reci procal rel ati o n s b e tween the phy s i cal and th e psy

chi cal lead s u s to the a s sumpti on that what we cal l the
S oul i s the i nne r b e i ng of the s ame uni ty that e xte rnall y ,

con s i dered we regard as the body bel ongi ng to it
,
But .

Wu n dt s M oni s m i s plai nly of the i deal isti c orde r ; for we

 52 P SYC H OLO G Y A ND T H E P H I LO S O P H Y OF M IN D

are at once i nformed : Thi s way of apprehe nd i n g the
probl em of reci pro cal r e lati on l ead s howev e r unavoi dably , ,

beyond i t s e lf to the a ss umpti on that s pi ritual be i ng i s the

actual ity of thi ngs and that i ts mo s t e s senti al property 1 s
,

deve lopme n t .

H ow far we n d ou r s e l ve s i n agreement with e i ther the

s ta n dpoi nt s o r t h e a ss umpti on s o r the conclu s i on s of Volk
, ,

man n or of Wundt the s ub s equent treat ment of al l the

,

probl em s i nvolv e d w i l l we tru s t make perfectly clear

, ,
.

The v i ew s of the s e author s have been i ntroduced at thi s poi nt

i n order to put the i r th e ory an d practi ce i n contra s t and ,
we bel i eve , i n contra s t hi ghly favorable to them both as ,

specul ati ve thi nkers a n d a s s tud e nt s of e mpi ri cal science

w ith the practi ce and theory of the wri ters c ited i n the
r s t chapter .

A n d n ow l eavi n g for the pre s ent al l polemi cal and eri ti

,

cal d i s cu s s i on of the v i ew s of oth e r s let us rai se anew the

,

Mq u e st i on : In what rel ati on doe s s ci enti c p sychol ogy s tan d

to the phi l o s ophy of m i n d ( the s ci e nce to the metaphy s i c s of
'
mental phenomena ) ? Thi s questi on i nvolve s three s u b or d i
I
n a t e que s ti on s namely What i s P s ychol ogy ? What i s
, ,

H Ph ll OS Opll y ? and What i s th a t rel ati on betwe e n the two

3 whi ch grows out of the ve ry nature of both ?

If p sychol ogy I s approache d a s purely a s po s s i ble from the
empi ri cal poi nt of vi ew the e ffort i s of course m ade to
, , ,

i s ol ate w i th reference to thei r s ci enti c pur s u i t a certai n

, ,

cla ss of facts Or to u s e the m ore stately and i mpre s s i ve

.
,

term we e ndeavor to tel l preci s ely what ph e nome na i t

,

i s de s i gne d s ci enti cally to e s tabl i s h and to i nve s ti gate In .

the c a s e of begi n ni ng p sychol ogy as i n the ca s e of begi n n i ng

,

any othe r s o cal led sci ence we n e ed not gi ve i mmed i ate

-
,

pau s e to con s i der th at the very word phenomen a i s mean
i n g l ess wi thout the a s su m pt i om l be i ng s of wh i ch th e
phe n omen a are and of other beings to whi ch the phenomena
,

appear N or, of course can we thi nk thi s phrase through

.
,
 P S Y C HOLOGY A N D TH E P H I LO S O P HY O F M IN D 53

without recogn i zi ng the compl i cate d metaphysi c al po s tulate

of things s tandi n g i n real rel ati on to other thi ng s and to ,

mi nd s that k now them But p as si ng by s o obvi ou s an onto

.

l ogi cal s keleton a s i t gri ns upon us th e i n s tant the s ecret

,

chamber of empi ri cal s c i ence i s opened and s tudi ou s ly k eep ,

i ng the mo s t unblush i ng na i v e t e we nex t i nqu i re : W hat ,

k i nd of phenomena then doe s thi s ou r s c i e nce propo s e t o v

, ,

c o n s i der ? A nd here i n an s we r on e mu s t u se term s whi ch

, ,

only p s ychol ogi cal sci ence i t s elf can dene , i f i ndeed , ,

they admit of any den iti on whateve r L et the reply be .

,

then , that it i s the phenome n a of con s ci ousness a s s u ch ; i t ,

i s p s ychi c fact s a s p s ych i c o r ,

i f you please
, ps y
chose s of all k i nds whi ch psychol ogical s ci ence propo s e s
,

t o e xam i ne A nd i f f u rthe r i n q u i ry be made a s to what

.

that consci ousne s s i s of wh i ch al l the phe nomena are ,

or to whi ch a s to a general cla s s they bel o n g perhap s
, , ,

no better answe r can be gi ven than to s a y : What you are

wheneve r you th i nk o r feel or w il l when y ou are i n wi de ,

awake u se o f all your power s o r when you dream i n mo s t ,

e xtreme s ubm i ss i on to the capri ce s of fancy t ha t it i s to ,

be con s ci ou s Y et e ven thu s i n ou r mo s t cauti ou s e xpre s

.
,

s i on a s to the e s s enti als of phenomena of con s ci ou s ne ss Of ,

p s ychi c fact s me rely a s such we s ee m to have come pe ri l

, ,

o u s l y near the s carcely s ubmerg e d rock s of m etaphy s i cal

hypoth e s i s Fo r to de s cribe c on s ci ou s n e s s a s what y ou y
a r e when ,
etc se em s l i kel y i f t oo curi ous i nqui ry be
.
, ,

made a s to i ts i mport to i nvol ve u s i n t h e con s i derati on

,

o f s ome of the mo s t ab s tru s e of phi lo s ophi cal p roblem s .

H owev e r s i nce the e n deavor at knowl edge mu s t m ove

on thi s may be acc e pted a s a prel i mi nary d e n iti on : Psy

c h ol o gy a s a purely e mpi ri cal

p d s d W
esc r i p

ti ve and e xpl anato ry i s the s ci e n ce of the phen ome n a of

,

co n s ci ousne ss a s s uch
,
In thi s way i t wou l d s eem that
.

the de s cri pti ve branch of the s ci e n ce mi ght at lea s t be b egu n

w ithout e ithe r i nte rfe re n ce or a s s i s tance from me taphys ic s .
54 P S Y C H O LO GY AN D TH E P H I L O S O P HY O F M I N D

P o s s ibl e a ss i stance from metaphys i cs i n the form pecula of s

t ive hypothe s es explanatory of the fact s on e m i ght fai rly ,

exp e ct to en cou nter or eve n wish to i nvok e late r on But, .

al as "even the d escr ip t i on of the phenomena of m i nd appears

q u ite i mpossibl e i f s uch descri pti on i s to correspon d to act
,

ual p s ychi c fact s, w ithout the danger and al mo s t the neces ~

s i ty of i ntroduci ng metaphys i cal convi cti on s and hypotheses .

Fo r actual ly that i s i n the re al l ife of oursel ve s and of

,

othe r per s on s the facts are not at al l fai thfully de s c ribed

-

by saying , Sensati ons are or percepti o n s are or feel i n gs
, ,

are , or des ires are etc The rathe r does fai thful d e s c r i p
, .

ti on compel us to say : I ( or you or he ) perce i ve ; o r I feel ; ,

o r I des i re ; o r I pl an ; o r 1 th i nk etc For such whe n , .
,

state d i n the most meagre po s s ible fash i on are the actual ,

fact s of o rdi nary experi ence S o that the porti on o r pha s e .

, ,

or a s pect or fri nge of the total p s ych i c fact whi ch i s
, ,

e xpre ss ed or s i gni ed by the s ubject of the de s cri pti ve s e n

tence ( by the I o r the that wh i ch thi nk s ) and by the
,
-
,

pl ace whi ch i t s u s tai n s a s s ubject to the perce pti on fee l i ng , ,

de s i ri ng pl ann i ng o r thi nki n g attri buted t o i t i s a s much

, , ,

d i s ti ncti ve of and i n tegral to the fact i tself as anyth i n g

, ,

about i t po s s i bly can be Indeed w ith al l thi s l eft ou t of

.
,

the descri pti on the character of the p s ych i c f a ct i s totally

,

changed ; i t i s i n truth n o longer a fai thf u lly descri bed

, ,

s chi c fact
p y .

A t ab out thi s poi nt then the psychol ogi s t i s compel led to

, ,

take s ome sort of attitude to ward th o s e i mpli cati o n s o f al l

k nown phenomena of con s ci ou s ne s s whi ch are nei ther remote
i nfe rence s from the fact s n or metaphy s i cal hypothe s e s i ntro
d u ce d s ol ely i n the attempt to explai n the fact s but are ,

i mportant bel ongi ngs of the very fact s th emselves A t thi s .

same poi nt then the p s ychol ogi st m u st a de pt on e of tho s e

, ,

two metaphysi cal s tandpoi n t s wh i ch as has just been sai d are , ,

the only ju s ti abl e po s iti ons for the i nve s ti gat or of thi s
empi ri cal s ci ence H e may s ay to hi mself i f n ot t o h i s
.
,
 P SYC H OL O GY A ND T H E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 55

reader s : Ye s, for the ti me bei ng I w i l l hol d by s uch com

m e n s en s e metaphy s i c s a s i s plai nly i nvolve d i n all fai th
-

fu l an d complete de s cri pti on of the p s ych i c f a cts I w i l l .

a s s ume, as men general ly do that there i s s ome s ort of a

,

real be i ng corre s pondi n g to thi s s o cal led I thi s M i nd or

-
,

Soul ; and that what i t i s m ay be known by a s certai n i ng how

i t behave s unde r the greatest po ss i bl e vari ety of cond i ti on s ,

a n d i n the greate s t vari ety Of relati on s To render s uch .

knowledge s ci e nti c , th i s i s the very end of al l psycho

l ogi cal i nve s ti gati on B ut the ri ght i s re s erved as the re s ult
.
,

of the proce s s of i nvesti gati on to cri ti ci s e ,

to adopt or to
reject to modify and to re s tri ct o r expand
,
thi s ve ry s ame
a ss umpti on w ith whi ch the i nve s ti gati on begi n s To mak e .

thi s a ss umpti on i s but to s how the same courte s y to the

m ind a s that whi ch the p sych ol ogi s t s wh o appeare d i n the

la s t chapter a s advocate s of a natural s ci ence of m i nd
wi thout metaphy s i c s actually S h ow to the brai n and to othe r
materi al thi ng s H o w much m ore reasonabl e and s ci enti c
.

thi s form of c ourte s y i s becomes at once appare nt when i t ,

i s con s i dered that the very fact s whi ch the p sychol ogi s t
undertak e s t o de s cribe and e xpl ai n are s tatabl e only i n

terms s u ch a s, I perc e i ve
I thi nk

,I feel etc A nd, , .

t o s a y s i mply P erce pti on s are thought s are fe el i ng s are l

, , , ,

etc ; o r t o s a y Thoughts thi nk percepti o n s perce i ve an d

.
, , ,

feeli ngs feel etc or t o a f rm that the pre s ent k n owledge
,
.

k now s the other k n owledge s i s n ot at al l fai rly to

,

de s cri be the fact s It i s to do l ittl e bette r than to trave s ty

.

them .

Y et agai n the p sych ol ogi s t may at thi s s ame poi nt with

, , ,

an equ al propri ety and an al mo s t i f n ot qui te equ al s afety ,

bri ng forward h i s ow n more s peci al metaphy s i cal a ss u m p

ti on s H e may s tate what i s the r e al i mport whi ch he
.
,

unde r s tand s t o b e ju s ti abl e on a ba s i s of fact of tho s e ,

popul a r concepti o n s that are i mpl i cated i n the fai thful and
complete de s cri pti on of al l devel oped p s ycho s es To empl oy .
 56 P S Y C HOLO GY AN D TH E P H I LO S O P HY O F M IN D

pecul ati ve hypothe s e s i n a manner to di s tort o r d i s hone s tly

s

to hypothecate the fact s would b e no le s s un s ci e n ti c a n d

i n juri ou s i n p sych ol ogy than i n a n y of the other empi ri cal
sci ence s H ere al s o a s i n al l scienti c i nve s ti gati on the
.
, ,

s tateme n t of facts that can be veri ed a s fact s and the u s e ,

of hypothe s e s i n explanati on of the fact s mu s t be kept ,

di s tinct ; and to each the s u itabl e k ind a n d amount of

con dence mu s t be a s s i gned P racti cally however the .
, ,

p s ychol ogi s t s ab i l ity an d s k i l l i n doi ng th i s do n ot depend
upon the parti cu l ar school to wh i ch he bel on g s ; upon
" whethe r he i s a d i s ci pl e of the ol d p s ychol ogy and bel i eve s

i n metaphy s i c s o r i s we ll u p i n l aboratory method s an d
j ,

h a s publ i cly announce d h i m s elf as an adherent of the very

In e w e s t p s ychology wholly w ithout metaphy s i c s an d e ve n
, ,

wi thout s o mu ch a s the a s s umpti on of a s ou l Tho s e wh o .

are mo s t fami l i ar w i th all the m odern re s earches know be s t

h o w much the theori es of the m a n behi n d the re acti ng key -

Ii n cor por a te the m s el ve s i n to the very stru cture o f h i s e x pe r i

lm e n t a l result s . A n d he i s total ly unt to handl e p s ycho
| l ogi cal probl em s i n a broad way wh o doe s not recog n i ze how

| much that i s true and w i s e ab out the nature of the human

m i n d h a s been tol d by p oet s pl ay wri ters novel i st s and ,

-
, ,

metaphy s i ci a n s who neve r s o mu ch a s dreamed of the

,

i e x i s t e n c e of p s ych ol ogi cal l aboratori e s .

H e re the occa s i on m ay b e se i ze d to remark h ow pi ti fully

me a gre comp a re d with the ri ch ful l a n d my s te ri ou s c on
, , ,

tent of actual human l i ve s i s that l i s t o r series of s o cal led

,
-

p sych i c fact s whi ch has been o r whi ch can b e subjected t o

, ,

e xperi mental analy s i s P s ycho phy s i c s a n d phy s i ol ogi cal

.
-

p sychol ogy h ave i ndeed many i ntere s ti n g and i mportant

, ,

problem s fully before th e m i f not al ready rmly i n hand

,
.

But s uppo s i n g the s e probl e m s t o be much ext e nd e d o r even

sati s factori ly s ol ved after al l the l arger u n i versal prob
, ,

l e ms of p s ych ol ogy remai n comparati ve ly undi m i n i shed i n

m agn i tude and i n mystery These i nvol ve nothi ng l es s.
 P S Y C HOLOGY AN D TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 57

than the de s cri pti on and e x pl anati on of the total natur e and
l ife of t hat be i ng wh i ch i s called the H uman M ind A n d .

what a tangle i nvolvi ng not s i mply sen s ati on s and rev i ved
,

i mages of s en s ati on s determi nabl e as respects qual ity an d

, ,

measurabl e i n q u anti ty i n ti me rate or durati on i n ti me

,
-
,

but al s o i nnumerabl e s ubtle fai th s f e ars anti ci pati ons , , ,

i n s ti nct s an d form s of tact or of tal ent s o called s uper

,
-
,

s t i t i on s
,
bl i n d i mpul s e s fre aky change s or heave n grante d
,
-

renewal s a n d r e e s tabl ish m e nt s of good wi l l vari ed a n d i n

- -
,

de s cri bable , a ff ecti onal qua s i i ntel lectual and semi v ol u n

,
-
,
-

tary eleme n t s t o s a y n oth i ng of s ubcon s ci ou s and pe rh a p s

,

uncon s c i ou s me ntal acti vi ti e s of k i nd s d i fcult or i mpo s s ibl e

t o descri be what a tangl e , i n d e ed i s the actu al l ife of
, ,

thi s s o cal led M i n d " N or need i t b e an A ri s totle a

-
,

L ei bni tz , or a G oethe of whom on e i s S peak i n g To

, .

de s cri be and expl ai n the actual me ntal l i fe of Han s or Of

,

B ri dget Of the chi l d at one s feet o r the beggar at o n e s ,

door o r the i di oti c o r i n s ane i n the ne i ghbori ng a sylum i s

, ,

mu ch too great a ta s k for the mo s t ambi ti ou s p sychol ogi s t .

B ut s i n ce the p s ychol ogi s t hi m s e l f ye s e ve n the chi ld and ,

the i d i ot i s no le ss certai nly metaphy s i cal and phi lo

S oph i c a l i n re s pect of the very stru cture and ow o f h i s
mental l i fe than w a s A ri s totl e or L e ibni tz i t i s d i f cult to
,

s e e h o w he i s to act the part o f a s ci enti c ps y ch ol og i s t f

wi thou t al s o tak i ng on hi m s el f at s ome s tag e i n the pro

ce e d i n g s the r O l e of a metaphy s i ci an .

Suppo s e howe ve r that the s i de of metaphy s i c s be

, ,
as i s
tt i n g ve ry l i ghtly emph a s i zed i n the m e r e de s cri pti on s
of s ci enti c p s ychology It i s s ti l l s carc e ly po s s i bl e to avoi d
.

i ncrea s i n g th e empha s i s upon th i s s i de when the m ore

i mportant an d m ore truly s ci enti c functi on of the psy
ch o l og i s t i s attempted ; thi s con s i s t s of course i n e x pl a
, ,

nati o n o f the fact s For to ex pl ai n i s to s h ow on what

.

cond iti on s a n d i n wh at regular s equence s a n d a s i m pl i c a t

, ,

i ng what acti vi tie s and relati ons on the part of other bei ngs ,
 58 P S Y C H OLO GY A ND T H E P H I LO S O P HY OF MI N D
the p s ych i c fact s actu ally occur Or to s a y the s ame thi ng .
,

in othe r word s to expl ai n i s to s how why I th i nk , or f e e l ,

,

o r des i re or w i l l , i n thi s way rather than i n s ome othe r

,
.

It i s ulti mately to propound s ome acceptabl e theory re s pect

, ,

ing the nature and devel opment of th i s I t o wh i ch a ll
t h e acti vi ti e s Of thi nki ng fee l i ng de s i ri ng and w i ll i ng are
, , ,

as s i gned Suppo s e , then that the i nve s ti gator of mental

.
,

phenomena i s gre atl y capti vate d by the re cent notable

tri umph s of p s ych o phys i cs and phys i ol ogi cal p sychol ogy H e
-
.

th e r e fore det e rmi ne s to dev ote h i m s el f t o the el uci dati on of

the phe n omena of co n s c i ou s ne s s i n such ways only as seem
t o prom i s e mo s t of ta n gi bl e and deni tely veri ab le re s ult s .

Thi s means , i n h i s thought th at the p sych i c fact s the , ,

k nown phen omena of consci ousne s s w ith whi ch al one all

psychol ogi cal s ci ence take s i ts start are to be e xplai ne d ,
.

s ol ely by i nv e s ti gati ng the characte r of the e xternal sti mul i ,

th e h i s tol ogi cal structure and phy s i ol ogi cal functi ons of the
e n d orga n s o r m ore parti cularly of the cereb ral ce ntre s an d
-
,

tract s wh i ch a ff ord cond iti on s occa s i on s o r cause s of the

, , ,

s everal parti cul ar cla s s es of fact s B ut s urely e xpl anati on .

, ,

o f thi s s ort ca n n ot d i s pen s e with the Observat i on an d c e r t i

cati o n at r s t ha n d of the very fact s to b e e xpl ai n ed ; an d

, ,

the s e the ve ry nature of p s ych ologi cal s c ie nce de n e s as

phenomena of co n sci ousne ss .

M 13 s el f consci
7
ou s ne-
ss can give u s i mmed i ate knowl
e dge o f p s ychol ogi cal facts kn owl edge by di rect ob s erva
,

ti on that i s of th e facts of con s ci ou s ne s s a s s uch H e re

, , ,
.
,

agai n e merge s the di sti nct dange r and we bel i eve the
, , , ,

i nevi tabl e nece s s i ty of a s s umi ng s ome k i nd of v i rtual ly

v m e t a ph y s i ca l hypothe s i s regard i n g thi s Sel f whi ch s o
m i n gl e s w ith al l the p sych i c fact s B ut even i f the i nve s ti .

g a t i on proceed w ith the dete rmi nati on to regard the phe

nomen a a s m er e phenomena ( of n o m i nd and t o n o mi nd ), ,

what s hal l be s ai d of the nece s s ity for metaphy s i c s o f s ome

sort when detai l i ng the compl i cated physi ol ogi cal and phy s i ca l
 P S Y C HOLO G Y AN D TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 59

conditi on s on wh i ch the s e phe nomena depe nd ? Th i s n e c e s

s i ty i s mo s t ob v i ou s a n d i mperati ve i n that k i nd of p sy

ch ol og y namely , cerebral psychol ogy wh i ch s ome Of i ts

m ore ardent and u n r e e ct i n g advocates have de cl ared to be
the only s ci e nti c p s ychology For here nothi ng can be .

more vai n and i l lu s ory ye s even more unfai r an d mi s ,

lead i ng i n a bl ameworthy way than to cl ai m that such a

form of p sychol ogi cal s ci ence can be bui lt upon the basi s of
a non metaphy s i cal phenomenism In s ayi ng thi s we we l l
-
.
,

kno w what i s customary But i t i s precisely agai nst what

.

i s customary that the pre s ent protest i s made A nd n ot a .

word of th e charge s i mpl i e d i n the forego i n g sentences i s

unju s ti able ; not a word therefore w i l l need to be retracted
, , .

A s c i en t
ic
p sy c holog y w hi ch ex
p l a ins kw no n
p sy chi c f a cts by l
a str i ct cor r e la ti on of the m wi th kw
no n cer e br a l f a c ts both "
c l a sse s o f f a c ts bei ng u n d e r s t oo d li k
a em e r e p hen om en a
as l
wi thou t a ny m etap hy si cs wha te ver n ot on ly n ever ha s be en

e s ta bli she d , bu t f r om the ve r y n a tu r e o f t he ca s e it n e ver ca n

j

g
r
be e s ta bli s he d .

The psych i c facts may i ndee d be k nown as facts demand

i ng e xpl anati on But the corre lated o r pre c on d i t i on i n g or
.
,
-
,

occa s i oning ce r e bral fact s a r e , and al way s mu s t remai n ,

nothi ng more than h i ghly c on je ctural happeni ngs i n an ,

i nferred or assu m ed e nti ty wh i ch can n ev e r b e d i rectly

,

Ob s e rved by e ithe r e xternal or i nternal me an s Or s uppose .

,

on e i nsi sts upon culti vati ng p s ychol ogi cal s ci e n ce s i mply a s

a corr e l ati on i n u n iform m odes of s equenc e of two s e ri e s

, ,

of phenomena Th e parti cular seri e s Of phe n omena whi ch

.

are a ss umed to stan d for those change s i n the brai n that

a fford the e xpl a n atory cond iti on s of the known phenomen a
of con s ci ou s ne ss can neve r be regar d ed without metaphy s i cal ,

as s umpti on s a s anyth i n g but othe r phenomena of th e s ame

,

p sychol ogi st s con s ci ou s ne ss

M or e ove r these parti cul ar
.
,

phenom e n a on whi ch i s l ai d the s tres s of expl a i n in g su c h

,

wonderful phenomena a s are the k nown p sych i c facts , con

 60 P S Y C HOLOGY AN D TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
i t of a few i mperfect and wofully meagre percepti on s
s s ,

al way s p ost f a ctu m a n d al most al way s p ost m or tem , p i e ced

o u t by crude co n jectures as to other po s s i ble pe rcepti o n s .

A nd th e con j ecture s admi t of future ver i cati on a s facts

on l
y i f we coul d perce i ve what we neve r have perce i ved and ,

never can hope to perce i ve .

M ore co n c e rn i ng the ab s urdi ty of the cl ai m that a s ci e n c e

o f p sychol ogy can eve r be bu i lt u p by e s tabl ish in g corre

l a t i on s between two cl a ss e s of known phenomena on e of ,

whi ch S h al l cons i s t of brai n s tate s w ithout any metaphy s i cs

-

whatever w i ll be s ai d later on I t i s enough here to return

,
.

to the i ndubitabl e truth that whe n spe ak i ng of ce rebral

,

cond iti on s or ante cedent s o r con comi tant s a s expl anatory

, , ,

of psychi c facts nobody mea n s m e r e phenomena

,
N o a dv o
.

cate of phy s i ol ogi cal p sychol ogy re ally s uppo s e s that he i s

contri buti ng anyth i n g to a n atural s c i e nce of p sych ol ogy
w i thout mak ing u s e of na i ve an d u ni n s tructed metaphy s i c s .

The cl ai m to cu l ti vate p s ychol ogy w i thout thi s m uch of

metaphy s i c s can scarce ly b e met t l y wi th anythi n g better

than the charge of i ncon s i stency or i n s i ncerity What .

every student of ph ys i ol ogi cal p sych ol ogy actua l ly aecom

p l i s h es i n advanci ng h i s s ci en ce d ep e nd s at every step upon

i nferen ce s . The s e i nfe rence s are permeate d through and

thro u gh with metaphy s i cal hypothe s e s a n d th e y l ead toward
,

the hope of a k nowl edge that mu s t ever walk l argely by

fai th They concern real bei ng s i n whi ch change s wh ol ly
.
,

ou t of power to put themsel ve s i n evi de n ce a s m e r e phe

n om en a , are a ss umed to be tak i ng pl a c e .

To a ss um e the po s s ibi l i ty o f cerebral p s ych ol ogy as a

natural s ci e n c e wh ol ly w i thout metaphys i c s i s therefore
, ,

an ab s urd ity Th e i nsuf ci ency but by no mean s th e ab s urd

.
,

i ty of the clai m to culti vate psych o phy s i c s and e x pe r i

,
-

m e ntal p s ychol ogy wi thout metaphys i cal s tandpoi nt s or

m e t a phy s ical a s s umpti ons can be made equal ly clear H ere .
,

however, there ex i s t , on both si de s, s o t o speak a seri es of ,

 P S Y C HOLOGY AN D TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 61

phenom e n a wh i ch can be k nown a s phe n omena and wh i ch ,

can be comp a r e d a s s uch For e xampl e : In d i s coveri ng and

.

te s ti ng the l aw s Of col or m i xture of s te re o s copi c vi s i on or

-
, ,

of i llu s i on s of vi s ual percepti o n a s e ri e s of s o cal l e d p hy si ca l

-
,

h e n om en a can be arrange d wh i ch i n some sort are the

p , ,

ob s erve d and w e l l kn own i mmed i ate antece dent s , or con

-

c o m i t a n t s o f a s eri e s of co n n e cted p sy chi c f a c ts

,
The s ame .

thi n g i s tru e of i nve s ti gat i on s undertake n i n the i ntere s t s

of W e be r s l aw ; or of a n y othe r d i s puted p ri nci pl e i n

p sycho phy s i c s i n the narrowe r me an i ng Of thi s l atter te rm

-
,
.

On t h e c ontrary no d i s cu s s i on of a phys i ol ogi cal or cerebral

,

bas i s for the empi ri cal pri nci ple must be admi tted , u nl e s s we

are prepared to let ou r ph e nomen a s l i p over i nto the
regi on wher e we need a ss ume d entiti es to s erve as the i r

bear e r s a s the
,
re al s ub s tance s i n wh i ch they are
i nf erred or conjectured t o take pl ace .

N or can su ch a conti nu ou s s eri e s of phy s i cal phen omen a

as woul d s erve to e stabl i s h ev e n i n the mo s t l i mite d way , ,

what M Flournoy h a s called the p s ycho phy s i cal pri n

.
-

c i pl e o f parallel i s m be gai ned wi t h out depe n dence upon
,

the ord i nary common s e n s e rea l i sm a s at lea s t a te nabl e ,

-

work i ng metaphy s i cal h yp oth es I s For a s eve ry on e knows .

,

who h a s any practi cal acquai ntance w i th what real ly takes

place i n co n ducti n g such researches th e ph y s i cal s eri e s i s ,

never gi ven a s conti nuou s i t i s neve r known i n any s uch

s hap e a s that i t can be pl aced paral lel to the psych i cal
s eri e s i n the form Of actually ob s erve d phenomen a
,
As a .

s e r i e s e ven that i s to s a y i t a l way s con s i s t s very largely of

, ,

in ferred or conj e cture d cha n ge s i n real b e i ngs who s e e x i st ,

en ce a nd act i vi ti e s mu s t be brought i nto con s ci ou s n ess and ,

k ept i n con s ci ou s ne s s i n orde r to b e compared w ith the

,

p aral le l psychi c s eri e s i n a me taphy s i cal rathe r than i n

,

a m e r e ly ph en omenal w ay N or doe s thi s di s turb the pr ac .

t i s e d i nvesti gator e xperi me n tally of psych i c phenomena

, , .

For he i s not th i nki ng at al l about the po ss i bil ity of estab

62 P S Y C HOLOGY AN D TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
l i sh i n g p sych o phy s i c s as theoreti cal phenomeni s m ; he i s
-

rather taki n g the ordi nary common s e n s e metaphy s i c s i nto -

hi s sci enti c re s earch e s i n an uncriti cal but wh ol ly ju sti

,

abl e way Nor doe s he begi n t o cry out agai n s t metaphysi c s

.

i n general a s the S poi l er of p s ychol ogy or to pl ay the part

,

,

of a Janu s showi n g h i s teeth at specu lati ve hypothe s e s ,

i n s te a d of endeavori ng hi mself consci ou s ly and cri ti cal ly to

ad j u s t h i s own metaphy s i cs to the empi ri c all y determi ned
fact s .

The nece s s i ty of e mpl oyi ng s ome meta p hysi cal s tandpoi nt s

and metaphy s i cal a ss umpti ons i n the pursu i t of s ci enti c
p sychol ogy as e x pl anatory become s s ti l l cl earer when the
comparati vel y narrow elds of phy s i o logi cal and p sych o .

phy s i cal i nvesti gati on are left beh i nd , an d a return i s made

t o the con s i derati on of the l arge r and m ore comprehen s i ve
d omai n of gene ral p s ychol ogy I n th i s d omai n we e ncounter
.

the probl ems of knowl edge of s elf consci ousnes s of thought

,
-
, ,

of ethi c al s enti ments an d i deas and eve n of the ori gi n an d

,

devel opment of human b el i ef i n real ity Indeed what .
,

are the s e s o call ed metaphys i cal hypothe s e s them s elve s

-
,

what are s o cal le d M ateri al i s m Ideal i s m M oni s m D u al i s m

-
, , , ,

an d all the mo s t e l aborate sy s tem s of S pecul ati ve a n d r e e c

ti ve thi nk i ng al l the we i rd i dea s , mo s t ab s tract a n d remote
,

from e mpi ri cal data but p s ycho s es demand i ng treatment

,

at the h and s of p s ychol ogy ? Thi s treatment mu s t i ndeed , ,

be u ndertaken from and con ne d to the p sych ol ogi c a l

, ,

standpoi nt unl e s s we frankl y and i ntel l i gently p a s s ove r

,

from the el d of p s ychol ogy to th e more wi de and al l

e mbraci ng d omai n of ph i los ophy But i n th e very e xpl an a .

ti on of metaphy s i c s i t s el f of the same metaphy s i cs wh i ch

,

helps , as wel l a s of that whi ch spoi l s the e mpi ri cal sci ence
Of p s ych ol ogy thi s s ci ence mu s t hav e i t s s a y M etaphy s i cs
,
.
,

c ons i dere d as phenomenon of c on s ci ou s ne s s i s a p sych ol ogi ,

cal problem M etaphy s i cal hypot hese s are su cces s i on s of

.

psycho s e s demandi ng to be fai thful ly described and the n

expl ai ned .
 P S Y C H OLOGY AN D TH E PH I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 63

N ow for the expl anati on

,
of
many p s ych i c fact s an d ten
de n c i e s i f we may s o s pea k
, , i n the on owi n g stream Of
con sci ou s ne s s even when on e re mai n s fai thful to th c d i s t i n c
,

t i ve ly p sychol ogi cal poi n t of vi e w s ome ontol ogi cal theory ,

c a n by n o mea n s be regarded as u s el e ss o r i nsi gni cant .

The se fact s too , l ik e al l p s ychi c facts must be not only

, ,

de s cribed a s they occu r but al s o e xpl ai n e d , i f po s s ibl e i n

, ,

al l that ful ne s s Of real i ty whi ch bel ongs t o the e xperi en ce

of th e human race H ere , t oo i t i s the total psychosi s or
.
, ,

the trend i n devel opment of the enti re m e ntal l i fe wh i ch ,

demand s to be e xpl ai ned But wh o woul d ventu re to deny

.

V
that what men me an by s ayi ng I know i nvolv e s a net -

work Of ontologi cal hypothe s e s ? The p sychol ogi cal a naly s i s

of any s tate of S O cal le d k nowle d ge of any of tho s e p s ych o s es
-
,

properly de s cribed by the a ffirmati on I k now s how s that ,

al l k nowl edge i mpl i cate s real ity envi s aged i nferred bel i eved
, , ,

i n w e d o not n ow stop to i nqui re a s to the manne r of

,

i mpl i cati on E s peci ally i s thi s true and obv i ous of eve ry
.

act Of s o call ed se lf knowledge ; for th e p s ychol ogi st i s

- -

si mpl y i gnori n g what everybody m ean s by the word u nl ess ,

he understands the re al ity Of the s e l f k n o w i n g and the self e

k nown the on e Sel f to be i nvol ved as an i mmedi ate datum

, ,

of experi e n ce And . to tak e anoth er e xampl e who for a

moment thi nk s of describi ng what tak es pl ace when he tugs
hard at a s tone and at last feels i t gi v i ng way before h i s
,

c or ts,
or cl i mb s h owever s l owly an d we ari s ome ly the
, ,

mountai n s si de a s a correl ati on between two s e ri es of

,

phenomena whi ch needs n o metaphy s i cal hypothe s i s of a

real be i ng work i ng e ffects and produci ng change s i n a
worl d o f real be i ng s rel ated t o i t s el f ?
On e mi ght e ven be di s po s ed t o ask What bette r explan a ,

t ory hypothe s i s f or th e p s ychi c fact of convi cti on or bel i ef i n

r eal ity can be gi ven than i ts own ontol ogi cal veri ty ? What
better e xpl anati on of the knowl edge or bel ie f of me n th at
the I whi ch thi nks feel s , and wi lls really e x i sts , and i s th e
,
 64 P S Y C HOLOGY AN D TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
re al subject of the s e cha n gi ng p sychoses than the m e ta ph ysi ,

cal hypothe s i s that th i s i s s o ? What bette r e xplanati on of

me n s convi cti on s that they are cau s e s an d acti ve agents

, ,

an d work eff e ct s than the metaphysi cal hyp othe s i s that
,

th i s i s s o ? To be sure , one s courage a s t o the future of

cerebral p s ychol ogy, even afte r its expecte d C opern i cus or

L avoi s i er has ari s en , togethe r w i th one s great fai ntne ss of

heart a s on e l ook s ove r the a ss u re d re s ult s of our present

attai nments i n th i s l i ne of s c i e nce m ay wel l make on e ,

wary of metaphy s i cal hypothese s i n ge neral But a s to how .

psychi c facts calle d fact s of k n ow le d e are ever to be e x

g
plai ne d w ithout s ome k i nd of a n ontol ogi cal the ory o r con
v i c t i o n , we n d i t i mpo s s i bl e to form even the most s hadowy

concepti on .

I n ge neral , s o far from hol d ing i t to be true that

m etaphy s i cs h as n oth i ng to d o w ith the expl anati on s of
p s ych ol ogy we thi nk that i n thi s s ci enc e pre emi nently
, ,
-
,

s pecul ati ve hypotheses of the ri ght order whe n rightly ,

empl oyed th row a ood of l i ght upon many of the m o s t

,

V i mportant and yet mo s t ob s cure of the facts For after all .

, ,

th e n a l a i m of p sy c h ol og y howeve r i t may stri ve to start

,

wi th and keep clo s e to and eve r return upon the fact s i s to ,

u n d e r st a n d t he n a tu r e and d e ve l op me n t, i n i ts r e la t i on s to

ot he r bei ng s, f
o tha t un i k
i d
f bei ng whi ch w e ca ll the
ue
q n o

S ou l or bl i n d A nd thi s i s what al l , except a few ove r

.

t i mi d p s ychol ogi st s who are morbi dly afrai d of the s corn Of

rphys i cal s ci en c e and rab i dly antagoni s ti c to metaphy s i cs i n
p s ych ol ogy , real ly bel i e ve Eve n the s e p s ych ol ogi s t s can
.

scarcely wri te a h alf d ozen pages upon any of th e problem s

-

su gg e sted by the hi ghe r and m ore co m pl e x form s o f psy

cho s e s , or d i s cuss the nature of p s ych ol ogy and i t s relati on
t o metaphys i cs , w ithout sh owi ng th at they really bel i eve the
same th i ng .

Thi s whol e subject will be m ade clearer especiall y i n its ,

broader and more s i gnicant aspects by a brief di s cussion of

/

/ ,
 PS Y C H OLO GY A ND TH E P H I LO S O P H Y OF M IN D 65

the nature of philo s ophy and of the relation i n which it stands

to p sychology a s the de s criptive a n d explanatory s cience o f
1
the phenomena of mental life It i s n ot an ea sy matt e r to .

de ne philo s ophy o r to s ta te i ts relation to the particular

,

s cience s ; e s pecially pe rhap s i n the s e later day s when the

, ,

s cie nce s have attempted on the o n e hand so s uccessfu l ly to , ,

de ne them s elve s and yet on the other hand have reached

, , ,

o u t indenitely in every direction and ta ken all po s s ible form s

o f experience u nder the protection of their meth od a n d i ts

exaction s Indee d s o l ong as on e merely con s ults hi s tory

.
,

i n an uncritical way o r merely cite s an d compare s the great ,

authoritie s i n s cien ce and philosophy , one gets only a confu s ed

conception as to what the latter di s cipline aims to accompli s h .

By a mi xed u se of hi s torical critici s m and analysi s of the

content and aim s of the particular sci ence s together with a ,

j udicious recognition of the dee pe r need s an d ultimate a s pira

tions of hu man rea s on a fai rly sati s factory re s ult may be ,

obtained A t any r a te we may learn enough to be of real

.
,

a s s i s tance in ou r present pur s ui t .

The hi s tory of rational progres s shows that men have

alway s been di s po s ed to m ore o r le s s of reective inqu i ry
concerning ce rt ai n problems Of knowledge of the be i n g of ,

things of the nature o f themselve s and of the idea l s of c on

, ,

d uct P hilosophy
. if by it the fruit s of s uch re ective i nqui ry
be meant i s an older and m ore per m anent intere s t than
science Vague and un satisfactory as were its conception an d
.

pursuit among the ancient G reek s the conception and pur s uit ,

o f what we n ow under s tand by

the s cience s were yet more
v a gue and un s ati s factory The pre s e n t alleged lack of i n .

te r es t i n philo sophy and the relatively great amount Of ,

i nterest i n s cience are more s peciou s than real A s we h ave

, .

already indicated the particular s cien ce s are themselves f ull

,

of the mo s t intere s ting an d ab so rbing s peculative te nets .

1 On t hi ubj s s e ct m ore i n deta il , see th e a u th r

o

s

I u
ntr od cti on to Phil oso
ph y,
"
c h pt r i iv
a e s .
-
.
66 P S Y C HOLO G Y AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M I ND

U nder the gui s e of ex orci s t s of philosophy they have absorbe d

no little of i ts s urplu s capital and have thu s set up in the
,

busine ss of philo s ophy , while d i s pl aying the S ig n

Thi s ,

te mpl e i s dedicated to science only ,over their d oor s .

Two o r three thing s relative to the restle ss l o n ging s and

perpetually new ventures o f human reason are howeve r , ,

tolerably clear M en long for and perpetually s eek s u ch an

.

acquaintance with what they are plea s ed to call reality a s

shall with s tand all the a ss ault s of critical and s cepti cal i n
v e s t i g a t i on
. Science cannot profess its devotion to tr u th with
on e breath although uttering i t s scorn for metaphy s ic s with
,

the next breath without manife s ting thi s s ame longing and
,

q ue s t o f the hu man mi nd . E ven the word truth h a s n o
meaning wh ate ver e x cept with reference to the i mplied con
c e pti on of reality ; and upon this poi nt the n a i v e utt e rances

o f common s peech are a s s ugge s tive a s anything can w e ll be

Tell me truly
,
i s it re ally s o ? Fo r the conception o f
truth a s an a scertainment of the mind is uni ver s ally held
, ,

to i mpli cate the correlated extra mental being and e xtra men
- -

tal tran s actio n s to which men thi n k the word real i s mo s t
appropriat e ly applied In s pite Of th e reiterated prote s tatio n s
.

Of certain d evote e s of phy s i cal s cie n ce that all th ey a s kfor

,

or clai m to nd i s the uni form collocation s and s equence s

of phe n ome n a ,
and th e m a thematical formul a s which mo s t
nearly ex pre ss th e s e collocation s and s equence s thi s desire ,

for and a ss umption o f a k nowledge of reality cannot be r e

moved from the body of phy s ical s cience it s elf To remove it .

would rende r s cie n ce no longe r what the very word s ig n i e s ,

a sy s tem of k n owledges ; it would convert s cience into the

in dividual d reamer s half con s i stent d ream
- .

Only a slight acqu aint a nce with the aim s and the aecom
l i s h m e n ts of the particular s ciences i s nece ss ary h owever to
p , ,

kno w that thei r entire s tructure i s underlai d and i n ter pen e

tr a te d with a s s umptio n s which a
,
s s cience s they take
, no pai n s

to verify and little pain s to under stand Eve n the primary .

 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 67

meaning of many of the s e a ss umption s a s they are made b v ,

common con s e n t of the s tudent s of the s e s cience s i s by no ,

mean s al way s clear Their more ulti mate import i s of cour s e

.
, ,

uniformly left ou t o f consideration unle ss s cience turn s itself

,

i n to s peculative an d reective thi n ki n g ; that i s unle s s s cie n ce ,

r e main s no longer science but become s philosophy A nd when

, .

we compare a s s umption with a s s umption and e s pecially per ,

h a ps t h e a s s umption s of the s cience s of man with the a s s u m p

,

tion s of the s cie n ce s of nature the Ob s curity deepen s i n to that

,

darkne s s which belo n g s to the mo s t e xtreme confu s ion s and

co n tradiction s o f huma n thought H ere then i s the region
.
, ,

o f d ark e st night fro m which i s sue s ho wever vai n o n e may

,

thi n k i t wil l co n ti n u e to be the perpetual cry f o r help from

,

the analytic and critic a l arm of philo s ophy Eve r t o s trive .

and only the more s e riou sly and eagerly the more dif cult the
ta s k appear s and the farther fro m pre s ent f u l lm e n t for a
profound a n d comprehe n s ive knowled ge of the s e a ss umption s ,
and for a reconciliation of their mo s t Obviou s an d mo s t per
s i s tent co n tradiction s i s the denite and permanent ta sk s e t
, ,

by i ts o wn nature before the rea s on of man It h a s not

, .

u n aptly been s poken of as a ta sk belon ging to the progres s ive

self k nowl e dge of rea s on itself
-
.

Y et agai n , all knowl e dge psy ch ol ogI ca lly con s idered a p

, ,

pear s not o nly a s e s s entially an a s sumed commerce of mind

with real being but al s o a s a developme n t i n self u n i c a tI on
,
-
.

Fo r the i nd ividual man all growth i n ordinary kn owl e dge

i n su ch knowledge a s i s nece ss ary s imply to s ecure po ss e ss ion

of common s en se s o called and to e s cape the unenviabl e
-
,

reputation of fooli shne ss or idiocy i s a u nication of i nd i

vid u al e xperience s i nto on e experience into experience a s a ,

rational whole . B ut the particul ar s ci en ce s ad vance s till

furthe r the proce s s Of u ni cation along the line s which
b e lo n g to them a n d which render them p a r ti cu la r For thi s
, .

purpo s e they relatively i s ol ate a certai n large r or s maller

group of s imila r a n d con n ected phenom e na and expend upon ,
 68 P S Y C HOLO G Y AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
the m all their power s of Ob s ervation a nd i nfere nce Thus .

chemi s try regard s certain phenomena f o r i ts o wn purpose s of

uni cation ; t h us biology deal s with the one group of ob s cu re
and compl ex phenome n a from which we derive the abs tract
conception of life .

But the m ore the parti cul ar sci ence s are pu rsued i n a c om
prehen s i ve and penetrati n g way the m ore obv i ous be com e the
,

numerous an d s ubtle con necti on s wh i ch e x i s t between them .

N ot on e of them can the n be cl ai med to be parti cul ar i n

any such s ense of the word a s to i mply that i t deal s with
phenomena whi ch are n ot i n s eparably l i nked i n by objecti ve ,

l a ws and by mental pri nci pl es w i th the phen omen a of those

,

othe r sci ences wh i ch neverthel e s s , bear d iff erent names

, .

On the contrary they can al l be arranged however roughly ,

, ,

s o as to S how h ow th ey bui ld them s el ve s u p on e u pon a n

othe r ; and how they al l al i ke i mp l y s ome h igher and m ore

perfect un ity f or that re al worl d to wh i ch al l the groups of
phenomena be l ong Thus , f o r example modern physi ol ogy e x
.
,

ten ds i tself i h the form cal led general over the phen omen a
, ,

of pl ant l i fe a s wel l a s of an i mal l i fe ; m odern chemi s try i n ,

the form c al led phy s i ol ogi cal reache s u p i nto b i ol ogy ;
,

lm ode r n mole cul ar phy s i c s s tri ve s t o reduce under m ore

d e n ite mathemati cal formulas as dete rmi n i ng the chang
,

j i n g rel ati ons of the mol ecul es the phen

,
omen a of che mi s try

and of phy s i ol ogy ; modern cereb r a l phys i ol ogy and gene ral
n erve phy s i ol ogy i s s carcely content with th e po s iti on of
-

h and mai d to psych ol ogy but woul d gl adly turn he r forme r

,

mi s tre s s qu i te ou t o f the hou s ehol d of m i nd ; and modern

p sych ol ogy i s s howi ng to good purpo s e , that the vi ew whi ch
,

regarde d m i cro organi s m s a s ex pl i cabl e w ith re s pect to the

-
,

rea s on s for the i r behavi or i n te rms o f und i ff erenti ated

,

b i oplasmi c s tu ff need s h elp everywhere from the a ssu m p
,

ti on of a p sy chi c l i fe i n e ven the small e s t and si mple s t
l i vi ng form s M eanwh i l e we nd the sc i enti s t s the m
.
,

sel ves turn i ng i nto ph i l o s opher s of the m o s t h i gh and dry a - -

 P S Y C HOLO G Y AND TH E P H ILO S O P HY OF M IN D 69

r i or i s ort
They c ome forward vi rtu ally t o mai ntai n that
p .

thei r own recently d iscovere d pri nci ple s and eve n s ome of ,

thei r mo s t doubtful hypothe s e s mu s t be al lowed the supre m

,

acy of i ndubitable and eternal truths They are e ve n ready .

to d i s pute , on the ba s i s of the i r d is coveri e s , al l the e th i c o

rel i gi ou s conv i cti on s that have hi therto been mo s t c omfort
i ng to the heart h owever unsati s factory to the i ntelle ct of
, ,

man H ence some ju s ti cati on for the s arcasm of C lerk

.

M axwel l that already two of the N ewtoni a n pri nci pl e s of al l

mechani c s have acqu i red an a p r i or i ch aracter ; an d that
given a s ufc i ent l ap s e of ti me the th i rd wi l l d oubtle s s
,

become a p r i or i al s o .

Th e very growth o f k nowle dge then call s attenti on i n a

, ,

forceful w a y to tho s e need s of human rea s on from wh i ch

phi los ophy eve r S pri ngs afre sh and whi ch i t eve r howe ver
,

vainly stri ves to s ati s fy M r Spence r has we l l s ai d that

. .

s ci ence i s only the parti al uni cati on of knowledge ; but
th e parti cular s ci ence s them s elve s when c on s i dered wi th
,

reference to the rel ati ons they s ustai n toward each othe r ,

ex c ite a de mand for the more complete un i cati on of
k nowl edge I t i s th i s complete un i cati on of k now l edge
.

whi ch s ays Mr S pencer i s ph i l os ophy The rathe r i s i t

, .
,
.

tru e that toward thi s goal re e cti ve thi nk i ng eve r s tri ve s ,

though never wi th more than a parti al succe s s ; i t i s thi s

wh i ch con s titute s the n al ai m of re a s o n a s i t i s expre s s ed
i n al l the current s y s tem s of ph i lo s ophy H ere i t i s .
,

then that the s yntheti c arm of ph i l o s oph i cal d i s ci pl i ne i s

,

stretched ou t wi th an O ffe r of he l p toward t h e parti cul ar

s ci ences But thi s hel p i t cannot render cann ot e ve n
. ,

O ffe r i ntell igently without itself comprehend ing the pri nci
,

ples of the parti cul ar sc ience s and con stantly a ck

,
n o w l e dg

i ng i ts depende n ce u pon them Y e t by beh avi ng i t s e l f

.

ari ght ph i l os ophy can d o a work wh i ch the parti cul ar

,

s ci ence s can n e ithe r properly underta k e n or t l y acc ompl i sh .

I t nd s i t s own materi al n ot only i n those assumpti ons

,
 70 P S Y C HOLO GY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IND
whi ch unde rl i e the parti cul ar sci e n ce s and t o whi ch i t mu s t
i t s elf gi ve a criti cal and yet conci l i at ory treatm e nt but al s o ,

i n tho s e most gene ral pri n ci pl e s whi ch the s e s c i e n ce s h ave

d i s covere d a s actual ly e xempl i ed i n the worl d of mi nd s and
o f th i n gs W i th al l th i s materi al before i t ph i l o s ophy can
.
,

con t i nue bravely to attem pt the d i s charge of i t s own s upreme

fu ncti on It can gi ve a s pecul ati ve u n i ty ( sp e cu la ti ve n ot
.
,

becau s e i t i s ba r e s pecu lati on d i s regardful of fact but be cau s e ,

i t i s the hi ghe s t s yntheti c handl i n g of the fact s after they a r e

grou ped i n a prel i m i nary way , unde r s ub ord i nate pri nci ple s)
,

t o the worl d a s k n own by th e mi nd of m an .

In bri e f then , i t i s the work of ph i l o s ophy by a n aly s i s

, ,

an d cri ti ci s m s o t o d i s c ove r and s hap e the pri nci pl e s of the

,

parti cular s ci ence s a s that they sh al l be s t s e rve a s materi al

for real i z i ng i ts own nal a i m ; and th i s nal ai m i s the
j
s upreme s y n the s i s of reas o n the hi ghest and most complete
'
,

uni cati on of knowledge i tsel f Or t o s a y the s ame truth

.
,

i n a d i ff erent way P hi l osop hy s e ek

,
s a u n i ta r
y f
c on ce ti on o
p
t he r ea l wor ld t ha t sha l l be f r ee d, as f ar as
p oss i bl e, f r om in
ter n a l con tr a di c t i on s a n d ba se d u
p on a l l th e f a c ts o f n a tu r e a n d
of hu m a n l if e B u t i na s mu ch as its bu s i n e s s i s n ot s pe cu
.
,

l a t i v e l y t o c on s truct an ab s tract or i de al world but rathe r ,

to u n derstan d the worl d a s i t reall y i s th e pri m ary work Of ,

ascertai ni n g the fact s and of groupi n g them i n w e l l orde re d

,
-

and veri able gene ral i zati on s be l o n g s to the v a ri o u s par

,

t i c u l a r s ci ence s Thi s i s merel y to s a y that the m or e com

.

p l e t e u ni cati on of ph i l o s op h y repo s e s upo n th e b a s i s of the

parti al u n i ca ti on s of the parti cul ar s ci enc e s On ly i n thi s .

way can phi l o s ophy come i nto a n d ke e p with i n the n e c e s

, ,

s ary an d con s tant cl o s e contact w ith a ctual i ty But s i n ce i t .

ri s e s far above the s ci ence s toward a un i cati on that i s

com le te i t make s bol d to frame s ome concepti on of a U n i ty
p ,

o f al l R eal ity i n the l i ght o f wh i ch each of the m ore par

,

t i cu l a r pri n ci pl e s may s ub s equently b e the bette r u nder

stood For that unde r stand i n g of the worl d a s i t re ally
.
 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IND 71

is wh i ch al one w i l l s ati s fy human rea s on i s n o mere gather

i ng of facts n or a mere groupi ng of fact s a s s uch under
, , ,

formul a s more or l e ss approxi mately e x act To und e r s tand ( .

the world rati onally we mu s t kn ow i ts i mport ; ful ly to "

,

u nderstand even the facts w e mu s t know thei r si g n i cance

,

cri t i cal ly to understand the a ss umpti o n s a n d ge neral i ze d

experi ence s be longi ng to the parti cul ar group s of phen omena ,
'

we mu s t be abl e to v i ew them i n the l i gh t of uni ve rsal ly

appl i cabl e idea s .

For s uch rea s on s i n bri ef we have elsewhere de ne d

, ,

ph i lo s ophy a s the progre ss i ve rati onal sys tem of tho s e
a s sumpti on s and general i zati on s whi ch bel o n g to the pa r t i c
ular sci e nce s all regard e d a s formi ng a U n ity of R e al ity
,

.

P hi l osophy th e n i s nece ss ari ly ontologi cal i n i ts ai m ; i t ;I

, ,

nece s sari ly i nclud e s metaphy s i c s To d e n y th i s i s to refu s e

.

to admi t th e po ss i bi l i ty of p hi losop hy a s d i s ti ngu i s hed from ,

s cience ,
at al l A n d even sci e nce a s has repeate dly been
.
,

s hown already ca n n ot d i s ti ngui s h i t s elf howeve r n a I v el y

, , ,

from mere day dream i ng w i thout cl ai mi ng t o be ontol ogi cal

-
.

A nd now the m ore i nti mate and pecul i ar i ndeed the

?
,

qu ite u n i q u e re l ati on i n wh i ch the sci ence of p sychol ogy
s tand s to phi l o s ophy may bri e y be made cle ar Psy
, ,
.

c h ol ogy i s a sort Of uni ve r s al prop aedeuti c s to ph i lo s ophy .

By thi s somethi ng m ore i s me ant than i s ordi nari ly under

stood by the term prop ae d e uti c s For i t i s n ot s i mply a s
.

a prel i mi nary di s ci pl i ne le ad ing up to the s ucce s s ful s tudy

of phi l o s ophy that the s ci ence of p s ychol ogy hol d s its place
,

i n any wel l arranged s y s tem of edu cati o n

-
It i s al s o true .

that i n N ature s s chool of reecti ve thi nki ng where the

,

probl em s are gi ven ou t to the unfoldi n g power s of r e ason by

that hand wh i ch gui des the order o f rati o n al d e vel opment a ,

connecti o n b e tween the two i s s tri ctly mai ntai n ed Tho s e .

probl em s of bei n g and of conduct, re ecti on over whi ch h a s

for u s no m e r e ly s p e cul ati ve i n te re s t but s o m e s ol u ti on of,

whi ch i s nece ss ary i n ord e r to l i ve the l i fe of reason at all

, ,
 72 P S Y C H OLO G Y A N D T H E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
them s elves s ta rt forth i nevi tably from the reecti ve s tudy of
ou r o wn mental l i fe . It i s i n the e ffort to expl ai n ou r s elve s
( t o our s el ves that we most i nte ll i gently and per s i s tently
l d e m a n d s ome e xplanati on of the w orl d o f th i ng s and of
othe r m i nd s .

Furthermore a s coul d b e sh own w ith al mo s t i n de ni te

,

detai l and array of convi nci ng fact s every pri nci pal psy
,

c h o l og i c a l problem l ead s up to an d l ay s h eavi ly u pon the

,

very heart of rea s on i t s el f a numbe r of ph i l o s oph i cal prob

l ems most i mportant and mo s t profou n d .

In vai n doe s the p sych ol ogi s t start h i s sci enti c rese arch e s
i nto the phenomena Of con s ci ou s ne ss as s uch with the, ,

determ i nati on to s top s hort when e ver the pur s ui t of the s e

re s earches s ee m s l i kely t o lead hi m over i nto the debatable
regi on s of phi l o s ophy H e may i ndeed e xe rci s e a w i s e
.
, ,

re s erve here , with re s pect to the pre s e ntati on of h i s a s sure d

re s ult s whethe r before the publ i c or before h i s o wn m i nd
, .

But the re i s afte r al l only on e altern a ti ve e i the r arbi

, , ,

t r a r i l y to l im i t rea s on i n tho s e i nqu i ri e s wh i ch i t belongs t o

i ts very natu re to i n s i s t upon mak i ng or e l s e to pa s s ove r
,

( i f i ndeed i t i s po ss ibl e even the oreti cal ly to d raw a d i s

, ,

ti nct a n d x ed l i n e betwe en th e tw o) from the p s ychol ogi cal to

th e plI i l OS Oph i c a l pu r s ui t of th e same i nqu i ri e s What i s i t
.

b ut th e work i n g of ju s t thi s alternati ve wh i ch e xpl ai ns th e

confu s ed the ory a n d i ncon s i s tent practi ce of th e writer s
wh o s e vi ew s were e x ami ne d i n th e la s t chapte r ? P l ai nly ,

i t i s j u s t thi s too whi ch gu i de s the cl earer the ory and

, ,

m ore co n s i s te n t p racti ce of the wri ters who s e v i ew s we re

pre s ente d i n the e arl i e r part of thi s chapter .

M oreove r th e h i s tory of p sycho l ogi cal theori es shows b e

,

yond d oubt that i t i s the characte r of the p s ych ol ogi cal

m e thod empl oyed a n d of th e attempte d s ol uti on of probl ems
,

pri mar il y p s ych ol ogi c a l whi ch chi ey determi ne s the atti

,

tude of any th i nk er i n ph i lo s ophy toward the d i ffe re n t p os

s ibl e s ol uti ons of the conne cted phi losoph i cal proble m s Of .
 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 73

th i s i ne vi table i nue nce there I s not i n al l the h i s tory of phi

l OS Oph y a more con s p i cuous e xampl e than that s ame m a s te r
m ind who s e d e s pai ri n g vi e w re s pecti ng the po ss i bi l i ty oi a
s c i enti c pyschol ogy was qu ote d at the begin n ing of th i s

treati s e A l l the pri nci pal ob s c u riti e s and defe ct s of the |

.

cri ti cal ph il o s ophy o f Kant are l argely due to ob s curi ti es '

and de c ie nc i e s i n h i s v iew s Of the nature and l aws of

the phenomena of con s ci ou s ne ss Indee d w i th a mea n i ng
.
,

whi ch becom e s the more perti ne nt the more deeply one

pe netrate s the doctri ne of the three C ri ti que s on e may ,

s af e ly declare that the defecti ve p s ychi cal experi ence the ,

lack i ng p s ycho s e s e s peci al ly of the a ffect i ve k i nd of thi s

, ,

great ph i l o s ophe r account i n n o s mal l d e gre e, for the

,

defecti ve characte r of his ph i l o s oph i cal s y s tem .

I n p a r ti cu la r , t he p r oble m s of p h i l osop hy a ll e m e rg e a n d

f or ce t hemselves up on t he m i n d i n the a ttemp t thor oug hly to

c om r e hen d an d s a t i sf a c tor i ly t o s ol ve t he p r obl e m s of a
p

sci e n t
i
c
p sy chol og y ; and the a t te m
p t s, a lon
g t he di e r en t
m a i n l i n es f
o r e se a rc h
i n p sy c holog y , to d ea l s c i en ti ca l ly w i t h
i ts p r oble m s a ll le a d up t o t he p la c e w he r e t hi s s ci e n ce ha n d s
t he s e sa m e
p r o bl e m s ov e r to p h i l osop hy
Thi s tenet re s pect.

i ng the r e l ati ons of p sychol ogy to ph i l o s ophy adm it s of

vari ed i l l u s trati o n A f e w o f the more i mportant e x a m pl e s v
.

w i l l n o w be d i s cu ss ed s eparatel y .

A re cent write r h a s repeatedly mai ntai ned i n the very ,

mi d s t of a vol umi nou s treati s e o n p s ych ology a s a natural

s ci enc e that thi s s ci ence a s s ume s k n o w le dg e as an al r e ady
,

e xisting and i ne xpli cabl e d a tu m I n s om e s ort th i s cla i m i s

.

n o doubt true Fo r al l attempt s at ord i nary k n owledge or at

.

s ci ence taci tly i mply the pos s i b i l i ty of kn owl e dg e i n g e nera l

,

the actual ity o f s omethi ng to be k n own a n d th e e x i s tenc e

( at leas t i n s ome me ani ng of the word a s a cogn i zi ng acti v i ty )
,

of th e knowi ng m i nd But on the othe r hand i t i s on e of

.
, ,

the mo s t i mportant and d i f cult ta s k s Of a truly s ci enti c

psychol ogy n ot s i mply to a ss ume , but al s o to ex pl ai n th e se
, ,
74 P S Y C H OLO G Y A N D T H E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D

p sycho s e s whi ch are cal le d act s or s tate s Of k nowledge ; , ,

and th i s wi th re s pect to the i r nature as comple x mental

,

phenomena thei r ori gi n i n the on owi n g s tre am of con

,

s c i ou s n e ss and the l a ws of the i r d eve l opment

,
.

But here , a s eve r i t appear s that i n the very de s cri pti on

, ,

Of thi s form of p s ycho s i s the enti re fact i s not S i mply

, ,

kn owledge i s or knowledges are but I k

n ow an d ,

when men s a y I k
n ow

they mean s ometh ing qu ite d if
,

f e r e n t from what they mean whe n they s a y I feel , o r

I wil l ,
or I th i nk or i magi ne
, or remembe r ,
.

When a duti ful s ci enti c p s ychol ogy has once faced thi s
complex and mysteri ous p s ycho s i s i t i s bound t o di scover ,

that s omeho w the wh ole b e i ng of m m d i s i mpl i cated i n

k nowledge memory i magi nati on thought fee l i ng wi l l
, , , , , ,

and whateve r be s id e s bel ongs e ither t o perc e pti on by the

se n s e s o r to s el f consci ousne s s Ye s som e th i ng more than
-
.
,

even th i s var i ed content a s reached i n the attempt to regard

,

thi s p s ycho s i s merel y content wi s e For the re i s -

h oweve r
.

on e may choose to e xpre ss the fact conv i cti on of r e a li t

y

here ; a n d i f convi cti on of real i ty b e wanti n g why then , , ,

knowledge i s n o l onge r to be call ed k n owl e dg e Thi s .

i s true whethe r the know ledge be that of A ri stotl e an d

,

N ewton or of the chi l d or of the fool ; whethe r i t b e k n owl

,

edge most ord i nary o r m o s t extraord i nary and aff ecti ng

, ,

the titl e of s ci ence s peci cally S O cal led

,
A nd what shal l -
.

t h e s ci e nti c p sych ol ogi s t do n ow ? Shal l he hi de h i s head

unde r the narrow and d roopi ng wi ng of p sychology as
a pure and totall y n on ph i l o s oph i cal s ci ence ? H e may d o
-

s o ; and there are n ot a fe w wri ter s that actual ly try to tak e

thi s cou r s e But re ader s wh o th i nk cl early wi l l s e e th at

.

th i s i s preci sel y the pl ace where a demand f or s ometh i ng

more becomes i mperati ve upon th e s tudent o f mental phe
n om e n a . H ere i nd e e d i s where th e ne e d for a The ory of
, ,

K n owl edge wh i ch undertake s to ex am i n e from s omewhat

d i ffe r e nt standpoi nt s the nature of knowledge i ts val i d ity ,
 P S Y C H OLO GY A ND T H E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 75

and i ts l i mit s begi ns more denitely to appear But s uch a

,
.

theory i s phi lo s ophy i n the form of N o et i cs, or Epi s temol ogy .

It mu s t l ik e al l forms of phi l o s oph i cal i nqu i ry, l earn i ts

,

facts and law s from the sci ence of me ntal phe nomen a ; but i t
cannot forge t that i ts o wn b i rthri ght i s i nal i enably s ecure d
by the m i nd s o wn de s ire to under s tand the ful le s t i mport

of these ve ry fact s and l aw s .

I n l i ke manne r d oes the s tudy of the phenomena of per

cept i o n as a col le cti on of problem s i n sci e nti c p sychol ogy
, ,

necessari ly lead to a fu rther ph i los ophi cal tre atment of the s e

s ame problems Indeed the h i s tory of s ci enti c re s earch
.
,

i nto these phen omena and of the accompa n y ing and re s ulting
,

ph i losophi cal S pe cul ati on emphasi zes the s a me convi cti on

, .

The l ead i ng school s of metaphy s i c s the great and permanent

,

d i s ti ncti on s i n the a n swer s wh i ch re ecti ve thi nk ing gives

t o the pri nci pal ontologi cal pr obl ems depend u pon the way i n
,

whi ch the d i ff e rent p s ychologi cal aspect s a n d determi nati on s

Of perce pti ve acti v i ty are regarded For the phenomenon .

to be explai ned i s not that s ensati ons are or that mental ,

repre s entati ons a r e or even that percepti on i s ; but that
,

I p er cei v e by s ight o r touch o r otherwi s e thi s o r that thi ng,

, ,

here or there etc N ow th i s I pe rce i ve i s pl ai nly an a f r m

,
.

ati on of k nowledge an d of k nowl e dge n ot a bou t thing s i n

,

general but of s ome par ti cul ar Thi n g I n th e l ight of the ful l

,
.

content of th i s p sy chol ogi cal phenomeno n w i th the i mport ,

whi ch th o s e wh o h ave e xp e ri ence of the c ontent attach to that

experi e nce the metaphy s i cal th e or i e s of ce rtai n ph i l o s oph i cal
,

school s both of th e i de al i s ti c and of the reali s ti c type a p

, ,

pe ar remarkably th i n Or let the a n s we r whi ch a s an al leged

.
,

conclu s i on of s ci e n ti c p sych ol ogy the E n gl i s h and French

,

s e n s ati onal i s m o r th e Engl i sh a s soci at i onal i s m

,
o r much ,

Of the modern e xperi mental and phy s i ol ogi cal p s ych ol ogy ,

w i th i t s revi ve d s ensati on al i sm and a s soci ati onal i s m ( "i ehen

and other s ) h a s gi ven to th e demand fo r an ex pl anati on
o f thi s p s ycho s i s be b rought back face to face w ith the
76 P S Y C H OLO GY A N D T H E P H I LO S O P H Y OF M IN D
p s ycho s i s i t s elf In vai n d o y ou tal k to the pl ai n man
.

about sen s ati o n s and s e nsati on c ompl exe s and l ocal i zati on
,
-
, ,

and eccentri c proj ecti on and revi ved and a s soci ate d i m a ge s ,

o f pa s t s en s ati ons , merely ; he kn ow s perfectly wel l that hi s

e x pe r l e n ce eve n a s a p s ycho s i s i s n ot yet s ati s factor i ly

, ,

expl aine d ; for he kn ow s that i t i s an e xperi e nce of k n owl

e dg e ,
kn owledge of a thi ng A nd here the p s ychol ogi s t i s .

b ound to go agai n ove r the ground of k now ledge c on s i dere d ,

a s b oth a p s ychol ogi cal and a ph i l o s ophi cal problem ; here

he i s bound i n the i nter e s t s of ful l e xpl anati on to face the

, ,

i nqu i ry What ab out the R eal ity of tha t Thing ? H ow, then
, ,

shal l he unle s s he p au s e s ju s t at the pl ace where the

,

deman d for an expl an at i on of the p s ych i c fact s becomes mo s t

i mperati ve and m o s t i ntere s ti ng a demand whi ch i s now ,

empha s ize d i n th e form of a phenome n on that i mp l i cate s

an envi s agement by the m i nd of a re al be i ng that i s n ot
m i nd refu s e t o con s i der thi s phi l o s oph i cal prob lem ? 1
,

E ve n more d i fcult i f not i mpo s s ible i s i t to keep apart

, ,

the s ci enti c co n s i derati on of the problems s tarted by the

actual e x peri ence calle d s elf con s ci ou s ne s s and the re e cti ve -
,

treatme n t of that clu ster of ob s cu re and d i f cult i nqu i ri e s

wh i ch co n s ti tute the s pe cial phi l o s ophy of mi nd I k n ow .

that I am he re an d now thi nk i ng feel i ng de s i ri ng pl an , , , ,

ni ng d oi n g thus and s o
,
It i s I and n o oth e r whether m i nd
.
,

o r th i ng ; her e and n ot yonder where t h e other i s ; n ow an d ,

not then when I reme mbe r wel l I wa s el s ewhe re R ea lly

,
.

ex i s t in g ? why yes i ndee d ; ex i s ti ng real ly a n d i n dub i tably

, ,

i n the mo s t s el f evi d e nci n g and s i mpl e man n e r i n wh i ch any

-

actu al i ty c a n al i ve t o the very core A nd n e w agai n i n

,
.
, ,

vai n w i l l the p s ychol ogi s t fe n ce Off the que s ti o n s of th e

pl ai n man as to the i mport of h i s expe ri e n ce a s to the truth ,

that ex i s ts , an d i s k no wn to be, i n s o wonde rful a s eri es of

1 Wh a t p y h l gy h
tea c hr e of s c o o a s n ot u d i t r t i th ph m
fo n n e es f p n e en o en a o er

cept i b y t
on h m t t r f
e sen se s, as a a e o na tu l ira d r pi g u t il t h bur i g
sc en ce , oo n , n e n n

m t ph y i l qu ti
e a wr pp d up i
s ca es ons a e n th ph
e m h v b gu t tir th m i d
e no ena a e e n o s e n s

of h i pupil
s s
 P S Y C HOLO G Y AND TH E PH I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 77

psycho s es as th i s by attempti ng to d raw the l i ne s tauter

,

between p s ych ol ogy a s a valuable natural s ci ence an d the

u s ele ss S pecul ati o n s Of the metaphy s i cs of m i nd For the .

thi ng whi ch the s ci ence i s reque s ted t o ex plai n i s ju s t thi s

pe cul i ar a n d conte n tful p s ycho s i s ( or s eri e s of p s ychose s ) .

What i s th i s I that as s ume s to k no w the me ; and

thi s me that admit s that i t i s k nown by the I What

is it re al ly to be a s the I k now s i t s elf t o be ? and

What i s thi s be i ng here and n ow u n le ss i t i nvol ve s a c on

tra s t with s ome then and the re i n whi ch the s ame I
was When such que s ti on s as these are a s ked , i n the form
i n whi ch they S pri ng i mmed i ately ou t of the e ff ort to describe
and under s tand the total p sych i c phenomenon h ow w i l l ,

the p s ychol ogi s t on the pretence of s ti ck i ng sol ely to the

,

tas kof a s o call e d natural s ci ence reply w i thout resort to

-
,

metaphy s i cal d i s ti ncti on s ? A mong these are qu ite certai n

to be the di s tincti ons be tween s peci ous present and real

present bet wee n phenomenal Ego and real Ego b e
, ,

t wee n s pace an d ti me as objecti ve ly val i d and S pace and

ti me a s only form s of p s ych oses But su ch langu age i s

.

empty verbi age wi thout a qua s i ap pe al to the arbi trament of

-

ph i l o s ophy What s hal l e i ther put or nd a meani ng i n i t

.

without that re ecti ve th i nk i ng wh i ch i s the essence of

phi lo s ophi zi ng i t s el f ?
Thu s d o the p s ych ol ogi cal prob lem s s tarte d by the c om
m on e xperi ence of percepti on and of s el f cons ci ou s ne s s
V
-

i nevi tably s erve as prop aedeuti c to the ph i l osop hy of n a tu r e

.

and the ph i l o s ophy of mi nd Ind eed they do s ometh i n g

.
,

more than gentl y lead the i nqui re r t o these br a nches of

phi lo s oph i cal d i s ci pl i ne They f o r ce hi m to undertake the
.

culti vati on of the m i n the i nte re st s of a more s ati s factory

re s ult for hi s e ff ort s to u n der s tand th e p sychi c phe nomen a
as su ch But even to reach ou t toward th i s resul t on e must ,
.

of cour s e s uppo s e one s s el f capabl e o f tran s cen ding i nd i

vi dual con s ci ousness , whethe r Of th e perceptive or the i ntr o

 78 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
s pe c t i v eform In order al s o , t o have a phi losoph y of
.
,

nature one mu s t re s ort n ot to a s i mp le analy s i s of the

, ,

obj e ct co n s i de red a s a Thi ng but to the sci enc e s wh i ch tel l

,

u s a bou t thi ng s ; and to h ave a phi l o s ophy o f mi n d on e mu s t

turn away from S i mpl e i n tro s pecti on of s elf toward al l th e

i nd i cati on s w h i ch can be gathered as to the p sych i cal behav i or
of other l i ke be i n gs .

The two mai n b ranche s of met a physi cs togethe r con

Vs ti t u te the phi lo s ophy of the R eal But the s ci e nce of .

p s ychol ogy d i s cover s p sychose s n o less actual a s p s ych o s es ,

than any whi ch have thu s far been d escri bed that poi nt ,

beyond them s e lve s to the realm of the Ideal In i t s

attempt to e xpl ai n the work i ng s of ethi cal a n d aes th et i

cal con s ci ou s ne ss as s uch the problem s of th e ph i lo s ophy
, ,

of conduct and of the ph il o s ophy of art ( ethi c s and aes th e t

i c s ) h ave the i r ri s e For the large r mi ss i on of a s ci enti c

.

p sych ology i s not ful lled unt i l i t h a s a s fai thfully de s cribed

a n d careful ly e xpl ai ned ou r hu man fai ths an d thought s

re s pecti ng what ought to be a s ou r k n owledge re s pecting
what really i s Nor d oe s th i s cla s s of p s ycho s e s appear s o
.

separabl e s o d i sti nct ei the r actually or the oreti cal ly, from
, ,

the other s a s t o e nable p s ychol ogy to e xpl ai n what men

,

thi nk o r b e l i e ve ou ght to be wi thout relati on to what they

know o r judge real ly i s A nd much Of wh at they are e nt i tled
.

to s a y they kn ow o r i n fe r really to b e cannot be explai ned ,

wi thout rel ati on to what they th i nk o r b el i eve ought to be .

H ence i n a mea s ure the d i f culty both th eoreti cal and

, , ,

practi cal of gi vi ng any purely p s ych ol ogi cal d i s cu ss i on f or

, ,

e xampl e to t h e phen omen on of ch oi ce N O matter h ow rmly

,
.

the deter m i n i s t i n p s ychol ogy may res ol ve to mai ntai n the

attitude of a coll e ctor and correl ator of phen omena u n pr e j ,

u d i c e d by metaphysi cal th e ori e s of causati on i t i s d if cult ,

i ndee d for hi m to carry ou t hi s re s oluti on Ju s t becau s e .

he regard s h i s sci ence as n a tural , he i s tempted to r e

c e i v e a blu d ge on from the hand s o f the natu ral s ci ences ,
 P S Y C H OLO G Y A ND T H E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D 79

wherewi t h to threaten o r a s s ault the free spi ritual agent ,

i f at any tim e s uch an agent S houl d s ee m to ra i s e h i s head

am i d the p s ych i c phenomena That s uch an agent i s there
.
,

n ot only as nece s s ari ly i mpl i cated i n a rati onal i nterpreta

ti on of the phenomen a but al s o a s the s el f con s ci ou s v i c tor
,
-

ove r vari ou s form s of real ity i s the ph i lo s ophi cal te net

,

o f the opponent of determi n i s m Thi s tenet too i t s eems

.
, ,

e qual ly hard to refrai n from i ntroduci ng as an i ntegra l

part of the explanati on of th e phenomena .

Thus too i n the d e bate of ph i lo s ophi cal questi on s between

, ,

eud ae mo n i s m and ri gori s m i n ethi c s or betwee n the vi e w

,

whi ch re s ol ve s the fe e l ing of th e beauti ful i nto the e x pe

r i e n ce o f th e s en s uou s ly agre eabl e and the vi ew wh i ch
d i s ti ngu i she s th e t wo and regard s the forme r a s un i qu e , the
d e s cri pti ve and e xpl anatory s ci e n c e of p sychol ogy i s wel l
ni gh compe ll e d t o take a part Thi s i s n ot s o much b e cause
.

the e mpi ri cal s ci ence i s anxi ou s to l ift the re s pon s ibi l ity
from the shoulder s of ph i l o s ophy by c om i ng ove r i n to i ts
domai n ; i t i s rather b e cau s e the sc i e nce ca n not d i s cove r any
l i ne clearly d rawn betw e e n thi s ph i l o s ophi cal domai n and
i ts o wn . For suppo s e that the p s ych ol ogi s t nd s hi m s el f

compe ll ed to de s cri be the p s ycho s i s call ed the feel i ng I
ought as s omethi ng total ly d i ff e rent from the memory ,

expectati on cal cul ati on o r present e xperi ence of the pl ea s

, ,

u r a b l e h ow can he then fai l t o have the more ulti mate

,

que s ti on s ugge s te d a s t o whethe r that wh i ch ou ght to be ,

and that wh i ch i s s ought for pl ea s u re s s ake i s on e and th e

,

s ame ? A gai n i f the p sychol ogi s t nd s ce rtai n men mai n

,

tai ni ng that i n the m the beauti fu l awaken s th oughts and

f e el i n gs wh i ch i mply what i s obje cti ve u n i v e r s al and o f
, ,

i deal worth h ow shal l he refu s e to co n s i de r wheth e r the i m

,

port o f such thought s and feel i ngs has a ba s i s i n the worl d

at large ? But, of c ou r s e s u ch probl e m s are among th ose
,

wh i ch p s ychology start s and then hands ove r to a phi l o

sophi cal ethi c s a n d aes theti c s f o r the i r furthe r e xami nati on .
80 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF M IN D
It i s i ndeed only i nd i re ctly that the attempted s ol uti on
, ,

Of problem s i n p s ychologi cal s ci ence le ad s to the e or t at

that s upreme s ynth e s i s whi ch i s the c rown i n g work of the
ph i l OS Oph i c m i nd B ut i nd i rectly i t does both poi nt and
.

lead i n the d i recti on of thi s s ynthe s i s For i t i s s carcely .

s c i en t c i n the hi ghe s t s en s e o f the word to l e ave the

i
d i ff erent group s Of p s ychologi cal problem s w i th the i r s e i en ,

t i c and phi l o s ophi cal a s pe cts and an s wers i n i sol ate d and ,

fragme n tary form H ere th e psychologi cal treatment o f the

.

s o called
-
categori e s become s i mportant To p s ychology , .

a s an empi ri cal sc i e n ce the categori es are only the m o s t

,

per s i s tent and un i ver s al forms of p sycho s es them s el ve s ; but

to s a y only th u s much come s very ne ar to s ayi ng that the
categori es are the un i ver s al and nece s sary mode s of the b e
havi or of m i nd Some o f them h oweve r are m odes o f the
.
, ,

behavi o r of m i n d i n the i nferenti al knowl edge of thi n gs ; and

kn owl edge of thi ngs 1 8 a term wh i ch i t i s d if cul t to
empl oy wi th a ful l i n tel l igen ce w ith out i mplyi ng that forms
,

of kn owl edge c on s i dere d as p sycho s e s ( p sychol ogical ) are

, ,

al s o form s of the bei ng of thi n g s ( ontol ogi cal ) .

Thus the i ntere st s awak ened by the e ff ort to harmoni ze

al l and to carry forward the s ci ence Of m i nd to i t s i deal com
,

p l e t e n e ss ,
pre s s hard u pon u s i n th e d i recti on Of that
supreme uni fyi ng acti vi ty of rea s on i n whi ch the e s s ence ,

of syntheti c ph i l o s ophy c on s i sts It i s n ot s tran ge t he n ,

.
,

that d i ffe re n t i nqu i re r s wh o s e t ou t toge t he r with the deter

,

m i nati on t o d i s cu s s mental phenomena i n ter m s of natural

s ci e nce merel y s o often nd th e m s el ves wrangl i ng ove r the
,

problem s whi ch i t bel ongs to the ph i l o s ophy of rel i gi on to

unde rtak e For i t i s a large part Of the s upreme ta s k o f
.

th i s bran ch of ph i lo s ophy to n d a real grou n d for i deal s ,

an d to vi n d i cate the ri ght of re a s on to project i ts i de al s upon

reali ty Th e enti re hi s tory Of ma n s ree cti ve thi n k i ng
.

s hows h o w cl o s ely connected are the v i ew s tak en a s t o the

n ature i mport and desti ny of the human mi nd ( no matter

, ,
 P S Y C HOLOGY AND TH E P H I LO S O P HY OF MIN D 81

how much pretence of be ing merely sc i enti c the s e v i ew s

may make ) with S pecul ati v e vi ew s a s t o the nature i mport , ,

and d e s ti ny of the Worl d as a Whole It i s n ot w ithout .

meani ng that M i croco s m and M acroc osm are terms

appl ied to the t wo .

It i s not o f cour s e the i n tenti on of th i s treati s e to under

, ,

tak e the s peculati ve d i s cu s s i on Of al l the problem s h a n ded

ove r by p sychologi cal sci ence to further re ecti ve th i n k i ng .

The prob lem s of Kno wledge belong t o Epi s t e mol ogy ; the
gene ral problems Of Be i ng bel ong to M etaphy s i c s ( i n the i
v
broade r se nse of the word ) ; the problem s of the real bei ng
and rel ati ons of Thi n g s bel ong to the P h i lo s ophy of N ature .

C ertai n poi nt s of vi e w and eve n certai n c oncl u s i on s from

, ,

al l the s e parti cular branche s Of phi l o s oph i cal d i s cipl i n e w i l l

be a ss ume d i n the d i scus s i on s w hi ch we propo s e A lthou gh .

freedom of wi l l , and the hold ing of ethi cal a n d ae s th e ti cal
i de as , are acti viti e s bel ongi ng to th e n ature of the m i nd and ,

s o i t woul d see m natural ly fal l ing i nto the department of

, ,

the phi l o s ophy of m i nd the s e problem s w i l l be re s erved for

,

ph i losoph i cal eth i cs and phi l o s oph i cal ae s theti c s to d i s cu ss .

w
0
,

y hi i nd a s the term i s to a
g
,

be empl oye d i n thi s vol ume we s eparate ( s omewh a t arb i

,

t r a r i l y i t i s to be adm i tted ) a certa in cl a s s o f problem s

,

whi ch p s ychol ogi cal sc i en ce hand s ove r to phi lo s ophy for a

more thorough e xami nati on and for a s oluti on i f s oluti on
, ,

can be found The s e probl e ms are for the m o s t part

.
, ,

s tarted by the p s ychol ogy of that form of h uman e xperi ence

whi ch i s cal led the consci ou s n e s s o f Self It i s the Self .

,

however n ot s im ply as k nown i mmed i ately to i t s e lf but

, ,

al s o a s s ci enti cal ly known i n i ts rel ati on s to the bod i ly

organism A n d although we are confe s s edly gi vi ng a speen
.

l ati ve and th e oreti cal tre a tme nt to the ph e n omena and are ,

a s s umi n g for thi s treatment certai n po s tul ate s of a theory

o f knowledge a n d o f a metaphy s i c s o f th i ng s we sh al l hol d ,

oursel ve s re s pon s ibl e at eve ry s tep t o the e mpi ri cal s ci enc e

6
82 P S Y C HOL OGY AND TH E P H ILO S O P HY OF M IN D
of mental phenomena Indee d th i s es s ay i n the ph i l o s ophy
.
,

of m i nd i s del iberately ba s e d u pon previ ou s l ong conti nue d

-

researche s i nto the fac ts and l aw s of a sci enti c p s ychol ogy .

To the s e re s earch e s appeal mu s t be made f or the ri ght to

speculate as to the nature of mi n d The ri ght . w e bel i eve
has been earne d by careful s tudy of the mental phe nomena
from al l po ss i ble points of vi e w A nd i t i s the author s
.

c ontroll i ng w i s h that the vali d ity of the fol l owi ng speculati ve

conclu s i ons shoul d con s tantly be brought face to face with
the conclu s i ons of the empi ri cal sci ence of mi nd .
 C H APTE R III

TH E CONCE P T OF M I ND

H I L OS OPH I CAL d i scussi on of the nature and re al ity

of M i nd , and of i ts re al rel ati ons t o the bod i ly
organ i s m has often bee n rendere d unneces s ari ly ob s cure
,

by certa i n defects and fallaci es whi ch have the i r ri s e i n

psychol ogi cal sci ence For thi s rea s on ch i ey, a meta
.
,

phy s i cal essay of th i s sort shoul d rst make the attempt to

set forth its own ground s so far as they are d i s coverable i n
the actual e xperi e nce of men We begi n , therefore , by .

con s i deri ng the ori gi n nature and deve l opment of the con V
, ,
-

cept of m i nd Or , s ince there i s d ange r that even th i s

.

i ntroductory d i s cu ss i on may be u ndertak en i n a manne r t oo

abstract too far rem ove d from th e dai ly p sychi c l ife o f the
,

multi tude o f manki nd the same i nqu i ry may be expre ss e d

,

i n yet more fami l i ar te rm s What d o peopl e generally

.

o r whe n they S peak

m ea n when they tal k about the mi nd ,

and thi nk of them s el ve s and of othe r s as havi ng mi nd s ,

"

o r as b e i ng m i nd s . The te rm m i nd i n prefe re n ce t o,

the term s oul need n ot be i n s i s te d upon It h a s i nde ed

,
.

i ts obvi ou s d i s advan tage s ; among whi ch perhap s the greate s t

i s th i s that i t empha s i ze s almo s t un avoi dably the S i de of
,

intel lecti on an d of rati oci nati on to the rel ati ve o r compl ete
,

excl u s i on o f tho s e a ff ecti ve a n d conati ve a s pect s of con

s c i o u sn e s s wh i ch e qually bel ong to the re al nature of the

mental l i fe . But the word s oul the equ i val ent of

whi ch i n G erman , S ee le , i s empl oye d safely by wr iters of

 84 T H E C O N C E PT OF M IN D
every s hade of ph i los oph i cal tenet s can scarcely be u s e d
i n Engl i s h W i thout i mplyi ng u nde s i rable theologi cal a ss um p ~

ti o n s or evok i ng ob s ti n ate theol ogi cal pr e jud i ce s" .

A ny sati s factory i nqui ry i n to the Con c ep t of M i nd mu s t

plain ly take i ts start from the standpoi nt of e m pi ri cal
p s ychol ogy Its very nature a s an i nqu i ry i s de ne d by the
.

e ff ort to s e t forth de s cr i pt i vely , and then a s far a s pos s i ble

t o expl ai n th e s e actual phen omena o f con s ci ou s ne ss to
,

wh i ch th e use of the term corre s ponds Only a s th i s cour s e.

i s faithfully pursued ( and by fai thful ly we mean i n form

true to the fact s and true to all the facts ) can the s u b se
,

quent m ore s peculative and theoreti cal d i s cu ss i on of mental

phenomena cl ai m crede n ce and re s pect Fo r the value of any .

d iscuss i on c on s i s t s i n the amount of l ight wh i ch i t throws upon

the i mport of such i nferre d truth s a s are certai nly i m pl i
c a t e d i n the facts . I n the i ntere s ts of a s ound phi lo s ophy i t ,

i s qu ite a s i mportant that al l the truth s ( and n o other con

e l us i ons than the s e ) i mpl i cated i n the fact s s h oul d be d i s

covered cr iti cally e xami n ed and s ystemati cal ly expounded

, , ,

as i t i s i mportant for a truly sci en ti c p sych ol ogy that it

shoul d descri be and ex pl ai n al l the p s ychi c fact s The .

ex hi bi ti on and d ef en ce f
o t he l eg i ti m a te i nf e r en ce s a n d u l te r i or

i mp or t be long i ng t o p sy chi c f a c ts, a s f a i thf u lly d escr i be d a nd

s ci e n tifi ca lly ex p l a i n e d , t hi s i s the P hi losop hy of M u d .

B ut i f the cu s tomary treatment gi ve n by psychologi s t s to

tho s e p s ychoses wh i ch may properly be cal le d concepts of
m i nd be compared with the actual psycho s es them s e lve s i t ,

w i ll be found we be l i e ve to be characte r i ze d by several

i mport ant d e fe ct s and eve n more i mportant f al laci e s Two .

1o r th ree of the mo s t i mportant an d common Of the s e wi l l

now be bri ey d i scu s s ed The pri mary point of v i e w to be
.

as s ume d s hal l be that of s c i enti c p s ychol ogy .

It i s a mo s t i m w fal lacy i n much of the current psy

ch ol og y t o a ss ume that the whol e of any mental phen omenon

i s de s cri bed and explai ned whe n the mere con ten t of c on
 TH E C O NC E PT OF M IN D 85

s c i ou s n e s s been descri bed and explai ned That i s to

has .

s a y the l arge r numbe r of th o s e who culti vate p s ychol ogy a s

,

an empi ri cal sci ence habi tually regard consci ou s ne ss and ,

the phenomen a of consci ou s ne s s , me rely content w i se a s -
,

i t w e re Thus the descri pti ve part of the sci ence i s l i m ited

.

t o a s tatement of what p arti cul ar qu al iti es and qu anti ti es of

s e n s ati on s o r what parti cul ar a s s oci ate d
,
i mage s of pa s t
s e n s a ti ons o r what parti cul ar forms of feel ing
,
are con ,

t a i n e d i n and s o them s e lves compri se or consti tute the

, ,

total e l d o f con s c i ou s ne s s It i s i ndeed po ss i bl e to

.
, ,

empl oy the phra s e content of consci ousne s s so as vi r

t u a l ly t o e x cl ude from the task of descri pti ve and explana

tory sci e nce al l cons i der ati ons that have n o reference to
an s weri ng thi s d e n ite qu e sti on : What i s the parti cul ar
k i nd of con s ci ou s state , the pys ch os i s n ow ex i stent ; and ,

why i s i t thi s rather tha n some othe r p s ycho s i s ; why an A

rathe r than s ome B ? Such p sycho logy can al ways of ,

c ou rs e s top the mou t hs of objectors by a s k i n g
,
What i s ,

there left of any phenomenon of con s ci ou s ne s s t o de s cribe

and expl ai n i f ex hyp othesi , there i s n oth i ng i n parti cul ar
, ,

l e ft no de nite content remai ni ng to be de s cribed and

,

e xpl ai ne d Of course als o n o p s ycho s i s can be s c i e n t i

, ,

cal ly tre ate d i n negle ct of its d e s cri pti on a n d expl ana t i on ,

content w i s e For a p s ycho s i s w i thout content i s equi val ent

-
.

t o n o p s ych o s i s a t al l The re are n o phenomena of con

.

s c i ou s n e s s i n g e n eral ; the re are only phenomena wh i ch ha v e

such an d n o othe r content , and wh i ch ne e d to be ex pl ai ned

and de s cribe d w i th refer e nce t o the i r concrete de n i t en e s s,
i f they are t o be de s cribe d and ex pl ai ne d at al l .

Such adm i ssi on s a s the foregoi ng are ve ry far h oweve r, ,

from ju s ti fyi ng the cou r s e of th o s e s tudent s of sci enti c

p sychol ogy wh om We have just accu s e d o f seri ou s defe ct a n d
fal l acy For thei r fal l acy i s , i n i ts ve ry nature a defect
.
, .

It doe s not con s i s t i n t o o carefu l recogn i ti on of the n eces

s i ty o f deal i ng sci e nti cal l y w ith the phenomen a of c on
 86 TH E C O N C E PT OF M IN D
content wi s e It con s i sts the rather i n an
s c i ou sn e s s , -
.
, ,

almo s t total neglect and v i rtual i f not expl i ci t deni al of

anothe r a s pect a di ff ere nt potency, equ al ly bel ongi ng to
,

al l the phenomena of consci ou s ne ss F or a l l c on sci ou sn e ss .

,

a n d ev e ry p h f c on sci ou sn ess m a k
e n ome n on o e s t he d e m a n d t o be
,

con si de r e d a s a f or m of f u n cti on i ng a n d n ot a s m er e d i e r en ti a
,

ti on of c on ten t P he nomena of co ns ci ou s ne s s are al ways

.

consc i ou s acti vi ti e s a s truly a s they are content s of con

s c i ou s n ess C on s ci ousne ss i s itself con s ci ou s nes s of acti v i ty
.
,

fundamentally s o ; a n d i t i s s o al l the way through from

the l owe s t t o the hi ghe s t an d most developed form s of fu nc
t i on i n g The ta s k Of a s c i enti c p s ych ol ogy i s, the refore as
.
,

truly the descri pti on and explanati on of phenomena of con

s ci ou s n e s s con s i dere d a s forms of acti ve functi on i n g ( of
,

consci ou s nes s functi on wi s e a s i t i s the descri pt i on and
-

e xpl anati on of the parti cul ar qual iti es a n d quantit i es of the

phenome n a regarded as pa s si ve s tates ( of c on s ci ou s ness
content w i s e -
In s ayi n g th i s ou r i nte n ti on i s not at
m
,

pr c tn fau back upon any metaphys i cal doctri n e of W i l l

as the ground and e ss ence of al l mental l ife whether i n ,

the pu rely s pecul ati ve form of S chopenhauer or wi th th e ,

mod i ed and m ore sci e nti c character gi ven to i t by Wundt .

Will ,
i ndeed as we have e l sewhe re S hown i s a term
,
1
,

l w i th ou t mean i ng un l e s s i t be empl oye d to desi gnate a com

pl e x facu lty dev e l ope d i n the cou rs e of e xperi ence an d

,

i nvolvi ng al l the mo re pri mary form s of the functi o ni ng of

l mental l i fe .

The proof whi ch a s ci enti c p sychol ogy fai thfu l to al l ,

the p s ych i c facts , h a s to gi ve f or s tatement s l ike those just

made cannot be pre s e nted he re i n detai l For such proof .

th e ph i l o s ophy o f mi nd appeal s ch i ey to the empi ri cal

study Of th e phenom e na Of attenti on , of con ati on , a n d of
d i s cri m i n ati ng consci ousnes s The con clu s i on as i t i s
.
,

1 See
Psych ol ogy Descrip t iv e
, a nd E xpl a na to ry ,
p
e s e ci a ll y h pt r
c a e s

and xx vi .
 T H E C O N C E PT OF M IN D 87

justi ed by the s ci ence of mental phe nomena , may b e s e t

forth i n the fol lowi ng quotati on s ( for the ful ler proof refer
ence i s made to the work from whi ch the quotat i on s are
taken )

The re lati on of atte nti on t o the conati ve a s pect of al l
consc i ous activi ty h a s been much empha s i ze d by mode rn
writers on p sychology When then i t i s af rme d that
.
, ,

al l attenti on even the mo s t pri mary i s i nue n ced by

, ,

conati on , i t i s meant that attenti on ri s e s and f a l ls i s d i s ,

tribute d and r e d i s tributed i n c on s tant dependence upon the

-
,

varyi ng amount s o f p s ychi cal s elf acti vity w h i ch charac -

t e r i ze the d i ff e rent mental state s For from the mo s t .

,

fundamental poi n t of v i ew al l p s ych i c energy i s s el f

,

acti vi ty ; i t appears i n con s ci ousne s s a s the e nergi zi ng ,

the conati on the stri vi n g of the s ame be i ng whi ch come s

, ,

t o l ook upon i t s elf as attracted to d i s cri mi nate between thi s

se nsati on and that or compelled to feel s ome bod i ly pain
, ,

or sol i ci ted to co n s i de r s ome plea s ant thought Th i s a s pe ct .

o f conati on t h e i mmed i at e awarene s s of bei ng s elf acti ve -

bel ongs to al l pa ss i ve o r i mpul s i ve o r forced mental s tate s

a s truly ,
though n ot i n the s ame way a s to the s o cal led ,
-

d i s ti ncti vely acti ve and voluntary states Expre ss e d i n .

popul ar and gurati ve l anguage i t may be s ai d If the , ,

attenti on i s i mpel l ed o r forced sti l l i t i s my attenti on ; I

,

yi el d to the i mpu l s e ; I s ubmi t to the force A n d th i s .

p s ych i cal yi el di n g o r s ubmi s s i on e s peci al ly whe n i t i s ,

accompan i ed by the consci ou s ne ss of str i vi ng to yi el d or not

to yi e ld to s ubmi t o r n ot to s ubmi t i s the conati ve or
, ,
1
vol i ti onal asp e ct o f al l my me ntal l i fe .

Or agai n :
,
The pre s ence of th e a s pect or factor of , ,
conati on m u t be recogni zed i n all p s ych i c fact s
and i n

s ,

a ll d evel opment of p s ychi c faculty To be the s ubject of .

any p sych o s i s i s al ways to s peak roughly to be doi ng

someth i ng E very s en s at i on and i de a every pha s e of chan g e
.
,

1 Psych ol ogy , Desc ript iv e a nd E xpl a nato ry pp

, . 83 f.
88 TH E C O NC E PT OF MIND
ful feel i ng may be s ai d ( with n o u nmeani ng gu re of
,

s peech ) to furn i s h the s ou l wi th a chal le n ge to arouse it s elf

and act ou t i ts own nature o r e xpres s i ts wi l l

, N ay .
,

more ; s o far a s we can Obtai n e vi den ce co n c e rning the very

begi nni ng s of me n tal l i fe c o e t a n eou s w i th the r s t h avi ng
,
-

o f s e n s ati ons and the mos t pri m i ti ve expe ri ence of bei ng

a e c t e d wi th pl ea s urable or pai nful feel i ng s pontane ity of ,

acti ve co n s ci ou s ne ss psyc hi cal d oi ng and stri vi ng may

, ,

be d i s cerned . By conati on we mean t o de s i gnate a

primary and i ndubitable datum of con s c i o u sne s s A ll .

s chi c l if e m a n if e s ts i ts e lf to t he su bj e ct of t h a t l if e a s be i ng ,
p y
in on e o f i ts f u n d a m e n ta l a sp e cts i ts own sp on ta neou s a cti vi ty
,
.

A l l comple x p s ych i c fact s are fully de s cri be d only when we

add t o the phra s e s I have s uch s en s ati on s a n d recogn i ze ,

such object s, and feel a ff ec t ed s o and s o thi s other equally

pe rti nent an d nece s sary decl arati on , I n ow a c t i n th i s or
that way . The ful ly devel ope d p s ychol ogi cal e xpres
s i on for co n ati on i s , then a s fol l ow s : I act and I kn ow that
,

I act , th i s a s truly as I s e e , or hear or feel pl ea s ure or ,

pai n and k n ow th at I have the s en s ati on o r am s ubje ct to

, ,

the plea s ure or pain For p sy chology , acti ve con s ci ou s n e s s

.

i s i denti cal wi th c o n s ci ou s ne ss of acti vi ty Indeed , i f .

a n y statement ba s ed upon pu rely psychol ogi cal ground s and

havi ng to d o w i th the de s cri pti on and e xpl an ati on o f fact s

o f con s ci ou s ne s s a s s uch can b e depended upon
, , i t i s that ,

wh i ch af rm s the conti nual pre s en ce o f conati on as con

s c i ou s n e s s o f activi ty . Indeed he re we re a ch the mo s t
,
1
fundamental of al l p sych i c phe n omena .

Y et agai n : P ri m ary i nte llecti on i s n ot s o much a faculty

i n the sen s e o f be i n g a form of mental l i fe s eparable at ,

l ea s t by a proce s s of ab s tracti on , from othe r mo s t cl osel y

al l i e d form s ; i t i s rathe r that very acti vity wh i ch furn i shes
c ond i ti ons to the formati on of eve ry p sych o s i s as re l ated t o
others i n th e stream of con s ci ou s ne ss ; i t i s the proces s of
1 Psy ch ol ogy D escrip t iv e a nd
,
E xpl an a t o ry pp
, . 21 2, 21 5 , 21 9 .
 TH E C ONC E PT OF M IN D 89

elaborati on in d i s pen s abl e for the formati on of al l faculty .

R egarded a s acti vi ty ( and s o pre emi nently , i t mu s t be ,

-

regarded ) i t i s that form of p s ychi c e nergiz in g whi ch

,

accompl i s hes the elab orati on of al l mate ri al s the organi za ,

ti on of al l proce s s e s and force s the devel opment of the tot a l ,

l i fe of mi nd .E very p s ycho s i s h oweve r ele me n tary ,

and si mpl e s uch p sycho s i s may s eem to be , i s s ometh ing

more than the s u m of the s o called e l e ment s compri s i ng i t
-
,

for e xample s uch a comple x of sen s ati ons such feel ing s
, , ,

s o much conati o n a s content etc,

E ver y sta te of con sci ou s
, .

n e ss is n ot on l
y ca
p a bl e o f bei ng r eg a r d e d on the si d e f
o

p a ssi ve con ten t o f c on sci ou sn e ss, i t m u st a lso be r eg a r de d on

t he s i de f a cti ve d i sc r i m i n a ti ng c on sci ou sn ess

o The very .

term faculti es of th e mi nd i mpl i es d i fferent form s of func
t i on i n g w hi ch con s ciou s n e s s d i s cr i m i n a tes whi le a s si gni ng
them all to the one s ub ject of p sychi cal state s I n eri ti
c i s m of the popular gures o f s peech i t scarcely need be sai d

that con sci ou sn ess r eg a r d e d a s obj e cti vely d i scr i m i n a ted a n d ,

con sci ou sn e s s r eg a r d e d as di scr i m i n a ti ng a c t i vi ty , a re on ly

1
two si d e s , as f one a n d t he sa me con s ci ou s n ess
i t wer e , o .

There i s scant cause for wonde r then th at th o s e psy , ,

ch ol og i s t s wh o deny , o r overl ook o r e ve n unduly mi ni mi ze ,

th i s conati ve aspect of al l con s c i ou s ne s s s houl d nd n o evi

J

de nce of the pre s ence o f a n acti ve age n t i n the phenom -

en a of consci ou s ne s s H e nce ari s e s o m

. e of the mo s t e xtreme
Opi ni on s of a p s ych ol ogy that whether s tud i ed a s an e m pi r i
,

cal s ci enc e or a s a rati onal s y s t e m o f a ss umpti on s and

i nfe rence s regard i ng the ulteri or e xpl anati on s of mental phe
momena thi nk s to d i s pen s e wi th the s o cal l ed Sou l o r M i nd
,
-
.

Ju s t a s l i ttl e rea s on f o r wonder i s there that peopl e gener

a l ly take no account of the negati ve o r agn o s ti c metaphy s i cs
wh i ch re s ult s from s o defective an empi ri cal s ci ence ; they
cann ot even comprehend what i t m e a n s For h oweve r l ittl e .

the p sychol ogi cal ly u ni nstructe d m an may be abl e to tel l i n

1 S ee P ych l gy
s o o , Desc ript iv e an d E xpl a na to ry pp, . 288 f .
 90 THE C ONCE P T OF M IN D
an i ntell i gi bl e and defe n s ibl e way what he mean s by speak ,

i ng of hi m s el f a s havi ng or be ing a s oul or a m i nd what

, , ,

he does re al ly mean i s chi ey due to th i s u na s sai labl e fact

of h i s con s c i ousne s s of acti vity To be d oi ng s ometh i ng
.
,

an d to be aware of i t , th i s i s the ve ry e xperi ence on the

V
b a s i s of whi ch ch i ey , me n constru ct the i r co n cepti on of th e
,

S elf ; an d they c oul d perhap s ea s i er tel l what they mean

, ,

by bei ng a m i nd w ith n o de nite conte nt of s en s ati on ,

feel i ng i deati on o r thought , than w ith n o deni te form of

, ,

agency o r con s ci ous acti vi ty attri butabl e to thi s Sel f But .

Of al l thi s , i n s o far as i t i s warranted and dema n ded by the

phenomen a of c on s ci ou s ne ss we s hal l speak l ater on
, .

A nothe r i mportant fal lacy whi ch Often profou ndly i n u

m
,

m m i nd but whi ch ori gi nate s i n a

,

defecti ve p s ychol ogi cal sci ence concerns the very nature of ,

concepti on i tself On the on e hand i t i s often a s s umed

.
,

that to have any concepti on of a S e lf or M i n d i mpl i es s ome ,

actual envi s a gement of a pure s pi ri tual Be i ng that s ome , ,

h ow pr e s ent s i tsel f to i tsel f a s a s tati cal Obj ect ( a t lea s t i f ,

o n e coul d o n ly t hi n k i n l ofty non s e n s uou s

, ,
and s tre n u ou s-
,

fa s h i on enough ) for i ts own contempl ati on From thi s fal se .

and gho stly p sychol ogy emerges al l the mo s t h i gh and dry

d octri ne of Subject and Object Of Subj e ct Obj ect etc , to ,
-
,
.

d i s port it s elf before a gapi ng c rowd of s pe ctator s i n the

metaphysi cal show room -
The spectator s are r e qu i red to
.

recogn i ze thei r own c oncrete warm b l ood e d and sen s uou s

,
-
,

s elve s a s d uly repre s ented i n s u ch pal e gh ost s o f ab s tract

thi nki n g Th i s of course H an s and B ri dget and even

.
, , ,

many an othe r s omewhat m ore advance d i n the s tudy of

p s ych ol ogi cal phenomena than the s e nd i t qu ite i mpo s s ibl e ,

to d o . The reupon the advocate s Of p sychol ogy wi th out a

s oul mak e a rally i n the i r tu rn ; they thi nk t o captu re
and h ol d i n e x cl u s i ve po s sess i on th e theatr e i f only they ,

can succe ed i n d ri vi ng ou t su ch ghost s as th e s e Thi s feat .

of expuls ion they expe ct t o accompl i s h by the s trange e x pe

 TH E C ONC EPT OF M IN D 91

di ent of cha s i ng the m round and round i n front of a n d ,

behi nd the s en s uou s paraphernal i a of the pl ace the e ff ort ,

be ing to kee p the m pe rpetual ly wanderi n g from p i l lar to

po s t : as though the thi ng ( rst both i n ti me and i n i mpor
t a nce ) f or the psych ol ogi s t s of both partie s to d o were n ot to
ackn owledge that the s e al leged product s of abstract thi nk i ng
are i ndeed nothing bette r than g hosts But then ( next i n .

ti me and not les s i n degre e of i mportance ) comes the n e ce s

s i ty of s howi ng the real iti es whe nce such gho s t s ari s e For .

nothi ng can be cl earer than th at i f there are n o real i ti e s

, ,

the n there are no ghostly s emblances or representati ves of

r eal i ti es M en d o not dream of th i ngs of whi ch they have
.

absol utely n o knowledge i n waki ng l i fe .

The proce dure wh i ch lead s the advocate of empi ri cal

psycholo gy without the a ss umpti on of a s oul to the c o n
elus i on that there real ly i s n o s oul n ot i nfreque ntly takes
the fol l owi n g cour s e : S o ofte n a s I ex am i ne any actual ,

concrete s tate of my con s ci ous mental l i fe I nd there n o ,

enti ty that nee d be calle d t he soul or the m i nd ; I nd only

the e ver pre s ent s ensati on i de a or thought A n d i f I try
-
, , .

to gr a sp an d hol d the present p s ycho s is i n orde r to s e e ,

whethe r i n some parti cu lar form i t may not seem to gi ve

, ,

unmi s t a k able evi dence of the pre s ence of a re al be i ng for

the Se l f ,the n that whi ch i ndub i tably ex i sts ( namely the ,

present sen s ati on , i dea or th ought ) h a s s l i pped from me ,

,

and h a s gi ve n place to a new and change d con s ci ou s state .

But the s ame thi ng fol l ows i n the case of thi s ne w a n d changed
consci ou s state It t oo i s only k nowabl e as a wave ri si n g
.
, , ,

and fal l i ng i n the s tream of con s ci ou s ne s s Indeed i n

, .
,

s peaki ng of what I am s o far as I can ca t ch my r e al and

,

concrete sel f i n con s ci ou s ne ss a s a con s ci ou s phen omenon

, ,

an d s o as admi tting of sci enti c de s cri pti on n ot to say ,

explanati on
the very term stre am of con s ci ou s ness i s
,

a gro ss exag gerati on of the quasi perman ent characte r of -

th i s I or Self For a str e a m i mpl i e s pe rmanent banks
, .
92 TH E C O N C E PT OF M IN D

that r e a l ly e x i sti n g gi ve di recti on to a n d make pos s ibl e

, ,

the ex i s tence of the s tream M ore over every s tream e x i s ts

.
,

as a n actu al succe s s i on of s i multaneou s ly e x i s ting part s ; i t

e xi s ts al l at once a s a stream co n si s ti n g of se cti on s wi th
, ,

vary i ng depth s and d i fferent di stu rbance s of the surface

throughout i ts enti re l ength But i t i nvolves a compl e t e .

mi s u s e of th e g ure of speech to call the succe s s i ve states

of consci ousne s s a stream as though any s uch perma
,

nen cy an d r e al ity of e x i stence as th i s were i mpl i ed for the

total ity Of thi s succe s s i on In thi s S O cal l ed stream of c on
.

s c i ou s n e s s e ach se cti o n each wave comes i nt o bei ng only

, ,

a s th e ne xt pre c e di ng ce a s e s t o be ; so too d i d tha t nex t

p re ced i ng on e come i nto i ts bei ng ; s o wi ll the ne xt and yet

th e n ext succeedi ng wave begi n to be Wh ere then S hal l we .
, ,

n d n o matter how cl osely we search any re al i ty an s wer

, ,

i ng to th i s cti on of a permanent sub ject of ch angi n g states ,

that i s , of a real bei ng f or the M i n d ; someth ing m ore

,

than or ove r and ab ove the passi n g bei ng i n cea s ele s s su c

, , ,

ce ss i on o f th e consci ou s s tate s ?
,

The di s cu s s i on of the metaphys i cal problem s rai s ed by thi s

faithful descri pti on Of the psych i c fact s wi l l be attempte d
i n du e ti me For th e prese n t however on e m ay adm i t th e
.
, ,

t ruthfuln ess of s uch a de s cri pti on without any great d i s tress .

Or at any rate ri s i ng s of d i s tr e s s ful fe e l i n g may be par

, ,

t i a l l y all ayed i f on e wi l l keep two o r three i mportant truth s

i n m i n d It i s hard to s e e how the real ity of the S ou l i f
.
,

only on e i s to adm i t that t he re i s such a re al i ty l o s es any ,

o f i ts i ntere s t o r val u e by a co n fe ss i on of th e general truth

ful ne ss of s u ch a pi cture of one s e xperi ence s w i t h one s self

a s h a s ju s t been drawn On e m i ght i ndeed ; a sk o f any

.
,

stream of c onsci ou s nes s that appeare d at the court of met a

phy s i c s as a candi date f or admi s si on to th e k i ngdom of
real ity ( an d th i s not i n pure faceti ou s ne s s ) : What k i nd of
re a l ity othe r than thi s d o you then i ndeed wa n t ? W oul d , ,

the soul i tse lf choo s e t o be any other ki nd of a real s tream

 TH E C ON C E P T OF M IN D 93

than ju s t thi s ? W oul d i t prefe r to e x i s t a s s oul , i n i ts

,

e nti re p s ychi cal l e n gth l ike a meadow brook or a mi gh ty

,

r i ver at on e and t h e same i n s tant of ti me ?

,

But i t i s not ou r pre s ent purpo s e to m i ni ster to a m i nd

d i s ea s ed with metaphy s i cal agno sti c s by the cure of whol e
,
1 -

some l aughte r W e w i s h rather to S h ow that to e xpect any

.

envi sage m ent of the pure be ing of mi nd t o tak e pl ace i s t o

,
mi s tak e the very nature of the proce s s of concepti on i tself ;
and thi s n ot pri mari ly from a metaphy s i cal but rathe r from a
,

s cie nti c a n d p sychol ogi cal poi nt o f v iew N or i s the concept

.

of m i nd the only s uff e re r when such demand s are made upon

con s c i ou s ne s s to furni s h , i n proof of i ts real ity, s om e i n

stance Of a concrete pre s entati on of the real ity as an ob j ect
f or i t s elf . The s ame thi ng i s true of eve ry concept Of ,
-

th e concept of the mo s t real materi al e x i s tence s a s wel l a s of ,

the mo s t ghostly concept o f pure s pi ri tual be i ng s o cal led .

For the i ndub itable p s ychol ogi cal truth here perti nent i s
th at concepti on i t s elf i s only a comple x form of mental
functi oning ; i t i s al ways a proce s s i nvolving a succe s s i on
o f p s ych o s e s rel ated to each other u nde r law s o f the l i fe of

i deati on and of thought L et on e ran s ack i n the s ame wa y

.

one s con s c i ou s ne s s for one s c oncept of a hor s e a d og a

, ,

tre e or a s tar ; l et the chemi s t ran s ack h i s consc i ousne s s

,

for h i s c oncept of an atom o r o f s ome parti cul ar c ombi na

,

ti on of atom s ; the phys i ol ogi s t h i s for h i s concept of s ome

,

bodi ly fu n cti on or product of bod i ly functi on s and ne ith er

,

of the s e s earcher s wi ll eve r come face to face wi th the k i nd

o f object whi ch he seeks .H ere i s whe re the fal s e p sycho

logi cal theo ry Of conceptua l i s m h a s do n e a s much harm to
a real i s ti c metaphy s i c s of m i nd a s h a s been d on e by an
agno s ti ci s m whi ch deni e s the po ss i bi l i ty of havi ng any
metaphy s i c s at all .

R e s pect i ng the p s ychol ogi cal the ory of c oncepti on a s ,

ba s ed upon th e actual fact s of con s ci ou s nes s we are the n ,

forced to the fol l owi ng conclu s i on s : C oncepts , judgment s

,
94 TH E C O N C E PT OF MIN D
an d trai n s of reas oni ng are them s el ve s i n actual i ty only , ,

"
1
establ i s he d forms of th e move ment o f me n tal l i fe The .

de s cri pti o n an d e x planati on Of them whateve r they may

be concepts of , or judgment s a bou t or trai n s of r e asoni n g ,

lead i ng to be long to the m orph ol ogy of i ntel l e ctual l i fe

an d d e vel opment " Or , agai n : C on cepti on judgment and

.
, ,

re a s oni ng mu s t al l be re ga rded a s actual fo rm s Of p s ycho s es

i n the owi ng s tream of consci ou s ness ; th e rathe r d o we
desi gnate by these word s c er ta i n su cce ssi on s of p sy choses
whi ch d er i v e t hei r f r om the n a tu r e of the i r
c ha r a cte r i sti cs
se u e n ce a n d of t he l a ws or fi x e d f or m s ) whi ch a r e s h own by
q , (
2
the s ta te s qf con sci ou sn e ss i n thi s se qu e n ce Of conce pti on .

i n general , a p sych ol ogi cal the ory wh i ch h a s regard to the

actual phen ome na of c on s c i ou s ne s s compe ls u s to h o l d that

i ts proces s i s a u ni on of the repr od ucti ve functi on of con
s c i ou sn e s s wi th th e th i nk i n g functi on , the e s sence of the
3
l atte r bei ng th e act Of ju dgi ng Thu s the p sychol ogi cal .

un i ver s al i ty of the proce s s of concepti on i s found t o consi st

i n the con s ci ou s ne s s that we are mental ly repre s enti n g as
bel onging togethe r a s real ly related what i s give n i n
, ,

sense and i magi nati on as mani fol d ; that we are mental ly

representi ng a s i denti cal what i s e x per ienced i n pre s enta
ti on a s vari ou s, i n re s pect Of place a n d ti me an d othe r
content s without th i s vari ety it s e lf be i ng brought i nto
,

con s ci ou s ne s s To d i s c ove r the pecul i ar chara cte r o f the
.

reproducti ve functi on wh i ch bel ongs to the proce s s of
concepti on , th e empi ri cal s ci ence of p s ych ol ogy mu s t con
s i de r the change s that go on i n the proce s s es of representa

ti ve i mage mak i ng and that are k now n a s the fu s i on
-
, ,

con den s ati on a n d freei n g of th e s e mental i mage s o r
,

4
i dea s. Whi l e the psych ol ogi cal natu re of the th i nk i ng
functi on of the acti vi ty of judgi ng wh i ch e nte r s i nto al l
, ,

P sych ol o gy , Desc riptiv e an d E xpl a n at o ry p

, . 43 0 .

1 Ibi d p 43 7
.
, . .
3 Ibi d pp
.
, . 4 39 f.

4 C m p ibi d h pt r x ii
o . .
, c a e s . a nd xiii .
 TH E C O N C E PT OF M IN D 95

actual proce s s e s of concepti on i s u nder s tood only whe n we

,

note that judgi ng too i s a proce s s

, ,
to S peak gurati vely , ,

an d that the synthes i s of j udgment i s accompl ishe d by

a flow i n determi nate d i recti on of the s tream of consci ous
, ,

nes s i ntell i gently u n iti ng t wo succes s i ve waves of th i s

,

s tream s o that they be long together unde r the l aws whi ch

1
gove rn the whol e .

Ps ychologi cal ly con s i dered , the n i t i s a fool i sh questi on to ,

ask whethe r we can i ndeed i mmedi ately e nvi sage or other ,

w i s e come t o a knowl edge of the Ego , M i nd Soul , or S elf

, , ,

a s a pure and change le s s Be i ng a sort of s tati cal and ,

abstract object for its own se lf contemplati on To r ea li ze -
.

such a concept of m i nd i t woul d be nece s sary t o change the

e s senti al nature of m i nd a s i t i s capabl e of , and actually e x e r
c ise s the comple x funct i on of concepti on But , then , the c on
, .

cept of mi nd i s at no pecul i ar d i sadvantage i n the s e regard s .

If on e i s a ske d to conce i ve of any be i ng wh ateve r i n th i s way ,

o r els e requ i red to rel i nqui s h al l con dence i n the real i ty ,

uni ty, and i dentity Of s uch be i ng wh y then one can only , , ,

take the l atte r cou rse But i t i s a s hal low an d i m s y

.

psych ologi cal s ci ence whi ch can propose such an alte rnati ve
as th i s : e i the r n o metaphy s i c s o r e l s e a metaphy s i c s whi ch
,

the e xami nati on of f undamental p s ychi c fact s renders ab s urd .

Th e bearin g s o f al l thi s upon the ph i l o s ophy of mi nd wi l l be

e xam i ned i n due ti me B ut i n treati n g of the conce pt of
.

m ind a s an actual and i nconte s table phe nomenon o f commo n

human con s ci ou s nes s the ca s e mu s t n ot b e pre jud i ced at the
,

b e gi n n i ng by a false p s ychol ogi cal the ory of the nature

o f concepti on i t s el f .

w
A a s fal lacy , whi ch t o o often warp s a n d
dwarfs the ph i l osoph i cal the ory of the real nature and rel a
ti ons o f mi nd i s a false or i nadequate vi e w of k nowl edge
,
.

For se lf knowl edge i f i t can neve r be more than k nowledge

-
, ,

ce rt a i nly need n ot, as a m atte r of cou r s e be les s If the re ,

.

1 Psych ol og y ,
D esc rip tiv e a nd E xpl a na to ry p
, . 4 47 .
 96 TH E C O N C E PT OF M IN D
is any on e subj ect i n the co n s i de rati on of whi ch specul ati ve
theory on th e on e hand h a s c ut i t s el f fre e from an e x a m i
, ,

nati on o f the u ndoubte d p sych i c fact s a nd on the other , ,

hand all eged sci e nti c de s cri pti on and ex pl anati on of c on

,

s c i o u s n es s h a s ob s cu red the m ore i mportant facts i t i s th i s ,

s ubj ect o f kn owledge H ence i mmortal work s on th e Theory

.

of K nowledge , s uch a s Kant s Kri ti k de r re i ne n Vernunft
,

and Fi ch te s vari ou s treati s e s on

W i s s enschaftsl eh re ,

wh i ch s oar al oft upon the w i n g s of S pecul a ti on i n far too

job v i ou s di s regard o f a c t u a l and concrete phe nomen a o f knowl

e dge . H ence als o tho s e d e ci dedly m ortal and de s ervedly

peri sh able es s ays i n p s ychol ogi cal s ci ence wh i ch get n o
further i n the i r e xam i n ati on of the phe nome n a than t o
recogn i ze the sensati onal and i mage mak i ng factor s o f that -

k nowledge of one s s elf whi ch come s through the s en s e s

.

But k nowledge i t s elf i s a p sy cho s i s ; i t i s a mental

phe nomen on demandi n g descri pti on a n d e xplanati on at the
hand s Of th e s tude n t o f s ci enti c p sychol ogy A nd i f the
'

adequate e xplanati on cannot be found i n any p s ych o phy s i cal -

o r phy s i ol ogi cal o r stati sti cal re s e arche s , why then s o much , ,

th e worse for the i r al lege d s ati sfactori nes s a s th e o n ly truly

sci enti c s ource s of psych ol ogy It i s true that p s ych o
.

l ogi cal sci ence l i ke al l s ci ence as s ume s knowl e d ge i ts

, , ,

po s s i bi l i ty i t s actual po ss e s s i on e tc
,
B ut th i s a ss umpti on
,
.

i t s el f l ike the phe n omenon a s s um e d i s al so a me ntal phe

, ,

n om e n on N ay m ore and m u
.
,
c h m ore
,
K n ow l e dg e " thi s .

hi s ju s t the o n e al l i mportant mental phen omenon ; thi s i s

we mi ght s a y wi th warrant th e al l embraci ng pe rf ectly -
,

patent and yet deeply my s teri ou s me n tal ph enomenon

, ,
.

A n d wh en you h ave de s cri bed an d expl ai ned i t you nd

your s elf to have de s cribe d a n d explai ned a t l ea s t a s
i nd i rectl y i ncl uded i n i t al l th e factor s and pha s es of
me n tal l i fe an d mental devel opment What h o weve r can .
, ,

b e expecte d of a s o calle d s ci en ti c p s ych ol ogy wh i ch h a s no

-
j

s ati s factory s ci ence of tho s e psychoses calle d act s or
 TH E C ONC E PT OF M IN D 97

states of knowl edge to propo s e ? If i t i nade q uately recog

n i zes
,
or expl ai n s away or d e ni e s the fact s of al l knowl
,

edge , and th e i mme di ate i nferences i mpl i cated i n tho s e

fact s w i l l i t be l ikely to s erve a s a sati sfactory basi s for
,

e s tabl i s hi ng the truths of se lf knowle dge ? -

No w that k nowledge i s a p sych i cal fact cannot be d e n i e d y

,

w i t hout a ss umi ng i t ; for th i s a ss umpti on i s of c our s e , ,

.

i nvol ve d i n the very propo s al to have any s ci ence at al l .

A nd that sel f k nowl edge i s a psych i cal fact cannot be den i ed ,

-

without a ss umi ng i t ; for th i s a ss umpti on too i s i nvolved i n

the very propo s al to have any p s ychol ogi cal s c i ence at al l .

H ere agai n we are met with the convi cti on how i nane and
futil e i s the propo s al to pur s u e s ci ence wi th a perfect freedom
from all metaphysi cal or ontol ogi cal a ss u mpti o n s what e ver ;
how pecul i arly i nane and futi l e i s the pr Op os a l to free p s ycho
l ogical s ci ence from al l ontol ogi cal a ss ump t i ons wi th re s pect
to the re al i ty uni ty and i dentity of the s e call ed Sel f or
, ,
-
,

M i nd " For th i s i s t he ( though not the only ) di s ti ngui sh i n g

feature of the p s ycho s i s call ed k nowledge , that i t i s f

eve n when regarde d a s mere phenome n on ne ce s s ari ly s een ' ,

to be ontol ogi cal .

The act i vi ty of k n owi ng cann ot be performe d w ithout i n

vol vi ng the e nvi s agement or the val i d i nference of , real i ty

,
.

A cti vity whi ch fal ls i n any way sh ort of th i s i s s omethi ng

le s s than knowl edge The Object of k . n ow le dg e cannot be

pre s e ntati vely or representati vely , or i nferenti ally b rought

, ,

i nto con s ci ou s ne s s cannot ex i s t at al l a s me ntal object

, ,

wi thout i mpl i catin g the real ity of that wh i ch i s thu s Ob je c

t i v e l y known
. To be an Object of k nowle dge i s to be real ly ,

here and n ow or the n an d there for the knowi n g mi nd

, ,
.

M e ntal acti viti es o r proc e s s e s there may be wh i ch d o not

reach real ity , s u ch as the S O cal led havi ng of s e nsati on s
-
,

of me n tal i mages or of feel i ng s o r the conducti ng o f tr a i n s

, ,

of pu re th ought or the creati on of bare i deal s o r the hol d

, ,

i ng a n d cheri shi ng of mere bel iefs but th e y are not ,

proces s e s o f knowledge .
 98 TH E C O N C E PT OF M IN D
And to be an Obj ect of knowledge i s t o be k nown a s real ;
whateve r mu s t b e s ai d about objects of i magi nati on , of
thought a n d b el i ef of the opi ni n g and the e ndeavor of the
,

mi nd Fi nal ly, when the acti vi ty consi dered as p sycho s i s

.
,

from th e p s ychol ogi cal poi nt of v i ew, i s an acti vi ty of

l
S O calle d s elf kn owing
- -
i ts fundame ntal characteri s ti cs a s
,

fk n ow l e dg e a re i n n o respect s changed When the object of .

Ik n owl e dg e i s the s o cal led Self o r M i nd or Ego i t s funda

-
, , ,

" me n tal characteristi c s a s obj ect constituted an d kno wn by

,

the k n owi ng proces s are i n no re s pect cha n ged

, .

The ve ry e ff ort fai thful ly to de s cri be and analyti cal ly to

ex pl ai n the mental phenomena of k nowledge whi ch a ,

genui ne a n d thorough p s ychol ogi cal s ci ence requ i re s lead s ,

us to such conclu s i ons as fol low : Two i mporta n t general
con s i derati ons al most uni formly overl ooked by psych ol o
gi s ts concern the sci enti c descripti on of cogn iti ve s tates
of consci ou s ness ( 1 ) They are reache d as the re s ul t of a
.

course Of devel opment F r om the p sy cholog i ca l p oi n t of vi ew

.

k wl
no e dg e d e v e lop m en t
is a A n d ( 2) Thi s p a r ti cu la r
.

d ev el op m en t, w hi c h w e c a ll
k
n owl e dg e , i n volv e s a ll t he a c ti v i

ti es of t he m i n d
1
M ore parti cul arly, knowl edge i mpl i e s

the e xerci s e of every form of i n te llectu a l acti vi ty Kn owl .

1 edge i mpl i es the havi ng of sen s ati on s and the m ental act of
,

d i s cri m i nati ng among them ; but to know i s s omethi ng more

than me rely to be s en s u ou s ly a ff e cted i n vari ous d i s c r i m i
nab l e ways Kn owledge also i mpl i es memory and i magi n a
.

ti on ; but to know i s n ot merely to have mental i mages ,

whethe r id enti ed or not w ith previ ou s pre s entati ve e x pe r i

e n ce . A gain no kn owledge i s pos s i bl e u nl e ss the faculty
,

Of judgme nt i s Operati v e ; unl e s s relati ng acti vity wh i ch i s

'

of the very e ss ence of kn owl edge i s prom inent i n the p s ych i ,

cal proce s s A n d yet we ri ghtly di sti ngu i sh betwe en the

.

mo s t el aborate an d h i ghl y devel oped l ogi cal th i nk in g and

wh at we cal l k n owledge of thi ngs or of Self Not the .

ych ol ogy D escript iv e a n d E xpl nat ory p 5 09

1 P s a . .
, ,
 THE C ON C E P T OF M IND 99

S i mple s t act of k nowledge can re s t upon l ogi cal conclus i on

alone It i s obvi ous then that cog n i ti on i n v olve s t he c om
J
-
.
, ,

bi n e d a c ti v i ty a n d d e ve lop m en t of a ll i n te llec ti ve i f th i
( s
1
word may be used i n s o general a s i gn i cance ) f a cu lty .

But knowledg e a s a p sychosi s i s not an a ff ai r of the

, ,

i ntellect al one ; i t i s a n a ffai r of fe e l ing and w i l l a s we l l .

N or does such feel ing always operate upon the i ntel lect by
an i nuence that i s separabl e i n ti me On the contrary the .
,

real total fact ( the actual psychi c fact ) i s that the thi ng i s
k n own to be wh at i t i s both f e l t and j u dg e d to be The .

i n uence of feel i ng on i ntell ect i s n ot then i nuence merely , ,

from on e faculty upon an other e xternal to i t a s i t were , .

The rath e r do t he so c a l le d f a cu lti e s of i n te llec t a n d f ee li ng .

-

bl en d i n a l l c og n i ti on , a n d t he c om j l
p le x r e su l t t he v er
y ob ec t

of k n owl e dg e i s d e t er m i n e d by both Pr e emi nentl y ' .

-

true i s i t that we mu s t stri ve and d o must w i l l an d re al i ze the ,

re s ults Of conati on i f we are to gai n and t o devel op knowl

,

edge The psychol ogy Of attenti on as the determ i ner and

.

di rector of al l knowl edge s ugge s t s thi s truth ,

A ny .

on e o f u s m ay e xperi ence i t concretely by an s we ri ng the

chal lenge wh i ch eve ry r ea l ob ject of s ense percepti on offer s -

to u s : DO you wi sh t o k
n ow ( n ot Op i ne o r gue ss o r S p ecu , ,

l a t i v e l y thi nk ) that I am and what I am ? then c ome an d try

,

your w i l l agai nst m e The s ame th i ng i s true of self knowl

.
-

edge A s say s G oethe : H ow can a man l e arn to know
.

hi m s elf By reecti on neve r only by act i on ,

P al e i mage s .

and dre am s or abstract thought ab out s uch d ream l ike

,
-

th i ngs i s al l that s ensati on and i ntel lect coul d gi ve u s if

, ,

we were not be i ngs of wi ll stand i ng i n i mmed i ate rel ati on s

to a compl i cated mu s cul ar s y s tem Indeed i t i s l a rg e ly if .
,

n ot c hi e
y y b w i l l i ng a n d ex
p e r i en c i ng t h e r e a c ti on a r
y
e e c ts

of k
w i l li ng , t ha t w e ha ve a ny n owle dg e of Th i ng s or S e lf
2
.

On e o f the m ost profoun d p sych ol ogi cal fal lac i e s wh i ch

unde rl i e s the two C ri ti que s of K ant ( both the K riti k de r

1 P
y h sl gc
y Deo o
scrip,t iv e n d E xpl n t ryap 5 1 0 2 Ibi d
a pp 5 1 1 f
a o , . . .
, . .
 1 00 TH E C ON C E P T OF M IN D

r e i n e n Ve rnunft and the Kriti k der prakti s chen Ver
,

n u n f t ) i s a fal s e d i s ti n cti on b e twee n faith a n d knowledge .

For faith iSM d Of,b y thi s great thi nke r a s s eparated

M

from a n d Oppo s e d to kn owledge ; a n d kno wledge i s s uppo s ed

to be removed w ith re gard to certai n Object s i n ord e r that
room may be found for faith But th e u n doubted p sychi c .

fact the Obvi ous characte ri s ti c of the p s ycho s i s a s s uch mu s t

( ,

be s tated a s foll ow s : Knowl edge i nvolve s be l i e f i n real i ty ;
a n d i t i s ju s t thi s wh i ch ch i e y d i sti ngui s he s k nowledge

from m e re i magi ni n g rememberi ng or thi nk ing a s such

, , ,
.

When we k n ow any Object i t i s n ot mere ly a s Object for the

,

knowi ng proce ss but as a be i n g ex i s ti ng i n s ome state
, ,

that we k now i t W hen th e bel i ef or co n vi cti on attachi ng

.

i t s elf, a s i t were to the real ity of the b ei ng becomes s u f

,

c i e n t l y clear and s trong then on e m ay say I k,

n ow the ,

object an d may s a y th i s w ith an e mpha s i s beari ng s ome

,

proporti on to the s tre n gth of the bel i ef The S pe ci c .

character of thi s bel i ef i n contra s t wi th othe r bel i efs, may

,

be brought ou t by c al l i ng i t m e taphy s i cal A n d s i nce i t .

i s not a parti cul ar acqui red bel i ef, but bel ongs t o the very
nature of knowledge a s s uch i t m ay be calle d rati onal
,

and i n s ti ncti ve I n bri ef then wi t hou t t hi s r a ti on a l a n d y e t

.
, ,

i n sti n c ti ve m e tap hy si c a l be l i ef , p sy c holog i c a l a n a ly si s s hows

t ha t k n owl e dg e i s i m o ss i bl e
p I n mai .n tai n i n g that a

metaph y s i cal fai th l i e s at th e ba s i s of al l the e x i s tence an d

devel opme n t of hu man k n owledge we o n ly state a fact a s ,

sci enti c p sychology nd s i t a n d i s obl ige d to l eave i t for ,

1
ph i lo s ophy i f p o s s i bl e to expl ai n .

If n o w thus much of prel i mi n ary d i s cu ss i on may be

, ,

reg a r d e d as d oi n g a way w i th c e rtai n current n egati ve an d

agn o s ti c conclu s i o n s re s pecti n g the nature and val i d i ty Of
th e proce s s o f conc e pti on and al s o a s e s tabl i s hi n g on a ba s i s
,

o f p s ychol ogi cal sci e n ce certai n poi n t s of v i e w from wh i ch

clearly to d i s cern the more p o s i ti ve truths re s pecti ng the

y h l gy D scrip t iv n d E xpl to ry pp 5 13 5 1 4 f
1 Ps c o o e e a a na
, , .
, .
 TH E C ON C E P T OF M IN D 1 01

same subject ther e i s n o nee d t o dwel l l ong i n furthe r

,

detai ls of expo s iti o n A de s cripti on of the ori gin n a t u r e, q,

4
.
,

deve lopment and s i gni cance of the concept of m i nd a s an

, ,

actual p s ycho s i s i s bou n d to i nclude the followi n g parti en

,

l ars : That s tate o r activi ty of mental l ife from wh i ch th i s

, ,

co n cept i s deri v e d and to wh i ch i t return s as i t were

,

w i th eve r ri cher contributi o n s Of content to the same s tate

o r acti vi ty , i s called se lf c o n s ci ou s ne s s I n every act of
-
.

s e lf con s ci ou s n e ss howeve r some den itely d i s cern ible con

-
, ,

tent of s en s ati o n Of i magi n i ng o f thi n k i ng a n d of feel ing

, , ,

i s to be found Every s uch act i s ther e fore a consci ou s ne s s

.
, ,

o f s ome compl ex s tate a s a s tate o f havi ng such s en s ati on s ,

,

i mage s thought s a n d feel i ngs ; a n d al l the s e s o far as each

, , ,

state of con s ci ou s n e s s can be de s c ribed c on te n t wi se -

.

M oreover there are ce rtai n k i n d s of s e n s ati on s wh i ch s ee m

,

to s tand i n a pe cul i ar l y i nti mate and re lati vely i nseparabl e

relati on to the content of every a ct of s e lf con s ci ou s ne ss -
.

The s e are , ch i e y e ither s uch s en s ati o n s a s are o n ly

,

Ob s curely l ocal i zabl e although they bel o n g to pecul i arly

,

i n t r a or g a n i c and vi tal proce ss es ; or th e y are s u ch a s are

found to accompany al l the s o call ed pure acti vi ti e s of -

m i nd on account of thei r conn e cti on with the xati on an d

,

r e d i s tributi on of attenti o n a n d wi th the feeli ngs of e ff ort ,

w hi ch cu s tomari ly accompany the s e proc e s s e s ; or agai n , ,

they a re s uch as hav e a s tro n g ton e of plea s u rabl e or pai n

ful fe e l i ng wh i ch fo rbi d s, for the ti me b e i ng the Obj e cti ve ,

refer e nce of the se n s ati o n ele me n t s of co n s ci ou s ne ss and s o

-
,

co mp e l s or favor s th e s ubjecti ve refe re nce o f the s e el ements

,

to the E g o a s i ts s tate s
, .

Fu rt he rmore i n the vari ou s concrete acts of s el f con

,
-

s c i ou s n e s s ,e ithe r of th e s e d i ff e re n t cl a s s e s of s e n s a ti ons
( s ometi mes on e and s omet i me s anothe r ) may be rel ati v e ly
empha s i z e d i n the comple x s e n s ati on co n te nt of con s ci ous -

ne s s H e n c e d i ff e rent organ s of th e body g e t p e r s on i ed

.

and i denti e d w ith the S elf, or Soul , bu t on ly w i th i t a s

 1 02 TH E C ON C E P T OF M IND
ha vi ng su ch a con cr e te and f p a r ti cu la r
of ex
p er i e n ce or m .

Thu s s ometi me s it i s the heart that fe el s j oy o r sorrow ;

agai n i t i s the bowel s th at are s ti rred w ith a n ge r or a ppe

t ite ; yet agai n , i t i s the head that i s l ofty wi th pri de , or
i s ca s t d own wi th humi l ity , etc D i ffere nt i nd i vi dual s , t oo
.
,

on account of characteri sti c d i fference s o f temperament or

Of e xperience , become c u stomarily consci ous of s elf a s c on

c r e t e l y de ne d by d i f ferent form s of the s en s ati on content of -

con s ci ou s ne ss H ow th i s p s ychol ogi cal l aw Operates i s i l lus

.

t r a t e d i n a ve ry i n tere s ti n g way by the ca s e of ch i l dre n If .

we que s ti on the m to nd ou t what they chi ey unde rstand

t b y th e

I or the M e o r the Self whi ch they se t f or

,

t hem s elves a s b oth subj ect and object of any s e ntence

decl arati ve of the i r s e lf consc i ous e xperi ences they are
-
,

found to vary i t s bo d i ly l ocal i zati on accord ing to the con

crete form of acti vity of wh i ch they are by s elf con s ci ou s ,
-

ne s s for the ti me bei ng aware W i th th e I that l oves
, .

they i d enti fy the embraci ng arm s the s wel li ng heart and , ,

the l i ps u s e d for k i s s e s ; wi th the 1 that ha te s, the s e t
t e eth the clenched s ts , an d the s wel l ing chest and heart
, ,

i nto wh i ch the hatre d h a s p oured it s el f, as i t were S o too .

, ,

i n adult e xperi e nce th at part of the ve ry s elf of wh i ch f or

,

the ti me bei ng on e s eem s most con s ci ous changes accordi ng ,

t o the characteri s ti cs Of the more o r le ss de nitely l ocal i zed

sen s ati on content of the parti cul ar ex peri e n ce U nde r bod ily
-
.

su ff ering I am w ith th e l arge r part of my very self, su e r i n g

,

w i th the pai n now i n my head , now i n my abdomen and ,

now i n my back Thu s t o o a s we may faceti ou s ly s a y the

.
, , ,

s elf co n s ci ou s ne s s o f the dy s pepti c i s chi ey the con s ci o u s

-

ne ss of h i s own d i s ordered st omach and d i ge s ti ve canal ; b u t

the s elf con s ci ou s ne ss of the man w i th d i s ea s e of th e heart
-

i s the con s ci ou s ne ss of the l abore d and i rregu l ar acti on of

thi s organ .

Once m ore that i nd i vi dual i zati on of Self wh i ch ch arac

, ,

t e r i ze s the self consci ou s ne s s of A from that of B i s ,

-
 TH E C ON C E P T OF M IN D 1 03

undoubtedly , i n no s mal l degre e a matter of d i ff erent k i nds

Of s e n s a t i on con t ent
-
For what e ach S elf i s to i ts e lf i s n o
.

l es s truly d i fferent than what e ach Self i s to some othe r s e lf .

Yet , further, s o changed may the sensati on content of the -

ex peri ence of self con s c i ou s n e ss become e ithe r i n l apse of

-
,

con s i derabl e ti me or w i th comparati ve suddenne s s that on e ,

may empha s i ze the change by s ayi ng I see m to myse lf ,

a nothe r Self from that wh i ch I once was W ith the chang .

ing age of the i ndi vi dual the changi ng characteri s ti cs of race

,

hered i t y and rac e envi ronment and the changi ng degree s

-
,

and form s of cul ture thi s form of the co ntent whi ch

, ,

bel o n g s to al l s e lf con s ci ousness , may greatly enlarge or

-

d i mi n i s h i n e xte nt and alte r i n comple x qual ity .

But when the p sychol ogi st se i zes upon any on e form of

s en s ati on conten t and i denti e s wi th
-
i t not only al l con
s ci ou s content but a l s o al l con s ci ou s ne s s of functi oni ng an d ,

then si nk s i n th i s on e a s pect Of s en s ati on al l the i n s ti ncti ve

faith s and i mpl i cated infe rence s of self knowledge , he -

becom e s gu i lty of another mo s t i nexcu s abl e defe ct and

fall acy NO wonde r that thi nk in g wh i ch s ets ou t from s o
.

piti fully meagre p s ychologi cal analy s i s s houl d conclude wi th

s o woful ly narrow a ph i lo s ophy of m i nd We are tol d by .

1
a recent bri l li ant wri te r o p sychol ogy that i n h i s o wn
n

t
, ,

ca s e at lea s t the Sel f of sel ves when careful ly e xami n e d
, ,

,

i s found to con s i s t m ai nly Of the collecti on of the s e p e cul i ar

moti o n s i n the head or betwee n the head and throat
,

A nd .

on thi s ba s i s the concl u s i on a s s ci enti cal ly defe n s ibl e

,
is ,

reached that ou r e nti re fe el i ng of s pi ri tual acti vi ty o r ,

what commo n l y pa ss e s by that n ame i s r eally a feel ing of

I
,

bod i ly acti vi ti e s wh o s e e xact nature i s by mo s t men over

l ooked Thi s i s the real nucleu s of ou r per s onal i de n
l
.

ti ty
.

H e n ce foll ows the conclu s i on i n ph i lo s ophy that th e
S ub s ta n ti al i s t vi e w
I

of the S oul h a s n o s tand i n g i n

experi ence and i s qu ite needle s s for e xpres s i ng the actual
,

1 J m s
a e Th P ri cipl s f P y h l gy

e n e vol i pp 3 01 f
o s c o o . . .
, , .
1 04 TH E C ON C E P T OF M IN D
subje cti ve phenomen a of con s ci ou s ne s s as they appear ;

wh i le Tran s cendental i s m i s o n ly S ub s tanti al i s m grown

shame faced and the Ego only a che a p and n a s ty ed iti on
-

of the s oul .

No w we shal l not venture to deny the testi mony o f any

man s con s ci ou s ne ss a s to where he local i ze s h i s dom i nan t

bodi ly s en s ati on s wheneve r h e make s a concentrated e ffort to

conce i ve of the s elf and to ob s erve the e ffect upon the b od i ly
,

s en s ati on s of such a concentrati on Of e f fort A l l thi s may .

well enough d i ff er w ith d i fferent i ndi vi dual s and eve n w i th ,

the s ame i nd ivi dual i n d iff ere n t concrete act s of self con -

s c i ou s n e s s Indee d there i s abundant te s ti mo n y to prove

.
,

that great d i ffe rence s e x i s t But to re s olve the enti re s elf .

known S elf even content wi se , i nto any de ni te form of
,
-

l ocal i zed bodi ly s en s ati ons i s a qu ite unwarrantable pr o ,

ce d u r e ; and thi s no l e s s s o howeve r i mpos s ibl e i t be found

,

to puri fy the s tream of self consci ousne ss from all s uch con -

tent of sensati on Even the author of the hypothes i s just

.

cited afte r dal lyi ng w i th i t for a wh i le admi t s that ove r
, ,

and above h i s bod i ly s en s ati ons there i s an Ob s cu re r f e el i ng

of s ometh i ng more Some s uch conclu s i on mu s t undoubt
.

e dl y b e admitt e d ; and n ot only a feel i ng of s omethi ng

more but of someth i n g d i ff er e nt however per s i stently a n y
, ,

p arti cu l ar form o f s ensati on content may a s sert i t s el f For -

.

ju s t a s s oon a s on e detect s i n con s ci ou s nes s the s e n s ati ons

l ocal i zed i n the h ead o r between the head a n d throat on e
, ,

i s equ al ly compelled to s peak of t hese s en s ati on s a s s tate s

wh i ch the Ego ha s n ot a s al l th at the Ego i s not even
, , ,

by a n y mean s al l that i t kno ws and feel s it s elf here a n d

,

n ow to be For pu rpo s e s of compl ete i denti cati on with the

.

s elf known S e lf o r a s form i ng the whol e con s tituti on of th e

-
,

Self of sel ve s th e s e head a n d throat feel i ngs are not a

,

whi t more competent than feel i n gs i n the n ge r ti p s o r i n -

the to e s The utmo s t that can be af rm e d of them i s that

.

perh a p s in certai n ca s e s they mo s t pe rs i stently accompany

 T HE C ON C E P T OF M IN D 1 05

al l the i nd ivi dual s eff ort s at self con s c i ou s ne s s It i s one

-
.

thi ng t o say that i n al l concrete acts of s elf con s ci ou s ne s s -

we n d our s elves having some at l ea s t ob s cu rely local i zed

bodi ly s e n s ati o n s and qu ite another to say that the s e par
,

t i cu l a r s e n s ati o n s are or are regarded or felt by us a s be i ng

, ,

i de n ti cal w i th ou r enti re very Self .

W hat i s true of al l parti cul ar bod i ly s en s ati o n s i s als o

true of parti cul ar me ntal i mage s parti cular thought s par , ,

t i c u l a r feel i n g s The s e al l cons i dere d content wi s e are
.
,
-
,
'

empha s i ze d a s states i n wh i ch we nd ou r sel ves whenever we

perform the act of s elf con s ci ousne s s But just because they
-
.

change s o notably , whi le e ss e n ti ally the s ame u n derly i ng

i n tell e ctual proce ss e s and the s ame metaphys i cal faith o r ,

l e ap to real ity goe s w ith eve ry act of s elf con s ci ou s ne ss the

,
-
,

i mage s thought s a n d feel i ng s wi th thei r actual concrete

, , ,

ne ss mu s t b e regarded a s here a n d now m i n e ; but they are

,

n ot al l that I here and now know feel and bel i e ve my s elf , ,

t o be .

For to return t o a d en i al of that fundamental p s ych o

l ogi cal fallacy whi ch l e ad s th e author j u s t quoted to re s olve
al l feel i n g of so cal le d S pi ritual acti vity i nto peri ph e ral ly
-

l ocate d s en s at i on s the truth i s that i n al l actual concrete ,

ca s e s o f s elf con s ci ou s ne ss I am acti ve a n d am con s ci ou s of

-
,

bei ng acti ve N eve r can I re s ol ve al l that I am a n d k n ow

.
,

my s elf t o be i nto m e re pa ss i ve content of fee li ng much le ss

, ,

of bodi ly s e n s ati o n Wheneve r I am sel f con s ci ou s I catch

.
-
,

my s elf n ot o n l y i n a state of be i ng pa ss i vely i mpre s s ed with

,

s om e form o f s e n s ati o n and feel i ng but al s o i n the act of

, ,

d oi ng s om e what I n dee d the core and centre of my con

.

s c i ou s n e s s of s elf i s the con s c i ou s n ess o f functi on i n g i n s ome

parti cul ar way Of b e i ng acti ve thu s a n d n o othe r wi s e For

,
.

to talk o f a con s ci ou s n e ss of S elf that i s n ot real ly an

a ctivi ty a form of fu n cti oni ng a co n ati on a s wel l a s a sen
, ,

sati on o r a feel i ng i s to tal k of an ab s urdi ty A nd that

,
.

Self of the s el ves wh i ch I seek and n d i f ever my ,

 1 06 TH E C ON C E P T OF M IN D
search i s s ucce s sfu l , i s ch i ey the here and n o w concretely
and actually acti ve se lf For a Self i s no se lf that i s not
.

doi ng s om e thi n g ; and an act of s elf con sc i ou sn ess wh i ch i s

-
,

not a consc i ou s ne s s Of se lf a c ti vi ty i s not an act of s e lf con

-
,
-

s c i ou s n e s s at al l . Thi s acti ve agent actual ly here and ,

n e w acti ve a n d k n owi ng i t s elf as acti ve i s i ndee d n o tran s ,

c e n d e n t a l be i ng u p al oft i n the he aven s of metaphys i c s ; but

,

l th en n e ither i s i t submerge d bene ath the s l i me or c overe d ,

w ith the th i n varni s h of purely empi ri cal p s ych ol ogy

,
It .

i s ju s t that acti ve agent whi ch i s ac ti ve i n the proce s s of

self con s ci ousne s s , an d self kn own to be ac ti ve ; a n d i t i s
- -

called a g en t because i t acts i n be i ng s elf con s ci ou s and a s -

, ,

object nd s it s elf to be acti ve agent For a n y analy s i s of

,
.

a ct u a l concrete acts of s elf consci ou s ness wh i ch does n ot

lnd th i s agent acti ve there i s s i mply i nadeq u ate analys i s
-
,

NO wonder we remark agai n , that al l men stare at the

,

expo s iti on wh i ch such psychol ogy gi ve s of the p s ych i c facts ;

and then l augh to scorn the phi lo s ophy of mi nd wh i ch bui lds
i t s elf upon s u ch p sych ology .

In orde r to attai n any concept of m i nd h oweve r, a pro ,

ce ss of reecti ve thi nki n g ( or rathe r repeated proces s es

Of re ecti ve thi nk i ng) i s neces s a ry ; and thi s proce s s mu s t
proceed upon th e ba s i s of th e concrete ex peri e n ce s had i n
th e i nd i vi dual act s of s elf con s ci ou s ne s s The r e s ult of thi s
-
.

proc e ss of reecti on i s to expli cate for thought what i s actu

al ly i mpl i cated i n the concrete e xperi e n ce s But a s h a s .
,

already be e n repeatedly af rmed th i s very reecti ve thi nk,

i ng and i ts S O called product ( the forme d concept of mi nd )

-

i s i tself actually al ways a proce ss ; a n d to expect that i t

shal l b e anythi ng el s e i s to expect that s omeh ow the concept , ,

Of mi n d sh al l re al l y n ot be a c on cep t at al l .

M oreo ver a s the true p s ychol ogi cal vi ew remind s u s al l

, ,

the concrete act s of s e lf con s ci ou s ne s s on the ba s i s Of

-
,

whi ch th e gen e ral i zati on s re s ulti n g i n the concept are per

form e d them s elve s i mply thi nk i ng activ i ty They al s o imply
, .
 TH E C ON C E P T OF M IN D 1 07

memory and whateve r other form s of i nt e llectual l i fe psy

,

c h ol og i s ts are c ompe lled to recogni ze But to s ay th i s d oe s

.

not do away w i th the val id ity or d im i ni s h the value of s e lf

con s ci ou s ne ss or of the g e neral i ze d concept of m i nd whi ch
,

take s i ts ori gi n i n these ac t s of self con s ci ou s nes s On the

-
.

co n trary the s tateme n t S i mply cal l s attenti on to the tru e

,

n atur e of the mental activ iti e s of s elf consci ou s ne s s and of

-

c oncepti on S O called A ll mental l ife i s a deve lopment ; al l

-
.

devel opment of mental l ife I nvol ve s the acti vity of al l the

S O cal le d mental facultie s
-
D iffere nt men come t o b e
.

wi th an i nd e ni te numbe r of degre es of s peed compl etene ss

and vari ety of concrete pha s e s or factors s elf con s ci ous ;
,

-
"
and i n thi s proce ss of b e comi ng they make u se of al l the i r
devel opi ng mental powe rs of i ntel lecti o n , fe el i ng and cona ,

ti on S o , al s o d o they come to have by more el aborate

.
, ,

proces s es of reecti ve thi nk i n g and th i s too w ith an

, , ,

i nde nite numbe r of degree s of speed , compl etene s s and ,

vari ety of concrete pha s e s or factor s the concept of Sel f

,
.

Thi s devel opment of c onceptual knowl e dge mu s t b e regarded

a s depende n t upon the devel opment of se lf con s ci ou s n e s s ;
-

ju s t a s al l co n ceptual proce ss e s mu s t be regarded as depend

ent upon co n crete and i nd i vi dual experi e n ce s But i n turn .
, ,

th e re s ult of e xerci s i ng re ecti ve th i nk i ng upon th e i ndi vi d

ual experi ence s mod i e s the s e exper i e n ce s them s elve s For .

the characte r of a man s comi ng t o s elf co n s ci ou s ness

-

d epend s u pon the concept wh ich he h a s formed of the Self .

Th e tru e p s ychol ogi cal vi e w Of what actually tak e s pl ace

i n the formati on of the concept of S e lf of m y M i nd and

m
, ,

the n of M i n d i n g e n e r a l n n i t e p s ychol ogi cal

vari ety wh i ch th e concept di s cl o s e s We m ay decl are n ot

.
,

only i s eve ry Sel f or M i nd d i ff erent from eve ry oth e r ; but

, ,

every Self c on c ei ves of i tsel f a s di e r e n t from e very other .

H ere the fundamental and i rre movabl e d i s ti ncti on i s of ,

cou r s e that made i n the act of self con s c i ou s ne s s But on

,
-
.
,

the ba s is of thi s d i s ti ncti on as c an be di sc overe d i f men

 1 08 TH E C ON C E P T OF M IN D
are que s ti one d e ither d i rectly or by i nd i rect Observati on of
the vari ou s ex pre s s i on s Of the i r thought s eve ry man s

n oti on of Self d i ff e r s from that of e v e ry other m an S i n ce .

,

h owever the co n cept of M i nd i n gene ral i s more abstract by

,

far than the co n cept of the Self more agreement m a y be,

e xpected a s to the mark s of the former conc e pt than of
th e l atte r Y e t d i ff e rent i n d i vi dual s at d i ffe re nt age s
.
, ,

d I ff e r e n t race s an d d i ffere n t s t age s and types of ci vil i zati on ,

d i e r e n t s chool s of ph i l o s ophy and other i n s titutes expres

s ive of the h i ghest results of ree cti ve t hi nk i ng r e veal d i ff er ,

e nt noti on s as to the nature Of m i nd H o w i nd e ed coul d

.
, ,

thi s be otherwi se th an s o ? For every concept formed i n the

m i nd of man i s al s o a matter of race d e vel opme n t ; i t i mpl i e s
i ntel l ectual growth on the part of each m i n d n o t o n ly a s an ,

i n di vi dual but al s o a s a member of the race A t the s ame

,
.

t i me certai n p ermanent faith s and a s s umpti ons c e rtai n ,

i n dubitabl e and unchangi n g ex peri ence s of k n owl e dge ,

some factor s that are the s ame for every co n cept of mi nd ,

by al l mi nd s m ay be d i s covered It i s the bu s i ne ss
,
.

of the phi l o s ophy of m i nd to d i s cove r the s e to expl i cate ,

and ex poun d them a s they are found actually i mpl i cated

a n d rel ati vely unrecogni zed i n the growi n g e xperi ence of

ma n k i n d .

In ge n eral al s o i t n ow appears cl e ar what i s the natural

,

V c ou r s e whi ch the d evel opment Of the concept of mi nd pur

s ue s . Fo r ch il dren an d i n ch i ld i s h i nd ivi d ual s a n d for the
, ,

chi ldhood Of the race the more co n crete and s en s u ou s ele

,

me n t s the el ement s of bod i ly s en s ati on a n d of warm vi tal

,

feel i n g havi ng a pron ounced pl easurabl e o r pai nful tone ,

d omi n at e i maginati on m emory a n d th i nk in g i n the proce s s

, , ,

of formi n g the co n cept o f the Sel f For s uch s tage s of d e

.

v e l opm e n t what i s k now n to be true of
,
my s elf i s thought
to be true of th e mi n d of the other s e lf than me and of e very ,

othe r than my s elf I am th e n to my s elf i n each concrete

.
,

act of s e l f consc i ousnes s, chie y a sensuou s bod i ly s elf, warm

-
 TH E C ON C E P T OF M IND 1 09

with some ki n d of feel i ng a n d d oi ng s omethi ng i n a man i ,

fest bodi ly way A nd othe r s el ve s are co n ce ived of as s im i lar

.

to my s elf ; s o al s o of m ind s i n ge n eral B u t even i n thi s .

l ow s tage of d eve lopm e nt i f genu i n e self con s ci ou s ness h a s

,
-

bee n r e a ched an d if re ecti ve th i nk i ng h a s Operated upon

,

the ba s i s of s elf consc i ou s ne ss the re i s undoubtedly the

-
,

feel ing and the thought o f s omethi n g more Fo r genu i ne .

s e lf co n s ci ou s ne s s i mpl ies act s of reecti ve thi nk i ng and of

-
,

co n s ci ou s reference Of more d i s ti ncti vely me ntal s tate s to an

agent active i n them ; and the s e form s of functi oni n g too , ,

are self felt s elf cogni zed and m ade to contr i bute to the
-
,
-
,

t Ot a l result i n the form of that concept Of self wh i ch re

ect i v e thi nk i ng it s elf achi e ve s S O that by i n s en s ibl e .
,

degree s i t i s l ikely the characte r of the concrete act s of s elf

,

con s ci ou s n e ss become s cha n ged ; and i n con s e quen ce th e , ,

concept of m i nd deri ve d upon the ba s i s of the s e concrete

act s becomes profoundly m od i ed Th e se acti vi ti e s wh i ch .

are s poken of as pecul i arly S pi ri tual become rel atively m ore

empha s i zed Then i s the S e lf known to itself a s i magi ni ng V
.
,

rememberi ng feel i n g thi nk i ng and pl ann i ng without the

, , , ,

s o exclu s ive d o m i nance of the v i tal and s ensuou s bodi ly

functi ons .

When the human be i n g n o matte r how you n g or u ntu ,

tored cea s e s rel ati ve ly from tho s e acti vi ti e s wh i ch e m ph a

,

s i ze the bod i ly f u ncti on s s its down w ith i t s e l f a s i t wer e

, , ,

and re call s i n i dea th e past or thi nks ou t pl an s f or the ,

futu r e o r reects upon s ome proble m of an ab s tract charac

,

ter, i f i t ob s e rves it s elf s elf con s c i ou s ly , i t become s aware -

of thi s s o cal le d spi ri tual self
-
True i t may s ti l l be .
,

force d to noti ce c e rtai n se n s ati on s abo ut the head and

throat o
, r around the eye s o r e l s e wh e re ; but th e some ,

thi ng more th an the s e i s now the chief part o f the e x pe

r i en c e It i s n ot le s s real be cause i t i s n ot statabl e i n
.
,

terms Of sen s ati on content On the contrary i t i s n ot

-
.
,

statabl e i n term s of s ensati on conte nt for the very e xcel lent -

 10 TH E C ON C E P T OF M IN D
rea s on th at i t real ly i s not s e n s ati on content , but i s s ome -

th i ng othe r a s we l l a s more .

Suppo s e s ti l l furthe r, that i n some moment of d awni ng

,

s elf cons ci ou s ne s s
-
i n its yet more h i ghly deve l oped form
, ,

that bel i ef i n real ity o r metaphy s i cal l eap wh i ch s omehow

, ,

and s omewhe re surely enter s into al l k nowl edge s houl d ,

i tself be consci ously recogni zed Thi s to be s u re woul d n o t .

i t i s l i kely take pl ace i n the ab s tract manne r of S u sb tan t i a l

,

i s m or Transcendentali s m a s recogni zed form s of the phi

l os oph y of m i nd But i t m i ght t ly come and , i n deed
.
,

e xperi e nce amply shows th at i t actual ly doe s come i n s ome

s uch way a s to awake n the consci ou s n e s s o f that d i s ti nctness

i n real i ty whi ch m akes every Sel f s e t i t s e lf Off from and ,

j over agai n s t the whol e remai nde r of other m i nd s and of al l

,

th i ngs H ere a s w i l l subsequently appear i s the s ecret of

.
, ,

that feel i ng of l onel i ness wh i ch only rati onal and s elf c on -

sci ous l i ves can have A nd s hal l i t be d en i e d that men

.

h ave these experi ence s and th at they get the i r noti ons of
,

themsel ve s an d of other mi nd s from them y es pl ai n men , ,

and women too savage and u ntutored men a n d women

, ,

chi l dren of tend e r year s and th o s e not more than half c om

,

os m e n t i s ? To have the experi ence i s on e thi n g ; an d to

p
expre s s i t i n the words of Jean P aul R i chter i s qu ite
another th i ng : N e ver s hal l I forget the phenomenon i n

l m ys e l f neve r ti l l now reci ted when I s tood by the b i rth of

, ,

my o wn self con sci ou s ne s s the pl ace and ti me of wh i ch are

-
,

di s ti nct I n my memory On a certai n forenoon I stood a

.
,

ivery young chi ld w i thi n the hou s e door and w a s l ook i ng

,
-
,

out toward the wood pi l e as i n an i n s tant the i nne r reve l a

l
-
, , ,

ti on I am I l ik e l i ghtni ng from heaven a she d and stood
, ,

lb r i gh tly before me ; i n that moment I h ad s een my s elf as I ,

" for the rst t i me and foreve r "

W ith the devel opme nt of mental l i fe as sensati on i deati on , ,

f eel i ng conati on and th i nk i ng

, ,
al l regarde d as proce s s es
,

of thi s l i fe , processes i n consci ousness and con s ci ou s l y cog

 TH E C ON C E P T OF M IN D 1 11

tate s
n i ze d s and w ith the constant accompani ment of that
,

ontol ogi cal bel i ef to wh i ch we have referred the b i rth and ,

growth of self k nowledge i s ach i eved It may be regarded

-
.

as a resultant psychol ogi cal ly cons idered of all the s e forms

, ,

of functi oni ng .

SO r ou n d s i d
h e to a se pa a t e r m n ,

Fr
m wh o l r m m ry m y b gi
en ce c ea e o a e n,

A t hr t h fr m t h t b i d hi m i

s o e a e a n s n,

H i i l ti
s
gr w d d
so a on o s e ne .

For a genu i ne self knowle dge i nvol ves the d eve loped faculti es
-

of percepti o n of re cogni ti ve memory ( with i t s devel opment

,

of ti me con s ci ousne ss a s determi n ed and cl ari ed by refe r

-
,

ence to s ome form Of the s ucce ss i on of Objecti ve event s ) of ,

i magi nati on re ecti ve th i nk i ng emoti on and wi ll

,
Thi s , , .

s elf k n owl edge i s
-
i ndeed emph ati cally s ometh ing more
, ,

than ob s curely l ocal i zed bod ily s ensati on s ; wi th the i r m otor

e ff ects and concomi tant s Thu s much of a concept of m i nd .

i t need s n o s peci al ly trai ned power s of reecti on to acqu i re .

I ndeed wi thout thu s much of s elf k nowledge we cannot

,
-

S peak of a de vel ope d a n d ad ult h uman m i nd .

On the ba s i s howeve r of S i mi l ar act s of s el f con s ci ous

, ,
-

ness , the hi ghest mo s t comprehen s i ve and thoroughly

, ,

defensibl e con cept of what i t i s t o be a M i nd

a s al l ,

hu man mi nd s real ly are i s constructe d by proce ss e s of r e e c

,

ti ve th i n ki ng carri ed to the i r utmo s t l i mit s To cl ai m th i s

,
.

there i s n o need to i ntroduce new facultie s s o cal l e d o r -
,

new uses of the same faculti es The ph i losoph i cal s peci al .

i s t s s tudy of the nature of m i nd aims only at accompl i sh i ng

what al l human s tri vi ng i n sci ence and phi l osophy a i m s to

accompl i s h ; thi s i s the hi ghe s t pos s i ble e laborati on of the
d ata of e xperi ence the supreme i nte rpretati on Of the phe
,

nomen s The p hi losop hy of mi n d si mp ly ex p ou n d s t he t he or y

.

f wh t he S ou l i s V
o at
f wha t the S ou l app ea r s to
on t he ba s i s o

i tse lf to be No r need any sh arp and i rremovable l i ne of

.

di sti ncti on be drawn between the conclus i ons w a rrante d by

1 12 TH E C ON C E P T OF M IN D
p s ychol ogy alone and tho s e warrante d by anthropol ogy or
bi ology For only a s the phenomena whi ch the l atter
.

s ci ence s gathe r and attempt to treat s ci enti cally are i nter

p r e t e d i n terms of con s ci ou s ne s s a s known i n s elf consci ou s

,
-

ne s s can they enter as data i nto the ph i lo s ophy of m i nd

, .

N o i nve s ti gator can escape from the ci rcl e i n wh i ch h e i s

foreve r a s ki ng What re al ly are othe r m i nd s a s stated i n
, ,

term s of what I kn ow myself to be ? For the a n thropol ogi cal

and bi ol ogi cal sci ence s Of mi nd cann ot arri ve at a real knowl
edge of mi nd unle ss they trust the i ndi v i dual s s e lf kn owl edge
-
,

to wh i ch these d el i verances may appeal and from wh i ch they

,

may ow .

But th i s h i ghest k nowledge of mi nd i s i tself from the ,

p s ychol ogi cal poi nt Of v i e w a proce s s hav i ng m ore o r le s s

,

of actual content accordi ng to the degre e of the devel opment

o f th e i n d i vi du al mi nd i n whi ch i t take s pl ace : It i s the '

fulle s t possible expl i cati on of what i s i mpl i cated i n s uch an

actual proce ss wh i ch the phi l o s ophy of m i n d attempt s I n
, .

other word s, we are n ow goi n g to t r y, by a proce ss of ana

l yt i ca l and reecti ve thi nk i n g to expoun d what eve ry m i nd

,

that has reached self knowledge kn ow s i t s elf as mi n d actu

-
, ,

ally to be The i mpl i cati on s of that concept of m i nd who s e

.
,

nature , genesi s and deve lopment as a s eri es of p s ychi c

, ,

fact s p s ych o l ogy presents an d e xpl ai n s, are to rece i ve a

theoreti cal expos iti on and developme nt .

 C HAPTE R IV

TH E RE AL I TY OF M I ND

N Y i nte l l i gent d i s cu ss i on of th e
questi ons , whethe r the
m i nd i s re al ; and i n what s en s e i f at all real ity i s to
, ,

be attribute d to the mi nd mu s t b orrow certai n conclu s i ons

,

from general metaphy s i c s and from the theory of knowle dge .

W ithout s ome pre l i mi n ary concepti on o f what i s meant by

be i ng real i t i
, , ,
/
s of c o u r s e u s eles s to i n qu i re whethe r the\

mi n d i s real . It i s equal ly e vi dent that the a n s wer whi ch

each thi nke r s re ecti on gi ve s to the que s ti on What i s i t to

,

be real ? wi l l l arg e ly i n uence h i s an s wer to the q ue s ti on : Is ,

then that whi ch we cal l M i nd al s o entitle d t o be cal le d

,

real ? M ore ov e r i f any i nqu i re r i s already s o far gone i n

,

agno s ti ci s m a s to d oub t whether an an s we r can be gi ven

to e i the r of th e s e que s ti o n s or a s even to deny that k nowl
,

edge of the real i s po ss ib l e at al l debate over tho s e par

,

t i cu l a r i n qu i ri e s wh i ch con s titute the ph i l o s ophy of m i nd

m ay b e qu ite s uperu ou s H ow can on e phi l o s ophi ze i n
.

compa n y wi th a wri ter who r e j e ct s the p o ss ibi l ity of ph i

l os o ph y
. H o w can one di s cu ss a que s ti on i n the m e ta
phy s i c s Of mi n d befor e the man wh o on the oreti cal ground s,

sati s f a ctory to hi m s e l f abjure s al l m e taphy s i c s whatever ?

,

It woul d be u n reasonable howeve r to expect a n y c om p le t e

, ,

d i s cu ss i on of the pos s ib il ity of met a phy s i cal phi l o s ophy i n

gene ral a s a prel i mi nary nece s s ity for the di s cu s s i on of
ue s ti on s i n thi s parti cul ar branch of phi l osophy Such an
q .

expectati on woul d amount to demand i ng t wo volumi nous

8
 1 14 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IND
treatises 011 the mai n bra n ch e s of a broad subj ect a s i n tr odu c ,

tory t o on e treati s e o n a n other of i ts s ubord i n ate branche s .

Thi s orde r of treat m e n t i ndeed mi ght seem commend abl e

, ,

for one be n t on procee di n g m o s t l ogi cal ly i n the con s tructi on

of an e n ti re phi l o s oph i cal system But from ou r pre s ent
.

'

poi nt of v ie w al l d i s cu ss i ons i n the ph i l o s ophy of mi nd

spri ng ou t Of th e d e m a n ds of p sychologi cal s ci e n ce to have
a ful ly i nterpretati v e an s w e r to thi s i n qu i ry : H ow s h al l we
fai thful ly de s cri be an d s ati s factori ly explai n the phe n ome n a
of human co n s ci ou s n e ss ? In othe r word s i t i s the ph i ,

l OS Oph y of m i n d a s the s uppl e m ent of e mpi ri cal p s ych ology ,

rathe r tha n a s a der i vati ve branch Of a metaphy s i cal s y s t e m ,

that h a s ju s t now e n ti ce d u s i n to the ge n e ral el d of ph i

l os oph y W e s hal l therefore c ont e nt our s elv e s w ith b or
.

row i n g a few of the mo s t ne ce s s ary co n cl u s i on s from certai n

V other form
s of ph i l o s ophi zi ng The more d i l i gent culti
.

vat i o n and th orough d efence of the enti re d omai n from

whi ch w e borrow may t l y be l eft for another ti me .

And ,
w ith wh at the ory of knowl edge s h oul d on e

approach al l parti cul ar i nqui ri e s i n the ph i l o s ophy of m i nd

In general th i s qu e s ti on m ay be an s wered by s ayi n g W i th
, ,

ju s t s uch a theory of k nowledge of i t s natu re i t s po ss i

, ,

b i l i t i e s a n d i t s vali d i ty a s i s a ss ume d i n e nteri n g up on any

, ,

theor e ti cal di s cu ss i o n Only i t i s of cou rse e mi n e n tly

.
, ,

de s i rabl e for u s to recogni ze certai n truth s a s to what that

vi e w fu n d amental ly co n s i d e red actu al ly i s
, ,
.

N ow nothi ng i s more certai n than that i n fact the tti ng

,

vi ew on approach i ng any ph i lo s oph i cal d i s cus s i on i s n ot

, ,

\a gno s ti c with regard t o truth i n g e neral ; much l e s s doe s i t

lh a r b o r s o extreme a negative conclu s i on a s de ni es t h e po ss i

lb i l i ty by k nowl edge of reachi ng real i ty On the co n trary
, ,
.
,

li t a s s umes the very truth i n yet ful l er and more self ev i

,
-

l
d e n c i n g form t o wh i ch al l thorough psych ol ogi cal analysi s
,

of k no wl edge draws attenti on

~ Thi s truth wh en s t ated

.
,

curtly an d w i thout qual i cati ons , may be e xpressed as fol

 TH E RE A L I T Y OF MIN D 1 15

l ows : Knowledge and real ity can nev e r be consi dered apart .

K nowledge that do e s not i nvol ve th e corr e l ate Of

that i s n ot of re al ity a s its Obj e ct i s n ot k n owle dg e
,
.

R eal i ty con s i dere d a s apart from al l term s and all po ss i

b i l i ty of k n owl edge re ality that i s not known or conce i ve d
,

of a s knowabl e i s for u s n o r e a lity

,
.

It i s cu s tomary for tho s e wh o a s s um e an agno s ti c po s iti on

with re s pect to al l outcome of knowl e dge toward the s i de of
re al ity to i de n tify kno w ledge of real ity w i th a knowledge
,

of b e i n g i n general of pure be i n g or of be i ng p e r s e
, ,
.

I n ca s e h oweve r they abhor such h ighly metaphy s i cal

, ,

phra s e s too much even to take them upon the i r to n gue s

co n temptuou s l y they may content them s el ves wi th deny i ng
,

t h e po s s ib i l i ty of knowi n g anyth i n g but phenom e na But .

s i nce t h e ex i s t e nce Of any

Thi n g o r a n y M i nd

when ,

regarded a s i mpl i cati n g s omewhat o v e r a n d above or beh i nd ,

or b e n e ath the phen ome n a s eem s t o cl a s h wi th thi s ge n e ral

, ,

d e n i al s uch agn o s ti c s are al s o cu s tomari ly l e d on to forms

,

of s t a tem e n t not e s s enti ally d i fferent from tho s e wh i ch they

S O much a bhor .

It i s pl ai n that the r s t thi ng to be do n e i n al l s uch debate

a s w e a r e now enteri n g upon i s to di s ti n gui s h clearly the

me an i ng of the term s empl oy e d In certai n me an i ng s of

.

the word s k nowledge and real ity an agno s ti c po s i ti o n ,

whi ch de n i e s o r eve n d oubt s the power Of the human m ind

to k n ow r e al i ty i s s i mply s u i ci dal N 0 not
,

.si m ly
p ,

su i ci dal ; for i t i s s uch an agno s ti ci s m a s ca n neve r s o much

as attai n e n ough of l i fe i n the k i ngdom of re a s on t o lo s e i t s
o w n l ife by a natural de ath : comm it s u i c i d e i t certai n l y can

not f o r very l ack of l i fe e ithe r to be tak e n away o r to e x e r

,

ci s e i n i ts own removal In u s i ng ce rt ai n other meani n g s of

.

th e s ame word s h oweve r the mo s t e xtr e me agnostici s m may

, ,

be qu ite d e fe n s i bl e ; but th e n i t m ay al s o b e pe rf ect l y h a r m

l e ss For i f agn o s ti ci s m o n ly depri ve s us of s omethi ng cal led
.

knowledge whi ch i s n ot recogni zable or attai n a ble or v a l
 116 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IN D
u ab l e as kn owle dg e, an d of s omethi ng call ed real ity wh i ch

i s not re cogni zab l e or attai n able or valuabl e a s r e a li ty we ,

can s carcely have s e ri ou s quarrel w ith i t When i t i s s ai d .

,

however , that we can n e ver k now anythi ng bu t phen om
1
ena we are i nvi t e d to con s i de r a s tateme n t wh i ch i s e i the r
,

meani ngle s s or e l s e i n every conce i vable mea n i ng Of th e

,

word s i t empl oy s i s s quarel y contrad i ctory of the most

"ob v i ou s fact s of experi e n ce .

A few thought s on each Of the po s iti ons just taken m u s t

s u f ce NO one can a f rm the i mpo s s ibi l ity of knowi ng
.

real ity i n such mean i n g s of the word s k n owl edge and

,

real i ty a s make the af rmati on contrad i ct the un doubted ,

fu n damental fact s of k nowledge i t s e lf I cannot tel l you .

that 1 k now that y ou and I cannot k now with out a s s umi ng ,

i n thi s same agnosti c proposi ti on b oth the po s sib i l i ty of

knowledge for you and for me and al s o the real ity i n , ,

s ome s ort of both you and me

,
A n d i n asmuch a s you are
.

al way s a th i n g to me and I am a thi n g to you unle s s
, ,

I know that thi ng s i n s ome s ort real ly are I ca n n ot regard ,

my ow n utterances a s a communi cati on of even agno s ti c

knowledge from me t o you H e re agn o s ti ci s m i n re s pect of
.
,

i ts theory of k n owledge s pl i ts upon t h e s ame rock a s that

,

upon wh i ch e xtreme i deal i s m i n th e form of s ol i p s i s m h as

al way s been wreck e d I am re al and y ou are r e a l a s th i n gs
.
,

and a s m i nd s and b oth of u s k n ow th i s to be s o ; or rathe r

, , ,

we k n ow e ach othe r a s re al otherwi s e th e re i s n ot s o

,
-

much a s a s t a ndi ng pl ace for a ti p toe to be fou nd from

- -
,

wh i ch to make the vault d own ward i n to th e d ark aby s s of

agno s ti ci sm .

But a s for k nowl e dge of b e i ng s p e r s e or of bei n gs s u p ,

po s ed to e x i s t
p e r s e ( i f thi s
p er s e mean s e x i s tence

otherwi s e than a s actual o r conce i vable Ob ject s of k n owl

edge ) as t o such k nowl e dge a n d such bei ng no concern
,

need be fe lt ov e r i ts fate at the hand s of agn o s ti ci s m For s uch .

s o call ed knowl edge of be i ng er s e i s n ot k n owle dg e at al l

p
-
.
 TH E RE AL I T Y OF M IN D 1 17

Thi s declarati on i s true wheth er the phra s e be i nterpreted to

mean B e i ng that i s abstracte d from al l concrete attri butes
or modes of acti vity i n rel ati on to other be i ng o r Be i ng ,

that e xi st s totally i s ol ated and apart from other be i ng i n ,

it s elf or by i t s elf The u s e of such phra s e s re s ult s i n s ub

,
.

s t i t u t i n g a n e mpty concept o r a n attempt to thi nk

,
wi th
ou t thi n k i n g a n ythi ng i n parti cul ar a s ba s ed upon actu al

e xperi ence for the co n cept of kn owledge a s the fact s of

,

k n owl edge warrant that th i s conc e pt S houl d be formed .

B e i ng p e r se i f any s uch bei n g there be i s n o somewhat
, ,

about the po ss i bi l ity of k n ow i n g wh i ch we nee d e ither to

care or to debate .

B ut freely to conced e al l th i s i s qu ite a n other th ing from

con s enti ng to the propo s iti on that nothi n g but phenomena
can be known For we c a n n o more S pe ak of a k nowl e dge
.

of pure phe nomena that i s of ph e nom e na a s m e r e ly ,

,

phe n omena than Of a knowledg e of pure be i n g or of ,

bei ng p e r se K nowl edge Of noth i n g but phe n omena i s

.

n ot k n owl e dg e at all

For the very phra s e nothi ng but
.

( or i t s equi valent wh ateve ,

r thi s may be ) reveal s an i n t e n

ti on to empl oy the w ord phe n omenon a s sh arply c on
t r a s t e d wi th and e x clu s i ve Of real ity I t s ugge s ts that
.

ph e nomena are to be con s i d e red a s mere appearance s m ere ,

s e emi ngs ,
mere appari ti on s It i s thu s i mpl i e d that R eal ity
.

doe s n ot bel ong s o to s peak to the Ob ject of con

s c i ou s n e s s e ve n when i t i s an object of k n owledge
,
B ut as .
,

h a s al ready bee n s ai d i n anothe r connecti o n the word phe ,

n om e n on a n d al l k i nd red word s h ave ab s ol utely n o mean

.

i n g ex cept a s i mplyi n g s ome parti cular be i ng of wh i ch and ,

s ome b e i ng t o whi ch the phe n omenon i s

,
A n d al l the m ore
.
,

wh e n th i s word i s s harply contra s ted a s mer e appeara n ce , ,

w ith r e al ity doe s i t forb id ou r do i n g away with the co n cept

,

of real ity ,
o r the re s ol vi n g of al l i nto noth i n g b ut phe
nomena On the contrary ph e n ome n on a s me re appearance
.
,

i mpl i e s real e x i s tence w ith whi ch the contrast of appear

ance i s made .
 118 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IN D
When however the i nqu i ry i s s tarted Whe re i s s uch
, , ,

real ity to be found and whence doe s ou r conc e pti on of i t

,

ori gi n ate ? w e are compel l e d b oth by empi ri cal p sychology

and by the theory of k n owl edge al ike to r e s pond : In knowl
edge a n d i n kn owledge o nly A nd thu s we have complete d .

t r e ached agai n th e s ame u ltimate

truth Thi s i s th e d i s ti n gui s hi n g characteri s ti c and m ys t e

. ,

r i ou s but i ndub itabl e fact Of al l k n owi ng th at i t i s e ither ,

the envi s ageme n t or the s ou n d l ogi cal i n ference of real

being s a n d of real happen i n g s i n the s tates and re lati ons of
,

the s e bei n gs .

N ot i n frequently howeve r the l ocal i zati on of the pai n s of

, ,

the extreme ag n o s ti c i s cha n ge d the mome nt he i s brought

face to face wi th that onto logi cal i n qu i ry wh i ch i s a s i t ,

p were ,
the oth e r half of the epi s tem ol ogi cal i nqui ry Wh o .

i n de ed coul d be found to de n y that s ome s ort of real ity i s

, ,

s omehow knowabl e or rather i s actual ly k n ow n when

, , , , ,

ever a n d however there i s knowledge at al l ? B ut this

co n s i derati on i s al mo s t certai n to s h i ft the poi nt of vi ew
o n wh i ch s cepti cal i n qu i ry bear s mo s t he avi ly N ow the .

?
i nqu i ry take s the fol low i n g form : What i s re a l i ty or ,

?
rathe r What are we to unde r s tand by be i ng re al
,
In
m W E

the d I s c u S S I On of s uch a n I n qu i ry a s th i s I t I s Of the utmost

I

i mporta n ce to und e r s tand the nature of the i nqui ry and that ,

from the very mome n t when the i n qui ry i s fi r s t propo s ed .

It i s to be a ss umed that the que s ti on a s ke d i s of s uch a

nature that i t can at l ea s t be u n d e r s tood a s a que s ti on a n d
, ,

i nte ll i ge n tly d i s cu ss e d A l l o n tol ogi cal i n qui ry mu s t there

.

fore conc e rn it s e lf w ith real i ty a s k now n or kn owable a n d , ,

s o a s capabl e of b e i ng brought under t e rm s of s e n s e p e rce p -

ti on of s elf con s ci ou s n e ss memory i m a gi n ati o n th ought

,
-

, , , ,

fe e l i ng wi l l a n d character
, ,
or u n der s o m e of al l the other
,

term s wh i ch i t i s n ece s s ary to u se i n order to d e n e the s phere

of the known a n d th e k n owable From anoth er poi n t of vi e w
.
,

the n we are compel l e d to s a y that to i nqui re what e i ther

,
 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IN D 1 19

thi n gs or m i nd s real l y are a s pure be i ngs ,
thi ngs i n ,
-

them s e lve s o r b e i ngs p e r se i s n ot a ge n ui n e ontologi cal
, ,

i n qui ry To rai s e s uch an i n qui ry i s to at t e mpt the ab s urd

.

and i rrati onal i n the ve ry name Of the h ighe s t rea s on it s e lf .

It would the n be far bette r a n d s afer for metaphy s i c s to

, ,

a d e pt a more concrete i n te l l i gibl e form Of stati n g the onto

,

logi cal probl em What are the a ss umpti o n s and pri mary
.

form s of repre s e ntati on and concepti on under wh i ch we k n o w

al l thi n g s a n d al l m i nd s r e al ly to be ? Or , agai n , W hat i s
i t re al ly to be a s al l thin gs a n d al l m i nd s are k n own t o be ?
,

But eve n aft e r the prob lem Of ge neral metaphy s i c s h a s been

stated i n an i ntel l igible manner i t s a n s we r i s by n o mean s an ,

ea s y a ffai r For metaphy s i cal d i s cu ss i on i s Often embarra ss e d

.

and co n fu s e d i n s everal way s u n neces s ari ly A mong t he s e .

i s th e vai n and i rrati onal attempt to go on foreve r analyzi ng

and d e n i n g A naly s i s a n d de ni ti on mu s t of cour s e reach
.

i mpa s s abl e l i mit s a n d com e to a n end s om e wh e re If the n .

, ,

we a n alyze t h e co n cepti o n of R e a l i ty a s s uch re al ity i s ,

know n i n s e n s e percepti on a n d i n s elf con s ci ou s n e s s i n to its

- -
,

consti tuent s ubord i nate co n cepti o n s ( th e categorie s we
ca n not a n a lyze or e x pl a i n the s e r esi d u a Of al l analy s i s s ti l l
further A t thi s l i m it of a n aly s i s we can o n ly appe al to
.
,

i mmed i at e exp e ri e n ce for a k nowledge o f wh at i s mea n t by

the term s wh ich s tand for s uch co n cepti on s TO attempt to .

de n e or expl ai n furthe r woul d be to attempt to r e duce that

whi ch i s s impl e s t of al l to that wh i ch i s mor e comple x But .

to refu s e to s a y that we k n ow what the s e term s mean i s to

a s s ert that we k n ow what i s mo s t complex but do not k n ow ,

what i s S i mpl e r a n d nece s sary to know i n order to k now the

c ompl e x .

M etaphy s i cal d i s cu ss i on i s Oft e n furthe r embarra s s e d by

the fool i s h a s s umpti on that nothi ng c a n h e certai n ly known
unle ss i t be reached a s the re s ult o f a c o n s ci ou s s yl logi s ti c
proce s s It i s oft e n al s o a s s um e d that th e m ore compl i cate d
.

a n d s ubtl e th i s proce ss i s the m ore w orthy of a s s ure d c on

,
 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IN D
v i ct i on attachi ng to i t i s the nal conclu s i on B ut i n the .

growth of knowledge although i ntellecti on and i ts activ ity

,

of i nf ere n ce a n d i nt e rpretati on e n te r i n to al l knowl e dge ,

even i nto that wh ich we con s i der mo s t i mmed i ate , the

certai n ty o f i nf erenti al knowledge s i s always dependently

co n n ected with a superi or certai nty for s ome of o u r i mme
d i ate k nowledge s A nd to con s i de r the s ame orde r i n
.

d epend e n ce from th e ontol ogi cal s i de al l i nferre d real it ie s

( s uch ,
for ex ampl e as the atoms of modern
,
phy s i cs ) depen d ,

f o r the i r be i ng known upon e nvi s aged real iti e s , .

That a n aly s i s and di s cu ss ion of the general conceptio n of

lRe a l i ty a s known and k nowable which metaphy s ic s i mplies , ,

yield s the following particular s : E v e r y r e a l be i ng i s k n own

lf a c ti ve s u b e ct oj f s t a te s , s t a n d i n g i n m a n if old r e l a ti on s
(t
as a se -

o ot he r bei ng s , a nd m a i n ta i n i ng i ts r i g ht to be ca lle d r e a l by
la c t i ng and bei ng a c te d u
p on , on l
y , however , i n obe di e n ce to

jc e r ta i n l a ws
( or f u n if or m m od e s o i ts be ha vi or a s su ch a be i ng
a n d n o ot h e r
( ) .

U ndoubt e dly i n s u ch a s entence as the foregoing s everal

, ,

unre s ol vable co n ception s are mixed up with gure s of s peech

that both call for a n d admit of further i n terpretation A mong .

such conception s or categorie s are tho s e i n dicated b y the

, ,

wo rd s a s ubj ect o f s tate s s elf activity , relation ( in ,
-

whi ch the being i s popularly s aid to s tand etc Some .

sort of continuance or permanence i n time a n d change , ,

whether of place ( hen ce s pace or of state s are al s o implied ,

.

I f however th e meaning of the word states as appl i e d to
, ,

,

the bei n g which i s s aid to be their s ubject o r to have

them o r t o change the m be d e manded , it is fou n d that ,

the s ame tran s actio n i n reality i s implied a s that which may

be d e s cribed by mode s of behavior o r
form s o f s elf ,

activi ty and Of being i n u enced by other beings ; while

word s lik e law ( which i s s aid to be obeyed and uni

formity ( whi ch i s s a i d to be di scerned in the b e havior )

whe n on e trie s to compr e hen d them , introduce u s s till fur

 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IN D 1 21

ther to the profound my s t e ries o f all reality The s e my sterie s .

science may try to se t forth but certai n ly d oe s not s olve , ,

whe n it talk s about the nature o r kind Of bei n g which
any particular concrete reality i s suppo s e d to have Fo r .

example the realities called atom s are divi s ible i n to s ome

,

s e venty k i n dS each kind with i t s own n ature accordi n g

, ,

to i ts s uppo s e d uniform mode s of b e havior But any d enite .

co n ception of s uch a nature a s belongi n g to a n y b e ing ,

and s o a s deli m iting i ts being and making it s uch a ki n d of

bei n g a n d no other depe n d s upon o u r e xperie n ce with i ts
,

mode s of behavior Thus are we brought arou n d to the

.

y
same poi n t in the circle again : u n iformity or recurr e nt S imi ,

lar mode s of the behavi or of any be i n g s u ggest s a n d prove s ,

to th e mi nd a permane n t nature Of that bei n g B u t what we .

mean by a s cribi n g a natu re to a n y bei n g i s found only in

the attempt to s ummarize the rea s o n s for i ts k n ow n or po ss ible
mod e s of behavior W hy for example do oxygen atom s
.
, ,

behave a s th e y d o while hydroge n a n d nitrog e n atom s b e

,

have S O di ff erently und e r s imilar circum s ta n c e s ? A n s wer

Becau s e it i s th e ir n a t u r e to But what i s me a nt by thei r
.

nature in which the r e a s on s for thei r mode s of b e havior
,

are found ? A n s wer : S O a s a matter of fact d o the s e beings

, ,
'

a ct u a l l
y behave .

Furthermore any analy s i s of the conception of
,
law ,

witho u t which it i s impo ss ibl e to tell wh a t i s meant by the

reality a s cribed to thi ng s a n d to mi n d s a s k n ow n s how s that ,

thi s conceptio n i s in pa rt the re sult of the s ame e xperi e nc e

, ,

a s that from which t h e conception o f a nature for thi n g s a n d

for mi n d s i s framed The S O called l a w o r law s of th e bei n g

.
-
, ,

o f each reality a re i n part interior to i t ; they a re n ot s ome

thi n g i mpo s ed upon o r S et ov e r an d abov e the bei n gs

,

,

which o b e y the l aw s Ob e die n ce to any l a w i mpl ie s a u n i

.

formity i n the mod e s o f b e havior which h a s i ts s ou rce in the

ve ry bei n g i t s el f Thi s the n i s really the s am e co n c e ption
.
, , ,

based upon the s ame experience a s that which we have ,

1 22 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IN D
al ready fou n d to be c overed by the word nature L aw , .

howeve r al way s implie s relati on s of o n e bei n g to other

,

beings ; it al s o implie s di fferent mode s of behavior under

d i ff ere n t relation s to di ff ering kind s of bei n g s On the other .

hand i n varyi n g i t s mode s of behavior according to i t s vary

,

i n g r e l ation s to the variant kind s of being s ev e ry b e i n g mu s t ,

remain tru e to i ts o wn nature ; otherwi s e it lo s e s i t s own

peculiar claim re a lly to b e It mu s t that i s to s ay in all .
, ,

that it doe s both have respect to what tho s e other bei n gs are
,

d oi n g i n relation to which it s tand s a n d a l so have re s pect ,

to what it i s it s elf e ss e ntially L a w reign s o n ly wher e the re i s

.

both s elf re s p e ct and re s pect for other being s ; and thi s i s just
-

as tr u e of thi n g s a s it i s o f mi n d s .

No w , n ally it i s ab s olutely impos s ible to tell what i s

,

meant by a l l thi s a s corre s ponding to a n ything that take s

,

place in real ity without introducing the idea of p u rp osi ven ess ;
,

1
o what we have el s ewhere
r called i n a confe ss edly gurative ,

way the immanent idea which belo n gs to the very being
,

o f eve ry thing a n d without which it cannot be k nown to be

,

real o r eve n conceived of a s real

, .

In g e n eral ther e fore it may n ow be claimed that every

, ,

a ss umption a n d s ubordi n ate co n ception which m e t a phy s ic s

n d s by i t s a n aly s i s to be n e c e s s ary to all real ity belong s ,

m o s t obviou sly a n d i nco n t e s tably to that particular r e al bei n g

whi ch i s called the mi n d Indeed if thi s w e r e the place .
,

for s uch a co n te n tio n it could be s h own that all the s e meta

phy s ical a ss umption s and co n ception s are quite devoi d Of
meani n g e xc e pt a s s uch mean i n g i s gathered from the known
re ality of mi n d To b e to sta n d i n rel a tio n to be s elf active
.
, ,
-
,

to act upon other being to Obey law to be a cau s e to be a

, , ,

permanent s ubj e ct o f s t a te s t o be the s ame to day a s ye ster

,
-

d ay to b e id e n tical to be o n e all th e se a n d all s imilar

, , , ,

conceptio n s toge ther with the proof s that they are vali d for
,

real being s a r e a f rmed of phy s ical realiti e s ( projected into

,

1 S ee I tr du t i
n o c on to P h i l osoph y , p . 24 7 f .
 TH E RE A L I T Y OF MI N D 1 23

them ) only on a ba s i s of s elf k nowledge envi s aging and

-

inferring the reality of mi n d W ithout p sychological in sight

.

and philo s ophical traini n g s u ch term s or their equivalent s

, , ,

are meani n gl e ss i n phy s ic s A n d becau se writer s on phy s ic s

,
.

do n ot i n ge n eral have thi s i n s ight and thi s training i n ,

s pite of their utmo s t endeavor s to treat phy s ic s a s an e m i r i

p
cal s cie n ce without met a phy s ic s they ou n der and blunder
,

an d co n tradict them s e lve s h opele s sly whe n eve r they touch

upon fundame n tal matter s ( L et a n y on e wh o doe s not b e
.

lieve thi s s tatement read again the be s t treati s e s on phy s ic s ,

and critically e xami ne their S O called axiom s their de n ition s

-
, ,

and their S O called s e lf evide n t propo s ition s )

- -
.

For the detailed proof of the foregoing s tatement s the

s ub s equent chapter s mu s t be held re s pon s ible s o far a s ,

re s pon sibility can be di s charge d i n a work of s uch l imite d

character . Tho s e particular conclu s io n s of empirical psy
ch ol ogy are now to b e examined in which are found i n d u b i
,

tably impl icated the reality of the mi n d B ut it i s the .

reality Of mi n d a s concrete and a s k n ow n by mind a n d no ,

s e call e d
-
pure being o r b e i n g p er s e of mind which i s ,

to be e x pou n ded a n d vindicated Fo r the pure bei n g o r

.

b e i n g p e r se of mind w e care nothi n g care n o more for ,

it than for the pure nothing o r pure non s e n s e which it Is .

Onc e and for all let it be to s s ed over i n to th e

,

d e ath king l - -

dom of mea n i n gle s s ab stractio n s A nd why sh oul d any

.

o n e feel that r e a l s ou l s have s u ffered thereby the s lighte s t

lo s s ?
The peculiarly cl o s e rel ation between p sychology a s the
s cien ce which d e s cribe s a n d e xplain s the ph e nomen a of con

s c i ou s n e ss and th e philo s ophy of mi n d i s e n forced in a mo s t ,

im pre s s i ve way by ev e ry attempt to an s wer the que s tio n

,

n o w before u s . That que s tion h a s bee n s tated a s follow s :

M a y I af rm -
and i n wh at s en s e if at all may I af rm
, ,
-
the k n own r eal i ty of m m d ? But pl a i n ly s ue li a q u e st I on a s
o c 0 O o

m _
this mu s t be take n at once to experience ; and to a form of
1 24 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IN D
experience which it i s the appointed ta s k of psychology t o
treat s ci e n ti cally , howe ver di f cult it may nd the a e com
p l i s h m e n t of s uch a ta s k But it i s al s o the right and t h e
.

obligatio n of the philo s ophy of mind to ex ami n e the s ame

e xperi e n ce and to point o ut i ts more ultimate i mplication s
,

a n d i n terpretation i n accordance with s ou n d view s of general

,

metaphy s ic s a n d of the theory of knowledge .

The experie n ce to which reference has been made may

roughly be I vi de d i nto two kin d s : it i s r s t experience , ,

which I have with my s elf ; and it i s s econd e xperi e nce , ,

which I have a s i ndicati n g the character of the experience

o f other s elve s o r mind s The s e two are howeve r mutually
.
, ,

helpful a n d s upplementary They are both nece s s ary for the

.

highe s t and mo s t def e n s ible for m of a n a n s wer to the que s tion ,

What i s it really to be a s all mi n d s are ? Experience with
my s elf alo n e may enable me to af rm s omethi n g a s to what
I k n ow my s elf really to be ; but experien ce with oth e r s i s
ne e ded to e n able me to af rm wha t will approbate its elf to
other s a s true regarding the reality that all mind s are Y et .
,

even whe n s tated in thi s limited way we s till n d that a s , ,

To u r g u n i e ff h a s s aid The s oul of a n other i s a dark s ome
,

forest unle ss we can light it up with t h e l amp of s elf k n owl
,
-

edge . But G oethe i s no les s right i n a f rmi n g On ly i n ,

m a n man know s him s elf
, There i s al s o sound and broad psy
.

c h ol og i ca l wi s dom i n the G erman couplet ,

Wi ll t du d i h lb r rk
s c se e e
en o s i h wi e d i
en n A d r t r iben ;
, s e e n e en e s e

Will st d u di e A n d e r en v er st e h n , bli k i
c n de i ig
n e en es H e rz .

A nd what i s that experience with my S e lf that ph e

n ow
,

n o m e n on of con s ciou s ne ss which may b e e voked a n d s tudied

,

a s a ba s i s for the frami n g a n d validati n g o f a co n c e ption Of

the reality of mi n d ? Thorough a n aly s i s and pe n etr a ting

p sychological i n s ight pre s e nt it a s by no mea n s the s i mple
a a i r which i s cu s tom a rily de s cribed a n d thi s both by ,

tho s e who i n cli n e to de n y and by tho s e wh o s toutly a f rm

, ,

the re al bei n g of the mi n d Both cla ss e s of conte s tant s .

,
 TH E RE AL I T Y OF MIND 1 25

in deed ordinarily mini mize and thin out the phenomenon i n

, ,

the i ntere st s o f their d iver s e philo s ophical vie w s Thu s e x .

p e r i e n c e i s reduced to a convenien t s implicity A s h as .

already been s een o-n e p s ychol ogi st repre s e n t s the expe rience
m
,

a s though it were S i ply the pre s ence i n con s ci ou s n e s s of

s ome pe culiar form o f a s en s ation content ( localized about -

the head or thro a t perhap s or between the two ) a n rg ther:

, ,

tal ks a s though it we re an e nvisage ment of a si mp le indivi s i

ble s oul being o r soul
-
,
if on e may be pardo n e d s o
uncouth a term Both the s e vie ws are however altogethe r
.
, ,

too s imple to s uit the va s t complexity of the phenome n o n ,

not to s a y to s erve a s an adequate interpretation a n d ex

,

plication of the import which properly bel ong s for re ective ,

thinki n g to the phenomenon

,
.

I wa s ; and I ha ve m e a n whi l e been a l lV ,
-

men on que s tio n i n g them s elves as to their knowledge of what

,

i s a i r m e d i n the s e three pr e posi ti o n s nd it impo ss ibl e to ,

deny thei r truth U n it e d a s re s pect s their import and e x

.
,

plained s o a s to bring out thei r full content they amou n t t o ,

an af rmation of the s elf known and inconte stable real ity of

-

the mi n d But the moment we depart from the s phe re of

.

thi s true import from t h e s ph e r e covered by the full content

, .

o f the s e thr e e propo s ition s we n d ou r s e lve s engage d i n

,

trying to k n o w the u nknowable to imagi ne s ome perfectly ,

unimagi n a bl e reality of the mi nd On the other hand to .

,

kno w with full con s ci ou s n e s s wh a t i s cont a i n e d i n the s e th re e

propo sitio n s i s to k n o w o n e s s elf really to be i n the full e st

,

mea n i n g of the word s .

When howev e r the three propo s i ti on s ju s t l ai d down are

, ,

e x am i ne d w ith re s pect t o the k i nd of facu lty a s i t w e re , ,

ope rati ve i n them a s wel l as wi th re s pect to th e s tre n g th of

,

convi cti on wh i ch attaches i t s elf t o them i mpor t ant d i ffe r ,

en c e s are brought to vi ew I a m here and n ow but .

, ,

alway s percei vi ng o r thi nk in g somewhat feel i n g S omehow , ,

and doi ng s ometh i ng : to have the e xperi ence whi ch mu s t be

 1 26 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IN D
de s cri be d i n s uch term s a s th i s i s to be s elf consc i ou s i t i s -

to have i mmediate self k n owle dge i n th e ful l e s t meani ng of -

,

the s e word s I wa s then and there ju s t at that other

.
, ,

ti me a n d pe rh W
J '
i p s d i s tant pl ace ,
z perce i vi n g or th i nk i ng -

s omewhat f e el i n g s omehow , and doi n g s ometh i ng : to have

,

the experi ence wh i ch must be de s cri bed i n su ch te rm s a s

these i s to have recogni ti ve me mory ; i t i s to have k n owl
edge of s elf a s ex i s tent i n the pa s t i n the f u l lest meani ng of ,

the s e w ord s I ha ve be en al l the meanwh i l e i n var i ou s

.
,

place s a n d d i ff erent porti ons of ti me perce i vi n g o r thi nk ,

i ng s ome what , feel i ng s omehow, and doing s omethi n g : thi s

i s a s tatement wh i ch whi l e i t i mpl i e s con s ci ou s ne s s o f s elf
,

here and now a n d me mory of s elf i n many then s and
,

there s re s t s upon a d i e r e n t ba s i s and h a s a d i ff eren t

,

k i nd of conv i cti on attachi ng i t s el f t o i t s truthf ul ne ss from

that whi ch bel ong s t o the other two s tatement s For not only .

self co n sci ou s ne s s and memory , but l ogi cal i nference that

-

may w i th no gre at d i f cu lty be call ed i nto doubt enter i nto ,

thi s thi rd propos i ti on .

In cal l i ng attenti on to and even empha s i zi n g s trongly , ,

the i mportant p s ych ol ogi cal d i ffere n ce s of th e three proposi

ti o n s u n de r di scu ss i on i t mu s t be remembered that neither,

s elf co n s ci ou s nes s n or
-
memory n or i nference i n the ful ,
A

l e s t se n s e of e i the r of the s e three w ord s c a n tak e place ,

Nw i th ou t i nvol vi ng the othe r t wo On e cannot become fully .

s elf co n sci ou s wi thout devel oped memory and i n t el lect ; n or

-

re membe r s e l f c ogn i ti vely wi th out devel opment of s el f c on

- -

s c i ou s n e ss and i nferen ce ; n or attai n k nowledge by re a s o n

i ng w ithout s elf consc i ou s ne s s an d me mory

,
-
Y et e ach of .

the s tates and functi on s of mental l i fe e xpres s ed by the th ree

i t i I am I w as and I have been may
lemph a s i ze on e of the s e s o cal l ed faculti es to the e x clusi on
p pr o o s o n s , , ,

l
,

1
r e l a t i v e l y of the other two .

1 F r th
o e t ru t h of t hi s vi w s de riv ed fr om a s i
e ,t i c t u dy of th ph e
a c en s e

n mo en a , th er d r m a y b ref rred t th e u th or s P y h ol gy D e crip tive

ea e e e o a

s c o , s

an d E xpl a na t o ry ,
"
hr
w e e i t i s ma i tin a n ed t hr ugh u t
o o .
 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IN D 127

For the real ity that I k now my s elf here and n ow to be s o V ,

-

cal le d s elf con s ci ou s n e ss i s re s pon s i ble I know that I am

-
.

here and n ow thu s both acti ve and d e term i n e d a s to content

,

o f co n s ci ou s n e s s ,
thi s i s a s e ntence that o n ly e xpre ss e s i n

the i mperfect and a s i t we re temporal ly el ongated
, ,

fa s hi on whi ch the u s e of word s for re al i ti e s a l way s n e ce s s i

tate s the functi on i ng a n d the product of i mmed i ate s elf
,

k n owledge In s uch an act or s tate s elf feel i n g s e lf acti vi ty

.
-
,
-
,

and di s cri mi n ati n g con s ci ou s ne s s have attai n e d th e achi eve

ment of s elf knowledge A nd l i ke every ach i e v e m e nt of
'

-
.

knowl edge thi s parti cular on e i s su ffu s ed with th e warm

,

convi cti on of the real ity of that wh i ch i s kn ow n The bei ng .

wh i ch af rm s it s e lf to be aware of it s e lf a s ex i s te nt
w hether regarded a s subject or a s obj ect i n every act of

s elf con s ci ou s ne ss ( the
-
I that know s etc or the m e ,
.
,

that i s know n a s be i ng etc ) ,

i s n ot howe ver a far
.
-
, ,

away Or hi dd e n s ub s trate of be i ng It i s ju s t th i s s elf know .

-

i n g concrete and determi nate bei ng whi ch i s here and n ow

, ,

pre s ent to i t s elf a s s el f known In al l s u ch lan g uage and

-
.
,

i n what e ve r othe r l a n guage one may choo s e t o empl oy one ,

can only i nadequately expre s s wh at the real transacti on of

s e lf co n s ci ou s ne ss i s to eve ry S el f wh i ch h a s e xperi ence o f
-

i t To de s cri be the tran s a cti o n howeve r a s m er e s tate or

.
, ,

m e r e acti vity of a de ni ti ve ki nd i s i mpe rfectly t o de s cri be

,

it Self k n owledge al though i t come s a s the re sult of a

-

devel op e tm n i mpl ie s a knowi ng bei ng th at know s i t s e lf ,

i n an actual and i ndubitabl e e x pe ri ence really to be , .

We hav e n o word s to e xpre s s o r power of th ought and ,

i magi nati on to con c e i ve the absu rd i ty i nvol ved i n the

,

attempt to de n y thi s s el f known he re and now be i n g of th e

- - - -

m ind i n s elf con s c i ousness I f the tran s acti on b e regarded

-
.

on th e s ide of i ts i mmed i acy and the i ndubi tabl e charac

te r of th e convi cti on whi ch guarantees its val i d ity no doubt ,

or den i al o r hesi tancy to accept can pos s ibly serve t o c ome

between u s and it to i mpai r our condence i n i t I t i s a

, .
 1 28 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IN D
phi l os oph i cal commonpl ace whi ch h a s become ti resome by ,

repetiti on and almo s t ob s cure i n the bri ghtne s s of i ts ow n

lumi nou s ne ss that avowed doubt den i al and he s i tancy al l
, , , ,

i mpl i cate the s elf known real i ty of m i nd NO on e h a s ever

-
.

under s tood or a nn ounce d thi s m ore cl early th a n d i d hun ,

dred s of year s a g o the C hurch father A u gu s ti n e Thi s i s

,
- .

no le s s true S i n c e e xperi mental p s ychol ogy has determi ned

approx i mately how l ong ( s a y from a fracti on Of a s eco n d to ,

S i x o r s even se cond s ) i t takes to c ome to self consci ous n e ss -

n o l e ss true al s o i n vi ew of the rapi d wanderi ng of atten

, ,

ti on ove r the el d of con s ci ous ness or of th o s e change s i n ,

the extent of the grasp of con s ci ou s ne s s whi ch accompany
act s of s el f co n sci ou s ne ss a s they accompany and make an
-
,

i mportant part of al l phenomen a of c onsci ou s n e s s

N or can the case b e argue d wi th thi s wi tne s s of s elf

( con s c i ou s ne s s s o l ong a s we under s tand i t s te s ti mony to be

,

c on n e d s i mply to the self kn own he re and now be i n g of
- - -

|
-

the Se lf and n ot to b e e xtended to s ome i nferred much le s s

, ,

( envi saged pure be ing o r bei ng p er se of an unknowabl e

, , ,

lsu b st r a te For unless i t s gu aranty i s gi ven i n the very bei n g

.
,

of m i nd n o argu ment has any val i di ty o r can eve n h ave ex i s t

,

ence a s an argument of any ki nd The bei ng of a n y argu .

ment i s only a s eri e s of mental proce ss e s that succeed each

other accordi ng to l aws of th e m i n d s i ntel l e ctual procedure ;

and every concl u s i on l ogi cally drawn i s b ou n d to i t s premi s es

, ,

only by the l i vi n g combi ni ng acti vi ty of con s ci ou s mi nd

, .

Exce pt a s i t i s a ss umed I a m a n d ha ve be en from s tart to, ,

N n i s h i n th e argument t he s a m e i n te lle c t ,
no argum e nt h a s ,

ex i s tence or val i d i ty f or m e The argu ment by whi ch we .

support as wel l as that by wh i ch we try to con trovert the

, ,

se l f
j known re al i ty of mi nd can nei the r prove nor d i s prove

i t ; b oth ar guments a s s ume i t

j .

Y et furthe r i t i s only i n thi s warm full and ever con

, , , ,
-

v i n ci n co ci ou ne s f self ex i stence that all k n owl edge

g n s s s o -

of the ex i stence of s O cal led real th i ngs has i ts source an d

-
 TH E R EA LI T Y OF M IN D 1 29

secure defence If I am not re a lly here and now e x i stent

the n no object of my k nowi n g can cl ai m real i ty as the t e l
.
,

me here and now k nown Ob ject that i t i s If i t were p os

- - -
.

s ibl e to regard th e object Self as m er e phenomenon when i t i s

-

an object of k n owledge , i t would foll ow that the Object Thi ng " -

i s known as m er e phenomenon als o But a s h as al re ady .

,

bee n e xpl ai ned r e pe ated ly t o talk of any knowl edge a s of

,

me re phenomena i s to tal k of th at whi ch i s absurd and s elf

contradi ctory I ndeed ju s t s o l ong as we cl i n g t o th e
.
,

p s ych ol ogi cal poi nt of vi e w and regard only the phe nome n on
,

o f c o n s ci ou s n e ss a s such we mu s t af rm a s a f or ti or i i nd u
,

bi table the known re al i ty ( a s here and n ow be i ng ) of the - - -

mi n d For p s ychol ogi cal ly c o n s i dered e very phe n omenon

.
, ,

o f k nowledge e mpha s i ze s the h i ghe s t form of the be i n g a s ,

an acti ve know i ng s ubj ect of the mi n d On thi s form of the

, .

m i nd s funct ioni ng w ith the acti vi ti e s i nvol ved ( i nfe re n ce

, ,

faith a ss umpti on or bel i ef reach ing real ity

, ,
cal l i t what
, ,
-

y ou wi l l ) al l real ity depend s

,
The nature of that meta .

phy s i cal e lement wh i ch whi l e i t i s cal le d i n the subject a

,

1
bel i ef i n or a be l i ef wi th refe rence to real ity become s ,

i n the object a being real renders i t i mpo s s ibl e to gi ve ,

the i ndubi tabl e characte r for real i ty whi ch thi ngs have any
prefe rence over that wh i ch i s kn own to bel ong to m i nd .

A t thi s poi nt the ontol ogi cal a s pe ct o f al l knowledge i s

agai n reached M an a s a k no wi ng s ubject i s metaphy s i cal
.

i n re s pect of the knowi ng functi on A l l real object s a re .

give n to hi m as be i n g re al i n the form of Objects of h i s

k nowledge In general knowl ed ge and real ity are corre
.
,

l ate s but certa i nly no l e s s truly when the ob ject s are m i nd s

,

than when they a r e th i ngs A n d i f we try to tear ou t of the

.

phenomen o n of k nowledge the ontol ogi cal po s tul ate ( or act

o f be li ef i n real i ty
) wh i ch i s of i ts very es s ence as k n ow l

e dg e, we d o not lo s e the real bei ng o f ou r own mi nd s s i mply

,

but we l o s e al l be i ng and all k nowl edge at once A gno s .

t i c i sm here pushes the e xpl anati on of the p s ych i c fact to a n

9
13 0 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IN D
extreme wh i ch d oes away with i ts e s senti al qual ity and
e ss e n ti al outcome altogether ; and i n l o s i n g the s e , the whole
worl d of real ity fall s i n on e common wreck .

But the act of s e lf con s ci ou s nes s s o f a r as i t may be con

-
,

s i de r e d apart from memory i mpl i cate s and guar a ntees only ,

the here a n d now b e i ng wh i ch I know I re al ly am
- - -
I .

wa s i s h oweve r a pr e p os i t i on wh i ch i s m a de w i th s carcely
, ,

le ss con dence and certai nly w ith no l e s s frequency than the

propo s iti on I am In i ts m o s t general form th i s s tate
.

ment i s a s to b oth ti me and place vague and i nde ni te

, , .

In th i s i ts general for m i t i s l ikewi s e mo s t i mpotent to

arouse and con rm a convi cti on of the re al ity of mi nd B ut .

thi s convi cti o n i s e xperi enced an d i mpl i ed i n every cle ar

and content f ul act of recogni ti ve memory Fo r exampl e
-
.

th of 9 2 at on e an d a half o cl ock Of the

I w a s on J uly
,

,

afternoon upon the t op of A sama yama i n company wi th

,
-
,

A B and other s i n the m i d s t of a clou d that ob s cu red th e

. .
,

surroundi ng landscape but d i d n ot hid e the crater feel ing ,

v ery s ore and w e ary w ith ly i ng mo s t of the n i ght before on

the oor Of a tea h ou s e a n d w i th havi ng ri dden from fou r

-
,

to el even of that morni ng on th e wooden saddl e of a Japanese

pack hor s e and havi n g thereafte r cl i mbed the vol cano s
-
,

co n e ; yet greatly exh i l arate d by the scene conver s i ng upon ,

su ch topi c s etc I wa s there a n d the n thu s con s ci ou s l y

,
.
, ,

a cti ve and determi ned i n content of consci ou s ne s s ; i t was I

that wa s the re ; and I k n ow al l thi s beyond the po s s i bi l i ty of

d oubt .

On makin g howeve r a careful p sychological a n aly s is Of

, ,

such an act of memory , or rather s uch a s e rie s of a ct s o f

remembering a s the foregoing it i s found that the di ffe rent
, ,

moments of the complex re sultant the di fferent features of ,

the total memory picture have a s omewhat diff erent origi n and
-
,

di ff ering d egree s of validity That it wa s indeed the year .

on th e th day of the mo n th July

a n d that the hours ,

were on e and a hal f o clock of the afternoon
four of the ,
 TH E RE A L I T Y OF MIN D 1 31

mornin g etc I may be ready to receive evidence Th e r s t

,
.
,
.

date m a y be p r ove d correct by re s ort to a diary ; the second

and thi rd i n the s ame way o r by s ome more de nitive act of
,

recollection , s uch as that of taking o u t a watch whe n about

to mount the pack hors e and again whe n on the point of climb
-
,

ing the crater s cone o r already on i ts top For the name of

,
.

the mountain and of the village from whic h the a s ce n t was

made re s ort may be had to the guide book which wa s i n u se
,
-

o n the occa s ion it s elf M y own perception s f e eling s an d

.
, ,

thought s on the other h a nd eve n if the me mory o f the m mu s t

, ,

be refre shed by reference t o s ome writte n record are f a r more ,

likely to s pring up with s ponta n eous fre s hne s s as a nece s s ary

part o f the me m ory picture it self They indeed con s ti t ute the
-
.

very e s s e n tial co n tent o f the proce ss of me mory s e calle d -

.

On fu rther re ective anal y s is of thi s act o f memory and of ,

the knowledge which it i s an d implicate s it may ea s ily be di s ,

covered that the origi n al s which it repre s ent s were at the time ,

o f their occurrence qui te widely di fferent activitie s of the

,

mind For my origi n al k nowled ge of the numbers o f the

.

year the d ay of the mo n th and hou r of the day I wa s depend

, , ,

ent chiey on s ome kind o f evidence diary watch te s ti , , ,

mony of companio n s o r remote r calculati on of probabilities

,

( it s elf dependent upon a v a riety o f m ore o r le s s d oubtful

memorie s) Fo r the na me of the mountai n a nd o f the village
.

where the a s cent began the gu ide boo kwa s at the time con
,
-

s u l te d o r th e te s timony of other s take n

, But for my own .

pe rception s feelings and thou ght s th ere w a s ori ginally the

, ,

s ame evidence which I have for all r e s en t perceptions feel

p ,

ing s and thought s cognized a s such ; there was that i s to s ay

, , ,

the i mmediate a n d i n conte stabl e evid e n ce of s elf con s ciou s ne ss -

.

In general it may be s aid though not with perfect accuracy

, , ,

that the k g f
n owl e d e o m em or
yf o llo ws t h e o r d e r a nd l a ws of t he

k n owl e d e o
g f tha t w hi ch i s r emem be r e d Was the ori g inal .

k nowledge largely or chiey i nfe rential and s o capable of ,

having its ground s call ed i n que stion and subjected to discus

13 2 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IN D
sion ? Then the m e mory knowledge is also con s idered a t
-

s ubj ect for di s cus s ion ; it too may be called upon to di s play

the ground s upon w hich it repo se s But w a s the o riginal .

k nowledge so called ,
-
i mmediate knowledge whether of ,

thing s or of s elf Then f or the memory knowledge there can -

be no ground s s uperior to those which are to be found in the

very nature of the memory k nowledge it s elf -
.

Still further however in the p sychological de s cription a n d

, ,

e xpla nation of the phenomenon of memory , it i s important to

notice that the very nature of the complete memory picture -

( or to s peak more accurately th e precise determin ation of

, ,

the p sychi c proce ss e s of reco llection ) i s to a certai n large ,

extent its elf subj ect to modi cation on ground s of inference

, .

Suppo s e to recur to the ex a mple j ust gi ve n that I am

a s ked H ow d o y ou know that y ou were o n the top of A sama
,

yama at preci s ely o n e a n d a half o cl ock of the aftern oon

?

the reply might be : Becau s e I remember looki n g at my watch

and noting the hour immediately upon arrival But here .

on e o f my companion s might say : I remember distinctly that

y o u looked at your watch and announced thi s very hou r wh e n ,

a s yet we we re only half way u p the cone

,
-

A nd , be s ide s
.
,

he mi ght go on to argue it i s very unlikely that on e would
,

expose a watch which o n e valued to the fume s of s ulphur etc , .

On heari n g this contradictory stateme n t b a s ed u pon memory ,

equally immediate wi t h my o w n a n d the argument urged in i ts

,

s upport I might rea s o n ably be induced to revi s e my o wn mem

,

c r y pi cture ; I mi ght actually nd it now mod i ed or s o ob s cured

-
,

th a t my original con d e nce i n it wa s partly go n e Something .

s imilar though s carcely s o likely to prove e f fective might al s o

, ,

occu r with reference to the more accurate recall of the ob s cur

i n g cl oud the time of i ts appear a nce i ts e xtent etc
,
That ,
, , .

however , I did not feel s ore a n d weary ex ceedi n gly did not ,

think the crater with i ts horribl e rumbling s and occa s ional out
bur s t of ame i mpressi ve did n ot experience a high degree of
,

aesthetical enj oyment , it woul d be quite u s eless if n ot ab s urd , ,

 TH E RE A L I T Y OF M IN D 1 33

for any on e else to call upon h i s memory or adduce argu

ment to prove I n ge n eral the n , t he c le a r a n d vi v id m e m ory
.
,

k wl
no e dg e f
o wh a t wa s i
y to
g ven or ig i n a l l
n ow l e d e
g by k
s e lf l c on s c i ou sn e s s , p sy c h olog i ca lly c on s i d er e d , a s r e sp e c ts t h e

k
i n du bi t a ble con ten t of r e a li ty n o wn , app r oa ches t he o r ig i n a l
k n owl e dg e f o se lf -
cons c i o u s n e ss i tse lf .

In the foregoi n g s e nten ce the word approache s w a s used
and thi s word w a s carefully cho s en W
,

ps y c h ol o gy o f .

memory when i ts data are e xtended so a s to cover the variou s

,

fault s o f memory i ts ordi n ary mi s takes lap se s pa th ol og i

, , ,

cal form s liabiliti e s to conf u si on of the two leading kind s of

,

repre s e n tation so that what i s really only imagined get s it s elf

,

recollected show s that f e w or none of the s tateme n t s de

,

taili n g any concrete c as e of memory can vindicate them s elve s

as a b s olutely certain Even one s own feeli n gs and thought s
.

m ig ht n ot only get di s placed in re s pect of the exact time

a s s igned to the m i n the pas t s tream of con s ciou s ne ss but ,

might a l s o get a s s ig n ed to that s tream more or le s s de nitely , ,

a s in i ts pa s t without eve r having actually occurred i n it

, .

D oubtle s s the d e gree s an d sh ad i n g s of ou r l ower a ffective phe

n om e n a the clear n e s s cogency and o rd e r of our ratiocinative
, , ,

proce s se s the elevatio n a n d purity o f ou r ae s thetical ethical

, , ,

and religiou s s entiment s have been in many ca s e s actually far

,

di ff ere n t from what we n ow remembe r the m to be

But after makin g all po ss ible admi s s ion s to which a cand id

and thorough exa m in ation of the fact s of em pirical p sychology
c a ll s att e ntion the ba si s on which the philo s ophy of mi nd
,

plac e s th e kno w ledge of one s pa st reality i s not de s troye d
o r e v e n i mpaired
.
Thi s reality cover s j u s t s o much a s i s
.

a f rmed of the mi nd whenever I s a y I w a s with refere n c e
to s ome concret e and d e nite experie n ce i n the pa st Such .

knowledge i s knowledge still ; the reality of the object

of k n owledge i s implicated i n the act of memory s till .

Thi s reality i s not i ndeed the her e a n d now bei n g , of - - -

mind as known by mi nd in the de veloped act of self con -

 13 4 TH E RE A L I T Y OF MI N D

sci ou s n e ss ; theit is
then and there being of mind a s - - -

Ir e p r e s en t a t i v e ly known by mind i n the developed act of

recognitive memory B ut the certainty of conviction attach
.

i n g i ts el f to the af rmation i s the highe s t po s s ible that can

be given to any Obj ect o f memo ry k n owledge -
.

It i s impossi ble to put the propos al to prove or to di s prove

the val idity of recognitive memory in ge n eral i nto any term s
that d o not a ss ume the wh ole que s tion a n d s o evince th e ,

ab s urdity of al l oppo s ition to th e acce pted vie w P roof it s elf .

cannot pr oceed a s ingle s te p with out a ss u mi n g the validity of

the act of me mory For u nle s s memory could be tru s ted to
.

carry a s it were the meaning of the pre mi s e s and th e mean

, ,

ing Of the con clu s ion n ot only woul d n o valid inference s be

,

p o ss ible but the very conception of all validity to i n ference

,

would be destroyed M ore ove r , that synthetic activity of

.

judging which the drawing of th e conclu s ion i n every i n stance

i nvolves i s itself dependent b oth f or i ts characte r and for i ts ,

val idity u pon the a s sumed tru s tworthine s s of memory Every

,
.

inference mu st invol v e a conclusion f r om s ome j udgment to

s ome other judgment But h ow i s on e to k now w ha t j udg
.

ment to conclu de with out m emory o f the ground s whi ch dete r

mine thi s que sti on of what H ow i s on e to conclude with ,

the rati onal conviction of truth attachi n g it s elf t o the par

t i cu l a r characte r of the conclu s i on Without me mory of th e ,

point of s tarting an d Of the middle term th rough which the

,

process moved ? H ow c a n argume n t be te s ted without such

mem ory as mak e s it po s sible to repeat the progre s s of thought
from the s ame ground s to the s ame co n cl usion
the r e ,

view of the proce s s of ratiocination f o r purpo s e s of veri
ca ti on
N ow it is
true that the bli n d leap t o a conclu s io n which
,

1
fu se s with perception and gu ide s th e di s play of tact a n d
skill i n a nearly or quite u ncon s ci ou s way , doe s n ot s eem to
,

involve the veri cation s of recognitive m emory The form of .

1 C mpo . P sych ol ogy , Desc ript iv e an d Ex pl an a t o ry

, p p 3 1 8 ff
. .
 TH E RE A L I TY OF MIN D 13 5

inference sometime s called instinctive i s undoubtedly
largely an uncon s ciou sly determined movement of the mechan
i s m of idea s that doe s not nece ss arily i nvolve k nowledge with
i ts correlate of reality It is not , h o wever , of s uch s o calle d
.
-

i nfere nce t h a t w e are now s pe aking ; but neithe r i s it o f a

,

merely mechanical movement of the ideas that we are speaking

u n de r the term recognitive memory The con s ciousne ss o f
.

a con ne ction of on e judgment with other judgment as i ts rea lh -

s on, o r ground is a p sychic fact whi ch mu st be r e c og n i ze d f

,

a s highly di stinctive of the work of human i ntellect It i s .

u pon thi s con s ciou s ne s s that i n ferential knowledge with all the ,

fair fabric of s cienc e and of the truths o f philo s ophy reposes f ,

.

But the v a l i di t v of this con s ciou s ne s s its elf depend s upon the
validity o f recognitive memory ; it can n eve r be e mployed
either to prove or to di s prove the tru s t worthine ss of s u ch f
memory .

P lainly too when we s peak of improving m emory clarify

, , ,

ing it and correcting poor memory by good m e mory o r on e

, ,

man s memory by that of another m a n the appeal in the last

re s ort must be taken to thi s s ame my s teriou s and ultimate

s ou rce of authority namely to the k nowledge of the pa s t
, ,

by recog nitive memory The moment however that we

.
, ,

agree to call the memory function by the term -

i t s ontological s i gn i cance and guaranty is est a bl i S lI e d a s ,

was the ca se with the immed iate knowl e dge of s elf con s ciou s -

ne ss . Whethe r the particul ar s of any concrete act of

memory a n d only with s ome degree of particularity and

concr e ten e s s c a n I actualize my being then and there a s - - -
,

g i v en I I I memory b e more or l e ss defensible a s particular s ,

the fact that I wa s and that thi s I that now remember i s
,

th e s ame I that wa s mu s t be r e g a rded a s indi s putable

, It i s .

i ndi sputabl e not becau s e it i s given a s a m aT

'

,
t e I Of Dr oof w h ich
'

may b e s ucce s s fully mai nt a ined by syllo gi sti c proce ss e s

a gain s t other contradictory argument s ; but it i s indi s putable

becau s e to a s s ume an d to implicate the past reality of the

 136 THE RE A L I T Y OF M IN D
Ego i s of the very es s ence of memory a s a form of k nowledge
V
,

and becau s e memory cannot even be called i n que stion with

o u t thi s s ame a ss umptio n .

H ow the u n ity and id e n tity of mi n d are concerned i n th e

fact of knowledge by memory an d what s ort Of u n ity a n d ,

ide n tity thi s fact concern s w e S hall i n quire later o n What

, .

n o w i n tere s t s u s i s s imply thi s , that the the n and there - -

reality of mi n d i s i n di s putably implied i n all recogniti ve

memory To remember r e cogn i ti v e ly i s to have k n owledge
.

Vof the being i n the pa s t of the s ubj ec t of th e act of me mory .

Thi s i s the truth which i s really brought o u t b v the e ffort t o

n d an answer to s uch ab s urd que s tio n s a s the followi n g
H o w could a bein g that w a s not actually exi ste n t i n the p as t
k n ow it s elf a s exi s tent i n that past H ow could a being with
n o pa s t know by me mory s ome other being than it s elf as
exi s tent i n i t s o wn pa s t ? For what i s memory whe n it ,

reache s that devel opment which we call knowledge but j ust ,

thi s the k n owledge of my own experience a s i n volving

,

my then a n d there being

- - -
ju s t a s the i mmediate knowledge
o f Self in the act o f s elf co n s ciousne s s i s the k n owledge of my
-

here a n d now b e ing

- - -

But i f s ceptici s m and a gno s tici s m are to be pu s hed to the

utmo s t l imit on the epi s temological s ide a n d the co n dition of ,

u ncertainty o r d oubt o r denial regarding a ll memory knowl

edge i s to be mai n tai n ed then it i s not the pa s t reality of
,

mi n d alone which drop s down into the dark aby s s of n e s cience

it i s not the real ity of my mind which rs t vani she s i n to mere
phenomenon of m e m ory z i t i s all reality But it is r s t .

and mo s t i rrecoverably the reality of thi n gs Except a s they .

hang depend ent on m e mory with i ts f a ith and k n owl e dge

, ,

sun ,
moon and star s ; bi rd s bea s t s and she s ; th e wife
, , , ,

childr e n and all huma n ity pa s t ( the being s M Flour n oy

,

.

i s s o de s irou s t o save ) all are engulfe d i n that bottomles s

,

pit of n on e xi stence which eve r foll ow s cl o s e behi n d the e ver

-

r es e n t being a f rme d by s elf consciou s ne ss a n d s wallow s

fp
-
,
 TH E RE AL I T Y OF M IN D 137

the m all a s fa s t as they come forth ou t of the womb of

nothing on the way to nothing a s thei r tomb For nothing .

el s e h a s i t s the n and there being guarantee d as implicate d

- - -

in s eparably in the very nature of r ecognitive memory i n the ,

s ame mann e r a s the pa s t s elf k nown being of the remem

-

b e r e r s o wn mind

.

But the propo s itio n I ha ve been duri n g the time b e ,

tween the pr e s e n t I a m and the reme mbered
-
I wa s -
,

repo s e s on yet other and di ff e rent ground s Psy ch o lo .

g i ca lly con s ider e d thi s propo

,
s ition re s ts upon ground s o f
c o n s ci ou s n e s s belo n gi n g to a quite d iff erent order from the
phenomena i n which either self con s ciou s ne s s or recognitive -

memory are chiey empha s ize d What do I mean when .

I s ay ,
1 have bee n i n exi s t e n ce the s e twenty year s s ince
the time whe n a s I n o w remember I had s uch an e x
, ,

p e r i en ce
?
A nd h o w d o I ve rify or on what ground
, s

believe s uch a statement a s thi s ? Epi stemologically and

,

ontologically con s id e red the import and the proof of e xist

,

ence conti n uou sly al l the wa y th rough a s it were from the , ,

remembered t hen and there bei n g to the con s ciou sly k n o w n

- - -

h e re and n o w b e i n g r e quire a quite di fferent order o f d i s
- - -

c u s s i on from that followed hitherto .

On begin n ing an examination o f th e meaning a n d validity of

thi s propo s itio n have be e n s i n ce ever I w a s u p till
, ,

the moment cov e red i n the k n owledge expre s s ed b y s ayi n g ,

I am
from the poi n t of view of empirical p sychology it i s ,

found to involve a large de vel opment o f the power o f reective

thinking Faithfully de s cribed indeed the phenom e n o n o f
.
, ,

co n s ciou s ne ss which the propo s ition s tate s plainly i nclude s a

s trong and quite irre s i s tibl e convicti on L e t the adult o f .

av e rage int e llige n ce but without s pecial cultivation i n the

,

an aly s i s of s e lf con s ciou s ne s s or s p e cial acquaintance with

-

the probl e m s of philo s ophy be a sk ed H ave you then really

, ,

e xi s te d all the time s i n ce the r s t thing which o u r e mem

y
h e r ? and he will be likely to greet the inquiry with an i n c r e d
 13 8 TH E R E AL IT Y OF M IN D

u l ou s smile or a vaca n t s tare Thi s i s n ot s o much because .

he cannot comprehend the meani n g of the que s tion as becau s e

he cann ot comprehen d ho w the actual fact can be called i n
que s tion at all But wh at from the point of view of
.
,

psychol ogy i s thi s actual fact ? It i s s imply a m ode o f

,

mental procedure a certai n determinate o w i n th e stream

,

o f co n s ciou s n e ss i nvolving complex activities an d the m s t e

, y
r i ou s accompaniment o f rational conviction s A s phenom

.

e non i t cannot be faithfully de s cribed without noting a ll
,

the s e activitie s ; i ts de s cription mu st include be side s the ,

concrete form o f the activitie s the accompaniment of con ,

v i cti o n s also Or perhap s we may be forced into con s ent to

.
, ,

tak e the conviction s e s pecially i nto account a s a mong the

mo s t important and permanent of the acti vitie s .

What the n , i s it to which con s ciou s ne s s actually gives

,

V bi rth th at i s expre ss ed by the propo s ition , 1 have been ?

P lainly on e of the mo st obviou s a n d important of the
,

moment s of this complex p sychic fact i mplie s the po ss i
bi l i ty of a n i ndenite numbe r a n d variety o f a ct s o f recog
n i ti v e memory On thi s poi n t agai n let co n s ciou s ne ss b e
.
, ,

con s ult e d Y our plain man wh e n a sked What do y ou m e an

.
,

by sayin g
I have been ? will almo s t certainly proceed to
,

an s wer Wh y I remember that I wa s " an d thi s over and

, ,

over again Once I w a s year s a g o in s uch a place under
.
, , ,

such circum s tance s thinking feeli n g and planning thus and

, , ,

so ; agai n even l o n ger ago I w a s el s ewhere under di ff erent

, , ,

circu m stance s with markedly di ffer e nt thought s feelings and

, , ,

plan s ; and yet again much more rece n tly o r ye s terday or

, , ,

but an hou r or two gon e by I w a s th e s a m e I that tell y ou .

,

o f it , a s I disti nctly remember exi s tent at the s e many point s ,

o f time ; and I am s ure I could recall yet many o t he r occa

sion s when I s houl d di s ti n ctly remember that I wa s Thi s .

potenti ality of recognitive memory a n d the co n s ciou s ne ss of ,

it i s then a prime moment i n th at d e terminate ow of
,

mental life which warrant s the conclu s ion I have bee n , .
 TH E R E AL IT Y OF MIND 139

Just as evident i s it however that n o such proposition

, ,

is warrantable upon the ba s i s s ol e ly of acts of recognitive

memory ; it i s not upon the potentiality of memory alone that
the knowledge of the mind s continued exi s tence betw e en a n y

particular I wa s and the p re s e n t I am can r e ly It i s .

only a small part of a n y entire s tretch of obj ective time which

clear reco gnitive memory with its kn owledge of the Ego s
,

past exi s tence can hope to cover

,
Of the ma n y s tat e s of
.

mo s t u ndoubted s elf knowledge with i ts full conviction of

-
,

the reality of the knowing S e lf which actually happ e ned i n,

the pa s t only an in s igni cant percentage a s i t were can

, , ,

ever be recalled A nd if all of these states could be r e called

.
,

great gap s i n the continuity of e xi stence which the propo s i

tion 1 have bee n i s de si g n e d to cove r would s till remain , .

Of the s e gap s s ome were originally lled by s uch s tat e s of

i nten s e ab s orpti on in the l ife of the s en s e s or i n practical ,

activitie s with th e ir more purely objective reference s a s con ,

t a i n e d f e w a n d weak element s of s elf knowledge Other gaps -

.

were origi n ally lled with tho se lowe r and more ob s cure
condition s of mental repre s entation whi ch i f they con s ti , ,

tu t e d the entire outcome of mental developme n t would neve r ,

give ri s e to any rati onal inquiry con cerni n g the reality of

mind . Indeed if the s e s tate s s en s uou sly determin e d and
, ,

capable of more nearly complete d e s cri ption merely content ,

wi se we re a s s ome p sychol ogi st s clai m the s u m total of the

, , ,

stream of con s ciou s ne ss a s well might on e ex p e ct c r ow s or

,

dog s to e n t e r u pon de bate conc e rning the reality of thei r

mind s . Still other gap s w e re origi n ally ju s t thi s g ap s ,

they were n ot ll e d s o far as can be di s covered with a u v

, ,

of even the l ower fo rm s of mentality Such were the s tate s .

o f deep a n d dreamle s s sleep or the time s when the mind lo s t

,

con s ciou s n e ss and s woo n ed quite away

, N ow the bridge . ,

over all the s e gap s c a n neve r so far a s we are pe rmitte d to

make a s se rtion s on the b a s i s of kn own p sychi c fact s b e con

stituted by s ucce ss ive act s of recognitive memory No r is it .
14 0 TH E R E AL IT Y OF MIND

nece ss ary i n this connection to do more than call attention to

the fact that the s tream to be bridged it s elf widens ceasele s sly
a s the s ucces s ive act s o f memory them s elve s go o n A ll these .

very act s of memory are moment s in the on o wi n g stream .

It i s the faculty of t houg ht, distinctively with tho s e pha s e s of ,

metaphy s ical a s s umption ( or ontological leap s ) which a ccom

pany i ts f u nction s that bridge s over all gaps i n the kno wledge ,
,

by s elf con s ciou s ne s s and recognitive memory , of the reality

-

of ou r o wn mind s H ere the manner of i ts proced u re i s i n

.

no re s pect di ff erent from that which it follo ws in bridging

ove r the gap s that l ie bet ween every real being a s known ,

now to be and the s ame real bei n g as remembered to have

,

been Indeed without relying upon the proce ss of re ecti ve

.
,

thinking with i t s accompaniment of ontological post ulate s

,

and beliefs warm with convic t ion , we cannot s peak of any

conti n uou s real being whate ve r or e ven of any reality as ,

belonging to change and to motio n i n the world of e xte rnal

object s If f or ex ample I perceiv e what app ea r s to b e the
.
, ,

s ame being ( that is the s ufciently s i milar being ) X n o w at

,

the poi n t A and the n at the point B and still later at the
, ,

p oint C i n the l ine A

, B 0 I may s a y :
I kn o w ,

that the s ame X ha s been in motion all the way from A to

A lthough I now only perceive it at C and only remember that
'
,

I perceived it at B a n d at A I neverth e le s s condently af rm

,

that it a s continuou sly and really exi stent h a s pas s ed over

, ,

the entire line fro m A to 0 .

By a similar co n clu s ion which h as i ts ba s is n ot only i n per

,

c e pt i on and memory but al s o in i n ference the a stro n omer

, ,

direct s his tele s cope to another and advanc e d point along the
l in e of moveme n t followed by s ome heavenly body ; and when
he h a s the phenomenally s i milar s en s atio n of light he af rms ,

h i s knowledge o f the conti n uou s ly s ame e xi s tence N or doe s .

h e doubt the re a lity of the being i nf e r r e d to h ave been i n

th e several po s itio n s betwee n thi s and that any more

than the reality of the being p er cei ve d now and here ,
 TH E R E AL IT Y OF MIND 14 1

or of the being de n itely r em em ber e d a s then and there .

With the s ame per s ua s ion of kno wledge does the micro s copist
ex amine h i s s pecime n s of animal an d plant l ife Thi s pe r .

s ua s ion i s not at all shake n when important ch ange s take

place i n the obj ect known not eve n whe n those change s are
of the mo st s tartling and tran s forming character Indeed all .
,

s uch knowledge a s enter s i nto the theory of devel opment n ot

o n ly admit s o f but eve n s eek s and build s it s elf upon , a s imilar

,

ba s is In s pite of changing s tate s in s pite of wonderful and

.
,

unexpected tra n sformation s of characte r in s pite of gap s that

,

neither i mmediate k n owledge by the s en s e s n or knowledge by

memory can overcome s cience a f rm s o f e verythi n g with
,

which i nve s tigatio n undertakes to deal : I t h a s really bee n

all the way through fro m the i t was to the i t i s
,
-
I n b rief -
.
,

without thi s function of reective thi n k ing to supplement per ,

ce pt i on and memory , sc i e n ce i s wholly i mpos s ible ; and without

the ontological a s s umptio n which goe s with it , what i s call e d

science i s n othin g but the d reamer s well ordered dream
,
-
.

N or is it found that the m o s t agno stic of so called s cienti st s

-

are particularly lacking i n warmth of conviction whe n the

validity of thi s ontol ogical postulate thi s metaphy s ical leap
, ,

re specting thei r ow n alleged knowledge of things i s called in

question .

If the bearings of thi s for m of thinking and the meaning ,

of i t s re s ult s were con side red mor e i n detail it woul d appear

, ,

that much o f the language o f common life and many of the

more i mportant te rms of s cience depend u pon it Of the lat .

te r cla s s might be mentioned a ll that scienti c talk about po

t e n t i a l energy , latent s tate s , tendencie s strains etc , , .
,

with which phy s ic s e ntertain s and in s truct s u s ; and a s well

the brilliant pict u re s which chemi s try form s of the intra
molecul ar relation s of the atom s But what pray would
.
, ,

become of the prou d science of biol ogical evolution , if i ts

right were denie d to brid ge ove r its gaps with thought and
imagination ? For who can deny that g ap s are abundant
 14 2 TH E R E AL IT Y OF M IN D

enough i n it ? A n d who can deny that from the known a s it

n o w i s to whate ve r then w a s biological evolution has
-
,

few s tepping s tone s i n memory ? The tr u th i s that thi s

-
-

Iso called s cience con s i s ts almos t wholly in a debat a ble sy ste m

-

" o f arra n ging ab s tract thought s Indeed ,

it wo u ld be s trictly
.

j u s ti a ble if it were called to account before the bar of philo s

lo h
p y ( howe ver thi s might be deemed rank here s y in s c i e n
t i c circle s ) for con s tructi n g a then wa s for the world of
j
-

mat e rial realitie s ou t of mythological and imaginary being s .

C ertainly a s to s olid ground i n known reality thi s science

, ,

h a s frail s ta n d i n g indeed compared with that which the plain

man nd s when he a f rms the continuou s reality of his o wn

s oul s exi stence .

When howe ver the ground s on which ou r conviction r e

, ,

po s e s a s to the validity of the propo s ition I have been are
critically e xamined they are found quite di ffe rent from tho s e
,

o n which repo se the propo s ition s

I a m and I wa s They

.

are n ot only di ff e re n t but i n f e rior That I a m the ve ry .

,

nature of the act of devel oped s e lf con s ciousne ss d oe s n ot -

permit me to doubt ; that I wa s i s fully guaranteed i n the act

o f recognitive memory But that I ha ve been when I cannot
.
,

rem e mber that I w a s ad mit s of being ? called in que stion ;

,

while to af r m that I have r e ally been a s m i n d duri n g tho s e , ,

gaps when n o actual function of mind life no p sychoses to be -

,

attributed to t h e s ubj ect actually occu rred this may turn

, ,

i ou t not o n ly an unwarrantable but a meaningless propo s iti on .

Y et even thus the ba s i s on which the reality of mind re s t s ,

as a f rmed by the propo s ition I ha ve been is i n c e rtain i m ,

porta n t respect s superior to any which can be placed beneath

the reality of any mate rial thi n g .

That I have been between t wo period s when I remembe r

,

that I was is a n i n ference which reache s a hi gh d e gree of
,

probability but of probability only It is conceivable that I

,
.

may n ot all th e while h ave been i n any intelligibl e me aning ,

of the words to be , as applied to the existence of mind In .
 TH E R E AL IT Y OF M IN D 14 3

deed it i s impo ss ibl e to tell in what meaning of the word s ,

,

except a s indicating a mere po s s ibility of the renewal of actual

bei n g ( a po ss ibility which when i t i s a ctu a li z e d a s r en e wa l we
, ,

regard a s a certainty instead of a mere po ss ibility ) I can a f r m ,

that I ha ve be en d uri n g those gap s when , according t o the

hypothe s is no mental states o ccurr e d It was the impre s s ion
, .

mad e by thi s u n ce rtai n ty which led the C arte s ian philosophy

to i n fer that the mind al way s think s It de s ired to s ave the
.

reality of mind in thi s way But the argument of the C ar

.

i
t e s a n phil o s ophy ave s only the ab s tract conception of the
s

pote ntiality o f a renewal of true mental e xi s tence ; an d i t i

s aves thi s at the price of a co n tradiction o r di s r e gard of

p sychic facts For mi n d a s for all other bein gs ba r e poten

.
, ,

t i a l i ty i s not worth s aving at any price .

The inferred continuou s reality o f mi nd h o we ve r h a s i n , ,

one re s pect at least the preference ove r any s i milar real ity
that can be claimed for material thing s It i s concei vable .

to recur to the illu s tration already employed ( p 1 4 0) that .

the phy s ica l bei n g perceived as X at the end of any line

although it appe ar ex actly s imilar to the bein gs re m embered
at the poi n t s B and A i n the s ame line and although i t ,

appear at the right time to s imulate the move ment of on e and

the s ame b e ing from A th rough B to 0 s houl d s till n ot be i n
,

reality th e same with the remembe red b e ing s The being .

which appeared a s reme mbered at B however s imilar in a p

, ,

p e a r a n c e to X
,
may h ave bee n i n reality s ome Y ; and the
b e ing which appeared at A may have re ally been yet another
being namely s ome " I n de e d it i s co n cei vable th a t
, ,
.
,

howev e r co n tinuou sly on e may s e e m to ob s erve the move

ment of th e s ame thin g along the e nti re l i n e A O in reali ty ,

the fact may have been that an i nde n ite numbe r of su i

c i e n tly s imilar beings were s ucce ss iv ely perceived at the
various ob se rved point s along the line Serie s of ph e
.

n o m e n a of thi s s ort are not only conceivable they may ,

act u ally be produced without ve ry i ntricate Optical appa

 1 44 TH E R E AL IT Y OF M I ND

ratus The same conclu s ion hold s true of the continuou s

.

reality of any on e thing when not i n motion and t hi s ,

-
,

h owever clo s ely it i s watched to s ee that no substitution of

o n e s i m ilar reality for another take s pl ace N othing indeed , .
,

but a net work of highly probable conclu s i on s which adju s t ,

t h e ontological ex plan ation i n the r m e s t and mo s t appropri

ate manner to ou r total e x perience pre vent s u s fro mregard ,

i n g the whole world of things as momently quenched and

then replaced by a s imilar world of actually new realities .

But con cerni n g the reality of th e actu ally remembered s elf ,

such a s uppo s iti on a s the foregoi n g 18 not s imply to a high
degree i mprobabl e it i s even ab s olutely i n conceivabl e
, For .

this is preci sely what the act of recogniti ve memory both

mean s and nece s s arily i mplicate s I w a s ; and I that w a s
,

am the same real I th at n ow a m

In the ca s e both of thing s
.

and of mind s howeve r , the guaranty for the have been
,
-

which lie s between the remembered wa s and the s elf con -

sciou s e m n ow-
can be found only in that con dence
,

which i s attached to the derived re s ult s of mu ch re ective

thinking But for certain poi n t s in the pa s t life of the E go
.
,

n a rn e ly for tho s e i n who s e behalf recogn iti v e memory can

,

be evoked we have the guaran ty furni shed by an ab s olute

,

impo ssibility of thinking th e co n trary ; a n d thi s belongs to

the reality of mind a s it doe s n ot to the re ality of things
,
.

I have been of thi s it i s impo ss ible that I should d oubt
, ,

s o long a s I d o not e xte nd the have been to cover a -

l l a r g e r area than that which can be covered by the indubitable

memory I wa s .

Who however that does n ot enj oy metaphy s ical quibbling

, ,

for i ts o w n sak e will refu s e to extend the clai m of continuou s

real exi stence for the mind s o a s to cove r all tho s e forgotten ,

and perhap s never again to be remembered states of whi ch ,

the re actually w a s self con s ciou s ne ss i n the pa s t of mental

-

development ? In general th e term knowledge cannot be ,

denied to conclu s ions with re s pect both to things and to

,
 TH E R E AL IT Y OF MI N D 14 5

mi n d s th at re st upon e ss entially the s ame ba s i s a s that

,

which e s t a bli she s th e continuity i n reality of being s that o n ly

occa s ionally a s it w e re a r e i mm e di a tely known to be or r e
, ,

memb e r e d to h a ve b ee n The whole body of phy s ical s cie n ce

.

con s i st s of j u s t s u ch conclu s ion s A n ag n o s ti ci s m which we .

d o n ot think o f applying to material things we have no right ,

to attempt to apply to o u r ow n mi n d s .

What how e ver s hall be s aid of tho s e gap s i n the co n ti n

,
/
,

v
u i ty of m e n tal exi s te n ce where there i s not o n ly no mem ory

o r well grou n d e d i n f e re n ce of actual p sychic fact s , but wh e re

-

there r e ally w e re n o s uch fact s exi stent to be s ub s equ e ntly

re m e mbere d or i nfe rred The more complete a n s wer to thi s
que s tion mu s t be po stpo n ed The an s we r which mu s t be .

give n ho wev e r i s bri e y thi s : Where there a r e n o m ental

, ,

s tate s no p sychic fu n ction s actually exerci sed no really

, ,

e xi stent co n t e n t of co n s ciou s n e ss there we cannot s p e ak ,

o f the re a l e xi ste n ce o f mi n d But d oes this mean that .

when one fall s into a de e p an d dr e aml e s s s leep o r s woon s ,

away o r b e cau s e o f a blo w o r of d i se a s e s ink s i n to com

,

p l e t e u n co n s ciou s ne s s one cea s e s really to

, be ? C e rtai n ly ,

if the word s real bei n g are to r e f e r to the s elf kn own -

reality of mi n d A s m i n d I e xi s t n o lo n ger if I cea s e

.
,

from all the fu n ctions a n d activi t ie s of mi n d For the .

r e a li t
y f
o m e n t a l l if e con s i s ts of a ct u a l m e n ta li ty ; i t i s t he
r ea lly bei ng se lf -
f a cti ve k
c on s ci ou s ,
n owi n sel
g r e m e m be r i ng
-
, , ,

a n d t hi n k i ng , a s m i n d Bare ab s tract potentialit y of future

.

mentality i s w e r e peat no sub s titute for , or e v e n mental

r e pre se n tativ e of , th e real being of the mind .

The truth may be brought out b v a count e r que s tion Sup .

po s e t h e dreaml e s s sl e e p to be co n ti n u e d forever , th e u n c o n
s c i o u sn e s s cau s ed by di s e a s e o r a bl o w to be nev e r followed by

return t o co n s ciou s ne s s : on what grou n d , and with what con

c e i v a bl e m e ani n g , could th e conti n ued e xi s t e n ce of t ha t mi n d

be af rm e d ? On ly the actual f a ct o f a re sumptio n o f s e l f

co n s ciou s n e s s and the actual connection of the renewed
,

10
1 46 TH E R E AL IT Y OF M IN D

ment al life with the pa st mental life by act s of recogn itive

mem ory c a n warrant the infe rence I have been from the
,

beginni n g u n til n ow The pote ntiality with which a s
.

the fruit of reective thinking we s trive to s ati s fy rea s on i n i t s

attempt to account for what lie s b e t ween the pre s ent I a m -

a n d the past I wa s
-
is the negation of re ality in s tead of i ts
,

equivalent .

It i s i n thi s re s pect then that the conception o f a con

m
, ,

ti n or the mind i s c ontra s ted w ith the conception

o f a continuous reality for thi n g s Fo r to recur again t o .

the s ame example if I kno w that the thing X which I now ,

perceive at the point C i s the s ame thi n g a s that which I

,

remember percei ving at the point B and previou s to that ,

at the poi n t A then I cannot think the po s s i bility of i ts not

,

having b e e n i n existence continuou sly at e v e ry poi n t of the

l ine A C or of some other line be t wee n A and 0
,
.

If X is a compo s ite being it may indeed be taken apart and

,

conv e yed piec e meal a s it w e r e from A to 0 ; or it may be

, ,

remov e d by s ome circuitou s a n d un s een path and then brought

to C ; while meanti me a really di ffere n t bu t s eemi n gly like
body obviou sly move s along the li n e A C'
.

A s i milar re s ult of reective thinkin g i s ofte n stated by

the s ci e nce of phy s ics i n a more re s tri cted way
,
A body .

cannot move from A to 0 alo n g the li n e A ,C w i th ou t

pa s s ing th rough every point succe s s ively bet ween A and
" That thi s propo s ition with whatev e r o f o n tological po s tu
,

l ate s i t i n volve s i s accepted a s true for a l l thi n g s there

, ,

can be n o doubt The i ntere s tin g m e taphy sic a l di s cu ss ion

.

of th e grou n d s for ou r condence i n it c a n not occupy u s at

th e pre s ent ti me " If howeve r the e ff ort be made to carry
.
, ,

ove r thi s a n alogy to the exi ste n ce of t h e mi n d in ti me i t ,

break s down completely For on the on e hand a s h a s

.

al ready been s ai d n o meaning can b e di s covered for th e

propo sition th at th e real exi s tence of the mind a s mind mu s t , ,

be af rmed a s continuing ( to s peak guratively ) at such point s

 TH E R A E LI TY OF MIN D 147

along the line A C a s are marked by no m en ta l content

o r form s o f m en ta l ac t ivity On the other h and , if the mind
.

k n ow s it s elf to be exi s tent now and remember s it s elf a s ,

e xi s t e nt at any time i n the pa s t ( that i s to empl oy agai n ,

the s ame gu re of s peech maintain s i ts re a lity by the , ,

form s of i t s functioning at both C a n d A ) then it mak e s n o

'
, ,

di ffere n ce with the fact a n d with the charac t er of i ts pre s ent

or i ts pa s t reality whether it h a s b e en non exi stent or not
,
-

, ,

at an indenite numbe r of time s between .

Fi n ally i n mai ntai n i n g the right of the mi n d to regard

,

it s elf a s real both he re a n d now and a lso then a n d the re

, , ,

we have indirectl y decided the que s ti on a s to what i s the

character of the mi n d s reality The further expan s io n of the

.

truth a s to the nature of mi n d a s s elf known and s o k n own ,

-

t o be real i s indeed the m ai n theme of the s ub s e quent chap

,

ter s But the re s ult s of the previou s di s cu ss ion may now

.

tly be s ummariz e d at l e a s t i n a preliminary way : The

,

p e cu li a r , th e on l
y i n t e llig i bl e and i n d u bi ta ble r e a li t
y w hi ch
bel ong s to Ill i n d i s i ts be i ng f or i ts e lf
f u n ct i on i ng ,
by a c tu a l

of s e lf con sc i ou sn e ss of r e cog n i ti ve m e mor y a n d of th oug ht

-
,
Its ,
.

real bei n g i s ju s t thi s for s el f being ( F il r si ch seg n ) E very

- - - -
.

mind by livi n g proce s se s p e rpetually co n stitute s i t s own

, ,

being and kno ws it s el f a s bein g real To be self con s cious

,
.
-
,

to rem e mber that we were s elf con s cious and to think of the -
,

Self a s having actually or pos s ibly , been self con s ciou s ,

,
-

thi s i s re ally to be a s mi n d s are A nd no othe r bei n g i s real

,
.

mental bei n g The bare pote ntiality of s uch being a s pro

.
,

je c t e d by thought backward o r forward i n time ,

i s n ot real

mental bei n g ; on th e contrar y it i s in contrast with , it is ,

the negation of , the real being of the mind .

 C H APT E R V

TH E CON S C I OU S N E S S O F I DE N T I T Y, A ND S O- CALL E D DOU L E B

C O N S C I O U S N E SS

H AT I , who n ow e xi st am the same a s the I that formerly

,

w a s in n o matter how many s o e ve r o f my pa s t remem

,

bered or inferred e xperience s i s a propo s ition which m e n

,

ge n erally m aintain with the mo s t i nte n s e and i n dubitable

convicti on r e s pecti n g i t s c e rtai n ty Both the meani n g o f thi s
.

propo s ition a n d the ground s on wh ich the conviction of its

c e rtai n ty re po s e s have however b een made s u bj ect s of no
, ,

little debate A ny di spute over i t s val idity i s of cour se mo s t

.
, ,

i n timately con n e ct e d with the i n te rpretation of i t s meani ng .

On the one ha n d certai n advocate s of the so call e d

,
Id e n tity -

of M ind argu e a s though the gra s p of human con s ciou sn e s s

could by some supreme e ff ort e nvi s age the Self a s a pure
entity a bei n g p er se the s elf s ame and u n ch a n geabl e s ubject
, ,
-

or groun d of the phe n ome n a through all the w e ll k n own

,
-

cha n ge s w hi ch actually belo n g to mental l ife a n d to i t s de

v e l o pm e n t
. On the othe r hand other p sych ologi st s in s i s t
,

upon the perp e tual ux of con s ciou s ne s s to s uch a n e x ,

'

te n t that the very co n ceptio n o f change lo s e s all denite

meaning by lack of anything even r e l ati vely permanent with
which the cha n ge it se lf may be thrown i n to contra s t .

I n di s cu ss ing the nature of that identity which may be

a f rme d o f mi n d we shall maintain th e point s of view that
,

have al ready be e n cho sen The r ig hts belo n gi n g to these

.

poi n t s of vie w must also b e conceded and mai n tained The s e .

 TH E C O N S C I O U S N E SS or I D E N TIT Y , E TC . 14 9

rights are all s ummed u p in thi s on e the right to give ,

a r a tional althoug h s pe culative treatment to me n tal phenom ,

ena a s they are faithfully de s cribed and howe ve r i n a de

q u a te l y
explai n ed by e mpirical p s ychology In carryi ng .

o u t thi s particular di s cu ss io n the n s om e thing mu s t aga i n be , ,

borrowed from ge neral metaphy s ic s The conception wh ich .

we n o w wi s h to borrow , afte r it i s claried a n d freed f rom

internal co n tradiction s by critical treatment i s of cour s e that ,

of s elf s ame n e ss
-
or identity ,
Fo r i ndeed h o w can .
, ,

o n e int e llige n tly di s cu ss the que s ti o n wh e th e r the mi n d i s to

be co n s idered s elf s ame o r s pok e n o f a s knowin g i ts own

-
,

identity unl e s s s om e d e nite meani n g be r s t obtained

,

for the s e very word s ? H ere , too th e re s ults of re ective ,

thinking mu s t be accept e d without retracing in detail the

proces s es by which the re s ult s have been reach e d .

It is cu s tomary e s pecially i n circl e s p e rmeat e d with tho s e

,

prej udice s whi ch accompa n y modern physical s cie n ce a n d i ts

pur s uit to i nsi s t u pon the independ e nt s tability and perma
,

nency o f things a s contra s t e d with the d e pendency and u ctu

s ti e n s of mind Thi s contra s t i s often stated i n s uch a way a s
.

s eem s to imply forgetfulne s s of t he truth that all ou r k n owl

edge of thing s i s s tatable Only i n term s of change For there .

i s much s ound s e n s e in that vie w of the ancie n t G reek ph il o s o

phy which e mpha s iz e d the cha n g e able n e ss p e rpetual ux and , ,

so u n r e a lity of a ll thing s a s i n co n tra s t with the e ter n al a n d

u ncha n ge abl e character o f idea s C ertai n ly if w e may s peak .

,

of man a s havi n g con s ciou s n e ss o f th e ch a r a ct e r a n d e ve n t s

of th e s o called phy s ical world
-
it i s n othing perma n e n t or ,

i n any way s elf s ame i n thi s world which s uch objective

-

co n s ciou s n e s s cont a i n s The i mporta n t p sychological truth

.

i s thi s : It i s only o f the s imilar i n thi n g s that t h e human

mi n d i s i mm e di a t e ly a n d i n di s put a bly aware ; 1 all con
c e pt i on of the s e lf s a m e o r the identic a l i s an e xtre m e ly
-

s ubtile a n d compl e x a ffai r re s ulti n g fro m a large amount,

1 Se e P s
yc h l gy
o o , Desc ripti v e a nd E xpl a na to ry pp
,
"
. 274 f .
, 293 f .
, 4 47 f .
15 0 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TI T Y , E TC .

of

reective thinki n g and s hot through with a variety
,

o f o n tological po s tulate s In fact it might be s aid : By s ight

.
,

we kno w the s i m i la r ; b ut it only i s by faith that we come to

k now the s a m e A nd thi s i s eve n more indi s putabl y true of
.

thing s than it i s of mind s .

To ordinary perception by the s e n s es tho s e thi n gs are

called the s ame or identical who s e s ucce ss ive ch ange s

,

,

of state s can be traced with e nough of conformity to s ome i dea ,

o r type , of change to s erve the practical purpo s e s of i d e n t i

cation I n order that we may r e

.
c ognize thing s make u s e o f ,

them adapt our s el ve s to their change s we mu s t not b e too

, ,

s crupulou s about in s i s ting upon ex act o r eve n nearly ex act

s imilarity i n their di ff erent s tate s But on the other hand , .

,

i f we allow ourselv e s to be too loo s e and i n de n ite i n our e s ti

mate of the permi s s ible l imit s of cha n ge we m ake the s e riou s ,

and often fatal mi s tak e of co n founding thi n g s that are really

quite di e r en t i n their relation s a n d e e ct s The child needs .
,

f or h i s s afety the i nue n ce of mental conviction that thi s i s

,

indeed the ve ry s a m e dog which bit him ye s terday ; although

.

to da y the brute l ook s plea s ant and i s n ot a s ye s terday s narl

-
, , ,

ing and showing h i s teeth H i s le s s on that even tho s e thi n g s

.

w hich appear mo s t like are o f t e n not indeed the s ame c ome s

later But thi s le s s on i s s carcely le s s i mportant for h i s s afety
.

and it i s even more i mporta n t for h i s growth in preci s e k n owl

edge I n both ca s e s however it i s o n ly the various groupi n gs
.
, ,

o f more o r le s s s imilar a n d di s s i milar attrib ute s o f which he

receive s the te s timo n y o f h is s en s e s Thought with i ts cea s e .

,

le s s work of ontological po stulating underl a y s the s e variou s ,

grouping s with the conception of a s omethi n g wh ich i s perm a

ne n t and does not change Thi s s omethi n g . i f the s om e
what hum orou s tautology may b e p e rmitted i s nec e s s ary i n

order that anything may b e i n d e ed a real Thing rather than ,

s i m ly an appearance to be a s cribed a s a state to s ome other

p
thi n g .

To the uncritical mind , then it doubtle s s seems a s though ,

 TH E C O N SC I O U S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC . 15 1

an unchangi n g core of reality belo n gs to everything The .

attribute s the s tate s the changing mode s o f b e havior of the

, ,

t hi ntr
C ,
are th us re garded a s added in a s om e what exter n a l ,

fashion to i ts e s s e ntial core

,
L ittle critic a l a n aly s i s i s .

need e d howe ve r to S ho w how completely gurati ve a n d i n ap

, ,

plicable t o reali t y o r to i ts ex planation are s uch form s o f

, ,

s peech a n d thought a s thi s What i s dema n d e d a n d what i s .

,

known a s actually taki n g place in sati s f a c t i o n of t h e dema n d ,

i s s imply this : Every 2: ( every Thing what s oeve r ) i n o rder ,

to be e n titl e d s till to be called as ( or the s elf sam e thing ) -

,

mu s t i n i ts cha n ge s r u n o n ly through s erie s s uch a s c a n b e i n d i

so ; o r on occa s io n of i t s co m i n g
3 4 "
ca t e d by x
1 2
$ x ,
x x, , , ,

into other relatio n s with di ffere n t be ing s the s erie s may be that ,

i n dicate d by x x x 3 :vY $
,
5
x,
What i s true o f a: i s true
, ,

.

o f every othe r thi n g for example of eve ry y a n d e v e ry 2

,
.

But i f any 9: shoul d happe n to break OH i ts proper s erie s o f

chan ge s e s pecially if the rupture be s udd e n a n d i f it
, ,

1 2 3
s hould begin to run through the s erie s y y y etc o r the , , ,
.
,

z 3
s erie s z
1
z z
,
etc why then ( begging pardon for the apparent
, ,
.
,

contradiction i n langu a ge ) (I; would have beco me y i e 3: , , . .

,

would n o longer be 23 the s elf s ame thing That i s to s ay ,

-
.
,

even to be a Thi n g s elf same a n d real there mu s t be con ,
-
,

formity to law But here w e ha v e come upon the s a me

.

und e rlying and unan alyzable conception s a s tho s e which met

u s i n the attempt e d a n aly s i s o f the la s t chapt e r The r e a l .

i de n ti ty f o an
y t hi n g con s i s t s i n t hi s , t h a t i t s f
se l a c ti v i t
y ma ni
-

fe sts i tse lf , in a ll i ts d if
to ot her t hi ng s, a s c on
e r en t r e l a ti on s

f or mi ng to a n i m m a n en t i de a .

I n vi e w of what h a s j u s t been s aid thi s i mporta n t truth i s ,

appare nt ; nam e ly t hat it i s not change it self which i s i n con

,

s i s t e nt with identity On th e contrary it i s the very characte r

.
,

of the act u al cha n g e s ob s erved o r i n fe rr e d which l e ad s either to

the a f rmati on or t o the de n ial of identity This s t a tement i s .

no le s s true becau se it i s le s s popularly obviou s concerning the

mo s t s tabl e o f i n org a nic mate rial being s than o f organi s m s , ,
15 2 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

or even of s elf con s ciou s mi n d s But mu s t not the atomic

-
.

theory be reckoned with here that brilli a n t m e taphy s ical

,

hypothe s i s with which the modern s ci e nce s of phy sic s and

( e s pecially ) o f ch e mi s try have j u s ti ed th e i r mo s t s weepi n g

e mpirical gen e raliz a tion s ? C ertainly ; a n d it i s i n the a ppl i

cation of th i S th e ory to reality th at the truth for which we are

conte n di n g i s mo s t forcefully illu s trated The compelling .

force o f the illu s tratio n i s fou nd in the fact that here accord ,

ing to the ve ry t e rms o f the hypothe s is its elf the atom s ,

are thos e el e me nt s o f all material reality ever s elf s ame by ,

-
,

combination s e paratio n and recombination of which all th e

, ,

cha n ging s tate s of things are s cientifi cally explained I n pre .

c i s el y what how e v e r do e s t h e real s elf s ame n e s s o r identity

, ,
-

of the atom s them s elve s con s i s t ? C ertai n ly fo r each of the ,

about s eventy di fferent k i n d s o f atom s con s idered a s per ,

ma n ent k i n d s it can con s i s t only in conformity to the

,

natu re of i t s particular ki n d Oxygen atom s can remain

.

oxygen and ni trogen atom s can remai n nitroge n a n d so

, ,

on ,
to the end of t h e enti re li s t of s eventy on ly if the ,

oxyge n atom s co n tinue faithful i n b e havior i n all th e di ff er ,

ent po s sible relati o n s to th e l a w s of th e ir ki n d ; and on ly

,

if the n itrogen atom s i n turn abide by th e law s of their di ff er

ent ki n d But what doe s all thi s amou nt to i n r e ality
.

N o an s w e r c a n be given to thi s que s tio n without recurring to

the s ame co n ceptio n s a s th o s e which h a ve b e en se e n to charac
t e r i ze o u r k n owledge o f the id entity of the compl ex thi n gs
i nto which the atom s e n ter The mea n i n g of a: i s x s e lf s ame
.
,
-
,

a n d doe s not become y on ly i f a: be gover n e d i n i t s b e havior

,

i n all r e lation s according to i ts own appropri a t e id e a s The .

m e t a phy s ic s o f ou r conc e pti on s doe s not alt e r wh e ther by x be

mea n t s ome ki n d o f an atom i n st e a d o f a s to n e or a star .

Or le t s om e s i n gl e atom ( s ome individual repre s e n tative of

the ki n d called oxyg e n ) b e s el e c te d a n d nam e d 23 then

, ,

t oo let the condition s a n d the character of ou r kn owl edge o f

,

it a s s el f s ame remain unchanged No w to be s ure s ci e nce

-
.
, ,
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF IDE N TITY , E TC .

a ss ume s that x h a s mai n tained i t s individuality , a s well a s its

s peci c characte r through incalculable periods of time and
, ,

u nder an i n n it e variety of mo s t trying circumsta n c e s But .

it h a smai n tained thi s o n ly by conformity to the law s which

dene i ts o w n nature u nde r ev e ry variety of cha n gi n g circum
,

s tance s In al l i ts tra n s action s s o i n de s cribably vari e d

.
, ,

n ow in the s oil n o w i n th e water n o w in the plant n o w i n the

, , ,

brai n of the s ci e nti s t who s e conception of it we are at pr e s ent

holding f or tr ue x h a s remained id e n tical
, the very type of ,

the p e rma n ent amid s t all ch ange But how s e lf s ame and how .
-

ide n tical ? A gai n i s th e mind forced to recognize t h e truth

th a t only i n the i d e a l a s applied for the r e gulation o f the
,

limit s o f i ts behavior c a n we re s t ou r s earch for that which

,

admit s of n o ch ange No r when the exigencie s of the meta

.
,

phy s ics a n d the phy s ic s of chemi s try be come heighte n ed by

e n larged acquaintance with ob s e rved fact s and when Sir Wil ,

lia m Thomp s on s or s om e other theo ry of an i n n ite i n t e rior

,

comple xity f or the individual atom i s d e vi s ed i s the characte r ,

o f o u r conception o f id e ntity cha n ged N0 s mall a h o w .

,

ever s mall ( e v e n if we let x stand for s ome un it i n th e intra

atomic me ch a ni s m ) c a n vindicate i t s claim to remain o n e and
,

t h e s ame with it s elf e xcept upon pre ci s ely th e s ame te rm s a s

,

tho s e which belong t o the l arge st of the material ma ss e s

called x .

B ut if what h a s bee n s aid i s i n d e ed true of the elem e nt s of

mate ri al reality a n d o f tho s e ino rga n ic bei n gs i n to which th e y
a r e compou n d e d it i s more obviou sl y true of all orga n ic
,

bei n gs with th e i r greate r r a pidity a n d vari e ty of ch a n ge s a n d

,

th e ir capacity for d e v e lopment I n d eed what i s called r e .

,

mai n i n g the s ame in th e ca s e of all o rga n ic b e i n gs i s j u s t thi s
, , ,

r e m a i n i ng f a i thf ul to s om e i m m a n en t i d e a , whi l e u n d erg o i n g a

gr ea t f c ha ng e s i n t he p u r su i t a s i t we r e , of th is i d ea
v a r i e ty o , .

Thu s mod e r n phy s iology show s h o w nearly or qui te eve ry par , ,

ti e le of matte r in any growi n g thing may be cha n ge d and yet ,

the total growth i s s poken of a s remai n i n g th e s ame H ere .

15 4 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

the u n s cienti c ob s erve r trust s h i s ob s ervation and memory of

s imilar relatio n s i n S pace a s a chief guide i n the ta s k o f iden

t i c a t i on On ly a s he n d s the phylloxera for e x ample in

.
, ,

s uf ci e n tly s imilar r e l atio n s o f s pace withi n the s ub s ta n ce o f

h i s vine s does he credit h i s eye s wit h the co n clu s ion that

,

being s s o di ffe rent i n a s pect at the di fferent s tage s of th e ir

development can really be pronounced the s a m e If howe ve r .
, ,

while he h a s s lept s ome malicious neighbor s ub s titute s a poor

,

tree for a good o ne i n h i s garden he refu s e s to belie ve that so

,

d i ff ere n t a growth ca n be the s ame thing i n S pit e of the te s ti ,

mony of the sense s that the t wo occupy the s ame place i n

s pace .

When , however an appeal is taken to the min u te and

,

comprehen s ive ob s ervatio n s of modern biological s cience ,

e s pecially a s s upplemented by the s tudy of micro organi s ms -

under the higher po wer s of the micro s cope by embryology , ,

etc the i mpre ss ion i s greatly heightened rather than

.
,

dimi n i shed how utter i s the i mpo s sibility of u n der s tanding

,

what can be meant by organic beings remaini n g the self s ame -

,

u n le ss the thought h e admitted o f a co n trol ov e r the limit s Of

change by s ome immanent id e a Thi s i mpre s s ion i s still
.

further heighte n ed the more the i m port of th e theory o f

development i s r e ec t i v el y con s idered For u nder thi s the ory
.

wh at i s th e re i n reality that doe s n ot change ? Shall then all , .

reality be re s olved into m er e c ha ng e into change that i s ,

change i n no real bei n g or change of no real bei n g according

, ,

to the u nch a n ging limit s of s ome i deal ? To attempt even to

s tate s uch inquirie s a s the s e i n their f ull import would carry
, ,

us quite too far a s ide from o u r pre s ent li n e o f thought .

We t urn now to con s ider the identity of mind with the ,

i nqui ry wh e ther it i s di ffere n t fro m o r inf e rior to that which

thought force s u s to a s cribe to things Fo r i n the ca s e of .

thi n g s whether organic o r inorganic compo s ite or elemen

, ,

tary s omethi n g that doe s not cha n ge s omethi n g that i s

, ,

over and above change , must be postulated f o r them
 TH E C O N SC I O U S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y ,
E TC . 155

all ; and yet a n aly s i s i s unable t o di s cover what thi s s ome

thing c a n po ss ibly be , unle ss it be the idea s which limit and
control th e cha n ge .

What the n i s the i mport of that conception of the Self

, ,

a s s elf s ame ami d all chang e s o f circum s tance s a n d even o f

-

i ts o wn qualitie s o r mode s of b e h avior which m e n gen e rally ,

hol d ; a n d what are the grou n d s upon which the conc e ption
rest s ? P lai n ly i n the r s t place ther e i s no i ntention to
, ,

deny all po s s ibility of ch a n ge in the ph e n ome n a which are

attributed a s s tate s to th e s u bj ect of the m a ll to the so calle d ,
-

E g o o r Self On the contrary the very exi s tenc e of the phe

.
,

n om e n a depend s upon the ob s ervation of actual cha n ge To .

keep t h e s oul changele s s ( whate ve r on e might the n try to

mean by the word even d u ring the briefe s t proce s s es
of s elf con s ciou s ne ss o r r e cognitive memory i s quite i m pos
-

s i ble. Indeed the actuality of the s e proce s s e s a s co n s idere d

, ,

from the p sychological point of view con s i s t s of j u st thi s , ,

they are proce s se s of becoming N o on e i s eve r s elf co n s cious

.
-

without becomi n g s o N0 one ever remember s with r e cogn i

.
,

tion of s elf a n d with ev e n an approach to clearly dene d

,

time con s ciou s n e s s without pa ssi n g through that proc e s s i n

-
,

which the rememberi n g it s elf con s i s t s Furthe r a s has .

,

already been s u f ciently empha s ized the very conception of a ,

S e lf a s id e nti cal o r s elf s ame i s a ge n erali zation from a va st

,
-
,

amount of e xp e rie n ce with perpetually ch a ngin g s tate s Thi s .

conceptio n too i s never actually a s tatical e nvi s ageme n t as

, , ,

it were of s ome pure un changi n g b e i n g of a Self ; it i s t h e

,

rath e r alway s a conscious proce s s i mplying the activitie s o f

thinking remembering imagini ng and willi n g
, ,
, a

mo ,

me n t of move ment according to i n t e ll e ctual law s in the ,

pe rpetually owing s tream o f co n s ciou s ne s s .

M oreover the recognized change s i n the more promine n t

,

and cu s tomarily uniform characteri s tic s o f a n y mi n d i ts

i n d i v i d u a li z i ng d e te r m i n a ti on s may be almo s t inde nitely
great and s udden without s eriou s impairmen t, much less
,
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

de s truction Of the con s ciou s ne s s of identity as ba s ed on valid

,

ground s Thu s we frequently hear men sayi n g with con

.

sciou s pride I have totally cha n ged i n thi s or that re s pect

, ,

s i n ce s o lo n g ago The s e s elf re cognized ch a nge s may have

.
-

refere n ce to knowledge to Opinion s to faith to e motion s and

, , ,

s e n time n t s or to the mo s t deeply laid pu rpo s e s a n d plans

, .

Indeed eve n the popular e s timate hold s th at t h e mind which

,

d o es not d e velop and d ev e lopme n t i mplie s change i s ,

cha n ge accordi n g to s ome idea fail s s o far forth to vi n di

cate i t s claim to be a real mind in a n y worthy way Even , .

characte r and that vague ind e nite backgrou n d of tend on

, ,

cie s which i s called i n herited di s po s ition o r temperament ,

m ay greatly alte r ; and yet the mi n d af rm s it s elf to be the

s a m e individ u al mi nd di s ti n gui shing it s e lf from every othe r
,

( bo t h s el v e s and thing s
) a s abidingly in some s ort on e , ,

and the s ame What i s called religiou s conver s i on a fford s

.

many s tartli n g in stance s of s u ch change The s low e r altera .

tio n s that are forced upo n all men by the di s cipli n e Of life or ,

th at are vol u n tarily e ffe cted i n accordance with s om e rever s al

o f underlyi n g pu rpo s e s a n d plan s o r that n aturally follo w ,

from pas sa ge through t h e di ffere n t s tage s o f ad v anci n g age ,

o r that ari s e from markedly differe nt e nvironment s are too ,

familiar to need mention here .

I n all the s e ca s e s ther e i s to be s ure another way of r e

, ,

garding the matte r which empha s ize s th e i n ue n ce of s uc h

,

cha n ge s upo n the ve ry con s ciou s ne s s Of ide ntity it s e lf With .

thi s too all a re familiar enough ; although i ts highly g u r a

, ,

ti ve character a s conside red i n i ts rel ation to the meta

,

phy s ical proble m n o w u nder di s cu s s ion i s s eldom s u f ciently ,

ob s e rved M e n not i nfrequently s pea ko f them s elve s and

.
,

mor e freque n tly th e y are s poke n Of by other s a s more o r le s s ,

gr e atly changed Sometim e s it i s eve n s a id H e i s ( o r I am )

.
,

c om l e te ly ch a n g e d ; he i s n ot a t a ll the s ame man that he

p

wa s.
When the mor e fundame n tal and ob s cur e bodily feel
ings are markedly di ff erent from tho s e to which co n s ciousne ss
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I DE N TIT Y ,
E TC .

is accu stom e d more or le s s profound di sturbance s of the con

,

sc i ou s n e s s of identity may tak e place G reat and e s pecially

.

abrupt change s in the e n viro n m e n t a s for e xample when , ,

o n e i s land e d for the r s t time i n an Oriental country ; o r

when on e pa s se s from rich e s to poverty , o r i n the rever s e

direction ; or when the accu stomed a s sociation s with o n e s

fellow s are greatly altere d produce diff e re n t but important

d i s turba n c e s of thi s co n s ciou s ne s s On coming to ou r
.

s elve s fro m overwhel mi n g and s udde n griefs o r m i s f o r
tune s the w orl d and ou r se lve s may fo r a lo n g tim e l ook far
,

otherwi s e than h a s been their wont ; things are di e r e n t and ,

we a re wholly chang e d .

The bearing Of s uch alterati on s i n the con s ciou s n e s s of

identity upon the metaphy s ic a l problem where they become ,

permane n t and reach the extreme limit s of their e e ct upon

per s onality will be con s idered later on B u t in all the more
, .

ordin a ry ca s e s s uch a s a r e now under con s ideration it should

, ,

appear at o n ce that c ha ng es heig hte n r a ther t ha n di mi n i s h the

r ea l i ty a n d va l i di ty f
o t he con s c i ou sn ess
f i d en ti ty p r op er ly o

d esc r i bed a n d u n d e r stood For thi s ve ry con s ciou s r e cognition

.

of the alteratio n s implie s a standard Of compari s on ; and this

s tandard of comparison c a n be n o othe r than the s ame con

s c i ou sn e s s o f identity which see ms te mporarily and partially

to be confu s ed or i mpai red H o w i n deed , ca n on e b e co n

.
,

sciou s of bei n g ch a nged who i s not al s o con s ciou s of being i n ,

s ome s ort one and the s am e bei ng that i s sel f r e gard e d a s t h e

,
-

identi cal s ubject of the change ? Thi s con sciousne ss of being

the S ubject of C hange , for it i s I and not a n other , that

,

am change d involves the con s cio us ne s s of i dentity i n such

ma n ner that the two c a nnot be divorced .

A s long the n a s I know that it i s I that am changed

, , ,

that this ve ritabl e and co n tinuou sly exi stent S e lf i s really

now so diff e rently circum stanced di s po sed , and a ffected from
,

what it rememb e r s its e lf formerly to h ave been I cannot ,

be s aid to have lost the consciou s ne ss o f identity The con .

15 8 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

sc i ou sn e s s ofcha n ge involve s the k nowledge a n d th e convie

tio n th a t I a m ami d all chan ge s Of e nvironme n ts a n d i n ternal
,

s tate s i n s o m e import Of the word

, s elf s ame I n deed the
,
-
.
,

clear n e ss and comprehen s ivene ss of o n e s k n owl e dg e Of the
particul a r cha n ge s and the keen n e ss with which they are
,

felt m e a s ure i n no unimportant way the breadth a n d depth

,

of one s po we r to ide n tify o n e s s elf A nd nothi n g b u t th e

.

compl e te los s of s elf con s ciou s ne s s an d recognitive memory

-
,

a n d o f t h e po we r of reective thinki ng a s exerci s ed upon a

b a s i s of se lf con s ciou sn e ss a n d recognitive memory can

-
,

de s troy that knowl e d ge of the Self a s s elf s ame which i s -

i mplied i n all actual ex erci s e of the s e s o called facultie s -

.

In view of the s tatement j u s t made both the meani n g and ,

the grounds of the mind s a f rmation of i ts s elf s amene s s

-

become at once apparent Fir s t , negatively

. NO form of .

con s ciou s ne s s f urni she s the knowledge either i mmediate o r ,

i nferential of an u nchangi n g core of exi stence a s belonging

,

to the S O called Self The con s ciou s ne s s o f identity what

-
.

e ver el s e i t may be o r may n ot b e i s n o envi s agement Of

an unalt e rable s elf being afte r the a nalogy Of s ome dead lump
-

o f a material entity o r s ome atom capable only of bei n g

,

moved in to new e xternal rel ati on s with other bei n gs but ,

in c a pabl e o f variable i nternal s tate s A nd i n deed h a s it .

, ,

n ot been shown that thi s very analogy i s mi sleadi n g ? Such

a l ump s uch a s o called atom would be n o s elf s ame
,
-
,
-

exi ste n ce ; s uch a n ab s traction would i n de e d have no cl ai m to , ,

be exi stent at all N or doe s the identity whi ch any i n d ivi dual
.

mind kn o ws it s elf to have and which i s the only s elf s ame

,
-

nes s wort hy of being attribute d to mind a s m i n d con s i s t i n ,

bein g recogniz ed by s ome othe r than its Self a s being the

s a me .In a n nouncing thi s truth we come upon con sideration s
which need to be explained with further detail .

When men s a y to on e another , You have greatly altered

,

or, You are a totally changed m an they mo s t freque n tly
,

refer to changes in the bodily condition and s tate s S uch .

 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC . 15 9

c h a nge s Of
,
cou r se have only an i n direct beari n g upon the
,

s elf s amene s s o f mind i n s o far a s they are i n dicative o f pa s t

-
,

or pre s e n t a lteratio n s i n m e nt a l trait s Freque n tly ho weve r .

, ,

we note with j oy o r s ad n e s s the gr e at a n d abrupt alteratio n s o f

which we g e t i n dicatio n i n the me n tal di s po s ition te n dencie s
, , ,

and actu a l form s o f m e ntal fu n ctioni n g of ou r acquai n tances

a n d fri e nd s A gain we trace with a genui n e p sy chological
.
,

i n te re s t and a s a fruitful p sychological s tudy the alterations

, ,

of me n tality which biographie s d rama s a n d novel s s et forth , , .

It i s only however when th e proofs of actual s e l f con s ciou s

, ,
-

n e ss an d of recog n itive me m ory i n s uch form a s to bring the

,

d i ff erent m e nt a l e poch s and activitie s i n to a s ort Of continuity

of development and of reective thi n ki n g with i t s achievement
,

of a concepti o n o f Self s e e m to be p e rma n ently lacki n g , ,

that an actual lo ss of s o called per s o n al ide n tity i s deplored -

.

For n ow a s the s igni ca n t sayi n g recur s Thi s per s on has
, ,

lo s t h i s mind S e lf s a me he no l onger i s for he i s no longe r

.
-
,

the s am e to hi m s elf ; he n o longe r i s s elf co n s ciou s o r r e -

member s or thi n k s him s e lf i n to an actual and yet c on ce p

,

tual for s elf bei n g - -
.

But second the po s itive import o f s uch negative declara

, ,

tion s a s the foregoing i s n ot particularly ob s cure From .

the negati ve co n clu s ion it follow s positively that there

i s n o othe r con s ciou s n e s s of identity than s uch as i s
implicated i n actual s elf con s ci ousn e ss a n d m e mory -
No .

conc e ption o f a n y i mport whateve r f o r th e word s con ,

sc i o u s n e s s of ide n tity c a n be g a ine d which i s n ot g a i n e d

by s ubj e cti n g th es e activitie s of the mind to a proce s s o f

reective thinki n g Therefore po s itively and ind ubitably
.

to be lf
se -
co n s ci ou s a n d to r e me m be r r e cog n i t i v e ly i s to be con

s c i ou s of bei ng i d en ti c a l a n d se lf s a m e So that i n order to tell -

.

wh a t i s meant by being the s ame mind ( a s a mind ) that

formerly w as a n d wa s yet before that and s o o n i t i s only
, , ,

n ece s s a ry to d e s crib e the proce s s e s of s elf con s ciou s n e ss and -

o f memory to s ubj ect them t o analy s i s and to s e t forth i n

, ,
16 0 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

word s ( to be veri e d of cours e o n ly by oth e r mi n d s that c a n

, ,

repeat the s am e proc e s se s i n th e i r con s ciou s ne s s ) what i s

found to be i n volved i n the s e proce s s e s I n the narrowe s t .

po s s ibl e meani n g of the word se lf s ame th e n a n d thi s i s -
, ,

the meani n g pe n etrate d with a warm a n d i rre s i s tible con v i cl

tio n ,
no bei n g i s r e ally the s ame a s m i n d s are s elf s ame that -

d o e s n ot by actual me n tal acti vity mak e it s elf to be the s ame

, ,
.

R e al se lf s amen e s s a s mi nd s are capable of it i s a form S O to

-

"
s p e ak of ,
for s elf b e ing
-
Or again unle s s I am the s ame
-
.
, ,

to my s elf I am not the s e lf s ame being

,
A nd if I am the
-
.

s ame to my s el f the n n o other being can d e ny my s elf s ame

,
-

ne s s o r impair i t s s ta n di n g at the bar of rea s o n

, .

Further to dra w o u t the import o f this con clu s ion would

only tak e u s agai n over the already well worked el d of psy -

c h ol o g i c a l a n aly s i s a s applie d to s tate s Of s el f con s ciou s n e s s -

and o f recog n iti ve memory We s hould o n ly nd ourselve s .

again rehear si n g familiar fact s s uch as how th e k n owi n g ,

subj ect a n d the Obj ect k nown are i n th e proce s s call e d s elf ,

con s ciou s ne ss wove n into a vital one n e ss of b e i n g ; how th e

,

e xi stenc e o f any s tate impli e s a bei n g that i s s ubject of the

s tate a n d ca n not be co n s id e r e d a s me re stat e ; how thi s s u b
,

j cet i s s elf k n own o n ly a s i n s ome concrete state and not a s

-

mere bei n g p e r s e ; h o w the activity of s elf refe re n ce to the -

subj ect mu st be co n s idered a s belonging pote n tially to the

proc e s s o f comi n g to s elf con s ciou s n e s s and to the p a s si n g
-
,

through a ny pha s e that m a y be di s cri minated a s on e act o f

s el f c o n s ciou sn e s s ; and how belief o r conviction warm s and
-
, ,

validat e s the wh ole activity s o a s to preve n t i t s being felt a s

,

a proce s s of mere thi n king and thu s convert s it into s elf ,

knowledge a n envi s agement by Self of the actuality here

, ,

and now o f the s ame Self

,
.

A n analy s i s of the act of recognitive memory di s cover s ,

i n ad diti on to wh at h a s j u s t bee n de s cri bed the knowledge ,

of the S e lf a s exi s tent i n the pa st the n a s n ow s elf , , ,

con s ciou s , and referri n g all state s to the s elf s ame subj ect -
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

Of the m all Fi n ally the ve ry co n ceptio n of i dentity i n i t s

.
,

mo st r e n ed ultimate term s i s realized i n no other way

, ,

than by goi n g over again i n imagi n ati on a n d thought , the s e

,

s elf s ame proce s s e s o f s elf con s ciou s n e s s and memory

- -
A nd .

what it woul d be to be identical a s m i n ds are othe r than ,

to be capabl e of ju s t s uch act i vity i s s omething of which n o ,

concepti o n whate ve r ca n po s s ibly be form e d .

By repeated act s of thi s ki n d howev e r all men form s ome , ,

conc e ption of their pers o n al identity which i s at o n ce more

comprehe n s ive a n d more vague than thi s M e mory and .

thought avail to produce the pictu re of a c e rtain co n ti n uity o f

mental developme nt which i s a s cribed to the S e lf a s i ts life
hi story A s I re membe r my own exp e ri e nce s i n the pa s t the
.
,

con s ciou sne ss of their s imilarity in r e s pect of e s s e ntial char

a cte r i s t i c s i s empha s ized i n a vivid way M a n y time s a s I can .
,

well remembe r , have I h a d the s am e thought s and feeli ng s ;

long ago did I form and repeatedly s i n ce have I r e formed
,
-
,

e s se n tially th e s ame plan s M y di s po s iti o n and tendencies

.
,

e s pecially i n the real m of affective phe n omena ; my compl e x

emotio n s a n d s e n timent s ; my habitual a n d i n grained mode s
of action and of conduct are con s ciou s ly remembered
,

and recog n ized a s s omewhat per s i s tently the s ame M y r e .

p e a t e d s tate s of con s ci ou s ne s s whether a s r e gard ed i n the

,

a s pe ct of content or i n the charact e r of fu n ctio n s bear amid , ,

all change s cert a in permanent mark s of s imilarity

, E s pe .

c i a l ly d oe s thi s s eem t o be true with re s p e ct t o s o much o f

my bei n g a s h a s b e e n tak e n i n charge by the Ego with a c o n ,

s ciou s i n t e n t to mould it accor d ing to a con s ciou s ly formed

:

pla n ,
-
with re s pect to my charact e r i n the narrower s e n s e ,

of thi s word A s aware of all this by repeated and com

.

plicated act s of r e a s o n ing on a b a s i s of memory a n d s el f

c on s c i o u s n e s s l may a f rm that I know my s elf to be amid
, ,

all change s the s ame bei n g e s s entially unch anged

, .

Thi s inferred and s econdary knowledge o f per s onal iden

tity corre s pond s more clo s ely i n i ts characteri s tics to that
11
16 2 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y ,
E TC .

s amene s s which i s attributable to thin g s Th e Ego i s con .

c e i v e d of a s a real bei n g o f many changi n g s tate s and

,

manifold d i ffere n t activitie s and yet a s a being that both

,

con sciou sly a n d u n co n s ciou sly follo w s s ome law A mid .

ch ang e s of i t s id e a s i t remain s permanent becau s e it i s held ,

withi n limit s by the pow e r of s ome I mmanent idea .

When thi s identity which may be afrmed o f mi n d s i s com

pared with that which may be af rmed o f thi n g s it i s readily ,

s ee n that the former h a s the prefere n ce in s everal important

regard s .

Fir s t thi n g s h ave a k nown s elf s amene s s o n ly a s they are

,
-

percei ved a n d re m e mbered by mi n d s If it be not a s s umed .

that mind s remain in the e s s ential pri n ciple s of their percep

,

tion and memo ry faithful to the s ame u n cha n gi n g law s of

,

i ntellectual life then there i s no guaranty for the identity o r

,

samene ss of any thing .

Second things h ave in reality n o samene ss no ide n tical

, ,

and permanent being ex cept a s they c o n form to the term s

,

o f mental exi s tence a n d manife s t the imma n ency and con

,

trol of that which i s in conce ivable u n le s s it be s tated i n

term s of mi n d In vai n do phy s i c s chemi s try a n d biology
.
, ,

s trive to e s cape s ome s uch co n clu s ion a s thi s The terms .

which the y e mploy to se t forth what in the phy sical world ,

amid all chang e s remains really the s a me are ab s olutely

, ,

meani n gle s s unle ss all material reality i s a dmitted to be the

expre s s ion and the s ubject of what is i deal .

Third actually t o be k n own to one s s el f a s th e s elf s ame
,
-
,

after the ma n ne r o f e very s elf co n s ciou s rem e mberi n g and

-
, ,

thinking mi nd thi s i s to realize the hi gh e s t a n d mo st

,

i ndubitable form of identity On the on e ha n d to di s put e

.
,

the validity o f the act which as cribe s this self s ame n e s s to th e ~

mi n d and o n the other hand to try to vi ndi cate or even to

,

conceive of a ny othe r kind o f ide n tity a s belo n gi ng t o mind ,

are alike ab s urd .

Fourth , i n s tead of change and devel opment bei n g i n con s i st

 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

ent with mental ide n tity with thi s self samene s s of the Self ,
-
,

the depth and comprehen s ivenes s of i ts identity are mea s ured ,

chiey by the variety a n d rapidity of the change to which it

can be s ubjected A ll tha t i s r equ i r e d of r e a l m en ta l d ev elop
.

men t i s t ha t i t sha ll be tru e to som e x e d i d e a l Indeed to .

,

adopt con s ciou sly a plan a n d to co n form the great e s t po s s ible

,

variety of change s t o thi s plan i s to be the s ame S e lf through ,

ou t i n the high e s t i n telligible mea n ing of the word s

,
.

Fifth only thi s ki n d of ide n tity h as any val u e in the realm

,

of mind ; only thi s c a n tly be an object of thought , s olici

tude o r culture to th e mi n d A n unchangin g core of reality
,
.
,

a s a sort of hidd e n mind s tu ff at the ce n tre of mental -
,

being i s no po s s e s s io n to be coveted even if it were ( a s it

, ,

certai n ly i s not ) anything the po s sibility o f which c a n be

conceived
A ll s tate s of co n s ciou s n e s s s ay s M r Th om p
.
,
.

l
s on,
imply a n d po s tulate a s ubject Ego who s e s ubs tance ,

is unk n own and u n k n owable to which st ate s of con s cious ,

ne s s are refe rr e d a s attribute s but which i n the process of ,

referenc e b e come s Obje c t i e d and become s it s elf an attribute

of a s ubject Ego which lie s beyond and which ever elud e s ,

cog n ition though ever po stulated for cognition

A nd to .

s uch a s tat e ment a s thi s we have the a s s ent o f another

2
writ e r on p s ychol ogy who s peak s di s paragingly of K a ntian

machine shop and who deliberately di s card s all mind s tu ff
-
,
-

s ay s P rofe s s or Jame s M

theory . Thi s , ( referring to r .

Thomp s o n s elu s ive Ego ) i s ex actly ou r j udging and r e mem

be r i n g p r e se n t Thought de s cribed i n le s s s impl e term s
, But .

neithe r i n th e heaven s above nor i n the earth be n eath nor in

the water s that are u n der the earth nor in con s ciou s n e ss , ,

w hether r e g a rded a s e nvi s agement o r po s tulate o r inf e rence ,

lie s any s uch Ego a s thi s A nd if it were exi s te nt

.
,

and could be cornered a n d caught i n s pite o f i ts att e mpt s

to elude cognitio n it would be an ab s ol utely worthle ss
,

1 S y st e m of P sy ch ol ogy v ol i, . . 1 14 .

2 J a m es , Pri nc ipl e s of P sy c h ol o gy , v ol . i . 3 55 .
16 4 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y ,
E TC .

catch at the be s t Fo r it i s onl y the Ego th a t i n stead of

,
.
,

eluding cog n ition i s actually pre s ent i n every act of s elf
,

con s ciou s ne ss s e lf knowing a n d s elf known which h a s a n y

,
- -

clai m to exi sten ce o r to worth of ex i s tence i n ca s e it validate s

,

i t s claim Ju st to know the Self a s actually a n d concretely

.
,

s elf co n s ciou s
-
rememberi n g thinki n g here and now bei n g is
, , ,
- -
,

to be a s elf s ame mi nd a n d to know that y ou are self s a me

-

,
-
.

For thi s word i s nigh the e it i s not afar o ff There i s n o .

s al vation for the entity called s oul i n s uch gho s tly metaphysic s ,

as thi s .

In the l ight of th e for e goi n g di s cu s s i on the phenomena of

so called
-
d ouble co n sci ou sne ss becom e if i n cert a i n a spect s ,

more formidable with th e ir threat s ag a i n st the metaphy sical

te n et of per s onal identity i n certai n other a s pect s much le ss ,

SO . A bout the s e phenomena i n g e n e ral two o r three remarks ,

are nece s s ary eve n more i n the intere s t s of p sychologi cal

,

s cie n ce than of the philo s ophy o f mind A nd rs t the .

, ,

phenomena them s el ve s re q uire mu ch more car e ful s cruti n y

with a vie w to a s certain the exact f a cts a n d all the fact s , ,

than th e y h ave yet recei ved They are of cour s e by no m e an s .

n ew Similar phenom e na are indeed ol d enough ; they might

.
, ,

long ago have bee n subj ected to that more thorough p sycho
l ogical analy s i s which th ey have o n ly of l ate b e gun to receive .

In thei r more rare form howeve r th ey h ave not yet been , ,

at all s y s tematically collected a n d s ubjected to expert treat

ment In thei r mo st extr e me form th e y are v e ry rare a n d are
.
,

to be regarded a s bel o n gi n g to abnormal a n d pathological

p sychol ogy While the n the philo s ophy of mi n d will n u
.
, ,

d oubte dly be obliged to tak e thei r te s ti m o n y i n to the account ,

ju s t S O s oon a n d s o far a s it ca n be a s certained what that
te sti mo n y i s thei r b e ari n g a n d w e i ght c a n properly be only
,

such a s belo n g to rare and irr e gular phenomena .

In connectio n with thi s hi s tori cal fact it should al s o be

noticed that apparently i n no n e of the mo s t remark able ca s e s
of s o called d ou bl e c on s ci ou sn e ss have we a s yet a n ythin g
-
.
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I DE N TIT Y , E TC.

lik e a complete se t of data for the formation of a judgme n t ,

eve n as re s pect s the individual ca s e The s ame thi n g i s true .

o f all the phe n ome n a o f hypnoti s m

a part of which inde e d
, ,

i n the mo s t remarkable ca s e s th e s e phe n omena of double ,

con s ciou s ne s s actually are State s of hyp n o s i s of all degree s

.
,

of depth and all varietie s o f the ex tremely complex ph y s i ol o g i

cal an d p sychological symptom s are a s ol d a s the hi story of ,

man But it i s not until very recently that hypnotic phe

.

n om e n a have begun to receive a n y s cientic handli n g by

competent expert s in cerebra l phy s iology a n d i n p sych ol ogy .

U p to the pr e s e n t ti me even o n the part o f the s e expe rt s

,

them s e l ve s t h e temptatio n to plump d own a phy s iological

,

o r p sychological theory with coar s e ge n eral outli n e s that t

,

on l v cer t ai n a s pect s o f the rar e s t c a s e s h a s bee n quite too ,

ofte n triumph ant For exampl e o n ly j u s t n o w i s it begin n i n g

.
,

to app e ar how i n adequate a n d mi s le a ding are the curr e nt

s tatem e nt s that no trace Of mem ory remai n s over from the

pr e c e ding hypno s i s ; that the hypnotic subj ect i s a totally

cha n ged and who lly s elf forgetf u l bei n g i n the s tate of
-

hyp n o s i s etc,
.

Throu gh the not unnatural de sire to ob s erve and empha s ize

the rarer a n d more abnormal extrem e s of the reported c a s e s

of double co ns ciou sn e s s ma n y other phe n omen a which
,

tly s erve to bridge the appar e n tly imp a s s able gulf between
them and th e mo s t ordinary experienc e s hav e been quite too
much n e gl e cted A l mo s t all writ e r s on hypnoti s m have been
.

guilty of thi s negl e ct n o matter h o w ca n did a n d thorough

,

they may have i n t e nd e d to be A s imilar defect o f s ci e nti c

.

ob s ervation i s common enough in all the s cience s I ts re s ult s .

are n ot l es s but rathe r more di s a s trou s i n p sychology tha n

, ,

i n a n y of the othe r s ci e nce s of Ob s ervation A ll ob s ervers .

,

when they a llo w them s elv e s to becom e ab s o rbed in the e ff ort

to d i s cover chiey the s tra n ge the unu s ual the abnormal the
, , ,

magical the S upe rnatural i n me n tal life are accu stom e d to

, ,

nd it A nd no doubt it i s really there But if it i s really

. .
 TH E C ON SCIOU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

there it i s i n reality accompanied by and coupled with s o

, , ,

much that i s ordin ary accountable to known law n ormal , , ,

and matter of familiar e xperience a s greatly to modify and ,

tone down the the oretical o u tcome R epeated a n d f a r more .

s earchi n g ob s ervation directed denitely toward nding o u t

,

wha t i s n ot pathological , namely the evidence s of ord i ,

n ary s e lf con s ciou s ne s s and memory

-
on the ba si s o f which ,

eve ry per s on mai n tain s to him s e lf h i s own u n it a ry b e i n g and

s elf s amene ss mu s t be given to all ca s e s of hyp n otic o r
-
,

i n s ane d ouble con s ciousne ss before they can tly s e rve a s ,

data for philo s ophical generalization s .

Further th e strictly s ci en ti c attitude mu st b e s teadfa s tly

,

mai n tai n ed i n the examination of the alleged phenom e na of

double co n s ci ou sne s s What thi s attitud e i s wheth e r it be
.
,

toward hypnoti s m or t oward witchcraft toward t e lepathy ,

o r toward s orce ry there ca n be i n thi s age Of the world no

,

rea s o n able dou bt The s cienti c attitud e clings to what i s

.

already kn o wn to th e explicable a n d the ex plai n ed from this

,

rm poi n t of s tanding it then e nd eav o r s by further ext e n

, ,

sion s and n e w theo retical combi n atio n s of kno wn p rinci pl e s to ,

explain that which at r s t s ight s ee m s to be wholly new .

Thi s i s i n our j udgment the only ri ght attitude for the man
, ,

o f s ci e n ce to take to ward the modern di s cu s s ion s of hypnotic

ph e nome n a The po s s ibility of bei n g compell e d to admit

.

wh olly n e w principle s i n phy s i ology a n d p sy chol ogy w e ch e er

fully admit NO f a ct or cla ss of fact s e st a bli s hed o n s ati s
.
,

factory evidence i s ever to be de nied If any proved f a ct o r

,
.

cla s s of fact s cannot be brought u n d e r k n own phy s i ologi c a l

or p s ych ol ogical laws a s i n deed m a n y u n doubt e d fact s
, , ,

can n ot b e thi s too i s to be fra n kly confe s s ed But on

, , ,
.
,

the other hand all the hi s tory of the developme n t Of s ci e n ce ,

,

all the mo st s acred right s and preci ou s achiev e me n t s of

s cienc e , e ven the very exi s tence of s cience a s di s ti n gui s hed

from wild vagari e s o r mere popular opi n io n d epe n d s u pon ,

holding fa st to what we have or think we have ; and upon ,

 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

using t hi s as the ins trument to conquer and po ss e s s th e

more B ut if i n reachi n g out too eagerly after the s till d i m
.

and u ncertai n more beyond we let S lip from ou r gra s p what

,

we alr e ad y mo s t rmly have t h e ca s e become s on e not Of

, ,

getting s omethi n g new to add to the body Of s cie n ce ; i t

become s rather a ca s e of lo s ing all A s for u s then on .
, ,

the one hand we will not allow our s elve s to be relegat e d

t o the ra n k s of the P hili s tine s becau s e we d o not ru sh o ff
,

at a tangent in pur s uit of n e w and high yi n g theorie s of -

telepathy , double con s ciou s ne s s a n d what not ; but on the

, ,

other ha n d we will not through fear of b e i n g rel e gated there

, ,

by oth e r s wande r afar i n compa n y with the camp s Of the

,

p sychologi s t gyp s ie s .

To apply the foregoing caution s to the s ubj ect i n hand ,

even the mo st s trikingly abnor mal c a s e s of double con s ciou s

nes s when a ll the phe n omena co n nected with the m are care
,

fully examined and duly e stimated s eem likely to S how another

,

than thei r already too much e mpha s ized abnormal a s pect .

A s i n the ca s e of the i n s a ne s o i n the ca s e Of the hypnotic

,
.

Between the wild e s t vagarie s of a pathological s ort and the

mo s t regul ar op eration s of th e s ane s t mi n d it i s po s s i ble to ,

interpolate an i nn ume rable series of gradation s s o a s t o shade

up o r shade down from on e i n to the other Such a proce s s .

o f mediating can be a ccompli s hed f o r eve ry me n tal faculty ,

n o matter h o w much it may s eem t o be d i s ord e r e d i n the

ca s e of the i n s ane s t mi n d In the ca s e o f the mo st in s ane
.

mi n d e v e n what i s normal and regular i s really pr e dom i n a t

, ,

ing . Th e i n mat e s o f ou r mad hou s e s are m ore l ike than

-

unl ike our se l ve s i n the working s o f both brai n and mind .

It i s o n ly that lo ss of all so called f a culty which di stin

-

g u i s h e s di s e a s e s like progre ss ive ge n eral par a ly s i s that dif

f e r e n c e s i ts a i i c te d s ubj ect from oth e r mi n d s a n d thi s , ,

by th e conti n ued removal Of a ll manif e s t a tion o f mind .

The co n d e n t and eve n che e rful expectation may be cher

i ehed that a s the s cience of p sychology develop s by the u se
,
168 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

of the modern inductive method s , it will mor e a n d more see

its way clear to e xplain s tate s of hypno s i s with their alleged ,

phenomena of double con s ciousne s s and all their other mo s t

unique phenome na in accordance with the empirically ,

e s tabli s hed pri nciple s of all mind Indeed the hi s tory Of .

,

hypnoti s m i s itse lf a le s s on to thi s ef fect ; the s ame le s s on

i s embodied in the ve ry word hypnoti s m Few men of .

s cience continue to speak of animal m a gneti s m o r of ,

M e s meri s m ; a dimini s hing number per s i s t i n a s cribing
the s e peculiar s tate s of brain an d mind to occult telluric
i nue n c e s o r to my s teriou s phy s ical e f u e n c e s from the
,

per s on of the experim e nte r P hy s iologically h ypn ose S are

.
,

be s t likened to s tat e s of na t ural S leep p sychologically c on

s i de r e d they are m ore s ati s factorily explicable by the well
,

known principle Of mental sugge s tion than i n any other
way Who ca n doubt that the e ss e n ti a l n ature of brai n and
.

of mind and of the rel ati on s between the two rem a in s u n

, ,

changed when after a s i n gl e word of comma n d or a few

, , ,

p a s s e s o r a mi n ute of xed s tari n g the sa m e per s on goe s

, ,

from the normal condition of s i n gle co n s ciou sn e s s to the

abnorm a l co n ditio n of double con s ciou s n e s s ? It may well
be howeve r that s o called
, ,
s i n gle co n s cio u s ne s s in i ts
-

m o s t normal form al w a y s conceal s and i n deed a s it were i s

, , ,

made up of d ouble ( a n d ev e n multiple ) co n s ciou s ne s s e s in s ome ,

valid me a n ing of th e s e latter w ord s ; and on th e othe r hand , ,

that every ca s e of d ouble o r triple co n s ciou sn e ss i s
only a rel ative ex a gg e r a tion of proce s s e s that cu stomarily
u nderli e the r e cogn ized form s of every s o called s i n gl e -

con s ci ou s n e s s .

I n the i n tere s t s th e n both Of p sych ological s cie n ce and

, ,

o f th e philo s ophy o f mind we feel oblig e d to mai n tai n for

,

the pre se n t a po s ition of re s erve Ou r con d e nc e i n the

.

pri n cipl e of conti n uity a s applied to th e s tudy both s cie nti c ,

and philo s ophical of the mental life i s s uch a s to lead h owever

, , ,

to thi s belief , the explanation of double con s ci ou sne s s ,

 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

when t h e fact s a r e a s certained a n d the explanation i s made ,

will be fou n d i n t h e exten s ion rather than the rever s al Of

principle s already k n own to apply to the normal activity of
body and mind It i s then o n ly i n a t e n t a tiv e way that we
.
, ,

n ow bri e y S ketch ou r opinion a s to what s ome of the m o s t

i mportant of the s e pri n ciple s probably are .

On e o f the mo s t importa n t a n d compr e hen s ive o f all prin

c i pl es o f me n tal d e velopment both i n a r e gulative a n d i n,

a co n stitutive way i s co n n ected with t h e organi z a tio n of what

,

m a y be call e d a p sychical automati s m By a pur e ly phy s .

i o l og i c a l automati s m we under s tand tho s e ce n trally i n iti a ted

n e rve c ommotion s generally due ( although proof ca n n ot be
-

give n for the very rea s onable conj e cture ) to change s i n the
character Of the blood supply which control the e n d organ s
-
,
-

o f motion ,
a s di s tingui shed from the periph e rally i n itiate d

or reex nerve commotion s that a s cendi n g by the centripetal

-
,

tract s excite the central organ s The term sy c hi ca l
, p .

automati s m a s it will n ow b e employ e d may prop e rly i n
, ,

c l u de certai n modi catio n s of con s ciou s ne s s The s e are .

,

however s o tran si e nt and Ob s cure that they either neve r get

,

them selv e s analytically s eparated a s it were by a n act of , ,

s elective atte n tio n a n d di s crimi n ati n g con s ciou s n e s s from the

entire co n s ci ou s compl e x : o r el s e they are although perh a p s ,

moment s actually recog n ized a s con s titutive of the con
s ciou s complex n ot con s ci ou s ly attributed to the Sel f a s its
,

sta t e not de nitively mad e obj e ct s of s e lf con s ciou s n e s s Or ,

,
-
.

again although attai n i n g for th e i n s tant s ome tinge of s elf

,

con s ciou s recog n iti o n and of attribution to the E go th e y m ay ,

never live in m e m ory afterward and s o have n o pl a c e what ,

e ver i n that co n s ciou s ly s elf known S e l f which i s al s o k n own

-

a s s e lf s a m e
-
"
It will be seen that th e s phere of the auto
.

matic p sychologi cally co n s idered i s not made c o e xt e n s ive

, ,
-

with co n ati o n a lthough i ncludi n g th e co n ative a s pect of

,

co n s ciou s n e s s But it do e s i n clude all th a t i s ord i n arily

.

a s cribed to wholly or n e arly blind impul s e to i n s ti n ct ,
, , ,
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

to tact and in g e neral to that s ide or s phere of ourselve s

,

o f which lea s t i s known and which whe n recogni zed s eem s

, , ,

s tra n ge s t even to our s elve s "

In the natural development of me n tal life the s phere

covere d by p sychica l automati s m become s con stantly e n
l a r g e d and more a n d more highly orga n ized a s it were TO , .

tho s e blind i mpul s e s i n s tincts appe tencie s and uncon s ciou sly
, , ,

o r half con s ciou s ly e xerci s ed potencie s which belong to What

-

we in ou r i g n ora n ce call the nature of the specie s an d of

the i n dividual there a r e added certai n simil ar r e s idua
, ,

which are the acquire ment s of pr e viou s con s ciou s form s o f

functioning The s e appear to have dropped d own from the
.

r e al m o f the clearly con s ciou s into the Ob s curity of the u n

con s ciou s or the h alf con s ciou s or the su b co n s cious ,
- -

s o called
-
. Under thi s description are al s o included of course , ,

the enormou s number of acquire d impul s e s appetencie s forms , ,

of tact and habits of p s ychic functioning which con stitute what

i s sometime s so signi cantly called the s econd natu re .

S O, then every man whe n con s id e red in the whole rou nd of

, ,

his potenti alitie s a s well a s actual performanc e s i s n ot S imply , ,

n or even perhap s chie y what he now co n s ciou sl y know s o r

,

remember s himself to be ; he i s al s o an a u tom a ton Of thi s .

automaton it may ordinarily be s aid with a mean ing that i s ,

s omethin g more than merely humorou s either I have it or , , ,

It h a s me or I am it , But agai n we may declare It i s
.
, ,

not me -
it i s i n deed s omething with which I Ofte n have muc h
troubl e a n d m any a s ore battl e and from which I receive much,

help or ill u s age a s either mv b e s t friend or my wor s t e n e my

, .

I ha ve th e auto mato n bec a u s e withi n certai n li mit s ( n arrow

,

enough indeed at s ome time s ) I can control it and S ho w

, , ,

owner ship over it a s o ve r on e o f my b e longing s But then .

agai n the automato n ha s m e ; for in s pite o f my xed d e t e r

mi n a tion to depart o n due occa si on o r habitually from i ts
, ,

ordinary mode s Of procedure its gra s p upo n me i s n ot s u c

,

c e s sf u l ly broke n by any number of con s ciou s idealization s o r

 TH E C ON SCI OU S NE SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

deed s of will I a m th e automaton ; f o r to b e s ure what i s

.
, ,

thi s other thi s puppet but a part

, and sometim e s it would
,

s eem the more important part o f my o wn s elf s ame Self ? -

But then n ally I a m n ot the automaton ; I externalize it

, , ,

Obj ectify it obj urgate and anathematize it ; o r I give thank s

,

to it when it h a s carried me s afely over place s where I should

,

not co n s ciou sly and r e ecti ve ly a n d voluntarily have known

, ,

what to d o .

Now thi s partial s eparation of the E g o and its automaton

,

m a y s o far a s time i s concer n e d b e characterized chiey by

, ,

s i multaneity o r chiey by s ucce s s ion

, In certai n co n dition s .

which are entitled to be call e d normal ( at lea st , if by nor

m al be m e ant the cu stomary rather than the ea s ily e x pli
cable ) and which are i n di cative of the true a n d more abiding
,

nature of mind t wo clo s ely related cour s es of functio n ing

, ,

each characterized by i ts appropriate form of co n s ciou s n e s s ( or

by n o con s ciou s ne s s if the u s e of the word be allowed i n
-
,

thi s way ) may run along togethe r nearly S ide by s ide Such
,
.

a thi n g a ctu ally happen s i n a li mit e d way whenever on e is , ,

walking while at the s ame time i n conver s ation o r in thought ;

,

wh e never a s killed m u s i cian r e p e at s some w ell known com -

po s ition o r i mprovi s e s whil e mentally engaged with concern s

, ,

of a far di fferent orde r H e re it i s the automaton chiey.

which walk s a n d play s with little or n o recogn itio n o r co n trol

,

from th e s elf con s ci ou s and r e ective soul Y et thi s s o called

-
.
-

automato n i s n ot pu rely phy s i ological but i s partly p sychical ; ,

for a t ol e r a b l y co n tinuou s train of co c on s ci ou sn e ss although

it may be dim and not recognized a s belo n gi n g to the S e lf
e xi st s a s an actual form of mental function ing i n control of
the bodily movements .

I n m a n y c a s e s of more than ordinarily ex alt e d activity both

the s elf c on s ci ou s remembe ri ng a n d thi n k
-
,
in g s oul and al s o
, ,

the w e ll trai n e d automaton with i ts di mly con s ciou s or s ub

-

co n s ciou s guidance of th e impul s ive i n s ti n ctive and i deating , ,

activitie s d o s plendid s ervice by c o operating at the s ame

,
-
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I DE N TIT Y , E TC .

time Not a f e w brilliant extemporaneou s s peeche s have

.

bee n made o r rare improvi s ations performed whe n the s elf

, ,

con s ciou s mind of the performer w a s far away and occupied ,

a s it were with s a d accu s ing thought s o r with memories ,

ab s orbi n g all i ts po wer s The E g o then took little or n o .

accou n t of i ts a u tom a ton and the a u tom a ton m ade little o r ,

n o report o f its doi n g s to the E g o But the automato n b e .

haved accordin g to i ts of ce as an a u tom a ton quite a s credi , ,

tably a s did the s elf co n s ciou s rememberi n g and re ecting -

, ,

s oul Ind e ed a large part of the m o s t impre ss ive art work of

.
-

the world i n all the variou s department s Of art h a s bee n per

, ,

formed not so much wit h s elf consciou s i deation and r e e c

,
-

tive purpo s e as with in s pi ration s an d form s of s triving that

s ee m born of a l ife beneath and above the s elf con s ciou s s oul -
.

The arti s t mu s t th e n confe ss Th e work w a s do n e not s o ,

mu ch by u s as f or u s by anothe r within u s It i s only a pard on , .

able exaggeratio n which has i n all age s made many of these

wo rkmen them s el ve s declare thei r i gnorance of the rules
which governed them an d which h a s even compelled the m to ,

a s cribe the work accompli s hed by the m to s ome i n dwelling

1
o r overpoweri n g divine i n u e n c e Thu s the automaton .

become s imaged a s a geniu s a d aemon o r a god anothe r , , ,

than me a not m e and yet rel ated in s o inti mate an d
,
-
,

peculiar a way to the self known Self as to be liable at any -

time to be ab s orbed into it again .

I n other in s ta n ce s perhaps not much more rare the psy , ,

chi c a utomaton i n s t e ad of runni n g i ts career i n a s ort of

,

parallel cour s e with the s elf con s cious Ego s o a s to give -

the impre ss ion of two o r more s trata of con s ciou s n e ss lying

1 A r
i v tig ti u d rt k t di v r t h p i ipl
ece n t n es a i u ly f l
on , n e a en o sc o e e r nc es co n sc o s o

l w d by t h ut h r f u ful t h tri l m p i ti h w v r u t f
o e e a o s o s cc e ss ea ca co os on s , o e e n or a

f i t i g r li ti m k l r t hi p i t f vi w
s a e sc en c ene a za N u ig r
on , a es c ea s o n o e . o s n o on s

mm t tr pri t y pr d p ur f ir pi e d t h eatr ut h r

co en no e es s en o a e une ce c e, sa
y s on e a o .

A t h r M P i ll
no e , v g . f
a t d l r S i q lq
eron , e i t pre
en oe s so a r as o ec a e ,

ue u un

sa ,
a s

av ir ri t
o b c pi e m m t i l y t pri q u il r m m
une on ne
(R
ce , co en s

es s,

e co en ce .
"
evue

Ph i l ph q
oso F 1 8 9 4 pp 228 f )
i u e, e vr .
, . .
 TH E C ON SCIOU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y ,
E TC 1 73

on e beneath the other at di ff ere n t depth s a s vi ewed from the ,

s uperior point of vie w of self co n s ciou sne s s a s s ume s for t h e

-

time being nearly e xclu s ive co n trol M any ca s e s of arti stic .

,

military or r e ligiou s in s piration s o called , exhibit the phe
,
-

n om e n a of d ouble co n s ciou s ne s s i n thi s form Thu s the war .

rior o n ly after hi s frenzy in the battle h a s s ub sided , and ev e n

,

the n but partially become s con s ciou s by memory and infer

,

ence of what he ha s done ; but the co n s ciou s ne ss which

accompani e d the actual transaction s is more accurately de

scribed a s that of a n other acti n g i n way s a n d with impul s e s
only very imperfectly known to the s e lf con s ciou s mind I I I -
.

e xtre me i n s tance s it require s all the force of the mo s t con

v i n ci n
g obj e cti ve record s the t e stimony of eye and ear
witne ss e s or the ch a n ge s e ffected in external thi n g s to
,

convince the actor him s elf that he did i n fact s o beh ave I ts .

o wn automaton a s toni she s the Self either by working i n a

relative independence of i ts control , and yet under i ts eye f or ,

a sea s on o r el s e by deed s which challenge s elf con s cious

,
-

thought to account for them at all exc e pt by ascribing them

to thi s automaton .

Similar ph e nome n a doubtless li e at the base Of that lan guage

which h a s so freque n tly be e n e mployed to de s cribe the
re sult s of religiou s i n s piration The S e lf i s s aid to become .

the s cribe the orga n the mouthpiece the penman
, , , ,

o r even th e

pen of A nother tha n the S e lf Oftentime s

, .

so P hilo Jud sen s d e clare s of him s elf when he h a s come to

write upon a s ubj e ct with h i s mind empty all of a s udde n it ,

h a s become full ; th ought s have fallen from heave n like a

sh ower of s n ow or like s eed from th e ha n d of the s e we r into
, ,

his mind ; h e h a s become po ss e s s ed of a C orybantic frenzy

under th e d ivi n e impul s e he h a s become altogether ignorant
of the place o f t h e per s on s pre s ent o f him s elf and of what
, , ,

wa s s aid and writt e n 1 I n g e nera l , according to P hilo , i n

.

inspiration the huma n withd raw s completely before the

1
"ui s r er . di v . h r ae . t . i p
. . 5 10.
1 74 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

d ivine ; the n i te s oul yiel d s up i ts place to a heavenly

l
v i si ta n t .

Extre me c a s e s of po s s e s s ion o r Ob s e ss ion and certain ,

form s o f i n s a n ity where the di s ordered s en s ation s and me ntal

images are Obje c ti e d and pers oni ed s o a s to con stitute ou t ,

of part of the me n tal ph e nomena a s ort of double which i s ,

recognized a s s tand ing i n p e culiar relation s to the Ego might , ,

o f cour s e b e in s tance d i n thi s connectio n

, But wh y should .

illu stration s for the principle be s ought i n u n familiar a n d

ab n ormal expe rie n ce s ? I n n o u ni mport a nt way the s ame
principle become s operative in the ca s e of almo s t every
d reamer for all that p orti on of the twenty four hour s of h i s -

dail y life which he pa ss e s i n dream s The ph e nomena of .

dream life are a s a r ule s o di ffe rent from tho s e Of the waking
-
, ,

life so l ittle remembe red and s elf con s ciou sly attributed to
,
-

thei r real s ubject that it i s not dif cult to con s ider them a s
,

belo n ging to s ome other than the Self with whom we are
made acquainted by o u r wak ing s tate s Sometime s indeed .
, ,

the s e phenomena get them s el ve s o rganized a s it were i n to , ,

habitual form s of recurrence which pre s ent thi s other a n d much

m ore pu rely automati c Sel f a s markedly di fferent in impulse s ,

habits e nvi ro n me n t an d even con s ciou s feelings idea s and

, , , ,

purpo s e s fro m the ch aracteri s tic s of th e much more s el f con

,
-

s ciou s s elf active a n d re e cti ve Self o f wakin g hour s

,
-
,
Thu s .

the automato n that i s i n reality ou r s and yet i s i n s ome

,

sort n ot ou r selve s, comes to po s s es s the e ntire time during

-

which the s tre a m o f dream con s ci ou s ne ss i s running i n a -

,

kin d of daily s ucce s s io n with th e true a n d highe r S e lf Thi s .

automaton so far a s known at a ll appears to u s a s more o r

, ,

le s s markedly u n like the s elf k nown Self I t hold s the rei n s -

.

by night and d rive s the rickety cart of co n s ciou s ne ss i n a n

irregular freaky , and yet perhap s characteri s tically tempe r a
,

1 Th e pr ph o et is qui t u
e ncon sc o iu s of e v ry t hi g h utt r
e n e e s in t hi s con d i ti f on o

e cst a sy ; he ca n n o t co m pr h e en d i t, i s i d d i u tt r ig r
n ee n e n o a n ce of it he p k
s ea s

all


y e yovcos v d
y vofa . De s p ec . l eg , t ii. p 3 43
.
, . .
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

mental way ; b u t by day we take the rein s into ou r ow n

hands , and ch a racte r s elf con s ciou s thought and choice ,
-
,

direct the mind s chariot al ong the path s of what i s real

and tru e and good .

M oreover our entire waking life i s characterized by succe s

,

s ive ri s i n g s a n d falli n g s in the dominance Of the p sychically

automatic i n d ivid ual and the s elf con s ciou s reecti n g a n d -

, ,

s elf active s pirit

- R e p e atedly do e s each o n e catch o n e s s elf
.

i n the condition Of b e i n g arou s ed from s tate s in which half

blind impul s e and nearly pa s s ive a s s ociatio n s purred on by
feeli n g have almo s t or quite ab s orbed the e n tire eld of con
s c i ou s n e s s N ot i nfreque n tly a s on e i s arou s ed on e i s wholly
.
, ,

unabl e to rememb e r o r can only de s cry a s S hadowy shape s , ,

with face s turn e d from u s and e ei n g toward the gulf of

oblivio n any of the m e ntal images o r other experie n c e s b e
,

l ongi n g to the s e state s The p sychic automaton h a s been .

playing the promi n e n t part upon the s tage of mental life ; and
i t i s conveyi n g s wiftly away i ts troop of actor s j u s t a s the eye ,

Of the i n tellectual and moral critic turns r e e ct i v ely u pon that

1
stage .

A nother le ss i mportant and yet mo st su gge stive cla ss of

fact s which thro w much light on the more adva n c e d ca s e s o f
,

doubl e con s ciou s n e s s may be brought unde r a p sychol ogical

,

principl e for which we venture to s u gge s t the phra s e the ,

dramatic s u n deri n g o f the Ego Thi s cla s s of fact s when .

,

s ubjected t o thorough p sychological analy s i s a n d e xplained ,

in the light of ack nowled ge d p sychological l aw s i n s tead o f ,

enabling u s to di s pen s e with the authority of s elf con s ciou s -

ne ss i s fou n d to have i ts very origi n and s ign i ca n ce o n ly i n

,

a f ull recognition of the activitie s of s e l f con s ciou s n e s s In -

.

othe r word s I ca n m a k e m se lf
,y se e m to my s e lf tw o or m or e

s e lve s , or I a m a bl e to a ea r to my se lf as tw o or m or e s e lve s,
pp
1
A di u i sc ph m f d ubl
ss o n o f th eiu i h y p ti
e no t t f m
ena o o e co n s c o s ness n no c s a e s, ro

th e ph y i l gi l d xp ri m t l p i t f vi w whi h
s o o ca an e e lud t h t h yp
en a o n s o e , c con c es a no

si s it i
c on s s s rt i i ll y i du d pr p d r
n an a f th
c a d ry ( ut
n ce e on e a nc e o e se con a or a o

ti ) Eg m y b f u d i M D D pp l I h L ip ig 18 9 0

ma D

'
c o, a ei o n n ax e s so r s as o e - c . e z , .
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y ,
E TC .

on l
y as I a m ca
p f
a ble o con st i t u t i ng m y se lf , a nd a
pp e a r in
g to

my se lf ,
a s on e a nd th e sa m e S e lf
That d ramatic s u n d e ring .

o f the E g o upon which many of the mo s t startling ph e nome n a

,

o f d ouble co n s ci ou s n e s s depend i s it s elf po s s ible i n a n y e x

, ,

alted form only for s elf con s ciou s and C ognitively remembe r
,
-

i n g mi n d s .

In di s cu s s ing the n ature and i mport of such phenomena of

mental life an appeal mu s t be made to s tate s of con s ciou s
,

ne ss s omewhat similar to tho s e which were j u s t referred to

as coming under the principle o f p sychic automati s m .

A nd i n deed the p sy chic automaton the other Self

,

,

,
-

more or le s s con s ciou sly created and recog n iz e d a s the re s ul

tant of mental activitie s , and the creati n g s elf cognizing -

Self ,
get mixed together and i nterrelated in the actual
mental life i n ma n y mo s t curiou s and i n teresti n g way s
, .

When I dramatically put my s elf i n another s place , think my

th ought s a s his thought s and f eel the feeling s appropri ate to

,

that other s i magined or known co n dition and enviro n ment ,

i t i s largely upon my own automaton of course th at I d raw , ,

both for material a n d for con s tructive e nergy Thi s s tate .

'

ment s imply i nvolve s an exten s ion of the pri nciple that all
i nterpretation of the con s ciou s n e ss of othe r s all e nt e ring into ,

hu man life i n ge n e ra l or i n to the S peci c form Of life belo n g

,

ing to certai n i n dividual s depend s upon s elf con s ciou s ne s s

,
-
.

Only a s I k n ow an d remember my Self and a s I regard the ,

forms and l aw s of mental behavi or a s u n cha n gi n g can I ,

mentally represent othe rs than that Self b e they king s and ,

-

ueen s o r thieve s and beggar s amo n g the child ren o f m e n

q , ,
.

Thi s i s tru e even of my th ought s about t h e p sychic l ife of the

l owe r a n imal s o r the p sychic s ide of pla n t life or the doing s
,
-
,

of mi nd stu ff a s m i n d stu ff or the quie s cent and dr e amy
- -
,

con s ciou s ne s s of s ome hypothetical World Soul It i s -
.

alway s the same I that puts it s elf into that other N o mat .

ter how u nlike what I really am that othe r may s eem , for the
time to me to be ; and no matte r how ab s orbed , even to the
,
 TH E C ON SCI OU S NE SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC . 1 77

temporary lo ss of all s el f con s ciou s ne ss I may become in that

-
,

other all goe s back to s elf knowledge to s elf feeli n g to

,
-
,
-
,

co n s ciou sn e ss of s e lf exi ste n ce a s on e and the same It i s

-
.

all thi s o r n othing ; a n d th e re i s no third to choo s e .

Th e kind s a n d degree s ho we v e r o f thi s , dramatic s un
,

dering of th e Ego are many ; the variety o f in s tance s i s
,

a l mo s t i n n um e rable A mong t h e mo s t i n tere s ti n g and s u g

.

e s t i v e p sychologically are t h e p e rformance s i n which chil

g
d ren i ndulge . I n t h e d e vel op m e n t of e arly i nfa n cy t h e
co n s tructio n o f the Ego a s s e lf k n own and the po wer to -
,

s eparate Off thi s S e lf and by an activity o f l ively i magi n a tio n

,

project it i nto anothe r proceed al m o s t p a r i p a ss u Thu s the

, .

young girl wh o play s the p a rt of the patient doe s not s imply

pret e n d to be ill ; s h e h a s accord i n g to the me a s ure of her
,

pa s t exp e ri e n ce a n d the vivid n e ss of h e r imagina t io n t h e r e al ,

thought s and fe el ing s appropriat e to th e ca s e To pret e n d i n .

earne s t to be ill i s re ally to be ill ; a n d no doubt s ome of the so

called real ill n e ss of h e r later year s will be fully a s much pre
te n ce a s i s thi s earli e r play at ill n e ss Y et she c a n by dint .
,

o f q u e s ti oni n g be call e d back at a n y time to the knowl e dge

,

that s h e i s not r e a l ly ill but i s really only p la y i ng the

,

p a rt o f patie n t So that after all the healthy and normal

.
, ,

Ego r e gard s the M e whe n m a de ill by i magi n ation a s a s ort

, ,

o f othe r S e l f . N or doe s her c ompa n i on who tak e s th e part

o f doctor prove her s elf l e s s equal to the pe culiar ta s k o f

a rti s tic dirempti on i mpo se d upon h e r .

Or by a s carcely greate r s tr e t ch o f activiti e s i n a similar

,

directio n the s am e narrow per s onality o f th e child may break

,

it s el f up into two s o d i ss i milar s e lv e s a s are a patie n t and the

doctor ; for th e s ame child can play both pati e n t to it s elf a s
d octor a n d doctor to it se l f a s pati e nt
, Who that h a s watched .

the skil ful and quick shifting of the ph a se s of co n s ciou sne s s ,

the succe s sive appropriate objec t i c a t i on s o f the little mother ,

with he r doll can doubt the p s ychic r e a lity o f what i s thu s

,

accompli sh e d ? But here the me a s ure of the actual di r e m p

12
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

tion of th e Ego thu s s ecured i s to be found in th e child s pre

vio n s experie n c e with i t s own S e lf Both the proc e s s which .

make s the child a real child to it s elf a s mother and that ,

which makes it a real mother to it s elf a s child pr e s uppo s e and ,

call forth a certain de velopment of s elf co n s ciou s n e s s of rec -

,

o g n i t i v e memory and of reective thinki n g

,
N o w it i s in the .

exerci s e a n d development of the se faculti e s that all the s elf

known reality and identity of mind h a s bee n found to co n s i s t ;
a n d with out the s e facultie s it would be quite a s impo s s ible

for s uch dr a matic s underi ng of the Ego to take place at all

a s for the co n s ciou s ne ss of Self to approach perfection .

I n d ream s too thi s s ame p sy ch ological proce s s Often take s

, ,

place i n a s tartli n g way I t s re s ult i s con n ect e d with the

.

a n s wer to the que s tion : Why d o d re a m image s ab s urd -

,

ch a n geable a n d impo s s ible as th ey are become s o obje c

,

tive to the mi n d s o re a l to the dreamer both d urin g the

, ,

dr e am a n d aft e r h e h a s awakened ou t of h i s immediate

enthralme n t ? The true p sychological a n s wer to thi s ques
tio n rev e r s e s the ordinary i mpre s s ion s ; for all i mag e s both ,

tho s e of w a ki n g life and tho s e o f d ream life are origi n ally -

,

alik e both objective a n d s ubj ective I t i s on l v the critical .

operation o f trai n ed i n tellect checki n g a n d corr e cti n g the

,

native metaphy s ical te n de n cy to obj e ctify a ll mental i mage s ,

which i n s a n e waking life prevent s su c h im a ge s fro m

being con s idered realitie s a s in d ream life have n o di ffi culty -

i n validating thei r s puriou s claim A n d s o i t com e s about .

that to the uncritical Sel f in d ream s any of i ts p e rforman ce s

may be appropri ated ; a n d any other of i ts performa n ce s ,

equally i ts o w n m ay get a ppropri ate d to s ome other object o r

,

other S e lf For the dreamer a s s ay s Del b oe u f i s a momen

.
, ,

tary and involuntary dupe of h i s o w n imagi n atio n a s th e ,

poet is the momentary but voluntary dupe and the i n s a n e
.
,

man i s the perma n ent an d i n voluntary dupe 1
.

I n stan c e s of this d ramatic s undering of the E go in d ream s ,

1 L e S omme il et l es Re v p es, . 91 .
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC . 1 79

wh e re part of the lif of
co ciou sn e s s h a s been s plit off
e ns

and orga n iz e d i n to a n imp e r s o n al object o r anothe r S e lf are ,

abundant enough Why s hould it n ot be s o i n thi s s tate

.

whe re th e mind holds everything for true and real which

fa n cy throw s up befor e i t ? 1
Thu s we read of an a s thmatic
dreame r who him s elf pa n ting and s weati n g i n s leep s a w on e
, ,

of the hor s e s i n the d i lig e n ce i n which he w a s taki n g a dream

ride over a mou n tainou s road fall dow n a n d l i e panti n g and

s w e ating before h i s e ye s Said a sl e e per on who s e face P r e ye r
.

s prinkled s ome s pray s of water : P ray take a cab ; it i s rai n

i n g terribly

N ot i n freque n tly that other S e lf whic h h a s
.
,

b e e n created by a d ramati zation of se lfhood ( s o De l boe u f )

o u t o f certain s e lect e d s tuff fro m the s tr e am of co n s ciou s
ne s s s eem s to get the b e tt e r either in action or i n k n owl e dge
, , ,

of the s eemi n gly real Self H ere might b e m e n tio n e d th e .

ca s e Of th e boy who d r e amed out correctly the co n s trui n g of

a d if cult pa ss age in L ati n by hearing it given by a t r i u m
phant rival whe n he could him s e lf make nothing o u t o f it
, .

In the s ame way M M aury by a d ramati c sund e ri n g o f the

.
,

Ego in a d re a m corrected the bad Engli sh of h i s r e al S e lf by

,

the good Engli sh o f the other unreal S e lf I call e d for you .

ye s terday said he to h i s fri e nd i n h i s d ream

, Y ou should .

s ay ,I call e d on you y e s te rday re s ponded th e grammatical ,

monitor whi ch the dreamin g con s ciou s ne ss h a d it s e lf created .

A n d w a s not D r Joh n s o n once gr e a tly vexed at bei n g wor s ted

.

by h i s oppo nent in an argum e nt i n a d ream

In all s uch i n sta n c e s t a k e n from d rea m life the pri n ciple -
,

o f s i multaneou s o r s ucc e ss ive a ctio n and int e ractio n b e tw e en

th e s e l f co n s ciou s Ego a n d i t s auto m ato n and the principle

-

of more cl e arly co n s ciou s a n d int e n tio n a l d ra mati c s under

ing of the Ego by i ts o w n act Operat e i n way s that ren ,

d e r th e m al mo s t ind i s ti n gui shable But there are certain .

familiar ex perie n ce s o f wak i n g life which s erve to clarify and

1
On th e
d r
i u d ri g f th Eg
a ma t c s n e n o e o in d r e a ms, com pr
a e Du Prel,
Th e P hil ph y f M y t i i m
oso l i 112 f
o s c s ,

vo . . .
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC

empha s ize the latte r of the s e two principl e s H ere agai n a s .

,

happen s almo s t uniformly i n the m e ntal life what i s rat e d a s ,

highe st and wh at i s r a t e d a s l o we s t evi n ce the s ame p s ycho

logical principle s P sychologically con s idered , the dreame r
.

oft e n become s a con s tr u ctive arti s t or a s eer of no mean

orde r ; a n d on the other ha n d the arti st the actor t h e i n
, , , ,

s pired prophet , o r eve n the ethically quicke n ed man i n h i s

s tate s of mo s t i nten s e moral con s ciou s ne s s behave s i n certai n
,

i mportant re s pect s a s th oug h i n a dream .

The ex perience of actor s may be a pp e aled to in illu stration

'

1
of thi s truth Thi s ex p e rience i n deed di ffer s greatly a s
.
, ,

re s pect s the complete n e ss with which di ff e re n t and p e rhaps

equally s ucce s sful performe r s throw them s el ve s i n to the per
s on a l i ty with all i t s change s o f feeli n g and thought as ,

tted to the cha n gi n g s ituatio n s and the development of the

pl ot which they for the time bei n g repre s e nt Some actors .

te s tify that they not only app e a r to the a u d i en c e to be the

pers on whom they are d ramatically pre s enting but that they ,

a r e t o t he m se lv e s that very s ame per s on ; they for the time

b e ing s u ffe r h i s woe s and rej oice i n h i s triumph s Thei r o wn .

true and n ormal s e lf i s ab s orbed in the characte r s o f t h e pla y s

th e y are acting ; s o that it require s s ome shock o r oth e r d i s ,

ti n ct rea s o n for r e suming m ea n time the s e l fhood which b e

,

lo n gs to thi s true s elf Other actor s claim however that they

.
, ,

n d it n e c e ssary to m a i n tai n con s tantly a re e ctive and critical

attitude toward them s elve s ; th e y mu st co n s ide r th e m s el ve s
n o t a s be i ng temporarily the ch ar a cter s they r epre se nt but ,

r a the r a s al way s p l a y i ng a part .

M ore careful p sychologi cal e xamin a ti on of all the s e ca s e s

s eem s to s how that we a r e here d eali n g s imply with a que s

tio n of degree s The actor who pla y s a part wh olly without

.

putting hi m s el f i n to i t i f i n deed s uch a thi n g be po s s ibl e

i s nece ss arily a hard u n feeling an d u nt rue r e pre s e n t a t i ve of
, ,

1 On thi ubj t
s s th v ry ugg t iv i du tiv x m i ti
ec se e e e s es e n c e e a na on m a de b y
Willi am Ar h r i h i w rk
c e n M k Fs o . as s or a c es
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E S S OF I DE N TIT Y ,
E TC .

that part S ome con s iderable genui n e dramatic s undering of

.

the Ego i s i n di s pe n s abl e to a s ati s factory dramatic r e p r ese n

t a ti on o f the per s on who i s really other than thi s Ego On .

the othe r hand the acto r who become s s o compl e t e ly ab s orbed

,

i n th e part he i s pl ayi n g a s to lo s e all s e lf co n s ciou s n e s s a n d

-

critical reective control over the proj e ct e d s eco n d a ry Ego ,

who s u ffer s the dramatic s unde ring to b e come s o complet e a s

that h i s o w n Self is nally lo t in that oth r S lf
s e e mu s t ,

e ither have s uch trained po wers and s uch g e n iu s a s that the

automato n can be s afe ly tru s ted with thi s important work o r ,

he mu s t probably fail of the highe s t s ucce ss by over doing -

t h e matt e r In fact we do not believe that eithe r of th e s e

.
,

extr e m e s i s ever compl e te ly r e alized What actu a lly tak e s

.

place i s a ki n d o f more or le ss i ntermittent intercour s e

between the two s tr e am s o f co n s ciou s n e s s I a s the acto r .

ob s erve the m e that i s n o w i n th e part I a m actin g I am .

i ndeed l iving largely in that othe r who i s s o diff ere n t i n

characte r s ituatio n and de s ti n y fro m my own true Self I
, ,
.

am he ; a n d n owhe re i n the world perh a p s d oe s h e exi s t

j u s t n ow ex cept a s the I that am ab s orb e d more or l e s s
compl e t ely i n him A n d yet all the w a y through thi s a b so r p
.

tion of my S e lf i n that other my con s ciou s ne ss i s s hot through

,

and through with perc e ptio n s feeling s me mori e s and thoughts

, , ,

which are of my o wn true Self ; and the s e l e a d m e to d i s tin

gui s h this oth e r fro m that true Sel f ; although thi s othe r i s i n
truth my ow n tru e Self acti n g a part .

P e rhaps t h e mo s t marvellou s e xampl e i n all hi story of the

achievem e n t s po s s ible through thi s cultiv a ti o n Of nati v e ge n iu s
i n the powe r o f d r a m atic s elf d i remptio n w a s th e n oveli s t
-

Bal z a c Of thi s author we are told s o vivid w a s h i s s e n s uou s

.
,

i m a gi n atio n that the mental repre se nt a tio n o f a k n ife cutti n g

h i s e s h a n ywh e r e produced t h e kee n and la n c e like pain th a t -

ordin a rily r e quire s actual cutti n g It w a s not s imply i n s ome

.

on e oth e r tha n him se lf th a t thi s man had the pow e r of b e c o m

ing a b s orb e d For he s eem s to have l ived a s h i s o wn e x pe

.
,
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I DE N TIT Y , E TC .

r i e n ce while setti n g on the s tage all the wo n de rfully varied

character s o f h i s C om die H umai n e t h e whol e rou n d of

,

the thought s f e eli n g s a n d purpo s e s o f all the character s

, , .

They di n ed with him s l e pt with him walked with him a n d , , ,

s a t b e s ide hi m i n the roo m wh e re he worked Th e r a ther w a s .

he a s a s elf co n s ci ou s remembering and re ecti n g S elf con

,
-

, , ,

s ta n tly for the voluntarily adopted purpos e s of h i s a r t s o

, ,

projecti n g hi m se lf into th e s e ideal s a s to create ou t o f t h e

proj ection s veritabl e s elve s that ran their a ppropriate cour s e s
o f hi s tory s om e what n e arly parallel with o n e a n other an d ,

with that s tream o f con s ciou s n e s s whi ch was e s pecially iden

t i e d as th e ir author s o wn Oth e r s elv e s they w e re s e t over ,

agai n s t e a ch oth e r a n d a gain s t h i s S e lf ; a n d ye t they were

all B a lza c s cr e a ti on s the recog n iz e d and well loved work s of
,
-

the creative geniu s o f thi s central Sel f .

P articul arly intere s ting a n d i n s tructive for the study of the

s ame p s ychological problem i s the experience of the ancie n t

H ebre w pr ophet s and indeed the proph etic con s ciou sn e s s g en

,

e r a lly The very ba s i s of the e x perie n ce which belong s to

.

p pr O h e t i c in s pi ra t i o n i s laid i n a certain d ramati c s u n d e ri n g

o f the Ego To b e come co n s ciou sly i n s pired the s ubject of

.
,

i n s piratio n mu s t r e cog n ize a n Other tha n h i s o w n S e lf s tand ,

i n g over agai n s t thi s Self a n d h oldi n g s ome form of c o m m u

nio n with i t ; a n d ye t a s to t h e e xi s te n ce a n d ch aract e r o f
,

thi s Other l o "i t appe a rs that it i s i n the S e lf that i s i n

S pired ( for i n s pirati on which i s ext e r n al i s n o t i n s pi rati o n at
all ) a n d that i t s charact e r corr e s pond s to a n d i s d e t e rmi n e d
,

by c e rtai n of the thou ght s f e eli n gs a n d pu rpo s es bel o n gi n g , ,

to the norm a l Self The s e t hou ght s f e e li n gs and purpo s e s

.
, ,

h ave organi z e d them s elve s into a n other On e than th e S e l f i n

1
which the y we re them s el ve s born I n view of thi s e x p e r i .

ence th e H ebrew p rophet s d e s cribe their s tate of i n s pir a tion

1 T hi vi w i p y h l gi ll y t ru l l t h ph e m
s e s s c o o f pr ph t i m m g
ca e, a s a e no en a o o e s a on

th e H e brew sl wh r bu d tl y h w ;
an d e se e e a n an s o an d t hi qui t i d p
s as e n e e n de n t o f

wh t v r w r m y b giv t t h i q uiry
a e e ans e a e en o e n a ft e r t h ir m r ul t i m t
e o e a e o rigi n,

wh t h r up r t ur l
e e s t ur l
e na a or n a a .
 TI l E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC . 1 83

as a falli n g of the h a n d of J e hovah upon the m ; or agai n , ,

a s the comi n g o f an oracular word ; o r ye t aga i n a s a , ,

burden which i s l a id upo n the s oul a n d which th e y mu s t ,

lift up and b e ar Thu s too th ey t h e i r r e a l but i n fe rior

.
, ,

s elv e s s om e time s e n t e r into a co m municatio n which i s ,

de s cribed in the mo s t obj ective a n d re a li s tic ma n n e r with ,

that othe r On e who i s i n th e m a s th e ir bett e r tru e r a n d , ,

wi se r Self ; a n d y e t i s n ot wholly th i s S el f but i s an Oth e r ,

.

A t time s the proc e s s of dr a m a tic s u n d e ring b e com e s s o com

l e t e a n d l iv e ly th a t th e y arg u e with thi s Oth e r pl e ad with
p ,

him compl a i n b e fore h i m a n d volu n t a rily s urr e n d e r to or

, ,

ve n ture to di s obey h i s mo st e xplicit co m m a n d s For wh o .

can re s i s t the A l mighty wh e n H e app e ar s a s a n oth e r Self

, ,

withi n our se lv e s ? Ye t o u r s e lf con s ciou s a n d s e lf a ctiv e Ego

- -

can a n d doe s re s i s t ev e n H im .

It is not n e ce ss ary howeve r to app e al to ph e n o m e na

, , ,

e ven s o relativ e ly extraordi n ary and u n i n t e lligible a s th o s e of

d r e am life o r o f certain form s of ze s th e t i ca l a n d prophetic
-
,

co n s ciou sn e s s , to illu s trate the wo n de rful s e lf d i r e m pt i ve -

e nergy of the human s oul A ll inte n se and highly d e veloped

.

moral con s ciou s ne s s afford s a s tartli n g ill us tratio n o f t h e

s ame powe r The e ss e n tial charact e ri s tic o f all mora l c on
.

s c i o u s n e s s i s that of thoughts accu s i n g or el s e ex cu s i n g o n e

a n oth e r . I n recognition o f thi s ch a r a cte ri s ti c we nd the
A po s tl e P aul d e clari n g , the good which I would I d o not ;

but t h e evil which I would not that I practice ,
I con .

s e n t unto the l aw ; but I n d anoth e r l a w ( a n othe r Self i n ,

citi n g a n d con s enting ) within my members bri n gi n g me into ,

captivity Ethi cally con s idered I am regularly two rathe r

.
,

than one u ntil I become one with t h e l a w

a n d ye t
"

by virtue o f my e thical con s ciou sn e s s a l o n e d o I att a i n the

high e s t form of rational u nity the u n ity o f a moral pe r
s on a l i ty I n recog n ition of the s ame u n ique phe n omenon
. ,

Ka n t pe rs o n i e s and obje c ti e s thi s oth e r Sel f and gi ve s i t ,

the signi cant title Of a categorical imperative Th e en .
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

ti r e Ka n ti a n y s s t em o f et hi c s i s, i n deed , ba se d
p g u r a t i ve
u on a

i n terp r e ta ti on of thi s e thi ca l d ou bl e con sc i ou sn e ss The n o n .

me n al S e lf belo n gi n g to the world of realitie s th a t are i n

,

co m prehe n s ible a n d ev e n i m po s s ible to u n der s tandi n g free , ,

and yet s tan di n g i n a n attit u de of nece s s ary re s pect toward

a l a w which it i s bound to keep and the phe n ome n al Self
, ,

caught a n d e n chai n ed i n extricably i n th e cau s al ne xu s o f a nat

ural world order , the s e t wo am I ; a n d ye t s omeh o w the s e
-

two are o n e i n that u nity of apperception which mu s t s e r ve a s

the me n s truum the s ol ve n t for a ll that I can e ve r k n o w o r
, ,

e ve n thi n k my s el f to be It i s not of cour se our pre s en t

.
, ,

purpo s e eithe r to defe n d or to corr e ct the po s itio n s o f the

Kriti kder P rakti s ch e n V e r n unft ; we only call atte n tio n

to the fact that i t s p sychol ogical ba s i s depend s u pon e ss en

t i a lly the s ame d r a m a tic s u n d e ri n g of th e Ego which i s charac
t e r i s t i c of all awaken e d a n d d e vel op e d moral co n sciou s n e s s .

I ts a p r i or i s m is j u s ti abl e or eve n explicable only a s s u ch

, ,

form s of ment a l fu n ctio n i n g a re found actually to b e long to

th e e s s ential n atu re of m a n a s a moral being A n d all the .

metaphy s ic s impl ied i n th e s e phenom e na call t h e conclu

s ion s a s to reality by t h e n a m e of po stulate s or what you ,

will i s valid o n ly as recog n itio n i s give n to th e per s i s tency

and the S ig n ic a n ce of the se p sychological fact s .

Whe n ever the pl a i n m a n takes him s e lf i n ha n d i n a d i s

t i n c t ly ethical w a y h e pe rform s to s ome ext e nt thi s act of
,

dr a matic a lly s eparating h i s o n e Self into two oppo s e d s e lve s .

The on e j udge s approvingly or di s approvingly and pu n i s he s

, ,

o r reward s the othe r E s ti m a te d by the e thical st a n d a rd

.
,

which i s o f cour s e the s ta n dard that al o n e applie s i n thi s

, ,

s ort of tran s actio n s the o n e i s called the highe r a n d th e
,

other the l o wer Self The former u nd e rt a k es to s ummon
.

t h e latter before i ts bar with an a s s umption Of u n i mp e ach

,

able ve racity and authority N ot u nfreq uently doe s t h e I

.

wh ich i s th e higher Self call the me which i s t h e l o we r

S elf by many opprobriou s te rms ( s uch as
knave fool , ,
 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC . 1 85

S in n er
,

slave and it will not readily s u ffe r di s pute a s
to i t s right to do thi s Thi s higher S e lf promptly co n de mn s
.

the oth e r to i ts o wn s cor n to the scorn of a l l mor a l s en s i

,

b i li ty to incarc e ratio n in pr i s on to the gallow s o r to the

, , ,

re s of hell .M ore rarely it pr a i s e s and award s the prize of

, ,

u niver s al good de s ert or the j oy s of P aradi se

-
.

N othi n g i n the whole real m of h u man ex perience i s any

more real and indicative of the profou n de st bei n g of the h u
man mi n d than j u s t thi s activity oi s elf di r e m pt i v e moral -

co n s ciou s n e ss It i s quite vai n to try to break the force of

.

the argum e nt by S peaki n g co n temptuou sly of thi s experience

a s the work o f di s e a s e d i magi n atio n etc Without w ork Of ,
.

i m agination there i s po s s ible n o k n owl e dge of any reali ty ,

whether of thi n g s o r of mind s A n d her e a s el s e where the

.
, ,

que stio n of s anity o r di s ea s e i s chiey a qu e s tio n o f d egree s

a n d of balance i n the e x e rci s e o f the s everal s o called f a c u l -

tie s Be s ide s thi s i s th e ve ry point for which we are n ow

.
,

contending ; namely that the s ane s t a n d mo s t o rdinary s tates

,

of mind illustrate and enforce the s ame principle s a s tho s e

which mu s t be taken into account i n all explanati o n of th e
mo s t ab n ormal and extraordi n ary It requir e s at ti m e s only
.

a little pu s hi n g further toward i t s e xtrem e po s s ible limit i n

order to make thi s proce s s o f d r a matically s u n d e ri n g the Ego ,

in t h e form o f moral con s ci ou s n e s s a s compl e te a s the mo s t,

r e mark a bl e c a s e s of hyp n otic double con s ciou s n e s s M e n of .

the profou n d e s t s e lf k n o wl e dge hav e bee n fou n d to s p e a k a s

-

though the e ntire s vs te m o f mor a l co n s ciou s n e s s could b e b es t

d e s crib e d o n ly i n te rm s of the good a n g e l a n d th e d e vil ,

that cont e n d withi n the s ame s oul for i ts m a s t e ry Thu s o n .

cert a i n occa s io n s wi t h ma n y s a n e mi n d s a n d h a bitu a lly i n ,

certai n form s of i n s anity th r e e rathe r tha n two s e lv e s s e e m to

,

be i n i n t e ractio n both below and above th e thr e sh old o f eth

,

ical con s ciou s ne s s Th e re i s rs t the bad S e l f which h a s

, , ,

n ow become per s o n i ed an d objecti fi ed a s the d ae mo n that

i s i n the me a nd po ss e s s e s it There i s s econd th e
. , ,
1 86 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

better S e lf which h a s tak e n the form of my good angel and

, ,

which cont e nd s with th e d aemon o r griev e s ove r and pitie s ,

me A n d there i s third the Self that i s recogni zed a s my

.
, ,

Self but which i s perpetually i n the place of the torn on e

,
,

a s elf co n s cious and s till though p e rh a ps feebly s e lf active

-
, ,
-

per s o n al ground on which the t w o othe rs are waging th e i r

,

terrible b a ttle s Indeed in certai n ca s e s the latter appear s

.
,

almo s t a s a helple ss and di s i n tere s ted s pectator o f the co n ict

betwe e n the other t wo .

Tho s e who have mo s t examin e d the ge n e ral eld of h y pn o

t i sm from the p sychological point o f view c a n have littl e
doubt that the t wo principl e s of a progre s s ive orga n ization
of p sychic auto m ati s m a n d the developme n t of the power
o f dramatically s underi n g the Ego n d a wide application

th ere Indeed thi s el d i s clo se ly co n nected ( but by i n a p

.
,

p r e c i a b l e gradation s ) with th e familiar phe n ome n a of our

waking and ordinary life Th e v e ry word . hyp n oti s m i s
'

employed to de s ignate i n a rather loo s e a n d indenite way a

, ,

s omewhat heteroge n eou s collecti o n Of phy s iologi cal and p sychi

cal phenome n a But when on e h a s ente red that eld from
.

the point s of vie w xed by s cienti c phy s iology a n d s c i

e n ti c p s ychol ogy o n e n d s the pri n ciple o f co n tinuity reg
,

na n t al s o there I ts phe n ome n a howeve r s tra n ge s om e o f

.

the m app e ar at r st to be a n d h oweve r they may s eem to

,

d e mand s tr a n ge and occult p sychological expla n atio n s or a ,

wholly n e w metaphy s ic s o f mi n d all giv e token of a d i s

po s itio n to yield i n time to the p a ti e n t i nv e s tigator who will
not willi n gly let go the l ittle th a t h e d o e s kno w i n the i n ,

te r e s ts of th e u n k n owable o r of t h e s till u n know n .

R e tur n i n g th e n n ally to the que s ti on how the true doc

, ,

tri n e o f the k n own s elf identity of mi n d i s a ffect e d by th e

-

e xtent to which the s e two p sychologic a l principl e s are carri e d

i n certai n ca s e s o f hypnoti c d ouble co n s ciou s n e ss we ve n ture ,

to af rm : I n no n e w i m port a n t w a y I n g e n eral without .

,

the operation of the s e principl e s the high e s t development of,

 TH E C ON SCI OU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

co n s ciou s ly real and s elf same mi n d could neve r be attained

-
.

A nd withi n c e rtain limit s the higher the o rganization o f the

, ,

p sychic autom a to n th e more i s the s el f con s ciou s Self l e ft

,
-

free to perfor m i ts o w n fu n cti o ns and t o know it s elf a s reall y

exi s ting and a s se lf s ame in the pe rform a nce of them So
-
.

al s o i n tho s e cases where the proce s s Of s elf diremptio n a n d -

,

of putti n g one s con s ciou s ne s s i nto a n othe r a n d under that

other s co n trol is o n ly partial and temporary thi s proce ss

, ,

may its elf both expr e s s and al s o actually ope rate to increa s e
, ,

the wealth o f the life of the s elf con s ciou s s oul H e s urely -
.

i s not the greater mind wh o never h a s experie n ce s an s weri n g

to tho s e o f arti s tic o r religiou s in s pi ration Wha t i s n eces .

h owe ve r , i n or der t o r e ve n t t he l oss of t he m i n d s r ea li t
sa r
y , p y
a n d i d en t i t , i n the dark aby s s of uncon s ciou s or dim ly con
y
s cio u s automati s m o r upo n the height s where a tr a n s g u
,

ration of character h a s take n place i s the p ower of s elf r e cove ry

,
-
.

The Self mu s t come to it s e lf agai n It may come back r e .

fre sh e d o r wearied more o r le ss cha n ged and freighted with

, ,

t h e memory of s tra n ge ex perience s that have reveal e d to it

capaciti es a n d p o s s ibiliti e s before un su s pected ; it may come
back a s aw a k e n i n g out of a lo n g and dr e amle s s sl e e p .

Suppo s e howeve r th at i n rare in s tance s thi s return

, ,

s hould bear n o trace of s elf c on s c i ou sn e s s of recognitive

-

m e mory o r o f reective thinki n g to bind th e pre s ent Self ,

with the Ol d Sel f ,

why th e n the r e t u rn would be n o
,

real r e tu r n ; the new s tate s of con s ci ou s ne s s would have no

meaning a s a coming to o n e s s el f again and the Self
,

n o w ma n if e s ted and developed woul d be i n n o i n telligible ,

m e ani n g o f the word s th e s elf s ame
,
S e lf Suppo s e -
.
,

again that s ome i ndividual s ubj ect of e xtraordi n ary hyp n otic
,

i n u e nce s shoul d alt e rnate betwe e n two co n ditio n s i n which ,

not only di ff e rent s ide s Of th e complex di s po s ition or dif

f e r e n t a s p e ct s o f acquired ch aracter were emph a s ized but ,

betw e e n which n o actual s elf m a de co n n e ctio n by way of-

s elf con s ciou s ne s s

-
memory , or thought could be traced
, ,
1 88 TH E C ON SCIOU S N E SS OF I D E N TIT Y , E TC .

then in every intelligible me a n ing of the word s we S hould

, ,

have a true ca s e of doubl e Ego ; or rather we S h oul d be

-
, ,

compelled to s peak o f s uch a ca s e a s a ca s e of two r e a l s el ve s ,

o r o f o n e real Self a n d an automaton o r a dramatized and ,

Obje ct i e d double of thi s Self N o s uch ca s e s o far a s th e

.
,

evi denc e i s a s yet sifted and under s tood h a s ever occurred , .

But s hould s uc h a ca s e occur we repeat the principl e s , ,

neith e r of p sychol ogy nor o f the metaphy s ic s of the mi n d

would admit of alteration to t i t The s olution of i ts .

problem s s o far a s th e y are peculi a r woul d have to be

, ,

give n i nto the hand s of s peculative ethic s a n d of th e philo

s ophy of religion ; or el s e all hope of solution would have

to be abandoned .

L et it n o t be th ought howeve r that either materialism

, ,

or phe n ome nali s m would thu s gain any advantage over tho s e

po s itio n s in the philo s ophy of mind which we have been

advocating . The po s ition s are intrenched withi n the eld
of actual hu man experience s o that they c a n n eve r be
,

carri e d by a n y form of attack Or for the m oment s uppo s e

.
, ,

them to be u n dermin e d ; then it i s n ot the s elf k n ow n realit y -

and i dentity o f the mi n d a lo n e that i s lo s t from the eld o f

huma n k n owled ge A ll re a lity and s amene s s o f e very kind
.

i s lo s t . For all knowl e dge i s lo st a n d without knowledge

guara n teei n g i ts own validity with that irre s i s tible a n d m y s
t e r i o u s co n victio n which i s a part o f it s e lf no real ity h a s ,

any ex i st e nce or guaranty What i s n o w call e d s cie nce

.

then become s the d ream of a d re ame r wh o i s th e permanent

and i n corrigible dupe o f h i s o w n i m a gin a tion A nd not la s t .

an d l e a s t but s oo n e s t a n d mo st completely i s thi s the fate

, ,

o f that raw and wild p s eud o s cience which regard s k n ow

-

ledge it s el f a s but the epi phenome n on o f a remote and
-

i n fe rred phenome non , to be called by common consent a

hum an brain .
 C H APT E R V I

TH E U N I TY O F M I N D

HE
T
n a tu re of that unita ry being which i s u ni versally
a s crib e d to mi n d i s s o con n ected with the topics a l
ready di s cu ss ed a s that comparatively little remai n s to b e
,

s aid i n thi s chapter I n deed i n co n s ide ring the co n s ciou s

.
,

ne ss of id e n tity an d the phenome n a o f s o called double -

co n s ciou s ne ss we fou n d ours elve s con stantly employing

,

the word s on e a n d t wo with r e ference to the mi n d .

But the very u s e of th e s e word s implie s s ome conceptio n

a s to the propriety o f s peaking of the s ubj e ct o f mental

phenomen a i n term s of nu mbe r ; it al s o impli e s r e fere n ce to

the character of tho s e s pecial phe n omena i n which the guar
auty for thi s mode o f s peech mu st be found .

H ere again h owever it will a s si s t in clearing the eld

, ,

unde r discu s sion i f reference be made to certain con s ider

,

a t i on s borrowed from general metaphy s ic s With what .

meaning d o we employ word s when we af rm o n e n e ss o r

unity o f anything ? Or to expre ss the inquiry i n more
,

denitely metaphy s ical term s what i s it i n reali t y that cor

,

r e s pond s to o u r conception of bei n g on e a s each s o called ,

-

Thi n g i s o n e ? L i ttle p sych ol ogical a n al vs is i s requi red

to make it Obviou s h ow s hifting a n d u n certain are the ordi

nary u se s Of the s e word s Indeed a s the s e word s are ordi
.
,

n a r i l y employed ,
eve rything a n d ev e ry transacti on may be
,

regarded a s o n e o r a s many accordi n g to the practical end

,

had i n vie w Whatever i s capable of being u nited i n that

.

s ynth e s i s which i s nece s s ary t o all sense perception i s r e -

g a rded a s having a unity corre s ponding to the end o r ideal , ,

190 TH E UN IT Y OF M I ND

i n behalf of which th e act of s ynthe s i s is performed The .

table for exampl e i s o n e to vi s ual perceptio n becau s e i ts

, , ,

di fferent area s a n d a s pe cts c a n be u nited by acti vity of the

eye s i m a gi n atio n a n d j udgme n t a s d e termined by previou s
ex perience a n d fu s ed with t h e ma stery of the s en s uou s data
, ,

being pr o s uppo s ed
-
with s ome p ractical end i n vi e w The .

s a m e table i s another o n e a s known to pe rc e ptio n by s kin ,

mu s cle s and j oint s a second ve ry di ff e re n t thi n g from

, ,

that which it i s a s k n own by s ight A nd yet the sight table

.
-

a n d the touch table i s o n e and the s ame table if we re s ume

-

the cu stomary poi n t of vie w To phy s ics again the on e

.
, ,

table i s many ; and it i s quite a di ffer e nt numb e r of thi n gs ,

accordin g a s ou r point o f vie w changes i n pur s uit of variou s

well known cla s s i cation s of phy s ical p ropertie s and phy s i
-

cal law s To chemi s try the t able i s m any mor e ; it i s ind e ed

.
, ,

an inde nite number of di ff e rent ki n d s of s e called atom s -

.

N ow in all the s e ca s e s it i s indi s putably the mental activity

of s ynthe s izing which imparts unity to the phenomena But .

what i n r e a li ty i s that u nity which the thing s a s thi n g s , ,

may be s uppo sed to have ? In an s we r to thi s que s tion ,

phy s ic s and ch e mi s try e s pecially the latter a r e wont to

r efer u s to th a t u n ity which i n the s tricte st form of all
po s sible phy s ical u n ity belo n gs to the atoms a l o n e Only the .

ind ivid ual atom remain s one throughout all change s of rela
tio n s ; the u n ity Of the th ings whi ch are compo s ed o f many
atom s i s wholly r e l ative to the kind numbe r and r e lation s of
, ,

the atom s which compo s e th e m But a gai n the inquiry

.

return s : What that i s real ( whether a s bei n g or a s e vent )

corr e s pond s i n the ca s e Of the individual atom to ou r con
, ,

c e pt i on O f i ts unity ? There can be no d oubt that i n pu shing

the an swe r to this inquiry , as far a s metaph y s ical analy s i s
can po ss ibly carry it we only come u po n the same group o f
,

conceptions a s thos e whi ch have already been found n e ce s

s ary i n orde r to under s tand the reality and t h e identity o f

thing s In othe r wo rd s thing s c a n really have the unitary

.
,
 TH E UN IT Y OF MI ND 19 1

being which we conceive of them a s having only i n ca se they

d o actu a lly conform with re s pect to the change s which they
,

und e rgo to s ome i mm a nent a n d controlli n g idea

, The a c tu a l .

p r e se n c e o f som e i d ea l i n t he f t
v eryh bei ng
e thi n
g i s n ecoess a r
y
i n or d e r th a t i t m a y be a u n i ta ry be i ng a t a ll U nd oubtedly .
,

thi s i s all ve ry ob s cure ; but it ill us trate s a n ew the important

fact that phy s ic s and chemi s try have a sy s te m o f m e ta ph y si
cal a ss umption s und e rlyi n g them a s e mpi rical s cie n ce s whi ch
i s in n it e ly mor e u n certai n and dif cult to put into term s o f
expe rie n ce th a n i s the metaphy s ic s of mind .

For wh e n w e pa ss from a con s ideration of the real unitary

bei n g which thi n gs and atom s have to a con s ideratio n of the,

que stion In what s en s e d o I kno w my s elf to be re a lly on e ?

,

we may at lea s t begi n o u r an s wer by a n i mmediat e appeal to

indubitable experience S u c h experience i s of cour s e that
.
, ,

which every man h a s i n S O called s elf con s ciou sn e ss To

- -
.

be really he re and n o w o n e a s become s a mi n d and a s

, ,

belong s to the v e ry n a t ure of mi n d thi s i s n othing el s e ,

than actually to be s elf con s ciou s ; for it i s j u s t thi s exerci s e

-

of the devel oped fac ultie s i n con stituting the Sel f a s o n e to

it self in which all unitary mental being really co n si st s M e n .

d o indeed form a co n ception of the mi n d a s on e a n d a s ,

known here a n d n ow to be o n e whic h i s wide r than thi s,

.

Th e y go on to i nclud e i n the u n it a ry being Of mi n d a s ex ,

pre ss ed i n e a ch o n e o f i ts s tat e s c e rt a i n power s of an

,

ob s curely co n s ciou s o r s ubcon s ciou s o r totally uncon s ciou s

o rder . Thu s the M i n d i s s pok e n of a s the o n e bei n g that
pe rform s al s o activitie s b e lo w the thre shold o f con s ci ou s nes s ;
although o f cour s e it i s only i n t e rm s o f s el f co n s ciou s ex
, ,
-

p e r i e n c e th a t any one can tell wh a t it i s to be t h e s ubj e ct

o f s ubcon s ciou s or of tot a lly u n co n s ciou s condition s a c t i v i
, , ,

tie s or state s The p sychological r e a s on s fo r thi s limitation

,
.

of the p sychologi s t s powe r a r e obviou s and d o not concern

u s here .

But it can never properly be forgotten th a t it is only e x per i

1 92 TH E UN IT Y OE M I ND

ence with th e Self a s actually s elf co n s ciou s that both origi -

nate s and ju sti e s all s uch t e rm s a s unity , onene ss e tc , .

Fo r a co n s ciou s b e i n g that h ad never been s elf c on s ciou s ( a s -

i s probably the ca s e with all of the lo we r animal s ) there

would n eve r come to be a n y k n own o r imagi n ed s ubj ect of
s tat e s a n y Ego Self o r Soul to which the s ubcon s ciou s
, ,
'

o r u n co n s ciou s s tate s could be referred For the S e l f m u s t b c .

a ctually created a s a u nitary bei n g and known to it s el f a s ,

s uch by proce s s e s of s e lf con s ciou s n e s s memory and r e e c

-

, ,

tive thinki n g before it can be eve n s u rmi s ed to be the on e

,

s ubject to which a ll s tate s a n d activitie s however lacking i n ,

con s ecration by thi s actual s elf refere n ce they may be mu s t -

be referred On thi s poi n t howe ve r there i s no need to go

.
, ,

agai n over the con s ideration s which h ave al ready s ufciently

occupied ou r atte n ti on .

What i s the nature o f thi s unitary being whi ch the mi n d

kno ws it s elf here and n o w to have c an only be stated there , ,

fore i n term s of s elf consciou s ne s s

,
-
A n d for the mea n ing .

and ju sti cation of all the term s the only appeal i s to s elf con -

s ci ou sn e s s . The la s t word on the s ubject i s thi s Wha t thou

k n owe s t t hy s e lf t o be a s o n e w h en th o u kn ow e s t t h se lf s e lf con
,y
-

sc i ou sly to be a t a ll, t ha t , a n d n oth i ng e l s e i s t he e s s en ce of the

u n i ta r y be i ng f
o mi n d
With thi s the gre a t variety of s o
.

calle d f a culties i s i n no way i n con s i s tent The rather i s the .

real unity of the mind depende n t u pon the exe rci s e i n the ,

fulle s t way of all the facultie s ; for they are all impli e d i n
,

every act of sel f con s ciou s ne s s ; the compl eter th e ir a ctivity

-
,

th e more truly on e i s the mi n d a s he re and now pre s ent to , ,

it s elf N either i s thi s u n ity i n co n s i ste n t w ith th e o n ward

.

o w in varied form s of ma n ife s tatio n o f t h e so called s tream

, ,
-

o f co n s ciou s n e ss On the co n trary all s elf

. con s ci ou s ne ss i s ,

it h a s already r e peatedly bee n said actu a lly a proce ss of

becoming ; and a s imple u n cha n ging mental s tate ( if such an
,

impo s sibility were p sychologically conceivable ) woul d never

serve to co n stit ute o r evi n ce the unitary being of the mind .
 TH E UN IT Y OF M I ND 193

The metaphy s ical truth j u s t s tated may be m a de c l e a r e r u

,

from the p sychological point of view , by a comparison of the

mo s t exalted a n d comprehen s ive s tate s of s elf co n s ciou s ne s s -

with s tate s of dreami n g of co n fu s io n of thought Of di s traction

, ,

by pai n e tc It should not be forgotten , howe ver that all

, .
,

s tate s of the latte r cla s s may s erve by contra st to empha s i ze

the more our s elf known unity as self con s ciou s mi nd On

-

,
-
.

the on e ha n d th e dif culty of separating by xed p sych ol og i

,

cal pri n ciple s the limit s of dream life from tho s e of waking -

l ife may be u s ed to favor the repre s entati on that all hu man

life i s indeed a dream L ife is M dy d illu s ion ; and reality .
,

is n owhe re to be found whether for things or f or min ds B ut , .

on the other ha n d to be aware of the s igni cance of dream

,

life a s indeed d r e a m s it would s ee m to be nece ssary to i nvoke

,

what i s not characteri stic of thi s life it s elf ; that i s to i nvok e ,

that clearer self cognition and di s tincte r reference of the

-

s tate to the on e Self whi ch i s made all the more emphati c ,

by i ts con s picuou s ab s ence from mo s t dream s S O too the .

, ,

return to Self from the co n fu s i on of th ought whi ch sometimes

s eem s to ab s orb it i s often accompanied by a feeling of relea s e

or of triumph which it s elf enriches and deepen s the s elf

,
.

cognitive activitie s A nd thi s s ame Self which i s thu s k nown

.

as on e in S pite of the a s s aults ju s t made upon it proclaims

, ,

as belongi n g to i ts o w n unitary being the very thought s which

have s o confu s ed it While we d o not agree with L otze 1 i n
.

maki n g the feeli n g s of plea sure and pai n s o e s s ential and

determi n i n g for the development of s elf co n s ciou s ne s s w e -

,
'

cannot wholly overlook the heightening e e c t which the s e

feeling s s ometime s have For no experie n ce s more certai n ly .

ge t them s e lve s attributed to the on e E g o which each on e

know s him s elf to be than do tho s e of plea s ure and pai n If
, , .

the automaton can think and act for me without letti n g me

k now what it i s about a n d without receiving from me con ,

1 S ee es p i ll y th M i r
ec a e

c oc osm u s, v ol . i .
, b k
oo II . , c h pt r
a e on

F eeli n gs ,

Se lf -
consc o iu d Will
s n e ss , a n .
19 4 TH E UN IT Y OF M I ND

s ciou s control and in struction a s to what to think and to d o ,

s till it cannot be co n s idere d as s n e r i n g my pains o r e n j oy

i n g my plea s ure s E n raptu ring j oy a n d distractin g agony

.

s n atch o r d raw aw ay , the s oul from clear contemplati v e

,

thi n ki n g and fro m voluntary action ; but in s tead of drawing

i t away fro m it s elf , s o a s to make it s eem two i n s tead of on e ,

they rather conce n trate it within it s elf I am all in my pains .

and plea s ure s when they are i nten s e and perva s ive i n their
in ue n ce upon con s ciou s ne ss A nd i n the mo s t complete
.

dramatic s undering of the Ego , the imitative and sympathetic

a ff ective accompaniment s can s carcely reach a high degree of
inten s ity without returni n g upon the E g o and fa s tening them
selve s upon it , as being indeed i ts very o wn .

But plainly men a f rm s omething more of them s elve s than

, ,

thi s when they co n s ide r themselves as unitary being s i n r e

s pect o f their mental life The onene ss which they attribute
.

to the Self d oe s not by any means all belong to that e x pe r i

ence which i s here a n d now I t is not solely then to the

.
, ,

unity of s elf con s ciou s ness as such , that we must look f or

-
,

an exhau sti ve account of what i s meant by th e cu s tomary

a f rmati on of the u n itary being of mi n d The rather doe s thi s .

a f rmation connect the pre s e n t s tate in which I kno w my s elf ,

to be here a n d now with other previ ou s s tate s wh e th e r actu

, ,

ally rememb e red and attributed to the s ame Self or inferred ,

to have belonged to it In s o me s ort the common conviction

.

undoubtedly maintain s that through i ts entire life hi s tory the -

mi n d of each individual man i s on e Thi s ce rtainly implies .

con dence i n that s e lf ide n tifyi n g which h a s alread y been

-

found to bel ong to the e s s e n tial nature of a ll recognitive

m e mory ; but it a l s o impli e s s ometh ing more To co n s ider .

my s elf a s a p re se nt mind to be on e with my s elf a s formerly

, ,
,

prese n t a n d active i n all remembered pa s t e xperiences thi s ,

is s carcely a n y thing di ff erent from considering my s elf a s a

Self s ame S e lf now and i n th e se pa s t experi e nce s When we
-
.

s ay,

On e a n d the s elf s ame being am I now and then
-
we , ,

do not increase ou r kn owledge by u s ing the conj unction .

 TH E UN IT Y OF MI ND 1 95

The clai m of s uch a unitary being for the m i nd as reaches

through an entire life and a s i n clude s all the many u n r e
,

membered s tate s and activitie s within the unity of i t s bei n g i s ,

certai n ly ba s ed , h oweve r u pon other data than tho s e merely

o f s elf con s ciou s ne s s an d recognitive memory

-
Thi s cla i m .

i mp li e s a conti n u i ty of m en ta l d e ve lop m en t a ccor di n

g t o s om e

kw
no n or i m ag i n e d p la n ; a n d i t ca n be m a d e l og i ca l ly g ood
on ly by a la rg e a m ou n t of r e e cti ve t hi n i ng It can be made k .

good in reality only by an actual development an s wering to thi s

ab str a ct conception of unity R eally to be on e mi n d thro u gh .

an entire life hi s tory is actually to u ndergo a co n ti n uou s men

-

tal development according to s ome plan To k now one s s e lf .

as s uch a u n itary being i s by s elf con s ciou s ne s s memory and

,
-
, ,

e s p e cially by reective thi n king to become aware of s uch a ,

pl anful and co n ti nuou s life history -

.

'

With thi s m or e desirabl e an d com prehen sive unity Of mind ,

therefore the acquirement of faculty and the b e i n g s ubj ect to

,

a course of development i s not incon si s tent On the contrary .

,

the reality of such a u n itary being for the mi n d con s i st s in

ju s t thi s cour s e of development It i s an achievem e nt rather .

than an original endowment Of mi n d I t i s a n achievement .

which in ca s e it i s to r e ach the highe s t po s s ibl e grade r e

, ,

quire s the s elf con s cious and voluntary di rection Of the original
-

an d acquired powers along a reme mbered a n d recogn ized

cou r s e of d evelopm e nt according to a comprehen s ive pl a n
, .

I n man s ca s e the highe s t and mo s t compr e hen s ive u n ity of

bei n g i s reached when that principl e which i n the ca s e of al l

other bein gs we are oblige d to s peak o f i n an ob s cure w a y a s

an i mma n ent id e a h a s it s elf become a reality ; i n man s
,

ca s e thi s pri n ciple is an actual proc e ss i n con s ciou s ne ss i n t e l ,

li g e n tly connecting the power s i n the pur s uit of an e n d and ,

thu s sy n the si zing all the s eparate an d otherwi s e di sparate

exp e rience s into a u n ity that i s both real and ideal .

The unitary being of the mi n d the n like i t s real ity or i ts , ,

identity i s not a po s s e ss ion i n dependent , f or its proof a n d

,
1 96 TH E UN IT Y OF M I ND

f or the description of i ts real characte r Of the actual facts of ,

consciou s ne ss N o s ubcon s cious or unconscious core of being

.

rigid uncompounded u n changin g and s o co n s tituted after

, , ,

the anal ogy of a p seu d o atom co n stitute s thi s unitary being

-

Of the mi n d To be on e as becomes a true Self , i s actually to

. ,

l ive here and n o w the life who s e very being and unity i n
, , ,

b ei n g i s the becoming con s ciou s Of S elf a s at the same time

,

self active and the s ubj e ct of change A nd to e s tabli s h that

-
.

unique clai m to a unitary being which runs through and binds

together all the di ff erent moment s Of mental life it i s ,

nece s s ary to kno w on e s s elf a s the s elf con s cious , re member -

i n g thinki n g an d planning subj ect of a continuou s cour s e o f

, ,

mental devel opment .

NO o n e howeve r need lament the loss of a hypothetical

, , ,

inert a n d d ead s ub s tratu m of u nity , which neither knows

,

its e lf a s on e nor i s capable of being pre s ented to other s i n

term s of k n owledge The being that h a s thi s actual unifying
.

a ctu s a n d h a s al s o th e
,
promi se a n d potency of co n s tantly
repeati n g the act so a s to gathe r into eve ry n e w repetition the
enrichme n t s of being which have bee n evol ved i n pa s t e x pe r i
e n ces has a l l the u nity that it need s
,
all the unity indeed , , ,

that the mind it s elf can comprehend a n d appreciate To be .

o n e i n a n y othe r k nown or conceivable mea n i n g of the word

, ,

and yet to l o s e this s elf unifyi ng acti vity would be to l o s e -

,

all A nd if thi s unifyi n g activity can be retained one need

.
,

not care whether o n e i s t wo beings o r m ore i n a n y other ,

meani n g which word s of nu mbe r can possibly bear a s applied

to the human mi nd .

It doe s not indeed bel ong to the main intent of the p re sent
, ,

treati se to con side r in detail the beari n gs of the precedi n g

co n clu s io n s reg arding the reality identity and u n itary being , ,

o f the mi n d Such a ta s k belong s rather to the ph ilo s ophy

.

of ethics and the philo s ophy of religion Ther e are how .

,

e ve r three gu a si practical remark s which follo w from these

,
-
 TH E UN IT Y OF M I ND 1 97

conclu s ion s with the force of corollaries f rom a mai n

proposition .

Fir s t the reality of the human mind i s not to be s poken of

,

as though it we re a s ort of x ed qu a n tu m Of being that i s di s

tributed in one lump so to speak to all individual s alike and
, , ,

t o every individual in the s ame mea s ure from the cradle t o

the grave H e re. as s o often happen s the popular gure s
o f s peech are much le s s gura t ive much more nearly r e pr e,

s e n t a ti ve o f the actual s tate of the ca s e than are the technical ,

term s and di s cu s s ions of p sychologi s ts and philos opher s POpu .

lar language admit s of and even encourage s , the exhortatio n to

,

be a man ( a r ea l mind or s oul ) an d to become or to be m or e

,

of a man etc ,
B ut certain form s of metaphy s ic s whi ch have
.
,

been born aloof from the s tudy of concrete human life and have
allowed undue in uence t o preconceptions of what mu s t be in ,

the s uppo s e d i ntere s t of important ethical and theological

truth s repre s ent thi s reality i n a man n er to contradict ou r e x pe
,

ricuce of p sychical change s ( of becoming more growing i n , ,

With the s e form s Of metaphy s ic s the mind appear s a s

s ome s ort of an unkno wable s ub s trate laying equally valid ,

claim to th e title real from the beginning and all the way
,

throu gh the devel opment of mental life On the other hand . .

mode rn p sychology wearying Of the search after s om e thi n g

,

known pr e s e ntable and describabl e which should corre spond

, , ,

to thi s sub s trate h a s turned to th e cultivation of a so called

,
-

p sycholo gy without a s oul But if the ol d fa shioned meta

.
-

phy s ic s coul d nd no term s with recognizable mea n i n g i n

, ,

which to d es cribe the reality of i ts hypothetical s oul th e new ,

fa shioned p sychol ogy i s equally unable t o n d t e rm s i n which

even to de scribe the actual p sychical phenomena without s ome
hypothe s is of a re a l being for the s oul Both alike when .
,

criti cally exami n ed are quite too often fou n d to be making

,

u se Of ab s tractio n s u n der cover of current gu re s o f speech .

A nd why i f the reality claim e d for the mind be that which

,

is actually implicated in concrete e xperience , and is only to be

19 8 TH E UN IT Y OF M I ND

ge t anywhere as it i s found i n s uch experience should we n ot ,

s peak of one mi n d as havi n g m ore of real ity than another ?

Why not S peak a s well of adding to or subtracting from s elf

co n sciou s ly and de s ignedly o r i n directly a n d without v ol u n
tary i n tent the real ity of a n y individual mind ? In thi s
way w e sh ould i ndeed , e mploy gure s o f s peech which would
,

alway s need to be interpreted i n to te rm s of concrete e x pe r i

ence B ut , on the other hand we s hould d o away with the
.
,

mi slea di n g inuence of certai n othe r gure s o f s pee ch which

can n ot po ss ibly be i n terpreted i n term s of experience at all .

It i s of course only i n a gurative way that we can apply term s

of mag n itude to the mind But the propo s ed gure of s peech
.

i s , at least , o n e who s e real meaning i s not far away from ou r

every day mental life ; and it is on e the u se of which i s com
-

pa r a t i ve ly free from inj urious con s equence s .

N ow f o r any i ndividual t o becom e m or e a n d m or e r e a l or

, ,

for on e individual to be m or e r e a l than another is a ki nd of ,

rowth not statable and mea s urable in term s of purely exten

g
On e does n ot ex pan d one s mental bei n g as

s ive magnitude .

o n e expands one s li mbs o r l ung s ; o n e do e s not extend one s

mental po s ses s ion s a s one e xtend s one s landed e state But .

a n y o n e may , by a proce s s of re ection upon t h e ba s i s of e x

e r i e n ce cl early enough comprehend what it i s to li v e a large r

p ,

and yet l arger mental life H ere all term s o f quan tity evi
.

d en tly have reference to th e d i e r e n t degr e e s o f i n te n

s i ty which are attached to ou r con s ci ou s s e n s atio n s feeli n g s , ,

and conative impul se s B ut the s e term s have reference al s o

.

to th e great di ff ere n ce s i n the variety of element s which d i s

cri minati n g co n s ciou s ne s s di s cerns as exi sting i n the di fferent
me n t a l s tates ; to the time rate and variety of the s e complex
-

me n tal s tate s and above all to a s tandard of value s accord

, ,

i n g to which certain thought s e motions s enti ment s and pur

, , ,

po s e s are regarded as entitled to higher or lo wer places i n a

s cale Of worth . To l ive more , what may not thi s
brief phra s e come to mean "
 TH E UN IT Y OF M I ND 19 9

A fter h aving once recog n ized wh at that real i s si gui is

e d by all term s of quantity whe n applied to the life of

the m ind we feel ju sti e d i n adding that reality itself i s
,

nothi n g which can be a f rmed of the same mind or of two ,

d i e r e n t minds a s an attachmen t of a xed u n changi n g

, ,

ki n d On the contrary i na s much a s all m e ntal r e a lity con

. ,

s i st s in re al feeling , knowing a n d willi n g and i n a s much , ,

a s feeling kn owing and willi n g are all proce s s e s of b e co m

,

ing that imply both s elf activity and co n tent o f co n s ciou s

-

ne s s pa s s ively regarded , t he r e a li ty of the m i n d i s u n d e r ,

a ll ci r cu m s t a n ces a nd f or e ve r , a r ea l i ty w hi ch m u s t be rea l

i s e d i n i ts own e cu li a r wa y , i n or d e r to m a i n ta i n i t se lf a t a ll
p .

Therefore i n the o n ly meaning i n which te rms o f quantity

,

a r e applicabl e at all t o the mi n d it i s n ot only permi ss ible but ,

even nece s s ary to S peak of i t s exi st e nce a s a matter of de

gree s Soul s are n ot a s re s pect s quantity ( h oweve r alike they
.
,

may be a s re s pect s quality o r the characteri stic s to which ,

the word re a lity i s attached ) alike real For on e s oul to , .

be more r e al a s a s oul than anoth e r

, ,thi s i s not s imply per ,
~

'

f e c tly po s s ible , it i s actual matter o f fact Only p s y chical .

being s that actually attain to maki n g th e m sel ves real by a ct s ,

o f s elf con s ciou s n e s s recognitiv e memory and reective think

-
, ,

i ng are entitled to be called real at all Tho s e who come t o .

that which i s riche s t high e s t be st i n the life that con s i st s of

, , ,

the s e act s are mo s t real of all A nd all the way between

,
.

them and t h e lowe s t s tages of real mind life there exi s t innu -
,

m e r a bl e gradatio n s i n the po s s e s s i on of thi s pricele s s reality .

I t i s c le a r , ther ef or e , t ha t t he sp he r e of eth i cs f u r n i s he s both

the n a l i n te rp r e ta ti on a n d th e h ig he st m a n if e s ta ti on of t he m e ta

p hy si c s f m i n d Fo r mental reality i s n ot s imply or chiey

o .

a gift ; it i s al s o an achi ev e ment The popular exhortation s .

,

to which refere n ce w a s ju s t made have of cou r s e an ethical ,

import ; a s h a s already been s aid th e y embody n ot only the ,

r e s ult s of practical wi s dom but al s o tho s e nai ve and almo st i n

,

st i n c ti v e a s s umpti ons which so Often howeve r uncon s ciou sly

200 TH E UN IT Y OF M I ND

hi t the very heart of philo s ophical truth M etaphysics on .

,

taking an ethical turn and applying it s elf to the life Of con

duct j oin s the multitude of unlearned but genui n e s age s It
, .
,

too i n the name o f the mo s t profound a n d searching analy si s

, ,

i ss ue s i ts war n ing s and exhortation s Woul d st th e n have .

reality ; woul d s t th e n be real , a s minds alone can b e

then ,

win it for thy s elf Think , feel , will tha t which i s highe s t
.
,

and b e s t L ive mo st and thou art mo s t real For thou wilt

.
, .

n e ve r h a v e other reality i n ki n d than thi s s ame which t h e n

n e w hast ; th e r e f o r e
g e t and keep all thou can s t of i t Fo r
l
.
,

indeed, there i s no other knowable o r im a ginable for a mind ; , ,

and there i s n o o the r that has any va lu e a s e stimated by the

standard of mind .

Second a s i milar train of reasoni ng lead s u s inevitably to

,
-

S i milar conclu s io n s regarding the unitary b e ing o r real unity , ,

of the mi n d Thi s too i s n o rigid and xed quali cation

.
, ,

that can b e a ssigned to all i ndividual s alike o r to e ve ry indi ,

vidual m an in the s ame mea s ure at all stages of h i s develop

ment from the cradle to the grave H ere also popular gures .
, ,

of S peech th at are mo st pr e valent a n d i nuential in t h e e s ti

matio n s and maxim s wh ich h ave reference to character and to

co n d uct are a t the s am e time mo st true t o th e f undamental
,
-

fact s They really s e t forth what philo s ophical anal y s i s truly

.

n d s muc h more forcefully and with le s s mi sleadi n g u s e of

, ,

gur a tive l anguag e than do the s chol a stic axiom s of ce rtai n

ac c epted phil o s ophi cal sy stem s The man of perpetuall y con .

i ct i n g motive s of divid e d and c r os s purpo s e s , of S hiftin g

, ,

ob s cure and i rreconcilable Opi n ion s of d omi n ant mental and

, ,

moral di straction s h a s n o t that highe s t u nit a ry being of which

,

the mind i s capable A double man u n stable i n all h i s

. ,

ways h e h a s only a n i n feri or degree o f the unity which i s

ch a racteri stic Of mind .

In di s cu ssing thi s que stion at length an appeal should be ,

'

take n to the legitimate con clu si on s th at follow from the actual ,

matter of fa ct hi s tory of mental development From the rst

- -
.
 TH E UN IT Y OF M I ND 01

thi s treatise h a s m ad e con s tant acknowledgment of thi s

method o f procedure a s the only j ustiable method We are .

not engaged i n i n quiring as to what the u n itary being of the

mind mu st be o r Ought to be irre s pective of all e x perie n ce a s to
, ,

what it actually i s For the metaphy s ic s of mi n d a s we view

.
,

the matter , i s not a s pinning o f ab s tract theori e s ou t of m ys

tical cobwebs ; i t i s a s peculati ve treatment of p sychical fact s .

N O advocate of p sychology without a s oul can reject any more

promptly and deci s ively than d o we s uch la n guage a s h a s
"
al ready ( p 1 6 3 ) been quoted fro m M r Thomp s o n ( about a
. .

s ubj ect Ego who s e s ub s tance is unk n own and unknowable

, ,

and which w a s found so captivati n g even to a n a dh e r

ent of cerebral p sychology like P rofe s s or Jame s Thi s a n d .
,

n ot a fe w othe r S imilar form s of theory we are ready to de ,

nou nce a s heartily ( though perhap s i n di ff erent language ) a s

s trangely enough i n an other connecti on d oe s thi s latte r
1
writ e r :

Tr a n s ce n de n t a l i a i s only Sub s tanti ali s m grown

S hame faced and the Ego only a cheap and nasty edition
-
,

o f the s oul . For it i s not the s oul o u t of con s ciou sne ss ,

o u t o f time eluding cognition a fo reve r unknown and
, ,

u nk nowable s ub s tance ( whateve r s uch no n s en s e may mean ) ,

a pure Ego etc i n who s e u nity ou r i n tere s t s are concerned
,
.
,
.

On the contrary , it i s the s oul in con s ciou s ne s s and a s a s elf ,

known s ubj ect of co n s ciou s ne ss n ot eluding it s elf s ince , ,

moveme n t a n d o w of self activity i s i ts real l ife comi n g

-
,

to be i n ti me and a lway s being it s elf a time proce s s f o r

,
-
,

who s e unity we conte n d The fact of tha t u nity and i ts

.
,

n ature we rely upon s cienti c p sych ol ogy to e s tabli s h ; an d

,

its remoter i mplication s it belong s t o philosophy to se t

forth .

A fter atten tion i s recalled to the only correct point of view ,

and th e journey of metaphy s ical s peculation i s begun from

thi s poi nt of vie w the di fcultie s may s till be m any ; but
,

they n o l onger ari s e from the vai n eff ort to ove rleap the
1 S ee a gi
a n

P ri ncipl es of P sych ol ogy ,

vol . i . 365 .
202 TH E UN ITYOF M I ND

limit s of the k nowable They are rather such d if clti es as

.

are comparable to tho s e of a traveller at ti me s threading h i s

way th rough deep forests and thick jungle s ; they certainly
are not like tho s e of a lunatic endeavoring t o stand i n mid air -

o n h i s o w n un s table head .

No w the p sych ological study of the phen omen a of mental

,

l ife s hows that the unity whi ch belongs to the s ubj ect of the
phenomen a to the M in d i s actually a matter Of degree s
and of d evelopment To itself the infant i s not on e for
.
,

a s ye t it has not arrived at self con s ciou s ne s s ; it h as n ot yet

-

come to be a s elf known S elf -
It is i ndeed a u nity Of
.

livi ng organi s m to th e Ob s erve r of the phy s ical a s pect of its

entire life ; to th e ob se rver thou ghtf ul of the future cour s e
'

of i t s a s s ure d devel opment a s a human bei n g it i s poten ,

t i al ly a s elf con s ciou s and s o unitary mental bein g

-
, B ut th i s .

unity i s p oten ti a l only The ob s erve r on reviewi n g i n hi s

.
,

ow n i magination the past s ucce ss ion of the i nfantile s tates

of con s ciou s n e s s , may regard the m a s a continuity o f i n ter

related and reciprocally dependent s tates which al ready gi ve ,

token Of s ome plan Thi s inchoate organi zation of p s ycho s es

.

the ob s erver may then con s ider for him s el f a s a l ow form , ,

o f that unity which belongs t o every continu ou s me n tal life .

H e m ay al s o enlarge h i s conception of the u nitary bei n g of the

i n fant by proj ecti n g into the future a similar continued pro
ces s of organi zatio n B ut thus far i n s aying that the infant
.
,

i s one he only means t hat the infant will become o n e

, .

In the enlarged meaning of the u nitary bei n g of mind it is ,

only we a s s ert agai n as the min d it self to whom the ,

unity i s attributed acquires an d exercise s the power to make

,

it s elf o n e to it s elf that it can be said really to have s u ch

,

unitary bein g Indeed no othe r attribute of mind i s at on ce

.
,

more distincti ve and more completely subj ect to devel opment

th an this attribute of u nity C lear s elf con sciou s ne ss i s ,
.
-

relatively a s omewhat l ate devel opment ; and even more so

,

the mental g rasping together of the past as a continuous life

 TH E UN IT Y OF MI ND 203

hi s tory o r the actual organizati on of the p sychoses accordin g

,

to a pla n Si n ce ho weve r the s e thi n g s do reg ularly t a ke

.
, ,

place ,
s ince th e me n tal life actually u n fold s it s elf accordi n g

to s ome pla n , a n d s ome degree of development i n s elf con -

s ci ou s n e ss recognitive memory and reective thi n king i s

, ,

thu s attained w e are ju stied i n regardi n g every mi n d

,

from the point of V i e w held by the metaphy s ics of biol ogy .

I t that i s thi s soul i s regarded a s a unitary bei n g all the
, , ,

way through fro m rst to la st ; i ts real unity i s a ss umed to

,

account for the obviou s unitary character of the s ucce ss ive

phenomena of con s ciou sn e ss But the mome n t i nquiry i s .

rai s ed a s to what it i s i n which the reality of thi s unity

con s i st s in so far a s it i s mental and i s a u n ity Of the mind
, , ,

we are brou ght around a gain to the point of vie w held by the
actually self con s ciou s remembering and reecting s ubj ect
-
, ,

o f all the s tate s of con s ciou s n e s s A ll this has , however , .

already been s u f ciently explained .

It i s al s o Obviou s that to s peak of degree s of unity as

b e longing to different mind s o r to the sa me mind at di fferent ,

stage s of its development i s not only permi ss ibl e but even, ,

necessary Indeed the only u nity which can be attributed to

.
,

m ind is a matt e r of d e gree s s o far a s the word ,

degree s
( a word o f quan tity ) can be app l ied at all to mind For the .

real uni ty which any mind attai n s depend s upon th e rmne ss

and comprehe n s ivenes s of the gra sp of s elf co n s ciou s ne s s ; and -

upon the con s ciou s planful recognition and control of the

,

ment a l life a s u nder one pu rpose o r immanent idea A s .

the la st word of s cienti c p sychology regardi n g the pri n ciple s

of mental life we have el sewhere called attention to the
,
1

teleological i mport of all mental devel opment When e ver .

the ph e n ome n a Of con s ciou s ne ss become Obj e cts of knowl

edge and so the beginnings of a s cience of mental life are
,

made po ss ible then the s e phenomen a appear ordering them

, ,

selves so as to attai n practical end s A cti vi ty to som e p u rp ose .

1 P sych ol ogy , Desc rip tiv e a nd E xpl ry pp

a n a to , . 668 f .
204 TH E UN IT Y OF M I ND

i s the r u l i ng
p r i n ci
f m e n ta l d evel op m en t The s elf con
p l e o . -

s ciou s , i ntelligent adoption of a pl a n and s election o f me a n s

,

f or its pur s uit , i s di s ti n ctive o f the a cm e o f ma n s develo

p
ment The more comprehen sive thi s plan , and the wi s er the
.

s election o f mean s , the higher i s the s tanding of the i ndivid ual

i n the s cale o f i ntellectual development But e n d s s u gge st e d .

by ae sthetical and ethical sentiment s eem adapted to control

large s phere s of human acti vity ; and the latter e s pecially ,
fro m the ve ry n ature of the mandate with which it s an ction s
the end that promi s es its o wn s atisfactio n , h a s at lea s t a s ort
of phenomenal supremacy B ut meanwhile the pri n ciple s o f
.

continuity , of relativity , a nd of co n s ciou s an d u ncon s ciou s

habit , forbid that any con s ci ou sly accepted end should be
i s olated , a s it were , from the entire life both bodily and psy ,

chical A nd when we regard the work ing of all the se pri n

.

c i pl e s , i n eve ry detail o f mental d evel opment we become ,

aware that the i mport o f n al pu rpo s e i n the me n tal life

e xtends far beyond the con s ciou s a dOpt i on of end s on our o wn
part In other word s , th e s tream of con s ciou s ne s s appear s
.
,

not s o much as a cu rrent owi n g we k n ow not whe n ce nor

whithe r , but rathe r as a current de signed fro m the beginni n g ,

both a s re spect s i t s ob s e rvable s urface and i ts hidden depth s ,

partly s elf d irected and partly i mpelled by hidden force s

-

to the t performance of a certai n work But what that .

work mo s t t i s , if any s uch th er e be , scientic p sychology

doe s not in ve stigate In ne a combination of all the s e pri n
.
,

c i pl e s , a s they appear i n thei r actual operation s ecure s for ,

every S O called s tream of consciousne s s th a t co n ti n u ity r e l ated

-
,

acti on s ol id arity of character an d that i ntelligible i mport a s

, ,

judged by the light of end s and ideals which are neces s ary to
the hi story of what we call a Soul o r a M in d
.

C onsideration s like the foregoing i n which the di s cus s ion s ,

of s cientic p sychology terminate have an ob vi ou s bearing

,

on the metaphysical problem of the u nity of mind They .

suggest what is ( though n ot so obviously ) the truth i t i s

 TH E UN IT Y OF M I ND 205

here again to ethic s a s the philo s ophy of conduct that appeal

, ,

mu st be taken for the mo s t profound and ulti mate e xplanation

o f m e ntal phenomena H ere agai n also , the metaphy s ic s of
.
,

mind i s s ue s e xhortation s and warning s which are in practical

accord with the familiar but uninterpreted gure s of s peech
which the people employ Be at on e with the laws of thy
.

being ; be at one with thy s elf Would s t thou have i n i t s

.

highe s t attain a bl e form the unity which i s di s ti n ctive of mi nd

,

would s t thou be o n e i n that unique way which i s po ss ible
f or a human s oul the n make thyself to be o n e
,
G rasp .

togethe r and bi n d i nto a u n ity of s elf co n s ciou s remembering , -

,

and reecting s tate s according to s ome tting a n d con s ciou sly

,

s electe d plan , all the manifold movements in that o wing

s tream of p sycho se s which i s called thy mental life In thi s .
,

thy onene ss of being con s i s t s ; and fro m it be not di s tracted

o r turned a s ide For thou wilt never have othe r unity i n
.
,

k ind ; therefore get a n d keep all thou c an s t of this In gai n .

i n g the mo s t Of thi s thou ha st gained a l l ; in lo s ing thi s thou

, ,

ha s t lo s t all For i n lo s ing thi s thou ha s t really become far

.

le s s o f a u n ity ( but rather doubl e a n d d ivided ag a i n st thy s elf)

than it i s tting that a mind s hould be A nd there i s no .

other u n i ty that h as any meaning o r value i n the realm o f

mind .

A phil o s ophy of the mind which h a s i ts b a si s i n the actual

fact s of mental life make s s hort work o f de s patchi n g certai n

doctri n e s once held a s to the s o calle d s implicity -
and
indivi s ibility of mind A S disti n gui she d from the known
.

identity and unity o f the m ind i n the sen s e in which the s e

,

attributes of mind hav e al re a dy been explained the term ,

s implicity h as no me a n ing a n d n o s tanding in fact s .

Whe n eve r i t i s m ade u se o f i n s uch a way a s to imply any

thing di ffere nt it introd uces debate s which have no relevancy
,

whicheve r side of them one e s pouse s within the real m

o f the philo s ophy of mi n d A nd i n deed , if the gures of
.
,

speech which are supposed to be conv eyed by this word s i m

206 TH E UN IT Y OF MIN D

pl i c i ty are to be tak e n account of at all it w ould be much ,

m or e appropriate to s peak o f the t wo f ol dn es s o r the mani -

f ol dn e s s than of the s impl icity o f mind But s uch manifold .

ne ss i n st e ad of bei n g i n co n s i ste n t with i ts s elf co n s ciou s u n ity ,

,
-

i s de n itively nece s s ary to any me n tal unity .

Still more unfortunate and fooli s h i s most o f th e di s cu ss ion

a s to t h e indivi s ibility of mind The very wo rd i n s uch .

an application is well nigh meani n gle ss unle s s it receive an

-
,

i n terpretation co n s i s tent only with a gros s and materiali s tic

view of the s ubject o f all me ntal phenomena The word .

implie s that the conception s of dividing up o r s plitti n g
off are applicable to mi n d after the analogy of a material
,

ma ss Were this the tti n g occa s ion it could be s hown that

.
,

both th e Ol d fa shio n ed argument for the inde structibility of

-

mi n d a s growing out Of i ts indi s cerptibility , a n d the argument

by which Ka n t confuted it are alike ab surd within the realm
,

o f mental phenomena Both alike have meani n g only a s we

.

admit what never can be admitted by the observer who

di s cu s ses this philo s ophical problem in the light of act u al ,

co n crete mental phenome n a that the a n alogy of a compo s ite

material ma ss o r of a hypothetical rigid u n analyzable atom , , ,

in s ome s ort at lea s t applie s t o the mi n d H ere all argument

,
.

from analogy , into whichever of the t w o main direction s you

turn it goe s utterly wild ; and thi s for good rea s o n s s ince
, ,

there i s really no a n alogy upon which to ba s e a n argu ment .

I n clo s e connection with thi s vie w Of the unity o f the mind

s ta n d s o f cour s e the third of the conclu s io n s to which the pre
, ,

v i ou s m e taphy s ical di s cu s s ion s lead If there be any i m mortal

.

ity of mind it i s ju s t thi s

,
the continua n ce of a s elf con s ciou s
,
-

a n d r ec og n i ti v e ly k nown life development Without con

-
.

t i n u i ty of actual memory o f characteri s tic s e lfhood it i s not

, ,

m i n d but s omethi n g far d iff ere n t from mind a n d i n deed con

, ,

t r a di c t or y o f it which i s conceived o f a s i mmortally exi s tent

,
.

H ence i t might be argued if the di s cu ss ion we re to be ,

carried over into the philo s ophy of religio n the character

 TH E UN IT Y OE M I ND 207

of the mind s immortality mu s t depend upon the mind s pre s

ent character The mind s future mu s t s omeho w by actual
.
,

act s o f s e lf con s ciou s n e s s recognitive memory and re ective

-
, ,

thinkin g be brought into an organic s olidarity a s it were

, , ,

with i ts pre s ent and with its now pas t i n order that the sa me
,

one mind may be said to continue to e xist at all .

 C H A PT E R V II

M I ND AND B O DY

H E R E are few que stions for the d i s cu s s ion of which it is

more e s s e n tial to x and mai n tain clearly d e n ed points
of view than the que s ti on of the relation s e xi s ti n g i n reality

betwee n the mi n d a n d the body C urrent theories and e s pe

.
,

c i a lly tho s e o f the moni s tic or materiali s tic order i t will be

s hown s ub s eque n tly too Often confu s e the di s cu s s ion by shift

i n g frequ e n tly the point of vie w in a furti ve an d conceale d way

,
.

P articularly true i s t hi s charge with reference to t wo cla sses

o f topic s . On e of these con cerns the right relations of psy
ch ol o gy a n d metaphy s ics i n dealing with mental ph enomena ,

a topic co n s ide red in detail i n the rst t wo chapter s The .

oth e r co n cer n s the under s tandi n g and u se of the s o calle d -

pri n ciple of cau s atio n.

C ritici s m a n d polemic directed
ag a i n s t the method of the s e curre n t theorie s will be for the ,

pre s e n t larg e ly excl uded

,
. Ou r purpo s e i n this chapter i s
chiey to de n e the right point s of view with reference to
the s e two cla s s e s of topic s .

The o n ly s afe way of procedure in di s cu s sing the relati ons ,

i n reality of body and mi n d i s that which h a s been followed

,

i n the di s cu ss ion of all the problems u n d e rtaken hitherto .

The fact s a n d n ot on e cla s s Of them to the r e lative or a b s o

lute ex clu s ion Of other cla s s e s but all the f a ct s of every kind
,

are to be Ob s erv e d and explai n ed s o far a s it i s i n the

powe r of s cienti c p sychology to accompli sh this U pon the .

ba s i s of s uch s cie n ti c g e n e ralizatio n s the edice Of the more

s peculative a n d ultimate an s wer s which philo s ophy give s to

the same problem s may then be erected We have con dence .

 M I ND AND B ODY 209

in the scie n ce of p sychol ogy i mperfect and largely tentative

o r i mmature i f you will ,
a s already e xi s ting a n d capable o f

i n de n ite improvement by work alo n g the pre s ent li n e s of

re s e arch But we believe al s o i n the po ss ibility of a meta
.

phy s ic s of mind A bove all h owever d o we b e l ieve that

.
, ,

thi s metaphy s ic s S hould ba s e it se lf upon s ci e nce ; and that

the particular s cienc e thu s tru s te d a n d e mploy e d by the meta
phy s ic s of mind S hould be the s cience Of p sychology rather
than a p se u do s cience that nding it s elf without the right of
-
,

reliance u pon clearly a s certained p sy chological fact s fall s

back upon the u s e of mi s leadi n g analogie s from phy s ical
s ci e nce .

It follow s from thi s general po s ition that neither i n the

s tudy o f the ph e nom e n a a n d i n the more imm e di a te inferences

from them n or in the application of the pri nciple s of general

,

metaphy s ic s to the particular problem s i n ha n d should the ,

i nve s tigator be on e s ided If he di s pl ay s a con de n ce i n h i s

-
.

ability a s a n ovice a n d unin s truct e d o r a s an i n telligen t and

, ,

well trai n ed m e taphy s ician to know t ha t the brain r e ally i s

-
, ,

and w ha t it i s and wh at are the cau s al e n e rgi e s that it
,

e xert s in d e t e rmi n ing phenome n a o f co n s ciou s n e ss h e mu s t ,

not a bjure all co n d e nce i n a S l m l l a l ability wh e n th e meta

phy s ic s Of mind i s under di s cus si on Surely the gulf which .

faith o r i n t uition o r i n fe re n ce mu s t l e a p i n order to land ,

upon t h e s olid ground of real ity i s no wide r wh e n what i s ,

called sou l i s o n i ts other s ide than wh e n what i s c a ll e d a

br a i n i s th e re Thi s kind o f con s i ste n cy i n both s cie n ce a n d
.

met a phy s ic s i s however n o l e s s rare than preciou s I n n e

, ,
.
,

if th e s o call e d s cience i s to e nd i n the s impl e corr elatio n o f

-

phe n om e n a a s bare m a tt e r of fact w h y the n l e t it be c o n ,

s i s t e nt a n d corr e late i n all the d irectio n s i n which th e phe

,

nom e n a l e ad ; a n d then leave th e matte r there But the .

met a phy s ic s of M oni s m o r of M ateri a li s m i s then to be

e xclud e d a s strictly as the m e t a phy s ic s of D uali s m or o f
Spirituali s m If , however we are to tru s t ours elve s to vali
.
,

14
21 0 M I ND AND B O DY

date critically or eve n to po s tulate uncritically any meta

, ,

phy s ic s whatever why the n too let u s be con s i stent i n thi s

, , ,

regard L et u s con s ider without prej udice which of th e

.

s everal form s of metaphy s ic s best accord s with the thorough

speculative treat m e nt of all the phenomena .

The s ame intelligent co n s i s tency i s demanded i n th e i nter

r e t a t i o n a n d u s e of the pri n ciple o f cau s ation If from the
p .

point of vie w which note s merely the uniform mo d e s of the

s equence Of t h e phe n om e na o n e S peak s o f S O called me n tal -
,

s tate s as bei n g determi n ed o r i n uenced o r cau s ed
by antecede n t s tate s of the body and brai n the n on preci sely ,

S i milar ground s of ob s erv a tion on e h a s ab s ol utely n o right t o

refu s e to apply the s ame term s to the relatio n s o f the two
cla s se s o f s tate s when th e o rde r of s equence a s phenomenally ,

apparent i s rever s ed I n other word s o n e mu st n ot he s itate

, .
,

to s peak i n s uch a ca s e of s t a te s of body a n d brain a s deter

,

mined , i n ue nced or cau s ed
,
by antec e dent mental ,

s tate s ; a n d there s hould be n o s huf i n g of the meaning s of

the s e term s s o a s to suit convenient shifti n g s i n the point s

,

of vie w .

H ere too th e crime s agai n st con s i s tency which the current

, , ,

d i s cu ss ion s of body a n d mind com m it are a s mi s chie v ou s a s ,

they are numerou s a n d great The s o c a lled pri n ciple Of .

-

cau s ation it s elf i s s o complex i n its characte r and s o S hifting ,

i s th e conception an s we ring to it in di ffe re n t mi n ds a s to ,

make complete co n s i s tency d if cult i n deed to obtai n Su p .

po s e however that a certain w rite r a ss ume s to di s cu s s the

, ,

relation s of body and mi n d from a purely n on metaphy sical -

s tandpoint and yet make s u s e of the principle o f cau s ation

, ,

s ince i n deed without s ome u s e of thi s pri n ciple no di s cu s s ion

, ,

of any k i n d o f relation s i s po ss ible Such a write r is plainly.

bound to i nterpret and to u se the principle it self in a non

m e taphy s ical way H e mu s t that i s to say con si s tently
.

mai n tai n in which eve r direction he views these reciprocal

,

relation s the point of vie w held by the baldest phenome nali s m

,
.
 M I ND A N D B ODY 21 1

From thi s poi n t of view nothi n g can ever be known but the
( immediately o b viou s o r legitimately i n ferred
) u n iform s e

q u e n c e s of the phenom en a N e v e r once

. mu s t s uch a s tude nt

o f the relation s of body and mind allow him s elf to s peak o r

thi n k of eith e r body o r mi n d a s really exi s tent e n titie s and ,

so a s e n titi e s to be regarded i n the light of a f on s e t or ig o

,

of the phe n om e na M uch le ss mu s t he s u ffe r the conclu s ion

.

that both cla s s e s of phenomen a i n dicate the ex i stence o f s ome

o n e entity who s e t wo s ided being t h e y r e s pectively r e veal
-
.

For s uch a conclu s ion too i mplie s a m e t a phy s ical import to

, ,

the pri n ciple of cau sation But to enforce s uch limitation s

.

i s to debar all i nve s tigator s from havi n g a n y philo s ophy what

ever upon the s ubject ; o n e c a n then n e ither i n con si ste n cy , ,

be M oni s t o r D uali s t R eali s t or Id e ali s t M a teriali st o r Spi rit

, ,

u a l i s t in re s p e ct of the met a phy s ic s of mind

,
Furthermore .
,

it i s dif cult to s e e how without pa ss ing through s ome meta

,

phy s ical a s s umption that Shall s eem to furni s h a unity of real

being i n which the seemingly di vergent s tream s of phe n omen a

may unite there can be a n y talk o f a s trict correlation
,

( a s di s tingui shed from more or l e s s u niform se qu e nc e s ) of
bodily and p sychical phe n ome n a .

I t i s th e n n ot d if cult to s e e what i s the only l ogic a l ou t

, ,

come of such an i n terpretation an d u se o f th e pri n cipl e of

cau s ation a s the foregoin g It i s the mo s t thorough going
.
-

s olip s i s m ; the very conclu s ion fro m which we s a w pp 3 3 f

( ) . .

M Flour n oy ying back with horro r though borne on the

.

wing s of an u n critical s entimental i s m If th e pri n cipl e of .

cau s ati o n we rep e at i s to rec e i ve o n ly a n on metaphy s ical

, ,
-

a n d purely phenom e nali s tic int e rpretation th e n th e o n ly ,

known ph e nomena mu s t b e regarded a s p sychical ; a n d the

o n ly p sychical phenomena knowable are my pre s e n t phenom
en a . NO tal k about a body a s t h oug h ther e were any s uch
real exi s tence i s permi s s ibl e N or mu s t the p sychical phe
.

n om e n a th e m s el ves be related to a n E g o a s th e i r really

e xi s tent ground or cau s e ; for thi s too would be to make an , ,
21 2 M I ND A N D B ODY

unwarrantable metaphy s ical u s e of the p rinciple of ca usation .

Th e s o c a ll e d s ci e nce Of the relatio n s of body a n d mi n d

-
,

th e n b e come s li mit e d to stateme n t s of ob s erved or i n ferred

,

s e quenc e s bet we e n two cla ss e s o f phenomena ; a n d both

cla s s e s are alike p sychical not only i n r e s p e ct of thei r char
,

a c t e r i s ti c s but al s o i n re s pect o f thei r refere n ce to the logi cal

,

o r ph e nomenal ( not r e al ) s ubj e ct o f the m all I n poi n t i n g .

thi s out we are o n ly calling attentio n to W hat the hi s tory of

philo s ophy h a s rep e at e dly ve r i e d n a mely t ha t cons i sten t
, ,

h en om e n a li sm en d s i n a f or m of i d e a l i sm w hi c h i s i ts e lf i n
p
t r i n si ca l ly u n t hi n ka ble a nd a bs u r d A nd how could it be
.

otherwi s e s i n ce phenom e nali s m begin s by denying the ful l

,

import of the primary fact s of knowled ge 7

N either can it be admitted that t h e con c e ption s of cau s ation
which are current i n the d omain o f phy s i cal s cience are to be
introduced i n to the di s cu ssi on of the relation s of body a n d
m ind , without bi n ding ou r s elve s here to a complete cou s i s
teney Thi s remark appli e s of cou rs e to every form of the
.
, ,

o r y which recogni ze s the S O call e d l a w of the -
con s ervation
a n d correl a tion Of ene rgy a s applyi n g eithe r po s itively o r

,

negatively w ithi n the s ph ere of the s e relation s The law it s el f

, .

m a y howev e r be held either i n t h e i n ter e s t s of an all e ged

, ,

phe n ome n ali s m or i n a more or le s s metaphy sical way But .

whiche v e r way the i n v e stigator und er stan d s the l aw i f he ,

endeavors to di s cu s s the r elati o n s of body and mind i n th e

light of thi s law and thi s whether h i s main end e avor b e to
,

show th e ab su rdity of attemptin g to apply it to su ch rel ation s

o r on th e other h a nd to enforce a s tricte r o r a loo s e r a ppl i
, ,
~

catio n of i t h e i s bou n d to l ogi cal con s i stency

,
.

Suppo se the n that the phenomen a with which p sych o

, ,

phy s ic s and phy s iol ogical p s ychology deal be approached by

th e avowed phe n omenali s t with a view to se e whether they ,
t o o can be brou ght un der the l aw o f the con s ervation and
,

correlation o f energy H ow i s such an inve s ti gator bou n d to

.

under s tand thi s very law with i ts ob s cure term s s uch as

,
-
,
 M I ND AND BODY 21 3

energy stored and ki netic co n s ervatio n cor ,

relation a n d the li k e ? P l a i n ly i n n o m e t a phy s ical but i n a

,

purely phe n omenal way H e can n ot abj ure all other m e ta

.

phy s ic s a n d yet accept the metaphy s ic s impli e d i n the law

,

it s elf and s till maintain h i s con s i ste n cy No w , thi s l a w of

, .

th e co n s ervation a n d corr e l ation o f e n ergy w h e n stripp e d Of ,

all i m plied metaphy si c s b e com e s it s elf o n ly a s ummary s t a t e

,

m e n t of u n iform mode s of seque n ce which hav e b e e n ob s erved

betw e en c e rtain cla s s e s of phy s ical phe n ome n a a s alike capa ,

b l e of being brought u n de r s o m e form o f mea s urem e n t .

"u a n titatively con s idered the phe n om e n a called gravitation

, ,

heat a n d po ss ibly light and el e ctricity may u n der certai n f r e

, ,

qu e n tly recurring s imilar r e lation s b e expre s s ed in term s of

,

m athe matical formul a s Val id grou n d s e xi s t for the hope

.

that co n tinued and more s ucce ss ful re s earche s may at la s t

demon strate that the s ame thi n g i s true o f other cla s s e s
o f phe n omena the formula s f o r who s e qua n titative relatio n s
,

cannot at pr e s e n t eve n be co n jectured with any degree of

a s s u ra n ce M oreo ve r the re ari s e s i n the mind the entranci n g
.
,

ideal Of a s cie n t i c determination of all actual and po ss i ble

quantitative rel ation s betwee n all ma n ne r of phy s ical phenom
e n a ; a n d it i s a s s umed that the formul a f o r all thi s could it ,

ever be writte n o u t would be u nch anging for all the varyi n g

,

co n dition s a n d era s of the world s devel opment .

No w the mo s t ardent d e votee o f phy s ical s cie n ce mu s t con

,

fe s s howeve r that o u r k n owledge of the particular mode s o f

, ,

b eh avior which individ ual thing s or s pecies o f thing s de , ,

v el o u n der particul a r comple x s et s o f concr e te relation s i s on

p ,

the whole ju s t at pr e s e nt f a r out s trippi n g ou r advance i n t h e

,

acquireme n t o f the n e ce s s ary m athematical formul a s Fo r .

e x a mple , modern biology chemi s try a n d even molecular

, ,

phy s ics are di s clo si n g to ob s e rvatio n s o many new and won

d e r f u l fact s that the arm o f mathematic s i s relativel y far
behind where it w a s a century a g o i n i ts power to handle
them A nd perh a ps a fter all thi s ideal of a univer s ally a p
.
, ,
21 4 M I ND AND B ODY .

plicable and unchangi n g formul a for the expre ss ion of the

s u m total o f quantitative relatio n s among all clas s e s o f phy s

ical phenome n a i s illu s ory For is not the conceptio n of

.

developme n t co m i n g more and more to the front ? A n d do e s

not thi s co n ception perhap s nece ss itate the applic a tion of cer
, ,

tain t r u th s t o which the s cience of life i nvite s u s to the entire

, ,

cour s e o f phy s ical a ffairs A n d may it not prove to be true

th at tho s e qualitative change s which the theory Of evol ution
empha s izes will be found to be i ncompatible with this lower

id e al o f a machine world that is al way s theoretically manage

-

able in t e rm s of mathematic s If all reality be a progre s s ive

ma n ife s tatio n o f life ( although of cou rse , the con s i stent a d
,

h e r e n t s Of phe n omenali s m are forbidden to sugge s t thi s ) may ,

n o t the explanation of the sequence s of e ve n phy s ical phenom

e n a compel u s to ad mit qua n titati v e increment s as con n ected

with the qualitative chang e s nece s s ary to thi s ma n ife s tation

If n o w the advocate of the universal appl icability of the
, ,

l aw o f the con s ervation and correlation of energy to phy s s

ic a l phe n ome n a who i s at the s ame time con s i s tent in h i s

,

refu s al of a l l metaphy s ic s arrive s at the poi n t where he mu s t

,

make a s cienti c s tudy of the relation s of body and mind to ,

what cour s e doe s h i s reputati on for con s i s tency bind hi m ?

Plai n ly he ca n not re fu s e to acknowledge the apparent a ppl i
,

c a b i li ty of the l aw to the s e very relation s becau s e o f the ,

s uppo s ed gre a t ( o r po s s ibly complete ) di fference i n the two

kind s o f bei n g s betwe e n which the rel atio n s e xi st Fo r he .

h a s no right to k n o w a n ythi n g of being s with n atur e s s o
d i ff ere n t that qua n titative relation s capable of b e i n g b rought
und e r th e general l a w cannot e xi s t b e t wee n th e m H e c a n .

kno w nothi ng of ki nd s of b e ings

H e mu s t a l way s in con
.
,

s i s tency approach the phe n ome n a a s o n ly phe n omena

,
But .

a s lo n g a s thi s i s done the r s t impre s s io n i s e s e c i a l l i f one

, p y ,

give o n e s s elf up without pr e j udice to the inve sti gatio n s o f
p sych o phy s ic s t hat qua n titative r e lation s d o exi s t b e tween
-
,

phy s ical and mental phenomena Thi s when tran slated i nto .
,
 M I ND AND BODY 215

the gurative l ang u age o f that metaphy s ic s which phy s ic s

nai vely employ s amou nts to s aying : P o s s ibly , it i s no more
,

u n warra n table to s p e ak o f energy being s tored i n the

mi n d a n d tran s mitte d bet ween mind and brai n than to
, ,

S p e ak of the s ame metaphy s ical tra n s actio n s within o r b e tween

t wo ma s s e s or molecule s of matter From the poi n t of vie w of.

pure phe n omenali s m there would s eem to be no i mpropriety

,

in s uch l a n guage On the contrary it i s s ugge s ted a n d eve n

.
,

enforce d by the phe n omena F e lt cha ng es i n the i n ten s i ty a n d

.

ex te n s i ty ( and the s e are bot h mea s urable a s pect s or quantita

tive characteri s tic s) of the p hen om e n a of con sci ou sn ess a r e a s , ,

a m a tter f f
o a c t , co n n e ct e d i n the f or m f
o m or e or le ss r eg u la r

s e u e n ce s
q w i th obs e r ve d c ha ng e s i n t he a m ou n t s f
o t he bod i ly

c h a ng e s .It doe s not follow howe ve r a n d thi s the s trict

, ,

e s t adhe rent of the l a w of the co n s ervati on a n d corr e latio n of

energy h a s n o right to a ss u m e that the math e matical for,

mula s for th e s e q uantitative relation s could we di s cove r ,

them would have the s ame xed and regularly recurre n t

,

application a s that which belo n g s to qua n titative relatio n s

bet we e n phy s ical phe n omena .

It i s o n ly whe n metaphy s ic s critical and s elf con s ciou s o r

,
-

n a f ve a n d u n critical come s i n to di s turb the purity o f on e s

'

,

phenom e nali s m that th e di f culty of a pplying th e l aw of the

co n s ervatio n a n d correlation of energy to the relations Of body
and mi n d become s oppre ss ive A nd t h e degr e e of thi s d i f
.

culty fu rni she s a very good m e a s ur e of the nece ss ity fo r

applying a careful metaphy s ical analy s i s to the very law it s elf .

The greate r and more oppre s s ive the di f culty the more i m ,

pe r a t i v e the nec es s ity I n other word s what we above all

.
, , ,

wa n t to k n o w whe n the r e lation s of body and mi n d a r e dis

,

cu ss ed a s though the law o f the co n s ervation and correlation

o f phy s ical energy h ad anythi n g whatever to do with the d i s

cu s si e n i s thi s : What i s the mea n ing a s s ignifyi n g au ght that

, ,

really i s and th a t re a lly occur s o f thi s s am e l aw ? What do,

thing s actually do when they act u n de r the law when they ,

21 6 M I ND AND B ODY

co n s erve e nergy tra n s mit ene rgy and beh ave in accord
, ,

a n ce with the alleged correl ati on of e ne rgy
Whe n s u ch a qu e s tion as thi s i s taken to the very most
determined the erce s t a n d mo s t uncompro mi s ing advocate s
,

of the empi rical l aw only very u n s ati s factory replie s are r e

,

c ei v e d M a n y of them at once deny that the l a w a s they

.
,

u n d e r s tand it h a s any metaphy s ical reference eve n i n the

, ,

s phere of phy s ical ph e n ome n a ; that i s to say they fall back ,

into the po s itio n of phe n omenali s m L et the s e ve ry per s o n s .

,

howeve r be s ummo n ed i n the congenial company of their

, ,

law t o face the phenome n a which are popularly s uppo s e d to

,

s ignify an interactio n b e tween body and mind and they are at ,

on c e shake n o u t o f thi s po s ition Th e y quite invariably r e fu s e .

to allow the l a w to apply to m e ntal phenomena a s s uch o r to ,

the rel ation s bet wee n me n t a l phenomen a and bodily phe n om

ena They think i t s hocki n g not to s ay r i di cu l o u s t o s peak of
.
, ,

the energy o f the n e rvou s sy s te m a s being tran s mitte d to the

mind o r stored i n th e mi n d e tc But thi s a s h a s alre ady been
, , .
,

s een i s becau s e they c a n n ot avoid g i v ing s ome real import

,

to the gurative t e rm s which the l a w e mploys For i n the .

rel atio n s of the phe n o m e n a con s idered m er e ly a s p h e n omen a

, ,

n o re a s on for a n y s uch s hock or feeli n g o f ridicule e xi s t s .

M or e ove r i t require s l ittle i n s pection to e s tabli s h the con

,

elu s io n that eve n whe n th e y are s peaki n g of the co n s erva

,

tion a n d correlation o f en e rgy a s obtai n i n g among phy s ical

phenome n a they s uppo s e th e m s elve s to be layi n g down a l aw
,

that gover n s the actual relation s of real thing s Th e y are i n .

,

truth s peaki n g a s metaphy s ician s however warmly they may

, ,

clai m to be abjuri n g met a phy s ic s A nd n o amount of the .

verbal and logical twi sti n gs and s q u i r m i n g s cu stomary i n the

treati s e s on phy s ic s which touch upon thi s subje ct s e rve s to
withdraw th e ir author s from the all devou rin g m a w of a meta -

phy s ic s more critical tha n their own .

When then any write r on the metaphy s ic s of p s ycho

, ,

phy s ic s a n y advocate of thi s o r that theoretical con struction

,
 M I ND A N D B O DY 21 7

of the relations in re ality between b ody and mind make s ,

u s e o f th e phy s ical law o f the conservation and correlatio n of

e nergy either to establish po s itively h i s own theory or to con

,

fute the t heory of an oppone nt , we have a right to kno w h o w

he u n der s t a n d s the la w it s elf D oe s he con s ider that phy s ical
.

e n ergy about the co n s er v ation and correlation of which he

,

remi n d s us s o often i s s o m e s ort of an e ntity which can liter

,

ally s eat it self i n th i n g s o r which can actually pa ss over
,

from on e thing to another ? I s s tored or potential
energy to be regarded in the light o f an e n tity caught and
literally l ocked u p or packed away , i n s ome phy s ical ma ss
,

o r molecul e o r atom ? A n d whe n i t become s kinetic e n

ergy , h a s s ome real entity broke n ou t of i ts pri s on hou s e

-

and begun again to move a eld ? C ertainly it i s n ot s uch

tran s action s a s th e s e which phy s ical s cience conceive s o f
as taki n g place i n reality and a s repre s entable to o u r t hought
,

and imagi n atio n u nd e r i ts s e called l a w of the conservation

,
-

and correlati o n o f e n ergy Y et a gain mu s t it not be con

.

fe ss e d that s ome s ort of real tran s action s s ome principles ,

actually obeyed by really exi s te n t thin gs are thought of o r ,

i magi n ed a s s ig n i e d by thi s law ? A nd until we k no w

what they are h o w can we af r m o r deny the applicability
,

o f the l aw to relatio n s betwee n t wo bei n gs phenome n ally

con s ider e d s o unlike a s are the body a n d the mind of man ?
Or perh a p s it ought rathe r to be s aid H ow can we ref us e to ,

con s ide r favorably the propo s al to apply thi s l aw to the s e

relatio n s wh e n phe n ome n ally con side red the body and the
, , ,

mi n d a r e known to be so clo se ly correlate d ? P e rhap s t oo ,

w e a f rm again it might turn o u t n o more ab s urd to s peak

,

of e n ergy a s s tored by the mi n d o r se t free fro m i ts s eat i n

,

mi n d than t o employ si milar te rm s fo r phy s ical ma sse s and

,

molecules ,
i f only i n e ithe r c a s e we coul d k n o w what thi s
-

storing , s eati n g and s e tti n g free really mea n s and
, ,

what that is really exi st e nt an swer s to the ter m energy

as applied eithe r to phy s ic a l o r to mental bein gs .

21 8 M I ND AND B ODY

I n seeking for light upon this ob s cu re s ubj ect o f the causal

relation between mi n d a n d body there i s n o other s afe and
hopeful method of procedure than to appeal to a philosophy
that ba se s it s elf upon th e de s criptive and explanatory s cience
o f mental phenomena Su ch a method of procedure l e ad s us
.

at once to the s tudy o f the origin , nature a n d developm e nt , ,

p sychologically of the conception of cau s ation it s elf Thi s

,
.

1
s tudy we have el s ewhere unde rtake n ; a n d from its conclu
sion s we here quote s everal pa s s ages Ps ychological s cience .

s imply n d s co n ative con s ci ou s n e s s given a s an und oubte d

factor i n determining the amount and direction of attention ,

the con trol of the mental train and of the moveme n t s o f the ,

bodily organi s m A s p sy cholog i ca l s cience ou r in ve s tigation

.
,

accept s thi s ordering of phenomena ; it i s no le ss fundamental

and conclu s ive than are those data upon which phy s ic s strives
to e stabli sh the principle of the con s ervation and correlation of
energy M oreover all the informati on which cerebral physi
.
,

ol ogy can furni s h regarding the proce s s e s that accompa n y or

( if one plea e unde rlie conation vol ition s triving etc
s ) , , , .
,

co n s i s t only of co n jectural preco n ditio n s for thi s primary and

indubitable psychologi cal fact " We turn a s ide barely an .

in stant to a ff irm that the more acute and prolonged metaphy s

i cal a n aly s i s becom e s the more clear i s the co n viction t hat ,

the mo s t highl y developed n otion s of R eality C au se and

, ,

E n ergy
con s erved and correlated
within the phy s ical
realm are them s elve s d e pend e nt u po n thi s v ery datu m of
,

co n ation or active co n s ciou s ne s s belo n gi n g primarily to

, ,

man s m e ntal life The s e notion s c a n n ot con s i stently there
.
,

fore i n th e name of se called phy s ical s ci e n ce deny the

,
-
,

e xi s t e nce and validity of the p sychological fact on which

they all repo se " 2

The co n c e ption which an s wer s to the term causati on
1 P sych ol ogy , Desc ri t p iv e an d E xpl an a to ry h p t r
, c a e s x i . an d x x i ;
. an d com p .

pp . 4 8 2 ff ,
and 5 19
'

3 Ibi d p .
, . 215 .
 M I ND AND B ODY 21 9

i s on analysis actually found to be a very comple x c on ce p

tion C au s ation i s p s ychologically con s ide re d n o t s o much
.
, ,

a s ingle category a s it is signi cant of conclu s io n s that

involve the foundation and mental groupi n g togethe r of
a numbe r of conceptio n s each on e of which i s often s epa , ,

r a t e ly con s id e red , called a category By thi s it i s n ot meant .

s imply that di ffe rent mind s concretely real ize thi s conc e ption

i n widely di ff erent way s a s i s the ca s e with t h e conceptio n s

,

of s pace and time On the contrary so far a s i mage making

.
,
-

activity enter s into the conception of cau s ation the form ,

of s uch activity i s pretty s trictly al ike for all i ndi vidual s .

A nd this form of imaging the s o called category of cau s e -

is in s tructive a s re s pect s the nature and origin of the con

c e pt i on it s elf No w what we do all actually e xperience in
.
,

trying to get a l ifelike idea of the meaning of ou r j udgment

i s the p r oce ss of m en ta lly r ep r e se n t

A i s the cau s e o f B ,
-

i ng ou r own ex
p e r i e n ce , w hen e ver se lf -
c on s ci ou s con a ti on ,

wi t h i t s f f
i
e e l ng o f e or t , is oll owe d by obs e r ved c h a ng e s i n
ou r
p r e s en t a ti on s of se n se i n a r eg u la r wa y That ,
i s to s a y , .

it i s con s ciou s n e ss o f th e s equence o f willing s atu rated ,

a s i t i s with i ts accompanyi n g s en s atio n s and feeli n g s

o f both peripheral and central origin which i s e voked by
1
the wi s h to re a lize the meaning of the word

But what a nest of complex conception s i s invol ved i n
s uch a jud gment as thi s ( n amely
A i s the cau s e of ,

S ome of th e m at lea s t are much more nearly fu n damental

, ,

and s imple than i s the co n ception o f cau s e For example , .

the conception s of Bei n g A ctio n R el ation Time , and R ea , , ,

s on ,
or G rou n d , are all plai n ly i nvol ved in the fore goi n g
j udgment Others s uch a s U nity Id e ntity a n d even con
.
, , ,

t i g u i ty in s pace a n d priority i n time , s e e m al s o to be involved .

But a s D r W a rd h a s correctly mai n tain e d A ction i s a

.
,

simpler notion than cau s ation , and i n explicabl e by it 2

N ow , .

1 P syc h ol o gy Desc ript iv e a n d E xpl a n a to ry pp 5 01 f

, , . .

Art i c l e P sych ol ogy i n th e Encyc lopssdi a Bri ta n n i ca p

2 82
, , . .
220 M I ND AND B ODY

of co u r s e action without a bei n g that acts i s an absurdity

,
.

Being too th e n wo uld s ee m a simpler n otion than cau s ation

, ,
.

M oreo ver R elatio n ( Whether cau s al or merely in s pace

, ,

o r i n time ) i s al s o a simpler notion than that of c a u s ation .

When w e a ct by way of co n s cious co n ation and mu s eu

,

lar e ffort then changed pre s e n tatio n s of s en s e follo w an d

,

v i c e v er sa when certai n pre s entation s of s en s e indicative

,

o f certai n relation s o f other bei n g s to u s occ ur then w e s af e r ,

certain con spic u ou s change s in the content of con s ciou sn es s .

I t i s the p r oj e c ti on of ou r ex p er i e n ce w i th ou r s e l v e s i n t o t he
w or ld of r e la t e d t hi ng s , u n d er t he i mp u lse o f t he i n te l l e c tu a l
d e ma n d f or ex
p l a n a ti on , w hi ch r es u lts i n the g e n e r a l n oti on

f
o ca u s a ti on .

In traci n g a n d illu strating the details of the development

1
o f thi s n otion we have i n the s ame connection al s o s aid :

On ly s cant s tudy of consciou s ne s s i s needed to reveal the

ba ff li n g complex ity of m e n s thi nking when they s o glibly ,

u s e tha t clu s te r of e x pr e s s ive term s which i s co n ne cted with

t h e term cau s atio n

Thi s fact i s mo s t e vid e nt wi t h tho s e
.

who are farthe s t ad v anced in the conception s w hich e n t e r

i n to the mod e rn developme n t s of the n atural s cie n ce s The .

phy s ici s t i s far l e s s able to tell what that i s real he mean s

whe n he s peak s of energy a s co n s erved and corr e lated ,

o r the ch e mi s t whe n he decl are s that atom s o f o n e element

attract tho s e o f another eleme n t than i s t h e u n s cie n tifi c

,

ob s erve r when he s peak s of the i nuence which one thi n g

h a s ove r anoth e r o r of the actio n o f o n e thi n g upon
,

a n other I n all ca s e s of alleged cau s ation it i s evident that

.
,

p sychologically con s idered we are d e a l i n g with the r e s ult s

,

of the entire comple x growth o f k nowl e dge ; a n d thu s ou r

attention i s called to the important truth that it i s i mpo s s ible
to s pe a k of the conception of cau s ation without implyi n g
that the s tage o f kno wledge a s the comple x re s ulta n t o f
the development of all faculty h a s already b e en attai n ed .

1 P sy ch ol ogy , De sc ript iv e an d E xpl an a t o ry pp

, . 5 04 f .
 M I ND AND BODY 221

For it i s real bei n g s a s k nown to exi s t and to behav e i n

,

ma n ifold relatio n s o f ti me and S p a ce toward e ach other that ,

are conce ived of a s cau s ally con n ected A s we s hall s e e .

later o n i t i s ou r be li ef i n su ch con n e cted a n d i n ter d ep e n d en t

,

ex i s ten ces , whi ch i s c hi ey n e ce ss a r y in or k

d er tha t thi n i ng m a y
en d in k wl
no e dg e .

C ertain lo we r a n d n on i n tellectual activitie s of the mi n d -

may be co n sider e d a s s ub s ervie n t to the developme n t of the

compl e x conception of cau s ation although o f th e m s elv e s ,

u nable to account for i t s development Thi s i s true e v e n of .

the i n s tinctive the i mitative and the s en s ory refle x cla sse s of
, ,
-

p sych o phy s ical activiti e s By s uch activitie s our own psy

- .

cho s e s are both a cti v e l v and pa s s ive ly con n ected toge ther in
, ,

con s ciou s n e s s a n d the s e a s kno w n i n s elf con s ciou sn e s s are

, ,
-
,

connect e d with tho s e p sycho s e s which we have l earned to

attribute to other beings tha n our s elve s E s pecially doe s .

e very pai n ful or plea s u rable s e n s ory motor exp e ri e n ce s tim a -

l a te our inquiry and inter e s t i n d rawi n g con clu s ion s a s to i t s

cau s e . Every su ch e xperience empha s ize s a connection
between doing s omething or n ot doing it a n d certain de n ite , ,

plea s urabl e or painful con sequences Thu s all the awak .

e n i n g de s ire s s erve a s a s ort of inter i or pre s s ure u pon the

motor organi s m ; they con s titut e an almo s t c e a s el e s s i nvitation

and compul s io n to the doing or to th e avoidi n g o f thi s or that .

Imit a tio n too a t r s t bli n d a n d i n s ti n ctive a n d afterw a rd

, , ,

more purpo s eful and i ntelligent e stabli sh e s other co n n e c ,

tion s betw e e n what i s d one by the child and what i s more

pa s s iv ely e xperienced I n d e ed i t i s i n the u s e of t he m u s
.
,

c le s , a s d ep en d en t p u on con a ti on a nd in a ssoc i a t i on w i th t he

f e e li ng of e or t a n d wi t h e a su r a ble
'

v a r i ou s f o r ms of p l a nd

a i nf u l f e e li n t h a t th e
p g f ca u sa ti on ha s i ts bi r th
, c on c e
p t i on o

p l a ce so to sp e a k C ertainly , mere ob s ervation o f the uni

, .

for m sequence s o f image s unde r the l aw s o f a s s ociation of

idea s would never s erve to develop this conceptio n ; only a s
bein g our s el ves self con sciou s agents an d s u fferers do we
-
222 M I ND AND B ODY

come to argue about energy and cau s ation i n the world

of things .

A l l the language of child life and o f the com mon people -

con rm s the truth of our view o f the s e calle d cat e gory of -

cau s ation It i s only when the chil d h a s developed a s ome

.

what complex knowledge of it s elf a s a bei n g that can d o

s omething a n d by doi n g can attai n i t s purpo s e s i n changing
,

the relati o n s to it s elf and to on e a n other o f external thi n g s

, ,

that it begin s to u se term s i mplyi n g the daw n i n g conception

of cau s ation The development al s o of thi s conception i s
.

d e pendent upon the development of the con s ciou sn e s s of Self .

( H ere follow s a lengthy quotation from P reyer i n illu s tration

1

and support of thi s view ) .

I f thi s s ubject i s considered s till further from the p sycho

logical point of vie w it appear s that the next s tage i n the
,

development of the concepti on of cau s ation is chi e y d e p e nd

ent upo n e x perience with tho s e b e i n gs other than him s elf , ,

which promptly r e act upon the child a n d cau s e him f e el i n g s o f

plea s ure or pai n On e i mportant cla s s of s uch bei n gs i s the
.

animal s e s pecially , of cour s e the dome stic a n im a l s with , ,

which he become s mo s t familiar a n d above all h i s f e llow , ,

hu man bei n g s The bearing o f s uch exp e ri e n ce s i s mad e pl a in

.

i n sente n ce s l ike the follo wi n g : I kicked the dog a n d the ,

d og bit me I hit the boy , a n d h e hit me b a ck etc H ere .

the pri nci ple of c a u s ation i s illu s tr a ted in d oubl e form a s it ,

were both a s co n s ciou s n e s s o f motive and co n s ci ou sn e s s of

,

ene rgy foll owed by importa n t ch an ge s i n pre s entation

,

e xperience In s uch exp e rie n ce s the ba s i s in s e n s e an d

.
,

i magination for that act of i n tellectual projection which create s

ou t of the object of s en s e an acting age n t like my s elf i s abun

d an tly s upplied From such experience s it i s but a step to the

.

attribution of cau s al agency to all things that manife s t s ign s

o f life . The phenomena o f n ature are a ss igned to
u nseen agent s i magined to exi s t and to act afte r the patte rn
1 Th e Mi n d of th e Child , Th e D ev el p m e
o n t of th e I t ll
n e e ct , pp . 191 f .
 M IN D A ND B O DY 223

s ugge s te d by the s el f k n owledge already obtai ned I n or

-
.

ga n ie things that act promptly a n d int e n se ly upon us or by ,

the u se of which a s in strume n t s w e e ffect ou r e n d s are s imi ,

l a rly regard e d . The poke r m a k es the r e burn a n d i f the ,

poker i s of wood The re bu r n s the poker u p ; but if the

poker i s of i ron the n The re m a k

,
e s it r e d e tc To quote ,

.

ag a in from D r Ward . Whe n we s a y A cau s e s thi s o r that i n

B we project o r a n al og i ea lly attrib u te to A what we ex peri e n ce

,

i n acti n g and to B what we experience i n bei n g acted upo n
, ,

a n d thi s lo n g before we s u spect that thi s r e lation i s a perma

nent on e or mu s t recur again .

I t i s by the devel opm e n t o f experie n ce u n der the principl e

o f the a ss ociation of i dea s that i n large part we are deter
, ,

mi n ed a s to wha t change s i n B shall be attributed to antecedent

or co n comita n t cha n ge s in A a s their

cau se s It i s under the .

s am e pri n ciple that the connection s of the pa s t are made to

fur n i s h rule s for expectation a s to the behavior of things i n

the future . A ll ou r co n cepti on s of thing s s ummarize the
j udgment s of ou r experience with the i n d ividu a l s o f the cla s s
to which the thi n g s belong We j u dge thing s to belong to
.

clas s e s and to be e n titled to name s accordi n g a s th e y have

, ,

b e haved them s e l ve s in denite relati on s to other thing s

N ew e xperience s con s tantly con rm o r br e ak up a n d re a dj u s t , ,

th e old a ss ocia t ion s ; but th e l aw of a s s ociativ e r e productio n

remain s the s ame throughout all ou r d e v e lop m e n t Thu s .

s a -
in te d of st a ti n g the s e calle d law L ike cau s e s have like ,

e ffe ct s it would a ccord with the fact s of con s ciou s n e ss bette r

to s y : The s ame bei n gs may be e xpected to behave unde r
a
,

the s ame circum s tance s i n a way s imilar to th o s e kno wn

,

thing s which they mo s t re semble A ss ociation s r e main what

.

they are s o long a s they re mai n at a l l U pon s om e s uch .

impre s sion a s thi s concerning the u niformi ty o f nature o u r

s afety and very life daily depend The i mpre ss ion may be
.

said to be rubbed i n to the very t e xture of s kin and mu s cles
and joints and bones Beware o f snarling d og s , of falling
.
224 M I ND AND B ODY

s tone s , of b lazing re of s harp knive s of bright lightni n g of

, , ,

deep s wift cu rre n t s etc On e experience with th e s e age n t s

, ,
.

i s enou g h to k n ow what th e y will d o ; cu s tom e stabli s hed by

repetition is not n e ce ss ary here .

But a s s ociation of ideas working upon the ba s i s o f ou r
,

experience with ourselve s a s agent s , and re s ulting i n an

analogical proj ection of thi s e xperience upon all other thing s ,

i s not a l o n e a s ati s factory guide i n determi n i n g what change s

i n A cau s e thi s or that particular change i n B Thi s i s .

rath e r a n i nquiry i n which i n te lle ct a s applied to reality , ,

chiefly e xerci s e s it s elf ; and i t i s conducted by th o s e proc e s s e s

o f rea s o n ing which if succe s s fully conclud e d re s ult i n s ci e nce
, ,

as ex planatory of the world of events i n their cau s al rela

tions .

Fo r a more compl ete u nderstanding of the s e proces s e s and

thei r re su lts i n establi shing a sy s tem of cau s al rel ation s th at
may clai m the name of s cience a s tudy of the p sych ology ,

o f the i ntellect is nece s s ary Thi s s tudy a s we h ave a l s o

.
,

el s ewher e s hown b ring s u s to the following po sition s : Th e

1
,

e s s e n ce of i ntellectual activity , i n all i ts highe r form s i s ,

thinking ; and the e s sential expre ss ion o f all proce sse s of

thi n king i s the s e called j udgme n t N o w very early i n the
-
.
,

dev e lopment of i nt e llectual l ife appe ars an i mporta n t but

much negl ected form of j udgment whi ch attribute s action to ,

an age nt Whe n i n the con s ciou s ne ss of the infant the

.
, ,

propo s ition , The mil k i s hot e xpre s s e s a true j udgme n t as
,

d i stingui s hed f rom a me re a ss ociati on of repre s entative

image s it i s thi s form whi ch i t a s su mes
,
Such a propo .

s itio u does n ot s o mu ch mean That thi n g th ere who se - - -

,

name i s milk has th e quality of h ot n e ss a s That milk

-
'

-
,

there bu rn s ( o r will burn ) me In fact , from the very .

begi nning of i ntellect onward the judgment Thi s o r that

, ,

person or thin g i s d oi ng this or that ( behavin g i n a certai n
way , or affecting somehow a nother person o r thing ) , may be
1 Psych ol ogy , Desc rip tiv
e an d E xpl a na to ry pp
, . 44 8 f .
 M I ND AND BODY 225

s aid to be the predo m inati n g form o f j udgment It i s to thi s .

form that attention i s attract e d mo s t stro n gly and arou n d i ts

tr uth o r fal s e hood our intere st s clu s ter mo s t thickly Thi s .

fact i s the analogue in the highe r region s of ment a l lif e of

, ,

the fundamental p sycho phy s ical fact that se n s ation s of moti on

-

are r e latively e e cti v e e ven with l ow degree s o f i n te n s ity

, .

Ou t of thi s common root i n co n nection with the preced,

ing form s ( j udgment s of r ese m bl a n ce o r d if e r en ce and j udg ,

ment s r e cognizi n g relation s of sp a ce a n d ti m e) d e velop tho s e ,

j udgment s which may properly be call e d mo s t metaphy s ical

i n thei r i n tent Such are judgme n t s o f attribute s af rmed or

.

denied of a s ub s tance judgm e n t s of cau s e and e ff ect and

, ,

j udgment s of de s ig n adapted to an end Even tho s e j udg .

ment s which are s ometime s called j udgment s o f s ubordina

tio n a n d i n which s pecies i s brought u n de r ge nu s and parts
,

unde r the whole ( whether with th e s cie n ti c e n d of c l a ss i ca

tion or with th e ae s thetical end o f a plea s i n g proportio n ) a r e
, ,

large ly d epe n d e nt u pon the development o f thi s form of think

ing For e ve ry intellect k now s i t s elf a s only active a s eve r
.
,

d oin g som e thi n g a s ever e ffecting s ome change ; an d every

,

intellect i s nec e s s arily (n ot th at of the child o r s av a ge more

truly than that of the m an o f s cie n ce or the philo s opher)
anthropomorphic Th e i n te llect ca n u n d e r s ta n d the w or ld
.

on l
y as a s
y s te m o f r e l a te d be i n g s , w hi ch a re e v er ea c h on e

d oi ng s om e t hi ng a n d h a v i ng s o me t hi n g don e t o t hem .

If n e w th e ope ration s of i n tellect are followed i n tho s e

, ,

more e l a borate proce ss e s of rea s o n which re s ul t i n th e for

m ation of the body of s ci e n ce we s e e how it i s und e r the ,

form o f judgment which attribut e s a cti on t o a n a g e n t that

infer e nc e s i n the line of cau se and e ff ect originate and develop .

In e s s e n tially the s ame form d o we nd the intellect o f man

concludi n g with re s pect to interacti n g force s and to l a ws .

For the conception o f f or ce ( o r e n e rgy ) i s i n s epar a ble

p sy chologically a t lea s t i n i t s origi n from the con s ciou s
ne ss of conative activity Th e conception o f law too i s
.
, ,

15
226 M I ND AND B ODY

primarily that of the mode of the behavior of some agent .

U n de r the s e two relatio n s force and law which are s o

s ubtly i ntermi n gled bo th i n real ity a n d i n mental a pp r e h e n

s io n a wide eld o f conclu s ion s otherwi s e cl o s ed e ve n to the

, ,

mi n d s e n trance i s ma s tered

For who do e s not se e that
, .

tho s e word s s o gl ibly u s ed by phy s ical s cie n ce have reference

to pre s uppo s ition s th a t quite out strip the data hitherto d i s
covered i n ou r d es criptio n a n d explan ation o f the phenomena
o f con s ciou s n e s s ? Whe n eve r on e s ee s certain s ig n s o f
force ( movem e nt s cha nge s ) on e i mmediately conclude s the
, ,

e xi s tence o f an age n t with t h e force nec e ss ary to produce

the m ; whe n one believe s i n o r k n o ws th e pr e s e n ce of an , ,

ag e nt with the n ec e ss ary force the n one co n cl u d e s that s ign s ,

o f the age n t s force h ave ma n ife s ted o r will manife s t them

, ,

s elve s I n thi s way e ve r y p er ce i ve d c h a ng e ( o r e ffect ) P i s

.
, ,

i nf e r r e d t o be d ue to t he a ct i on o f s om e a g e n t , S ,f or the r e a son

t ha t M w h i ch i s the kw no f S i s con n e cted wi th

n c om m on s ig n o ,

P ; ther ef or e P the cau s e o f which a ff ord s the problem to

the mind i s a ca s e to be a ttr ibu te d to S .
1

A n elaborate employme n t of rea s o n i n g faculty i s u ndoubt

e dly nece ss a ry i n orde r to form the conception of cau s ation
and a yet higher development i s marked by the attainment of
cl e arly de n ed n oti on s r e s p e cting the mea n i n g o f s uch terms
as

age n t s el f activity doi n g a n d the l ike But on the
-

, , , .
,

other h a n d on e principal for m of logical co n clusio n i s it s elf

,

d eveloped alo n g the lin e o f thi s co n ceptio n Thi s i s s imply a .

ca s e of the i n tellect following the law s of i t s own evolution

without a n y co rre s ponding dev e lopment of the consciou s ne s s
o f the e xi s tence and s ignican ce o f the s e s ame law s Fo r i n .

every fo rm of me n tal li fe we d o without knowing w ha t we d o .

Very early i n h i s mental growth the child begi n s to e xplain

to hi m s el f th e more n ote w or th v event s i n h i s experience by
attributing the m to the doings o f thing s or per s ons not ,

hithe rto associated with preci s ely the s e s ame event s S u ch .

1 Psych ol og y ,
D es c rip t iv e and E xpl a n a to ry pp, . 472 f .
 M I ND AND B ODY 227

i n tellectu a l a c t i v i ty con s t i tu tes f r a ti oci n a ti on

a beg i n n i ng o

a long the l i n e of
c a u s a l i n u en c e Thi s problem i s n ot
.
,

howeve r , s tatable in the term s , What i s it ? but i s rather to

be expre s s ed i n the que s tion , W hat per s on o r thi n g did
thi s ?
I t i s e ss entially the s ame general proble m with which
all science chi e fly occupie s it s elf namely What are the , ,

cau s e s of thi s event ( the forces operative and the l aw s under ,

which they Operat e )

It i s chiey by thi s ki n d of ratiocination that we tran s cen d

the limit s of the pre s ent a n d bring i ts experience s into per
,

man ent and rational connection s with what i s remote in s pace

and time Thu s the pre s ent become s related to the pa s t not
.
,

m er e ly by way o f r e cog n itive me mory under the law s o f

a ss ociation b u t a s nding i n that pa s t the rea s on o r grou n d
, , ,

why the present i s a s it i s rather than otherwi s e ; w ha t i s

p re s e n t i n ti m e i s ex
p l a i n ed b
y w h a t wa s
p a s t i n ti m e Sim .

i la r ly too i s the event pre s ent i n s pace explained by s ome

, ,

agent , i n vi s ible on accou n t of i ts remote n e ss o r on account of ,

i t s being by nature n ot adapted to appreciation by the s ense s .

For i t i s the s ame intellect behaving i n e ss entially the s ame

,

way which put s s piritual power s i n the air s prite s and

, ,

fairie s i n the green wood ; i n troduce s gho s t s or other te l

e p a th i c infl u e nce s to accou n t for change s who s e cau se s are
u m in
not s e n s uou s ly manife s t ; a n d which theorize s a s to l
i f e r o u s ethe r atomic entiti e s with a vari e ty o f nature s

, , ,

.

etc A ll s uch bei n gs are al ik e conclud e d to b e cau s e neithe r
,

perce ptio n n o r me mory alone enabl e s u s to e xplai n the pre s e nt

happe n i n g s by ag e n t s who s e co n n ection with the s e happe n i n g s
1
i s matt e r of pre se n tative experie n c e .

Still furth e r d oe s thi s very pri n cipl e upon which the i n tel
l ect proceed s i n i ts proce sse s of rea s o n i n g become a n a l o gi

cally proj e ct e d a n d made a principle of the being and
behavior o f things Thi s principle of i ntellect p sychologically
.
,

con s idered i s the se called pri n ciple of s u fcient reas on

,
-
.

1 Psych ol ogy , r p iv
De sc i t e and Ex pl an a t o ry pp
, . 47 5 f .
228 M I ND AND B ODY

Of it three thi n g s mu s t be noted : ( 1 ) By the principle o f

su f ci e nt re a s on i s obvi ou s ly meant t he n a tu r a l t e n d e n cy of
m a n a s a d e v e lop i ng i n te lle ct s a ti sf a ctor i ly t o ex p l a i n h i s
, ,

ex
p er i en ce Thi s is really then n ot a n ab s tract principle at
.
, ,

all , a s i s the pri n ciple of ide n tity ; it i s rather primarily c on ,

s ide r e d an e xhortatio n ari s ing from the depth s o f o u r i n tel

,

lectual life ( 2) A ll the explanation which i ntellect d e mand s

.

and pur s u e s i n the intere s t s of i ts own s elf s ati s factio n i n -

volve s the relating of on e obj ect to another o f on e event to ,

another etc E ve ry t h i ng i s ex p la i n ed by be i ng br oug ht i n to

, .

c on n e c ti on wi t h s om e t hi ng e l se We u n d e r s tand S only when .

we bri n g it i nto connection by an act of j udgment with P ; , ,

and s inc e s uch relating can be dire ct onl y to a ve ry limite d

e xtent we explai n S i n relation to P t hr oug h M Thu s S M
, ,

and P all e xplai n each othe r ; they a r e all apprehe n ded a s

belonging to on e worl d of con n ected obj e ct s and event s For .

( 3 ) the be li ef that such a world e xi sts a n d that we may kno w ,

it a s it e xi st s not only by becomi n g i mmediately aware of it

,

i n perception and s elf con s ciou s ne s s but al s o by proce s s e s of

-

ratiocination l i es like a sleepi n g po s tul a te ben ea th a ll t he

, , ,

a cti v i ty o f mi n d a c c or d i ng
to the so -
ca ll e d
p r i n ci
p l e f
o su

ci en t r e a s on

Th e s e called law o f cau s ation i s only -

.

the obj ectication a s it were of the p rincipl e of suff icient

, ,

rea s o n I ts meani n g i n ge ne r a l i s to a s sert ou r condence

.
, ,

that thi n g s a r e r e ally co n n ected a s we nd our s elve s having

rea s on to k now or be l i e ve that they are

The entire .

phra s e then should be held to be s ig n icant of th at perpetual

, ,

devel opment of the life of intellect which re s ults i n giving a

high er u nity to knowledge ; a more comple x an d well princi -

pl e d organization to experience ; a more comprehen s ive gra sp

on the w orld of k n own object s a n d eve n t s a s a sy s t e m o f ,

beings with s e called nature s acti n g u n der l aw and po s se ss
-

,

ing force s a n d power s ; a wide r theor e tical and yet

logically defen s ible outlook over the invi s ible realm s of d i s

tant time s and s pace s a n d of entities th at cannot be made ,
 MI ND AND B ODY 229

the object s of perceptive experience Thus ou r rea s on s .

become more nearly i deally s u i c i e n t , according a s the

developme n t of i ntellect its elf, on the part of the individual

1
and the race goe s on ,
.

But once more what would happen if m oder n phy s ical

, ,

s cience were to s ucceed i n the e f fort which it i s s o i n c on ,

s i s te n tl y a n d bli n dly making to eliminate all the m e t a ph ys i ,

cal eleme n t s from i ts conception and u se of the principl e of

cau s ation ? We may under s tand the an s wer to thi s que s tion
whe n we u n der s tand that p sy chol og i ca l ly con si d er e d thi s con ,

c e t i on i ts e lf the n be com e s n othi ng bu t a ba r r e n a n d emp ty a b

p
s tr u ct i on d e r i ve d f r om the ve r
y con c r e te a n d r e a l ex p e r i en c e s th e

For
w hi c h i t i sa s we have s u bor n e d t o d e n y
p l a i n i m or t
p f o .
,

el s ewh e re s aid 2 The super s tructure of so calle d a p r i or i

,
-

knowledge or a ss umption which modern s cience h a s built upon

, ,

the pri n ciple of cau s ation i s at l ea s t p sychologically c on s i d ,

ered utterly indefe n s ible We do not naturally or nece s sarily

,
.

believe much le ss k now eith e r the pe rma n ency of matte r

and o f force i n the phy s ical u n iver s e o r the truth of the j udg ,
~

ment Every eve n t mu s t have a cau s e But we do a s rea s on
, .
,

dev e l op s s eek co n s tantly more adequately to explain ; a n d we

,

ex plai n on a hypothe s i s which re s ult s from ou r attributi n g to

the wo rl d o f thing s the s ame kind of relation s which we per
c e i v e our s elve s s u s t a ining to it

To b e a cau s e i s for one .

bei n g to d o s om e thi n g to s ome othe r b e ing as we might p e pu ,

l a r ly s a y C onception s like tho se of th e u niver s al reig n of

.

l a w of the u n ity of m atter and force o r the r e gularity and

, ,

uniformity of nature etc a r e all a later and yet more highly ,

.
,

complex developme n t The s e never are a n d n e ve r can be .

, ,

p sychologically co n s idered anythi n g more than hypothe s e s ,

i n troduc e d by i n t e llect i n the intere s t s o f a more complete

uni cation o f experi e nce .

Finally that co n c e ption of cau s ation which modern science

,

1 P sy c h l gy D rip t iv
o o , esc e and Ex pl a na to ry pp . . 48 5 f.
2 Ibi d .
, pp 5 03 f
. .
23 0 M I ND A N D BODY

h as enable d us to develop i s s till le ss lifelike as a matter of

i magi n atio n and still mor e ab s tract a s a matt e r of i ntellect
, .

The s cientic s tudy o f nature induce s t h e feeling that we are

u n warranted in attributing to thing s a kind of relation which
we c a n concretely realize only i n term s of ou r o wn conation and
feeling of e ff ort , followed regularly by change s in pre s enta
tion s of s en s e This is to regard n a ture we are told , i n alto
.
,

gether too anthropomorphic a fa s hion What s cience then .

d oe s i s t o extend the m ore purely thought element s of this -

conception I n d oing thi s how eve r we are i n s ome s ort n o

.
, ,

le s s anthropomorphic On ly w e now a ttr i bu te the la ws of i n

.
,

t ell ecti on that i s the form s of thinking which connect con

,

elu s ion s with j udgme n t s a s nding i n them thei r rea s on and

ground to the be ha vi or of thi ng s Treated thu s the con

.
,

c e pt i o n o f cau s ation lo s e s all i ts co n crete lifelikene s s and ,

become s a pale ab s tractio n which an s wer s to s ome such p os

tulate a s that every event follow s some othe r e vent accord
i ng to s ome uniform rul e Y et even here h oweve r much the
.

,

e ffort m ay be made to e s cape it , conception s which have thei r

origi n i n ou r u niver s al experience with ours elv e s con s titute all
the reality o f that thinking which a n s wer s to t h e pri n ciple of
C au s ati on I n how far the s e p sychological fact s bear valid
.

te s timony to the ge n eral po stulate or co n clu s ion that the real

worl d is indeed ratio n al and that reality an s wer s to h uman
,

rea s on i n i ts con stitution it bel ong s to philo s oph y to inquire
, .

In brief ,
a ll e v en ts a r e r eg a r d ed a s h a v i ng t h e i r g r ou n d i n

othe r e ven ts , a n d t hes e ot he r e v en t s in s ti ll o th e r s , u n d er t he

i n u en c e f th a t d e m a n d f or e x l a n a ti on i n t he i n t er e s ts o f a
o
p
p
r og r e ssi v e u n i f c a t i on
p o ex i
e r e n ce f t h w h i c h i s t he l a w
e o

v er y l if e a n d g r owth of i n te lle c t i t s e lf It i s thi s i nt e llectual .

nece s s ity to explain , we r e p e at , that gives to the s e called l aw -

o f cau s a tion the nec e s s ity with which it appear s to rule the

world of thi n gs A t a n y rate s uch i s the la st word which

.
,

p sychology can utter upon thi s s ubj ect It mu s t be l e ft to .

philo s ophy to s how that in i ts s upreme s cienti c form the

 M I ND AND B ODY 23 1

conception of causatio n i mplie s the co n dence of the mi n d

that th e world of real thi n g s a n d real e ve n t s i s an intellectual
order ; and that i n k nowing it u nder the general pri n ciple of
cau s atio n mind i s reorganizing its o wn form s of behavior in
,
1
the behavior o f thi n g s .

S o le n gthy a co n s ideratio n of the p sychological ( le ading u p

to and involving the metaphy s ical ) origin n ature and d evelop , ,

me n t of the conc e ption and o f the s o call e d l aw or pri n ciple

,
-

o f cau s ation i s amply j usti ed i n thi s connection

Fo r one s .

critical opinion on these point s i f intellige n tly formed and ,

con s i s tently adhered to det e rmine s o n e s po s ition with refe r
,

ence to the relatio n s of body and mi n d D oe s the inquire r .

i nto the import and the reality of the s e relation s turn ou t to

be a M oni s t o r a D uali s t a M at e riali s t or an advocate of the
,

s pirituali s tic ten e t ? Thi s i f the i n qui ry be logically and

,

hone s tly co n ducted will depend almo s t wholly upon the V iew
,

he take s of cau s ation The vi e w which h a s ju s t been a d
.

v oc a te d as
,
alon e p sychol ogically defe n s ible may now be ,

briey s u mmarized a s it applie s to the ca s e of body and

,

mind i n the following particul ars

,
.

A n d r s t the actual concrete and livi n g expe rience which

, , , ,

give s bi rth to the co n ceptio n of cau s atio n con s i st s i n the r e

c i p r o c a l depe n dence o f th o s e phenomena which a r e a s s igned ,

r e s p e ctively o n the o n e h and to the body an d on th e othe r

, ,

hand to the mi n d I n a word it i s here i n t h e relatio n s b e

.
, ,

twee n body and mi n d a s actu ally experi e nced that th e notion s

, ,

o f be i n g a c a u s e o r o f bei n g e ffect e d chie y origi n at e .

, ,

But s eco n d thi s conc e ption o f cau s ati o n ev e n i n i ts mo s t

, , ,

imm e diat e a n d origi n al form i s a compl e x a ffai r It implie s ,

.

the d e v e lopm e nt either ante ced e ntly o r more nearl y p a r i

a s s u o i the conception o f s e lf activity o f bei n g an agent
p
-
, ,

of doi n g s omething o f e ffecti n g s ome m a n n e r of change

,
It .

i nvolve s al s o the s upplem e ntar y conception o f s u ffe ring s ome

change , of havi n g s omething do n e to u s o f being s ubj ect ,

1 P sych ol ogy , Des c riptiv e and E xpl a n a to ry p , 5 07 .

23 2 M I ND AND B ODY

to some other being as well a s o f b e ing the s ubj ect of
,

s ome action o f o u r o wn It involve s further th e co n cepti on

.
, ,

o f a r e lation of depende n ce a fe eli n g ( at rs t ob s cure and

,

vague , no doubt) a n d a cognition ( its elf s ubject to develop

,

me n t u n der the growi n g power of i n tellect ) of dependent

con n ectio n b e twe e n th e s e s ame two clas s e s o f phenomena .

The s e a n d all the othe r element s of thi s conception of causa

,

tio n origi n ate in ou r actual and concrete experience of the

,

relatio n s of body and mind .

Third thi s popular a n d u nive r s al conception of cau s atio n

,

is metaphy s ical fro m the start ; an d it i s al way s s o , u n til it is

the oretically s tripped o f its metaphysical i mport by proce s s e s
o f ab s traction that take it farthe r and farthe r away from

real ity a n d from life It i s a concepti on which cannot b e

.

formed at all without the k n owledge of our s el ves really being ,

really acti n g a n d being act e d upon of actual p sychical ener ,

g i z i n g and s u ff e ring ; and all the s e conception s are them

s el ve s d u e to the met aphy s ical working o f mind H ere .
,

again it i s the s e two bei n gs body and min d i n who s e recip

, , ,

r o c a l l y determining activities an d cha n ge s an d in our actual ,

l iving experie n ce o f th e m the conception of cau s ation r st

,

originate s The s e called s cie n ti c conc e ption of cau s ation

.
-

a s merely a qua n titative rel ation ( capable of bei n g s tated i n

m athematical formula s ) b e tween u n iformly s eque n t ph e nom

en a i s s o far a s i t i s non metaphy s ical a parti a l a n d s chola s
,
~
,

tic co n ception I t i s voi d of reality u nwarra n ted by l ife

.
, .

Fou rth the conception of cau s atio n i s appli e d to the con

,

comitant or succe s s ive c h ange s which go on i n other thi n gs ,

th rough a s e co n dary a n d analogical p roj ection i n to them of

our experie nce with o u r s elve s a s b oth body and mi n d It h a s ,
.
,

i n i ts mo s t pri m itive form all the lifelike warmth a n d meta

,

phy s ical i mport which b e l o n g to the experience from which

i t i s chi e y d e rived Thi n g s are now regard e d a s age n t s and
.
,

a s s u ff e ri n g fro m each o th e r s action aft e r the patt e r n o f our

,

se l v es I n thi s more s eco n dary and projected s phere of i t s

.
 M I ND AND B ODY 23 3

a pplication too the principle of cau s ation asse rt s the reality

, ,

o f th e being s who s e actio n s reciprocally a e c t each othe r .

Fifth the later a n d more ab s tract conception s of cau s ation

, ,

and of i ts la w or pri n ciple are all generalized fro m the s ame

,

actual and concrete e xperience s They ca n n e ver a cqu i r e a.

d ie r e n t i mp or t f r om tha t of th e p f r om wh i ch th e
ex e r i en ces
y
a r e d e r i ve d The more ab s tract they are made in th e s up
po s ed intere st s o f s cience , the more dou btful or impo ss ible
do e s it become to tell with what that an s wer s to a n ything
concrete and real o u r thought s hall ll up their otherwi s e
empty te rm s I ndeed i n their mo s t ab s tract form s the
.
, ,

s cienti c co n ceptions of cau s ation are s o ho s tly a s to be

g
s carc e ly recognizable b y the parentage to which their origin
is due .

S ixth thi s proce ss of ab s traction it s elf the variou s c on ce p

, ,

tion s of cau s ation as well a s the d i ffe rent s tatements of its

l aw , and all the particular causal relatio n s which are suppo s ed
t o be mai nt a i n ed i n natu re s how the work o f i n tellect u pon
,

the vari ou s it e m s of experie n c e looki n g toward thei r explana

,

tion a n d u n i cation into a systemati c whole Science it s elf .

i s , therefore o n ly a sy s t e m o f ab s traction s u nle s s we admit

,

the metaphy s ical i mport and validity o f the work of the

human i n tell e ct H e r e too for concrete lling a s it were ,
.
, , ,

we are al way s oblige d to go back to tho s e ve ry s ame e x pe r i

e n c e s i n which the known cau s al relatio n s o f body a n d mi n d

play the importa n t part A ll s cie n ti c s tat e m e n t s o f the

.

principl e o f cau s atio n all w a y s of phra s ing the l aw o f the con

,

s e rvation and c orr e lation o f e n ergy e n d i n word s em t

p y
, ,

w or d s , u n l e ss we put i n to th e m meaning that tak e s hold on

life and r e ality But to get s uc h m e a n i n g a n d s o to tell

.
,

what that i s r e a l what that i s anything more th a n barre n

,

ab straction s the meaning of th e s e s tate ment s i s we mu s t

, ,

re s ort to ou r e xperience with our s elve s A nd a s h a s al re ady .

,

be e n r e peat e dly s aid thi s e xpe rie n ce s o far a s it has a bear

, ,

ing o n the conception and the pri n ciple i n di s pute , i s ever

23 4 M I ND AND B ODY

chie y with ours elve s as body and mind . We r e i t n ot f o r t he

ex
p er i e n ce o f mi n d a s sel f -
a c t i ve a nd
y e t a s d ep e n d en t up on
bodi ly c ha ng e s f or i ts p a r ti cu la r ex
p er i en c e s , a n d of bod
y as
d ep e n d en t f or i t s p a r ti cu la r c ha ng es f u
p on s ta te s o m i n d , we
s hou l d n e ve r ha v e a n y con ce t i on of ca u sa ti on , o r any s o called
p
-

s cientic pri n ciple o f cau s ation o r any l a w o f the co n serva ,

tion a n d correlation of energy o r e ven any di s pute a s to ,

whether the notion o f cau s ation applie s properly to the rela

tion s o f body and mind Ca u sa l i ty i s m ost or ig i n a lly a n d
.

c on cr e te l f er i e n ce o
r e la ti on s betw e en bod
y a n ex
p y n d mi n d
a .

Seventh the attempt to frame s ome ab s tract s tatement o f

,

the law of cau s ation s o as to annul the force of the ve ry

e xperien ce i n which the n otion o f cau s ation origi n ate s is ,

ill ogical and ab s u rd It will also al way s be vain whe th e r

.
,

i ts illogicality a n d ab s urdity be detected or n ot It i s pre .

c i s ely thi s attempt which i s made h owever wh e n we are told , ,

in the name o f the principle of the con s er vation and correla

tion o f energy s o called that the body and the mi n d ca n n ot be
,

cau s ally rel ated C a n n ot i ndeed "whe n it i s the e x pe r i

.
,

ence of thi s very r el atio n that h a s give n birth b y a s erie s ,

o f ab s tr a ctio n s which have taken it farther a n d farther away

from l ife a n d reality to the alleged s cienti c pri n ciple On

,
.

the co n trary we a s k: H ow ca n a pri n cipl e l ike that o f the

,

co n s ervatio n a n d correlatio n of phy s ical e n ergy whi ch it self ,

re sult s only fro m ge n eralization s withi n a l imited and relatively

doubtful s phere acquire the force nece ss ary to co n tradict the
,

plain import of fact s from which the g e ne ralizations them

s e lve s s t art a n d i n which they have thei r only real s upport
,

a n d very life ?

The po sitio n ju s t taken i s s ound and s ecure i n defe n ce ,

whether the attack upon it be made by the s tudent of phy s

ical s cie n ce who give s a merely phen ome n al o r by o n e wh o ,

accept s s ome met a phy s ical inte rpretation o f thi s l aw In the

, .

former ca s e we recur at once to the po s ition that ph e n om e

,

n a l i s m mu s t n ot prate about what can o r cannot be on ,
 M I ND AND B ODY 23 5

ground s of known d i ff e rence i n real kind s of bei n g s who s e r e la

tio n s are u n der con s ideration On ground s of mere correlation
.

o f ph e n omena as phenome n a it i s preci s ely tho s e phe n omen a

,

call e d bodily and mental which mo s t s ugge s t a n d e n force the

relatio n of causation In the latte r case however that meta
.
, ,

phy s ics of phy s ics which s tate s i ts co n clu s ion s in a law of the
con s e rvation a n d correlation of e n ergy can never s tand the
s hock of ho s tile encou n te r with the vigorou s and univer s al
'

metaphy s ic s which i n terpret s i n term s of reality the e x pe r i

, ,

e nce from which it i s it s elf deri ved The pale and bl oodle s s
.

child begotte n by co m merce of a god with a cloud can n ever

, ,

de s troy its own divine progenitor I n fact men do conti nue

.
,

to believ e and wil l continue to believe that the body is i n

, ,

re ality d i e r e n t fro m the mi n d ; and that these two are con

s ta n tly i nuencing and cau s ing cha n ge s of s tates in each

other.

Thi s popular metaphy s ic s i s of cour s e s ub s tantially that o f

, ,

the duali s m with which it w a s s aid i n the earlier ch a pter s the

, ,

u n pre j udiced study of p sychology a s a natural s cience begin s .

It woul d appear then that the s tudy of empi rical p sychology

, ,

end s with the retention of the same d uali stic po s itio n with
which it begin s N or whe n philo s ophical re ectio n i s a ppli e d
.

to th e f a ct s of p sychology with a vie w to determine what i s

,

meant by the reality , identity and unity of the mind ( and of

,

thing s i n their relation s to mi n d ) d oe s there app e ar a s yet

,

any rea s on to alter thi s po s ition M et a phy s ical di s cu ss io n

.
,

howev e r h a s al ready greatly altered ou r conce ptio n s a s to

,

what i s prope rly meant by s uch term s a s reality identity , ,

u nity, etc . It h a s al s o alte red the na i ve co n ceptio n of

wh a t i s me ant by cau s ati on an d kindred term s ; a n d it h a s ,

even more pertine n tly called atte n tio n to the real mean
,

ing of the s ame term s a s employed by modern phy s ical

s c i ence.

We might be content to leave the que stion of the rela

tio n s of body and mind as a philo s ophical d i s cus s ion ba s ed
,
interpretation to the re s ults of p sychological s cience , or

even perhap s to give the only permi s s ibl e interpretati on to

, ,

ce rtai n cl a s s e s of the s e re s ult s

. I t i s nece s s ary then to
, ,

pa s s in review the cla s s es of fact s that e s pecially require

expla n ation ; and also to e xamine critically the metaphy s i cal
theorie s whic h g ive another than d u ali s tic interpretation
of the facts .
 C H APTE R V III

MIND A ND B O DY ( con ti n u ed)

H E R E are three m ai n cla s s e s of phen omena the s cientic

treatment of which i s nece s s ary i n ord er to give a
ba s i s in p s ychol ogical facts t o th e philo s ophical di s cu s s ion
o f th e relation s ,
i n reality betwee n th e min d and the body
, .

The fi r s t of the s e compri ses all tho s e exp e riences whi ch l e ad

men to conceive of both mind and body a s really e xi s tent ,

and s o capabl e of being oppo s ed o r d ependently related to

e ach other For u nles s there were s om e ground i n e x pe r i
.

ence for as signing a certain dual ity of re a l being to ou r s elve s ,

tho s e ve ry que s tio ning s would never ari s e which M ateriali s m

and M onism answe r by denying the real ity of thi s dual ity .

I n other word s a proce s s of diremption actually aecom

,

p l i s h e d,
a di s tinction i n con s ci ou s n e s s and the co n s cious r e

l ating of the two cla ss e s of phenomena t o two sort s of s ubj ect s ,

i n s ome way and i n s ome re s pect s at l e a st Oppo s ed i s

, , ,

a nece s s ary pre s uppo s ition of the philo s ophical d e bate that
en sue s A s a matte r of fact it will be s hown that both M a
.

te r i a l i s m a n d M oni s m i n thei r cu s tomary form s commit a

, ,

kind of ha r a k -
i r i with thi s very two ed ged s word
-
.

Th e s eco n d important cl a ss of phenome n a i nvolved i n any

compr e hen s ive di s cu ss ion of the real relation s of body a n d
mind con si st s of tho s e changes of mental state s ( s tate s of con
s c i ou sn e s s a ss igned to the s ubject o f all s tates the so called
,
-

E g o o r M ind ) which are dependently connect e d with precedin g

,

k nown change s i n th e bodily organ s Expres s ed in terms to

.
238 M I ND AND B ODY

s uit the popular impre ss ion a va s t nu mber of ou r experience s

, ,

coveri n g variou s s ubordi n ate kind s s ho w the con s tant a n d ,

perva s ive inuence of the body ov e r the mind But moder n .

phy s i ological and p sycho phy s ical s cience a s s umes that o n ly

-

a s the l e s s central bodily chang e s get them s elve s e xpre s s ed in

cha n ges within the cerebral he mi s pheres do they d irectly

i n ue n ce states of con s ci ou s ne ss The more s cienti c form .

o f i n quiry therefore concer n s tho s e particular antecedent o r

, ,

concomitant ch an ge s in b rai n s tate s o n which particul ar phe

-

n om e n a o f con s ciou s ne s s depend Thi s d e pende n ce of cour s e

.
, ,

may fall u n der various form s of relation s uch as tho s e of ,

kind ( or qual ity ) of i nten s i ty of time rate an d temporal order

, ,
-
,

o f s ynthe s i s or f u s ion of partial proce s s e s i nto more com

plex proce s s e s of recu rrence of s imilar processe s etc The s e

, , .

are the ph e nomena which the materialisti c solution of the

proble m of body and mi n d s ele ct s for co n s ideration ; which it
e mpha s ize s to the relative or complete ex clu s i on of all other

ph e n ome n a ; and which it then with a on e s ide d and u n cr i ti

,
-

c a l metaphy s ic s e mploy s to e s tabli s h i ts peculiar vie w of the

,

r e al r e lation s of tho s e being s to which the phenome n a are

popularly a ss igned In doi n g thi s howeve r the materiali s ti c
.
, ,

hypoth e s i s too often show s i ts complete inability to compre

he n d th e s ign i ca n ce of the other cla ss e s o f phe n omena A nd .

s i n c e th e que s tion which it undertake s to an s w e r only acquire s

i ts m e a n i n g a s a re s ult of the development o f the con s ciou s

ne s s of Self ( with all the s elf activity and concretely known
-

reality o f bei n g whi ch thi s development involve s) the material ,

i s ti c ans w e r virtually con s i s t s in denying the pri mary term s

o f the p robl e m.

Th e t hird cla ss of experience s whi ch any th orough di s cus

s ion o f th e r e lation s in reality , betwee n body and mind mu s t
,

con s ider i s the rever s e a s it we r e o f the foregoi n g It com

, , .

pri s e s al l tho s e changes i n the conditions and s tate s of bodily

organ s wh i ch appear to be dependently connected with pre
vion s known changes in the state s of con s ciou sne s s A ccor d .
 M I ND AND B ODY 9

ing to the popular way of ex pre s s i n g the conclu s ion from

the s e experience s the mi n d h a s an i nu e nce o ver the body
, .

If n o w on e attempt s to give a more preci s e s cie n ti c s tate

, ,

me n t t o this s omewhat vague and too general statement on e ,

m u s t go on to sho w what are th e antecedent or co n comitant

change s i n con s ciou s ne ss that determine particular brain
s tate s . Or s ince on thi s point our s cienti c knowl e dge of the
,

s econd term i n the s equence i s and probably mu s t r e mai n , ,

rather limited o n e mu s t note chie y the more periph e rally

,

located bodily cha n ge s The s e too consi st of variou s form s

.
, ,

o f relation s s uch a s tho s e of ki n

,
d , of inten s ity o f ti me ,

rate and temporal order of sy n the s i s or fu s ion of partial ,

proce sse s into more complex proce ss e s and of recurrence of ,

s i milar proce ss e s It is these s eque n ce s in phenomen a when

.
,

regarded s olely from th e p sychological point of view whi ch a ,

moni stic S pi rituali s m s elect s chiey to regard ; and s o it i n ,

turn frame s i ts on e s id e d metaphy s ical hypothe s is

,
-
.

It will doubtle s s occa s ion s ome s urprise that the very de

c i s i v e clas s o f phe n om e na which are s uppo s ed to con s i s t of a

s trictly concomita n t corr e lation betwee n s e called me n tal and -

s o called bodily cha n ge s are not e s pecially empha s ized at the

-
,

very begi n ni n g of ou r di s cu ss ion For it i s upon the b a s i s o f .

such an alleged correlation ab s olute th roughout a n d com ,

pr e hen s ive enough to embrace all tho s e experience s which the

d i s cu s s io n of the real relation s of body a n d mi n d nee ds to
take into account that mode rn M o n i s m claim s to build .

This met a physica l theory i s indeed fo n d of refe rri n g i n a , , ,

p roud o r in a sh y way to Spinoza a s i ts great progenito r

, .

But of course Spinoza kne w little o r nothing o f that s cience

, ,

o f p sycho phy s ic s and phy s iol ogical p s ychol ogy which h a s all
-

been i n ductively e stabli shed s ince h i s day Thi s philosopher , .

i n re spect of h is view s of the relation s of body a n d mind was ,

i n th e main the unin structed followe r o f the C art e s i a n phi

l o s oph y Thi s statement i s e s pecially true o f the Spinozistic
.

doctrine of s ub s tance and its a ss umptions ( undoubtedl y fal s e

,
24 0 M I ND AND B ODY

and mi sleading ) a s to the nature an d s i gni ca n ce of the prin

ci pl e o f cau s ation On thi s la st poi nt it would be di fcult
.
,

indeed to reg a rd Spi n oza as the ge nui n e ance s tor of the

,

mode rn s cienti c doctrine It woul d n ot be dif cult to

.

sh ow , however that it is really a similar a p r i or i poi n t of

,

view i n s t e ad of the nece s s ity for a s cienti c interpreta

,

tion of the phe n omena which larg ely determine s h i s modern

.

admirers .

The r e a s on s why the pheno mena of so call e d concomitant

correlatio n are not at once empha s ized a s compri s i n g the
cla ss of facts to b e e s peci ally taken i nto account a n d why they ,

are not eve n put on a p ar with the three cla s s e s of phe n om

ena whi ch have bee n mentioned we are n ot at all loath to ,

g i ve We are s imply adheri n g to ou r purpo s e to go back a n d

.

nd a b a s i s for metaphy s ical di s cu s s ion in the mo s t u n de n i a bl e

f act s of a s cienti c p s ych ol ogy N ow str i ctly sp ea k i ng ther e
.
, ,

a r e n o s u ch i m m e d i a te ly kw no n a n d u n d en i a bl e
f a c ts a s c or r e

s
p on d t o t he m o d e r n co n c e
p t i on o f a s tr i ctl
y co n c om i ta n t c or r e

s o- ca l l e d m en ta l and s o- ca ll ed bodi ly p hen om en a

l a t i on f o .

From the very nature of the ca s e no such fact s exi s t to be

ob s erv e d ; from the very nature of the ca s e ther e n eve r can be
ob s ervati o n obtai ned o f s uch fact s A n d thi s i s true for two .

( if no more ) i n di sputabl e rea s on s In th e r s t place the two .

,

cl a s s e s of phe n omena to be related are both fou n d within th e

sam e s tream of con s ci ou s ne s s ; a n d thi s stre a m i s o f s uch a
character that it permit s a kn owledge by s el f co n s ci ou s ne ss ,
-

and memory , o n ly o f regular se qu e n ces o f s tat e s Some of .

the se s tate s mu st i ndeed be con s ide red a s perc e ived ch a n ges

, ,

i n my ow n bodily organ s ; other s o f them mu s t be r e garded a s

self co n s ci ou sly re cogniz e d change s in tho se f e e l i n g s th ou gh ts
-

, ,

pu rpo s e s , etc , which I come to attribute to the S e lf On

. .

the ba s is o f such known sequence s a s w a s s een i n th e la s t

chapter the r m popul ar conviction that b ody and mind

are cau s ally related i s built up But n e ve r doe s th e s ubj ect .

of all s tate s detect or remember two a r a lle l e rie s of
p s
 M I ND AND B ODY 24 1

cha n ges running on

,
ide by s ide i n the on e stream of con
s

sc i o s
u n es s on e o f which it i s compelle d to a s sign to the
,

b e ing called my body a n d the othe r to the subject of s tates

,

c a lled my mi n d .

H e re it i s important to refer to actual experience as i t oc

cu r s i n th e localizi n g o f o u r s ensation complexe s an d bodily -

fe e ling s a n d to th e the ory of perception which s uch e x pe r i

,

e n ce ju sti e s S o far as thi s experien ce con s i s ts of an i mme

.

diate k n owledge of the condition of certai n peripheral portions

o f the body and o f the s equent cha n ge s in the feeling s i dea s , ,

and pu rpo s es there can be no doubt a s to i ts nature or a s to

,

i ts e ffect .I se e f or example that a bee light s upon my

, ,

ha n d or that my ha n d h a s come i n contact with a heate d

,

s urface ; a n d i mmediat e ly after I feel the peculiar pai n s o f

bei n g s tung o r of being burned i n that place I n all s uch .

cas e s the more objective localizatio n of sight and the more

s ubjective localization o f touch ( in the mo s t general meaning

o f the latte r word ) c o operate to empha s ize the recognition

-

of s tate s o f con s ciou s ness a s dependently connected i n time

with antecedent bodily conditio n s But in the ca s e of change s .

in co n s ciou s ne ss that are depe n dent upon co n ditions of the

int e rnal orga n s o f the body thi s relati on o f u niform s e quence
,

i s not ordi n arily a matte r of experience in the s ame way .

C ertain s e n s ation s that have a s trong tone o f pleasu rable o r

painful feeli n g are k n own only by tou ch and not by s ight ; ,

th e y are localized a s painful or plea s u rable feelings i n the

internal organ s of the body and thi s as a conditi on of
, ,

thei r ri se i n to con s ciou s ne ss at all In s uch c ase s also h o w

.
,

ever the d e pendence of the state s of con s ciousne s s on th e

,

an te cedent condition of the bodily organs may ofte n be

,

brought out by for example pre s s ing with ou r ow n hand s ,

or being otherwi s e pre sse d upon the s urface s beneath which

the a ffected organs lie I n s uch ca se s the dependent s equence

.

of bodily s ensation s and painful feeling s i s emphasized in a

more objective way The impres s ion is thu s strengthened

.

16
242 M I ND AND B ODY

that how I f ee l depend s u pon how m y org a n s a r e a e cte d
by age n cie s lying out s ide the stream of co n s ciousne ss .

It i s quite u n n ece ss ary to e xhibit here the evide n ce o n

which modern phy s iological a n d p sycho phy s ical s ci e nce h a s -

reached the conclu s ion that i t i s the brai n with i t s content s ,

o f hi ghly orga n ized nervou s s ub s tance ( a n d e s pecially the

cerebral hemi s phere s ) which i s the sole i ntimate a n d i mme

,

diate physical correlate of the changing s tate s of con s ci ou s

ne ss It i s preci s ely thi s i n terior portion of the body how
.
,

e ver a bout the condition o r even the e xi st e nce of which on e

,

h a s lea s t rea s on to e n te rtai n a s u s picion from the ch aract e r ,

o f the changes i n the s tream of con s ciou s ne s s The m odern .

man i ndeed with h i s ove r charged nervou s co n s titution

, ,
-

a n d over s trung nervou s action may experience a variety

-
,

of painful f e eli n gs which he l ocalize s i n the region of the

head But rarely , or neve r does anything occur i n h i s ex

.
,

e r i e n c e which give s hi m any info rm ation with re s pect to the

p
great s ign icance o f the content s a n d conditio n s of h i s cranial
cavity Fo r aught that h e k n ow s or i s t e mpte d to conj ee
.
,

ture the s tu ff withi n th e u n yielding bon e s o f h i s s kull
,

may be of all the i n te r n al portio n s o f h i s body t h e mo s t

, ,

i ndi ffer e nt to h i s welfare H i s experi e nce with tho s e percep

.

tio n s who s e orga n s are s eated i n the exterior of th e head and ,

e s pecially with th e eye s would i n deed lead hi m to regard the

,

mind o r s oul a s s omehow located i n s ide th e s kull but ab o ut

, ,

the obj e cti ve a s pect o r objective exi ste n c e which i s call e d

the brai n nothing whatever c a n be got ou t of the ordinary
,

con s ciou s n e s s .

It follow s therefore that i n stead of an ab s olute c on c om i

, ,

tance of the t w o s e rie s of phenom e n a the bodily s tates

and the s tate s o f con s ciou s ne ss bei n g e s tabli sh e d by ord i
nary experi e nce s uch a concomitance is n ot ev e n very oh
,

v i ou sly s ugge s ted It certainly can never a s it were h e g ot

.
, ,

i nto term s o f actual experience for the normal a n d u n pr eju

diced con s ciou s ne ss This is on e chief rea s on why M oni s m
.
 M I ND AND B ODY 24 3

is, and mu st remain even if it should e s tablish itself upon a

,

sure s ci e n ti c foundation a s chola s ti c doctrine What every

, .

man b e li e ve s i s that certai n bodily c onditio n s i nuence o r ,

cau s e the following ch a n ge s i n the mind ; and , j u s t a s ce r

,

t a i n ly that certain s tate s of co n s ciou s ne s s s determine or

, ,

cau s e the followi n g bodily co n ditio n s .

I t i s o nly by a complicated and d oubtful network o f infer

e n ce s that the k nowledge or even the conception o r s u s
pi c i on of a s trictly concomitant correl ation b e t ween brai n
s tate s and s tate s of con s ciou s n e ss i s reached This s tat e m e nt.

introduce s the s eco n d of the two co n s iderations to which

att e n tion s hould be called Without certain important meta
.

phy s ical a ss umptio n s , it i s di f c u lt o r even i mpo s s ible to s ee

h ow thi s nece s s ary w ork of i n ference i s to be accompli shed .

For let it be re membered that no o n e eve r under a n y circu m ,

st a nce s actual o r concei vable has o r can h ave an i mmediate

,

knowledge of concomitant and correl ated brai n s tate s a n d s tates -

of con s ci ou s ne s s The correlation its elf i s and mu s t al way s

.
,

remain nothing better than a conj ectur e d connection between

,

known s equ e n ce s in con s ciou s n e ss ( part of which pr e s ent

th e m s elve s a s bodily s tate s a n d part a s my fe e li n gs ) a n d i n
ferred s equ e nce s o f a quite conj ectural order i n an in ferred
, ,

or hypothetical entity called the b rain In the r s t ch a pter.

( pp . 2 8 f ) we
. e xpo s ed the very ill s ucce s s which M Flourn oy .

h a s i n de s troying all m e taphy s ics by the teeth o f h i s p sycho

phy s ical Janu s that i s by thi s very principle of s trict
, ,

co n comit a nt correlati on of the t wo cla ss e s of phen om e na .

We have ju s t see n that actu ally ou r ex peri e nce o f the t wo

cl a s s e s o f phenom e n a wh o s e e xi s tence demand s th at e x pl a
,

n a tion which the pri n ci pl e o f correlation i s thought to a or d ,

i s o n e rathe r o f a dep e ndent s equence in con s ciou s n e ss The .

co n clu s ion s e e m s to follo w that thi s alleged empirical law

requires , for i ts e f cient working an e xtraordinarily elaborate
,

equipme n t o f m e taphysi cal as s umptions In stead of d evou r .

ing other metaphy s ic s because it i s the voraciou s e nemy of

24 4 MI N D AND B ODY

all metaphysic s , i t cannot maintain it s elf without devouring

n o little met a phy sics i n the intere s t s of i ts ow n s uppor t I ts .

ve ry l ife blood demand s metaphy s ical pabulum ; for we r e

-
,

peat on e en ti r e ha lf of the t heor y of con com i ta n t cor r e la
,

ti on s be twe en m en ta l p hen om e n a a n d br a i n cha ng e s con si s ts -

f conj e c tu r a l s e u e n ce s i n t he be h a vi or o
f a n i nf e r r e d en ti t
y
o
q .

This half at lea s t , can not thri ve o n food s upplied by a con

,

si stent phenome n alism H o w i n c o n s equential actually i s

.

mu ch of the metaphy s ical import that i s r s t put into thi s

pri n ciple , a n d then extracte d from i t will appear i n the ,

following chapte rs .

A t the same time we do not begi n ou r metaphy sical di s cus

sion by de n yi n g the alleged facts on which the the ory of con
comitant correlation s between body and mind i s ba s ed On .

the co n trary , we have i n othe r treati s e s made a s omewhat

1
d etailed i nve s ti gation of th e m as fact s I n thi s connectio n , , .

o f course , their h e a r i n g upon the s peculative doctrine o f mi nd

i s peculiarly in uential They will th erefore , be carefully

.
,

tak en into the accou nt at the proper time The true s cienti c .

approach to thi s di s cu s si o n h owever still s eem s to u s to lie , ,

through the r e cognition a n d appreciation o f tho se three cla s ses

o f e xperience s a bout the exi s tence of which there can be n o

di s pute The s e have been declare d to be : ( 1 ) The fact s o f

.

experie nce on the ba s i s of which all me n di sti ngui sh mind

an d body so that the proble m of thei r real rel ation s come s
,

unde r di s cu s s ion at all ; ( 2) The fact s o f experience w hich

l ead all me n to suppo s e that th e body inuence s , or cau s e s ,

change s i n the mind ; a n d ( 3 ) Th e complementary fact s of

experience which equ ally lead all men to s uppo s e th at the
mind in uence s or cau s e s , change s i n the condition o f the
,

body .

or

That wonderful b i partition diremption of the
-

1 hr w rk El m t
I n the t ee o s, e en s o f P h ysi ol ogi ca l Psych ol ogy 188 7
, Ou t
li f P h y i l gi l P y h l gy
nes o s o o ca s c o o , 1 8 9 1 ; a n d P sych ol ogy Descrip t iv e a n d
,

E xpl t ry
"
189 4
an a o , .
 M I ND AND B ODY 24 5

states of consciou s ne ss which res u lts in the concept s of a body

a n d a mi n d so tha t the t wo may be regard e d a s i n s ome s ort
,

related exi s tence s is undoubtedly the re s ult of a proce ss of

,

development I n deed if anything violent o r nece ss arily

.
, ,

s udden a n d s tartling i s s ugge s ted by the word

, d ir e mption ,

it s hould perhaps n ot be employe d at all By s uch a ter m i t .

i s de s ig n ed to s ignify the completene s s of the s eparatio n

which may take place a s the re s ultant of this p roce ss of
development .

The formation of the concept of mind i t s basi s its nature , -

,

a n d its s tage s in evolution h a s already been di s cu s s ed i n a

preceding chapter ( III ) The parallel p sychological hi story

.

of the developing conception o f a Thi n g as n ot s el f as -
,

e xte rnal to the S e lf and extended before the Self cannot here ,

1
be traced in detail But certain importa n t point s to be note d
.

i n the proce s s of acquiring that more o r le ss di s ti n ct bi parti -

tion of Self and the body regarded a s a thi ng sta n di ng i n ,

ecu li a r r e l a ti on s t o t he S e lf which all adults have may here

p , ,

be borrowe d fro m the de s criptive and explanatory s cience of

p sychology Thi s will nece ss itate the reference again a l
.
,

though from a d i ff er e nt point of view to experience s that have ,

already been brought to ou r atte n ti on more than o n ce .

A s r e s pect s i t s object s knowl e dge i s e ither of Thi n g s o r of

,

Self The di s ti n ction between S e lf and Things become s only

.
,

a s a re s ult o f the development o f cog n itio n , s o clear a n d s o

fundam e ntal that it appear s to ordinary think i n g to be o rigi

nal ,
a n d to b e long to the v e ry condition s o f e xperie n ce a s

w e ll a s to the nature of reality Th e s ane adult neve r con .

fu s e s him s e lf with thing s ; the very qu e stion how he came to ,

make and maintain s o con s i stently thi s di stinctio n s e e m s to ,

hi m to savor o f i rratio n ality Both the co n tent of con .

s c i o u s n e s s a n d the general tone of con s ciousne s s are o bje c

tive o r e xte rnally d irected and focu sed as it were in ou r
, , ,

knowledge of any thing The mea n ing a n d beari n g of s uch a

.

1 B ut see

Psych ol ogy , Desc riptiv e and E xpl a na to ry ,
"
c h pt r xv
a e s . a n d x vi .
24 6 M I ND AND BODY

s tateme nt can be under s tood only by con side rin g it i n the

light of all that h a s thu s far been s aid re s pecting tho se mental

proce ss e s which e n ter i n to o u r s o called exte rnal knowledge-

.

Fo r example wh at are the di s tingui shing characteri sti c s o f

,

my mental state s when I am examinin g a o wer watchi n g a ,

S pec t acle or looking through a micro s cope or again when I

, , ,

am feeling a s urface lifti n g a weight or pu s hin g a l awn

, ,

mower ? A s re s pect s co n t e n t of co n s ciou s ne s s tho s e s e rie s of ,

sensation s notably of the e ye and of touch including mus ,

onlar and j oint s en s atio n s that have a predomi n ati n g obje c

t i vi ty are determining the o w of the s tream of con s ciou s n e s s ;
attention i s bei n g concentrated on the l ocali zed and proj e cted
s en s ation complexe s ; the i mages revived and fu s ed with the
-

sen s ation s are chie y repre s entative of pa s t s e n s ation s ; a n d

the condensed p sychological j udgment s that take place have
reference to changes experie n ced o r expected i n the s en s ation
, ,

complexe s M oreover , the more co n ceptual element s of the

.

mental state s uch a s the nami n g and cla s s ifyi n g of and con ,

cluding about the object are s uch a s connect it with othe r

similar or u nlike things That i s to s a y i t i s v i su a l a n d
.
,

ta ctu a l s e n s a ti on -
c om
p l ex e s, wi th the m e m or i e s , i m a g i n i ng s ,
thoug hts , a nd r e a son i ng s f
r e e r r i ng to s en sa t i on - ex
p er i en c e s ,

whi c h c ha r a cter i ze t he f lled ex ter n a l c og ni t i on

con ten t o s o- ca .

M oreover the feeling tone an d conative activity of thi s s tate

,
-

of kn owi n g a thi n g di ff e r s m arkedly from the a f fective a n d

volitional a s pect s of di s tinctively s elf con s ciou s state s The -

.

a ff ective accompani me n ts are n ot so much intere sting in them

s el ve s because oi thei r plea s urable o r painful tone a s they are
, ,

fe e ling s of s en s ation s feelin gs which a ss i s t i n di s criminati n g

,

more e ff ectively th e obj e ct s of the sen s e perceptive activity -

.

C onative co n s ciou s ne ss is al s o very di fferent whe n the obj ect

of cognition i s some thing rather than some s tate of the S e lf .

Thi s i s true , not s imply with re s pect to the d irection o f atten

ti on u pon the di fferent parts and changing pha s e s of t h e per
c e i v e d object ; it i s al s o true with re s pect to the entire
 M I ND AND B ODY 24 7

conditi on of depende n ce upon volition which i s characteri sti c

of the obj e ct I cannot w i ll change s i n thing s thei r relation s
.
,

and th e ir qualitie s a s I can will cha n ge s i n my o wn s tat e s

,
.

The k n owledge which i s of Self di ffe r s from th e k n owl

edge which s e n s e p e rception bri n g s both a s re s pect s cont e n t
-
,

of co n s ciou s n e s s a n d general to n e of con s ciou s ne s s Th i s .

k wl
no e dg e h a s i ts c on t e n t n ot c hi ef ly i n s e n s a ti on s a t a ll , bu t i n

f e e li ng s or v ol i ti on s The s e n s uous
m e n ta l i m a g e s , t houg hts , ,
.

eleme n t s of co n s ciou s ne ss e s pecially tho s e o f th e mo s t de

,

n i t e ly localized a n d clearly proj e cted s ort are r e latively s u p ,

pre s s ed I n predomi nati n g s tate s of s elf co n s cious n e s s the

.
-

s e n s ation s a r e of the vague u nlocalized ord e r which are , ,

attributable to my s e lf a s a s e nti e nt organi s m rath e r tha n to ,

any objective thi n g B ut e s pecially i s the attention d irect e d to

.

fe e li n g s which are int e r e s ti n g to me a s m y feeling s becau s e of ,

thei r tone of e ithe r plea s ur e o r pain In thi s way , by the .

inue n ce o f feeli n g over atte n tion one often pa sse s back and ,

forth betw e e n the objective a n d the s ubjective a s pect s o f the

s ame experi e nce For example , whe n one i s i n a bath o n e
.

f e el s the temperatu r e of the water a s the qu a lity of a n e xternal

thing ; but if it i s greatly too cold o r too h ot on e become s ,

aware of one s s elf a s s u ff ering with t he pain of heat o r cold

.

It i s l arge ly becau s e of th e ir ordi n arily ton e le s s character a s

feeling s that o u r vi s ual s en s ation complexe s are cu s tomarily -

1
k n own a s qualiti e s of external thi n gs .

N ow th e k nowi n g of th e bodily organi s m qu oa d body i s i n

, , ,

no r e s p e ct di fferent from the knowing of a ny othe r thi n g It .

i s a s e xternal and e xt e nd e d
out a n d s pread out for my
,
-

o w n con s ciou s n e s s wheth e r the frami n g of thi s con s ciou s

,
-

ne s s b e chi e y i n term s o f s en s ation o r of i m a gin atio n o r of

thou ght that my bo dy be com e s a n object of k n owledge for
,

me . I n n o oth e r way th a n a s a thing doe s t h i s particular

obj e ct become known a s body ; an d thi s is a s true o f the
inter n al organ s if only th e y are to be regarded a s parts of th e
,

1
P sych ol o gy , Desc rip t iv e an d E xpl ana t o ry pp
, . 5 19 f .
24 8 M I ND AND B ODY

body a s it i s of the mo s t Obviou s s upe r cial area s The alte r

, .

native pre s ented to cognition then i s n ot between a thing

, ,

that i s n ot mi n d and a thi n g that i s s omeho w more e s pecially

-

m i n d becau s e it i s my body ; the alternative i s between tha t

,

thi n g which become s k n own to me a s my body and thos e

o ther thing s that al s o become known to me a s thi n g s through
, ,

their relation s to the body I n othe r word s t h e p e culiarity

.
,

of the ca s e does not co n s i s t i n the peculi ar ualication s of

q
the thi n g known but i n the peculiar relations i n which thi s
,

particular thing (or syste m of thing s ) s tand s to the s tates of

co n s ci ou s ne ss N or d oe s the proce ss of d e velopi n g a k n owl
.

edge of one s o wn body e mpha s ize it a s le ss r e ally havi n g all
the s patial qualities which all thing s have It i s th e proce s s .

o f b i partition
-
o r diremption , which i s it s elf evolutionary ;
,

there i s no evol ution bridging over the cha s m between mi nd

( as such ) an d things ( a s s uch ) A t thi s point again we
.
, ,

m ay protably co n s ult the conclu s ion s of the s cience of

p sychology We re s ume the de s cripti on of thi s proce ss of
.

bipartition of experience between the Self and Thi n gs at the

poi n t at which it wa s left when tracing the development of
the con cept of mind ( s e e p
.

The d e v e l opm e n t of the knowledge of Self d o e s not
i nvol v e the po s s e s s io n Or th e empl oyment o f mental faculties
d i ffer e nt from tho s e which have been d e s crib e d ( th at i s i n ,

the acqui rin g of a knowl ed g e of things ) On the oth e r hand

.
,

all the s e s o called facultie s are exerci se d i n t h e grow th of

-

thi s kind o f k nowledge a s well a s i n the growth of the knowl

edg e of thi n g s From thi s ge n eral s tateme n t re s p e cting the
.

t r u e p s ychological doctri n e o f s elf knowledge s everal important

-

corollarie s follow : ( 1 ) I n the earlier s t a g es o f m e ntal life

n o p sycho s e s can be di s cover e d which a r e worthy to b e c a lled
a k nowi n g o f Self If we a dh e re to th e di s ti n ctio n al ready
.

i n si s t e d u pon betwee n con s ciou s ne s s an d develop e d s elf con -

sc i ou s n e s s
, we cannot p roperly a s cribe s elf con s ci o u s ne s s -

o r the immediate awarene ss and reference of any s tate to me

 M I ND AND B ODY 24 9

as my s tate to the i n fant mind ( 2) C ertain cla sse s of the .

elementary proce s s e s of me n tal life pos s e ss characteri s tic s

which focus attenti on upon them and which stimulate d i s ,

criminati n g con s ciou s ne s s to se t them apart as it wer e from , ,

other proce s se s in the s tream of con s ciou s ne s s S u ch char .

a c t e r i s t i c s are f u rni shed by the tone s of feeling a n d the

a mount s of conative activity w hich render p sycho s es s ubject

i v e ly int e re s ti n g On thi s ba s i s some state s of con s ci ou s ne ss

.
,

regarded merely a s s tate s , are tted to be a s cribed to the

s o call e d
-
Self a conception of which i s formed on the

,

ba s i s of experience chiey at rst with thi s very kind of , ,

con s ciou s s tate s ( 3 ) D evelopm

. e nt of the knowledge o f
S elf like that of the knowledge of Things follow s a certain
, ,

gene ral orde r which may b e s aid to be the order of nature

,

and e s s entially the s ame for all men A t the s ame time dif .

f e r e n t men and even di ff erent race s di ff e r quite a s mark e dly

, ,

i n th e i r conception s of Self a s i n their conception s of Thi n gs .

N or i s thi s di ffe r e nce con ned to co n c e ptual and i n ferential

knowl e dge of the E g o alo n e What L otze h a s vaguely called .

s el f feeling

-
i s by no mean s the s ame eithe r i n i ts comple x ,

quali cation s or i n i ts i nten s ity with all individual s o r ,

all race s M oreove r i na s much a s knowledge o f Self i s still

.
,

k n owle dg e , and s o i s subj e ct to all the conditio n s and law s

which make cognition i n general po ss ible the s elf knowledge ,

-

o f s ome i s more l arg e ly a matt e r o f i n tellection ; of oth e r s ,

more largely a matter of feeling ; of other s more largely a ,

matter o f co n ception su ffu s ed with predomi n ati n g motor con

s c i o u s n e ss . A nd ind e e d i f thi s we re n ot s o the k n owl e dge
, , ,

of Self woul d not be k nowledge at all ; for it would not cor

re s pond to the r e al ity In s ome men s actual l ive s ( th e ir real

.

bei n g) the empha s i s i s h a bitually laid u pon t h e i n t e llectual

a s pect ; i n other s u pon the e motio n al a s pect ; i n s till other s
, ,
1
upon the con ative a s pect of con s ciou s ne s s .

I t is a conclu s io n from this general statement which all ,

1 Psych ol ogy , De sc ript iv e and E xpl a na to ry pp , . 5 22 f

.
25 0 M I N D AND B ODY

the fact s o f ob s ervation warrant that the stages of s elf ,

co n s ciou sn e s s follow i n g e n eral c e rtain broadly marked l ine s

, , .

Of the s e s tage s the con s ummation o f the r s t i s re a ch e d when

the s e n tient body i s di s ti n gui s hed from other bodie s with
which it s t a nds i n changi n g relation s and which are not ,

th e m s elve s i mmediat e ly k n own a s s enti e n t The primary .

i n tellectual activity involved in thi s s tage co n s i s t s in d i s c r i m i

nati n g between certain perceived obj ect s that are not f e lt as
plea s urable o r painful and a certain on e obj e ct that i s not
,

o n ly e xternally perceived in changing relation s to other oh

j e c t s
,
but i s al s o pai n fully o r plea s urably f e lt It is plain .
,

then that the knowledge of Thi n g s a n d the knowledge of Self

,

a r e i n the earlier st a ge s o f knowledge p sychologically con

, ,

H en ce the earliest k
s i d e r e d interdepend e nt
, . n own m ys el f
i s my body as s e n ti e nt a n d unde r voluntary control
,
part ed ,

o ff from and contra s t ed with othe r bodie s which are not s e n ~

tient or unde r voluntary control I n othe r words di sc r i m i.

,

nating con s ciou s ne ss con s tructs the r s t Ego a s identical

with the e n tire living body i ts felt ple a s ure s and pains
, ,

a n d i ts volu n tary movement s e s pecially a s co n necte d with the

,

s ati s faction of d e s ir e the withdrawal of it from obj ect s that

,

give pai n or the forcing of it i nto contact with re s i s ti n g

,

thi n g s etc ; but it exclude s from thi s E g o ( a s n on E g o)

, .
-

ev e rythi n g which do e s not feel with it a n d follo w i ts movable ,

ne s s a n d m anife s t it s elf as it were , as orga n ically connected

, ,

with it .

With the child who has attai n ed any vivid kn owledge of
h i s s elfhood it i s ( ordinarily ) the fe e ling movi n g body that
, ,

r e pre se nt s the s elf and h i s mo s t ab stract co n ce ptio n of h i s

own b e ing doe s not get far b e yond vague gen e ralizatio n s ,

warm with emotion upon the b a s i s o f bodily e xperie n c e s If

, .

th e earli e s t form o f the repre s e n tation o f th e Ego could s peak ,

and could u s e the ab s tract l a n guage of philo s ophy i t would ,

announce it s elf thu s : Wha t i s her e a n d n ow tha t a m I In , .

thi s regard the child would a gree with the philo s opher when
 M I ND AND B ODY 25 1

e ver the latte r trie s to realize h i s highe s t conception of the

Self But with the child What i s here and n o w
-
that
- - -

.
,

which a m I i s chiey what it can put i ts o wn han d upon

- -
,

o f i t s o wn body o r what it feel s within i ts own thoracic o r

,

abdomin a l cavitie s .

Even i n the ca s e of ch ildr e n and s avage s ho we ver there , ,

are not wanting univer s al i n dication s of a co n s ciou sne s s of

s om e th i ng m or e whi ch i s n ot to be conceived of a s a
,
more

o f the s ame kind but rather a s a ,
more that i s i n re s pect ,

of kind ov e r a n d beyond the k nown bodily organi s m and

, ,

even contr a sted with it Some childre n at an early age intel

.

l i g e n tly r e fu s e to identify a n y part o f the body or even the ,

enti re obviou s body with that which is called I o r which

,

,

an s w er s to the particular name they bear The fact that .

s ome parts of the bodily s urface s and s ome bodily member s , ,

con s tantly appear before the e y e s a s exten ded and e xternal

obj e ct s that other part s are s eldom located a s the s eat s of a n y
experie n ce s which are i nti mately i nterwoven with the more
int e rior fe eli n g s thou ght s a n d vol iti o n s ; a n d that a s ome
, ,

wh a t ind e nite amount of bodily s ub sta n ce c a n be part e d

with a n d n o e s se n tial modication o f the s tream of con s ciou s
ne s s r e s ult a ll the s e a n d other fact s oper a te to promote a
,

much furth e r e xten s io n of the proce ss of b i partition -

.

In dee d , i n co n n ection with thi s more e xternal dev e lop
me n t of s elf knowledge th e conception o f S e lf as the p e r
-

ma n ent s ubject o f p sychical s t a te s i s i n proce s s o f formati on .

The wh ole cour s e o f denitiv e ly i n te lle ct u a l growth re n d e r s

the bodily fe e li n g s l e s s pre emi nent not to s a y ov e rpowe ring
-
, ,

a s an e s s e ntial co n ditio n of s uch growth The proc e s se s o f

.

ideation of tho u ght and o f the more compl e x and re n ed

, ,

form s o f fe elin g d o not admit o f d e nite localiz a tion o r e v e n

, ,

o f that ob s cu re a ttribution to the bodily s elf whi ch the i ntra

o rganic s en s ibiliti e s requir e Y et all th e s e s o called i n te lle c

.
-

t u a l activiti e s n ot o n ly hav e their objective r e ference but al s o ,

thei r a spect of feeling ; they are f e l t thought s etc On the , .

25 2 M I ND AND B ODY

othe r han d it belongs to the very nature of k nowledge , a s a

,

developm e nt attai n ed by intell e ctual life , to i nvolve the belief

in reality A Thi n g a s known i s n ot a mere bu n dle of s en
.

s a t i on s imag e s a n d inference s ; it i s a bei n g to which a t t r i

, ,

bute s are a s cribed Eve ry o n e s primary bod ily Self therefore
.

b e come s s elf known a s s uch a thing bei n g the s ubject o f
- -

,

pa s s ive and active e xperiences of a peculiar ki n d But con .

s c i ou s ly di s criminated proce s s e s of ideation , thought and n on ,

s e n s uous fe e ling s can no more oat mid ai r a s mere objective -

,

picture s , than can the coar s e r and more s e n s uou s b odily s elf
feeling s It i s natural and i nevitable th e n that the i ntellect
.
, ,

s ho u ld form the conception of a Sel f which i s a real bei n g a ,

s ubj e ct al s o of all s u ch n o n bodily s tate s Thi s i s rendered

-
.

po ss ible by the s ame k ind of ab s traction fr e eing of i d e a s , ,

comparison , thinking and naming which rend e r s po ss ible the

,

knowledge of thi n g s Such con s ciou s n e s s in the form of the

.
,

conception of bei n g a mind o r s oul a real s ubj ec t o f

p sychical proce s s e s i s at r s t v a gue and tf ul n or do e s it

,

ever imply a n y s p e ci al faculty for i t s attainment It i s how .

,

ev e r a nece s s ary de v elopment to s ome extent of all human

, , ,

1
i n tell e ctu a l life .

Finally it i s by complex synthe s i s of j udgm e nt s ba s ed

, ,

o n manifol d e xperie n c e s convergi n g to o n e co n ceptio n the ,

r e s ulta n t of ma n y act s of memory i maginatio n re a s oning a n d , , ,

naming that th e k n owl e dge of the s elf a s a u nitary bei n g

,

i s attai n ed The S e lf that I thu s come to kno w i s regarded

.

a s the o n e s ubj e ct o f al l t h e s tat e s o f co n s ciou s n e ss whether ,

they h e s tate s of knowledge o f feeling o r o f willi n g ; and , ,

whether th e y be known pr e s entatively a s here and n o w o h , ,

j e c t s of s elf con s ciou s ne s s

-
or re me mb e re d or i
,
magin ed as

s tat e s of the pa s t o r co n jectu red a s po ss ibl e s tate s to b e e x

,

i s te n t i n future ti me I thus become known to my s elf a s

.

both real and logical subject of all the s tate s i n the ce a se l e ssly
o wing s tream o f con s ciou s ne ss Thi s i s th e nal and .

1 P sych ol ogy , Desc rip tiv e and E xpl a na to ry pp

,
. 5 25 f .
 MI ND A N D B ODY 25 3

s upreme achievement o f s elf knowledge But this knowledge

-
.

can never , of cour s e be other than it s elf a proce s s of con

,

s ciou s mental life attai n ed a s the re s ult of a development

,
.

I n on e a n d t he s a m e a c t t h e m i n d m a k
e s i t se lf t h e o bj e c t of i ts

s e lf k
-
n ow l e dg e a n d be l i e ve s i n the r e a l be i ng of t h a t w hi ch i t
,

cr e a tes a s i ts o wn obj e ct ; and then i t pa s s es i n to other s tate s

of k nowledge that di ss olve thi s unique creation by turni n g
1
the attention to external thin g s .

What now upon the bas i s of this p sychological de s criptio n

,

o f the devel opm e nt of that d i s tinction which all men make

between the phenomena called bodily co n dition s and the

s tate s of con s ciou s n e s s a s s uch d oes reecti ve thi n king ,

conclude with re s pect to the real relation be twe e n tho s e

two being s which are called re s pectiv e ly the body and the , ,

mi n d ? The d i r e m ti ve proce ss i s i ndeed it s elf a matte r

p , ,

o f d e velopme n t ; it implie s d i ff erent stage s reached by d i ffer

ent individual s and d i e r e n t pha s es and factor s empha s i ze d

,

a t di fferent time s A ll mi n d s are not ali ke and all bodie s

.
,

a r e not alike . Thi s i s really so ; and it is s o too i n the s elf , ,

con s ciou sn e s s of the mind which know s it se lf at lea st par ,

t i a lly , a s it really i s But it i s a s m e t ap hy si ca l and therefore

.
,

a s appert a ining n o t merely to cla s s e s o f phenomena but t o

di fferent being s i n reality that thi s d i s tinction i s developed

, .

Ju s t s o fa s t and s o far a s th e proces s of b i partition goe s -

,

i t ha s r ef e r e n ce t o t he wor l d of t he r e a lly e x i ste n t It i s n ot .

s imply a di s tinction of phenomena alth ough it i s ba s ed upon ,

di s ti n ct ion i n phenomen a P s y chology s ets forth by i ts ana

-
.
,

lytic and evolutionary s tudy of con s ciousne s s the di fference s ,

in the two groups of phen omena and it al s o trace s the s t a ges ,

a n d epoch s by which the di stinction advance s But meta .

~

phy s ical analy s i s sh ows that the reality of the di s tincti on i s

implicated even i n the fully developed con sciou s ne ss of the
di stinction it s el f .

M oreo ver , thi s distinction between the t wo bein gs called

1 P y h l ogy
s c o , Desc ripti v e an d E xpl a n a to ry pp
, . 531 f .
 M I ND AND B ODY

my s elf a s mind and my body i s the most complete and

, ,

i rreducible of a l l di s tinc t ion s It i s the distinction between

.

the s elf k n owing s ubj ect of the s tate s of con s ciou s n e ss and
-

the external and e xtende d the physi cal obj e ct of i t s

k no wl e dge A s h a s b e e n s hown we k no w o u r bodie s in e ss e n
.
,

t i a l ly no other way than that i n which we kno w othe r thi n g s .

We know the m a s po ss e ss ed of n o othe r prop e rtie s than tho s e

which are po s s e s s ed by all other material things The mo s t .

advanced scienti c k nowledge doe s n ot modify or minimize

thi s fact ; on the contrary it rather empha s ize s the fact
, .

To the s tudent of phy s iology o r of p sycho phy s ic s the ma ss es -

o f the cerebral organ s have e xten s ion weight i nertia , s peci c , ,

gravity a n d all the othe r e ss ential qualitie s of oth e r ma s s e s

,

of matte r The mo s t powe rful micro s cope does not m a ke the

.

nerve cell s and nerve b r es a n y le s s di s tinctly phy s ical than

- -

they appear at rs t s ight to the naked ey e C hemical a naly s i s .

of the cer e bral substance reveal s i ts enormo us complexity and ,

also we s eem warranted i n s aying certain other phy sical

properti e s that t it i n a pecul ia r wa y to serve a s the p h y s ical
ba si s for the phenomena of co n s ciou s ne ss But chemical .

a naly s i s in s tead o f bri n gi n g ou t a n

, y hidden s ecret s of a sort
th at woul d enabl e us to r e gard thi s s ub s ta n ce a s a te r ti u m

u i d o r an external aspect f the o n e bei n g w ho s e i n
q , o

ternal a s pect i s co n s ciou s n e s s h a s preci s ely the oppo site
,

e f f e ct. It s h ow s that the cerebral s ub s tance has the s ame

a tomic eleme n t s which are found i n all manner o f i nferi or

thi n g s .

A n d why i n deed sh ould thi s n ot be so ? For where a o

, , ,

cording to phy s ical chemical , and biol ogi cal s cience did the
, ,

cerebral s ub stance come from ; a n d what can the cerebral

s ub s tance after being so elaborately con s tructed of it s elf
, ,

alone ( a s it were ) do ? To the s e inquirie s the s ci e nti c reply

i s not at all doubtful o r ambiguou s The ce rebral s ub stance
.

came from n ature from s oil and water and air ; and it i s
,

capable of molecular and atomic moti o n s of a hi ghly compli

 M I ND AND BODY 55

cate order , only thi s and nothing more Science n o mor e

, .

make s thi s sub s tance like that self cognizi n g s ubj e ct o f the -

s tate s of con s ci ou s ne s s which we call the mi n d th a n it m a k e s

the clod of the valley or the mineral from th e mine lik e that
s ame s ubj ect P sych o phy s ic s doe s not endow t h e n e r v e c e ll s
.
- -

and nerve b r e s a s s uch with any p s ycho phy s ical prop e rti e s
-
, ,
-

they remain un der all po s s ibl e form s of exami n a tion b e

,

stowed upon them nothi n g b u t bit s o f matter thi n g s ,

, ,

with all the prop e rtie s of things but with n one of th e p rop e r ,

tie s that belong to the mind a s the s elf known s ubj ect o f the -

ph e nome n a of con s ciou s ne s s N either doe s phy s iological psy

.

ch ol ogy e ff e ct s uch a union betwee n the p sy chol ogical a n d th e

phy s iologica l sta n dpoint s a s in the lea s t to le s s en the r e al

d i e r e n c e s i n the two eld s ove r which i t s re s earche s ramble ;
i ndeed it i s properly s peaking nothin g but the s cience of the
, , ,

behavior of mind a s d ependently related to that othe r ki n d

o f a being which mi n d know s as not mind It i s the s cience -
.

of mental phenome n a a s depende n t upon a phy s ical a n d

molecular con s truction called the nervou s sy s tem .

M oreove r the very term the body may be u s ed s o a s to

,

cover a s cie n tically u nwarrantable and metaphy s ically mis

leadi n g s erie s of i nference s Strictly s peaki n g t he body i s
.
,

only a n ab straction from the beh avior of a va st nu mbe r of

phy s ical element s which n e ve r cea s e to be a d e pendent part
of phy s ical nature ; and which neve r therefore s o leave the , ,

s ph ere o f the phy s ical a s th at they can po s s ibly be co n s id e red

to be anoth e r a s pect or face o f a being with two

aspect s o r fac e s Our bodi e s a s su ch h a ve on ly a f or m a l

.
, ,

ex i s e n ce

t . If the mind h e stvl e d a stream o f con s ciou s ne s s
that n e ver cea se s to o w and h a s n o ex i stence ex cept a s a
,

stream a similar gure of s peech i s f a r more a ptly applied

,

t o the so called body

-
A s L otze has s aid :
.
1
The cea s el e s s
unive rs al motion o f N ature i s the all e mbracing tide i n who s e -
,

mo st agi ta ted part n ot i ndeed like s teady i slan ds but only ,

1 M i croco m u
s s, v ol . i b ki
. oo .
, en d of c hp a . vi .
25 6 M I ND AND B O DY

like whirling eddie s living beings e me rge and di s appear as ,

the ma s s e s in their onward cour s e ex peri e n ce momentarily

a common i mpetu s i nto a n e w path a conc e n trati on i nto ,

a de n ite shape before being erelo n g again ca s t he adlong

,

and i n fragment s i nto the formle s s unive r s al tide by the , ,

s ame force s that brought them to thi s poi n t of inte r s ection .

But this view whic h modern natur a l s cie n ce empha s ize s s o

,

s trongly and illu s trate s in s o many a s to n i shi n g way s i s a s o l d

, ,

a s the attempt of ma n to u nd e r s ta n d him s elf at all It w a s .

the c e a s el e ss ux of thi n gs and n ot lea s t of the animal body ,

,

which i mpres s ed ancient thought with the noti on of the

i n s tability of all B e i n g ; and which led to the conclu s ion that
i ts e s s ential nature i s a proce ss of Beco ming To thi s per .

e t u a l ux o f phy s ical thi n g s a s every o n e k now s P lato and

p , ,

A ri stotle oppo sed the u n ive r s al a n d permanent characte r

o f thought and o f the bei n g that belong s t o it No r doe s .

o n e need to go to philo s ophy to learn that wh at I call my

body i s n ot mi n e i n any s trict sen s e of the word po s ses
,

s ion ; i t is at be s t only a temporary lo a n o n which u su riou s

i ntere s t i s con stantly ex acted and which i s nally all r e cov

,

ered by the N ature that loaned it eithe r in the form of heavy,

i nstal ment s at certain period s of life o r by s ome s udde n ,

foreclosu re of mortgage For d o we not read i n S cripture

.

that as a o wer of the eld s o it perisheth ,
and i n Shake
s peare :

H a m l et . A m a n m a y sh with the wor m that hath e a t of a

k i n g ; a n d e a t o f th e sh th a t hath f e d o f th a t wor m .

Ki n g . Wha t do st th o u m e a n by thi s
H a m l et N othi n g but to sh ow you h o w a ki n g may
.
go a pro g

r e ss throu g h t h e
g ut s o f a b e g g ar .

The truly scientic vie w of the ori gin and n a ture of the
bod ily organi s m nervous sy s tem and brain included
might i ndeed lead to the theory that the two beings body and ,

mind , di s ti n guished an d oppo s ed a s they are in the con s ciou s

 M I ND A N D B ODY 25 7

l ife which is characteri s tic of the latte r after all d o both have ,

t h eir real e xi stence i n that On e I n n ite Being which the

phy s ical s ci e n ce s call by t h e ab stract and u n m e a n i n g term
N ature but which the philo s ophy of religion denomi n ate s
,

the A bs olute M i n d But howeve r thi s m a y be no conclu

.
,

s i on would be mor e ra s h and u n warrantable than at once

to identify the bei n g of the mind (the s ource and co n s erver of

all di s tinction s and e s pecially o f th e di s ti n cti on betwee n its elf
,

a s the s ubj e ct of co n s ciou s s tate s and all form s of thi n g s

)
with that body which i s o n ly exi ste n t at all a s for a brief ,

time formally di s ti n ct from an all e n vironi n g phy s ical n ature

,
-
.

To the i n s uperabl e di f c u lty which M oni s m a s a p sychol ogical

doctrine encounte rs from thi s con s ideration we s hall return
later on .

It follo ws nally th e n that all metaphy s ic s both n a i ve

, , ,

and i n sti n cti ve and al s o s cientic and critical i n s o far as

, ,

it di s tingui s he s mi n d from matte r or s elf con s ci ou s thinking

,
-
, ,

feeling willi n g beings from thi n g s r e garded a s external

, ,

exte n ded and belo n ging to the phy s ical realm i s i nvolved
, ,

i n the d i s ti n ction between body and mind If that bi parti .

-

tion which ari s e s ou t of a l l experience and which all e x pe r i ,

ence ju st i e s upon which too , all s cience conduct and

,
-
, , ,

art a s well a s religion repo s e s is not j u s tiable i n the

, , ,

ca s e o f my s o called body and my s e called mind th e n it

-
,
-
,

i s not ju s tiable at all H ere con s i s tency i n d e claring the

.

metaphy s ical import of experience a s des cribed and explained ,

by p sychological s ci e nce may well be r i gidly in s i sted upon

,
.

N e ither M ateri a li s m n o r moni s tic Spirituali s m n or M o ni s m

can e s cape from th e obligation t o be l ogical i n i ts philo s oph
i cal treatme n t o f ph e nome n a ; for the e volution of t hat
d i r e m pti v c proc e s s which e s tabli she s the metaphy s ic a l d i s
tinction betwe e n body and mind a n d which as s ign s the ,

former to the real m of thing s i s a matter of experience ,

and of f a ct The metaphy s ic s of mi n d h a s already tau ght

.

u s wh at i s the unique nature o f that reality , s elf identity , and -

17
25 8 M I ND AND B ODY

unity which the mind claim s for it se lf Phy s ical and phys .

i ol og i ca l s cie n ce tre a t s o f t h e bodily orga n i s m s ucc e s s fully

only as it con s id e rs this organi s m to be a really i n s e parable
part of n ature at large formally con s tituted i n to a being
,

which can be r e garded a s correlat e d temporarily and l oo s ely , ,

with the phenomena of con s ciou s n e ss The metaphy s ic s of .

physic s con rms the reality of th e d i stinction , by attributing

to th e body the p ropertie s which all matter i s fou n d to pos
s e s s but which are opp o s ed to the e s s e ntial qualiti e s of all
,

minds Whoever the n denie s the validity i n reality of that

.
, ,

disti n ction which re s ults fro m thi s univer s al proce ss of b i parti -

tion mu s t s ho w h ow h is denial can stand in co n s i s tency with

a ge neral metaphy s ical s y s tem ; h o w in fact it can s tand at , ,

all without the overthrow of the whole s tructure of k nowledge

con sidered a s repre s entative of s uch likene s se s and di fference s
o f existence a s belong to all real ity .

In s peaki n g of the s econd mai n cl a s s of the ph e nomena

whi ch e very metaphy s i cal view of the relation s of body and
mi n d must take i n to i t s account on e need n ot he s itate to u se
,

the langu a ge of common life Thi s langu a ge employ s all the

.

variou s t e rm s that expre s s th e conc e ption of causatio n Th u s .

man s body i s said to i n uence h i s mind ; to furni sh th e

occa s ion s o r condition s o n which mental phenomena

ari s e ; o r even to cau s e tho s e mental change s which s elf
co n s ciou sne ss affi rm s actually to take place S cientifi c .

p sychology too should have n o feeli n g of timidity o r i f

, ,

the word may be pardoned of s q u e a m i slm e s s i n the u s e

o f any o f the s e s ame terms The precedi n g analy s i s o f the
.

s ource s a n d the nature o f the conception of ca u s e h a s a t l e a s t

clearly indicated what a m ore complete a n aly s i s would fully

ju s tify : t he c on cep ti on of ca u sa ti on i n i ts f u lle s t i mp or t i s
, ,

a
pp l i c a ble t o the r e l a ti on s in r ea li ty between t he bo dy and th e

mi n d . A ll attempt s to break the force of thi s application by

deduction s from the phy s ical principle call e d t h e con s erva
tion and correlatio n of energy are quite i mpo te n t her e

.
 M I ND AND B ODY 25 9

For as has been shown thi s principle it self has no meaning

, ,

that corr e s po n d s to the world of actuality which does n ot

admit the validity of thi s v e ry applic a tion .

The phenom e na which exhibit th e i n ue n ce o r cau s al action

of bodily co n dition s and cha n ge s upo n the s tat e s of con s ciou s

ne ss are n umerou s enough The rather are they well nigh

.
-

innumerable ; th e y may be cla ss ied however under s everal

, ,

main head s A n d here the e n tire s phere o f phy s iological

.

p sychology i n the s tricter meaning of that term i s t ly

b rought to view . The i n choate but enterpri s ing s cience of
general nerve phy s iology introduces us to s everal impor
-

tant cla s s e s of such fact s C hemically con s idered the c on

.
,

s t i tu t i on of the nervou s sy s te m i s s uch a s to adapt it for

bei n g cau s ally related to the phenomen a of con s ciou s n e s s a s ,

s e lf con s ciou s ne ss k n ow s the s e phenomen a actually to exi s t

-
.

N ot i n deed that the conceptio n or the forms or the law s

, , , ,
,

o f con s ciou s ne s s can eve r be evolve d from a s tudy o f the

behavior of the uncon s ciou s But granted as an ulti mate
.
,

a n d inexplicable fact that the phenome n a o f con s ciousne ss

s hould be cau s ally related at all to change s i n nervou s c o n

d i ti on s certain plai n rea s on s appear why the nervou s s u b

,

s ta n ce s houl d have s uch a con s titution and s uch functions

a s it i s known to have . I ts extreme intricacy o f s tructure ,

a s attained by repeated mul tiplication of a f e w typical but

formally variable e lement s s erve s tly to correlat e i t with

,

the great v a riety i n u n ity of mental phe n o m e na I ts highly .

e laborate but u n s table equilibrium make s it from the point ,

of vie w of i ts ch e m ical con s titutio n , almo s t i ncredibly s en s i

tive to the i n u e n ce of varied s ti muli The d i fferentiation s
.
,

i n chemical and m olecular s tructure o f i ts end organ s of -

se n se corr e s po n d to the di fferent kind s of s e n s ation ,

although p s ychologically it mu s t al way s be h e l d that s e n s a

,

tion i s a p sychical e v e n t a forth putti n g o f mind The prin

,
-
.

c i pl e s o f inerti a o f fatigue o r exhau s tion a n d of recovery of

, ,

h a bit and of t h e e ff e ct of n e w event s breaki n g i n upon habit ,

 M I ND AND B ODY

as the s e principles apply to the life of consciou s ne ss ; all ,

h ave thei r correlate s i n the con stitution and fu n ctio n s of the

nervou s organi s m A ll the l aws of biol ogical growth
.

heredity variatio n per s i s tence of type a s e s tabli s hed i n the

, ,

s tructure by the metaboli s m of the s tructu re it s elf a pply ,

pre e mi n e n tly we might almo s t s a y to the nervou s s ub s t a n ce

-
, , .

I n the s ame line of co n n ection i s the proba bl e a s s e rtio n that

the i n ten s ive e n e rgy of con s ciou s n e s s for ex ampl e i n s en s a
,

tio n i s directly depe n dent upon the a mou n t of k atabolic

,

change s i n the nervou s s ub s tanc e M oreover the tim e rate

.
,
-

of ment a l phenomena the tim e which it take s to come to

,

co n s ciou s n es s a s well a s the s equence in time o f the varyi n g

,

s tate s o f con s ciou s ne s s are d ependently co n n e cted with the

,

time co n s umed i n t h e developme n t of rel ated nerve commo -

tion s Thi s general fact i s co n rme d and illu strated by

.

countle ss thou s and s of experime n t s i n reaction time -

.

A nother clas s of fact s which modern phy s iological p sychol

ogy bring s forward i n co n rmation of the s ame vi e w co n si st s
i n the s o calle d l ocalization of cerebral function ; perhap s
-

i t would be bette r to s a y , the l ocalization of function a s

applied to the nervou s sy s tem through out The vague and .

absurd ge n eralization s of the ol d phr e n ol ogy have during the ,

l a st twenty v e year s give n place to more limited and de nite

-
,

generalizati on s th at are rmly e s tabli shed u pon a ba si s o f

ob se rvatio n and e xperime n t C ertain area s not only of the
.
,

s pi n al cord a n d of th e l owe r portio n s o f the b rain but al s o ,

of the cerebral hemi s phere s are now k now n to b e ar s pecial

,

rel atio n s to the s e n s ory motor and ide a tion a l activitie s i n

-

volved i n the u s e o f the limb s o f the trunk of the head a n d , ,

o f the s pecial orga n s o f s ense The s ame pri n ciple h a s b e en

.

ex perimentally extended to the intelligent empl oyme n t a n d

under s tanding of the s poken and written s ymbol s of thought .

The e xact s patial limit s of th es e c or r e l a t e d a rea s o f the

nervou s sy stem cannot i n deed be xed A nd it i s altogethe r
, , .

likely that we ought not to s peak of ab s olutely xed limit s

 M I ND AND B ODY 26 1

i n this connection at all . B u t even if thi s s hould be di s

cover e d to be true the very variation s po s sible within the
,

limit s and the movabl e characte r of the related areas woul d

,

o n ly further illu s tr a t e a n d enforce the general truth for which

we are n o w co n te n di n g What would the n have prove d true
.

o f the cerebral co n dition s i s now u n doubtedly kno wn to be

true of the co rrel ated mental ph e nome n a The s e vary i n the .

ca s e of di ffe re nt individual s admit o f growth of lap s e and of

, , ,

d e cay ; and there are ca s e s of id io syncra s ie s in the mental

a s pect that ba fe all ou r attempt s to explain or cla ss ify them
p sychologically .

I n ge n eral moreover the co n s ciou s life o f s en s ation and of

, ,

motio n i s depe ndently connected with the co n dition and

functioni n g o f th e organ s of s en s e ( includi n g the central
organ s ) and of the mu s cular sy s tem Thi s con n ection h a s
.

reference to the qualitie s of the s e n s ation s and to t h e entire

complexio n of th e co n tent of o u r s e n se expe rience -
In .

or dinary and normal c a s e s the application o f particul ar

s elected kind s o f s timulu s to the nervou s s y s tem i s followed ,

a s from a determini n g caus e by corre s ponding ch a n g e s in th e

,

s e n s uou s co n tent o f co n s ciou s ne s s If a certain k i n d ( phy s i

.

cally e stimated ) of s timulu s f a ll s upon th e e ye o r upon the

ear o r u pon any othe r of th e ext e rn a l organ s of s en s e th e n a
, ,

corre s po n di n g ki n d of s e n s ation ari s e s i n con s ciou s n e s s The .

knowl ed ge o f thi s cla s s of f a ct s which are familiar to the

,

mo s t ordi n ary e xpe ri e n ce h a s been greatly extend e d and

,

the d e tail s r e ned by the mod e rn s ci e n ce o f experime n tal

p sychol ogy N ot only h a ve the variou s confu s ed co n d itions
.

of s e n s e e xp e ri e n c e p roduced by s ti m ul a ti n g the s ki n b e en
-

a n alyz e d but al s o n e w cla s s e s o f s e n s a tio n s a s for example

, , ,

tho s e of the mu s cl e s the j oi n t s a n d po s s ibly o f the s emi

, ,

circul ar canal s have bee n di s covered and th e ir phy s ical

cau s e s i n ve s tigated .

What i s t r u e of r e lati on s of quality i s ev e n more d e mon

s tr a bly true o f relation s o f quantity o r inten s ity I n general ,
.
26 2 M I ND AND B ODY

i nc rea s e i n the int e n s ive m a gnitude of the s timulu s a pplied to

the peripheral part s o f the bod y and o f the r e s ulti n g n erve ,

commotion s a s prop a gated alo n g the i ngoi n g n erv e tract s t o -

the cerebr a l centr e s , i s regularly followe d by i ncrea s ed i n te n

s i ty of the appropriate form of s e n s e con s ciou s n e s s A nd -
.

e xte n s ive magnitude o r amplitude of the c e rebral di s turba n ce s

inue n c e s the e x tent cove red by the s o call e d circuit of c on -

s c i ou s n e s s Ju s t how thi s relation in s o far a s it i s main
.
,

t a i n e d between brai n s tate s and s tate s o f con s ci ou s ne s s i s to

-
,

be expre ss ed we are n ot at pre s e n t able to a s s ert with con

,

d ence Weber s law w a s i ndeed thought by F e chner to apply
.
, ,

to th e direct correlatio n of the two That i s the p sycho phy s .

-

i cal l aw The di e r e n c e i n the i n ten s ity of t wo s en s ations i s
proporti oned to the logarithm of the q uotient of the mag n itude s
o f their s timuli

w a s b elieved by the l atter to s tate relations
maintained directly between phenomena of consci ou s nes s a n d
the ph enomena of n e rve commotion i n the s ubstance of the -

brain By this princi ple which he undertook to defend a n d

.
,

illu strate experimentally with in nit e patience i n detail s ,

Fechner proved a s he thought that body and mind are o n ly

, ,

two phenomenal a s pects of o n e a n d the s ame u n de rlyi n g

reality Sub s equ e nt re s earch h a s h owever rendered ve ry
.
, ,

d oubtful even a s a n empiric a l ge n eral izati o n the alleged law

, ,

of Webe r ; and Fe ch n e r s i n terpretati o n of the l aw i s al mo s t

undoubt ed ly e rro n eou s Some i nve s ti gators 1 hav e e ve n held

.

that all quantitative di ff erence s of sen s ation are re s olvable

into qualitative di fference s .

Even i f the exi s tence of a really quantitative di ffer e n ce i n

mental stat e s be admitted and al s o s om ethin g re s embli n g ,

the p sycho phy s ical law be h e l d true i n fact s till the

-
,

i nterpret a tion of the l aw i s ( probably ) not to be foun d i n

direct corr el ati o n s of ce rebral s tate s a n d state s of con s ciou s
'

ne s s If a n y s i m pl e relation o f qua n tity between the s e two

.

1 Mu n st e rb rg e so ma iti
n a ned in h is
N e u e G run dl egu n g P sych o ph ysik-
,

irg
Be t a e , e tc .
, H eft , 1890 .
 M I ND AND B O DY 263

were to be mai n tai n ed it would be more likely to be the

,

relation of direct proportional variatio n But i n truth rel a .

,

tion s of int e n s i v e magnitude i n the dir e ctio n f r om brain to

mind are e xceedingly compl e x ; a n d s ome o f th e m a s will
be s hown s ub s equently are of a ch a racter that i s di s tinctly
unfavorable to any pri nciple of a s trict co n comitant correlation
o f brain s t a te s a n d s tate s of co n s ciou s n e s s
-
A t pre s e n t it can
.

only be mai n tai n ed i n the mo s t ge n e ral way th e n that the , ,

i nten sive and exten s ive magnitude of s en s e con s ciou s n e s s i s -

cau s ally related to the inten s ive a n d e xte n s ive mag n itude o f the
nervou s cha n ge s in the brai n In thi s general w a y how e ve r ,
.
,

the principle of cau s al relatio n can be mai n tained with a

very great certainty o f convictio n .

W hat i s true of i nten s ity i s al s o true of the temporal rela

tion s of mental phenomena and cerebral cha n ge s P sycho .

physical time or time occupied i n the elaboration o f the

c erebral co n ditions of cons ciou s n e s s and of the change s of
con s ciou s nes s i s causally related to the characte r o f ou r
time con s ciou s ne s s The time rate and order i n time o f the
-
.
-

d i ff erent s e quent mental s tates i s in uenced by depend ,

9)
ent upon ,
cau s ed b y the time rate and orde r i n time of
,
-

the cerebral change s H e re al s o however no one s imple

.
, ,

formul a w ill serv e to gather up an d adequately expre s s all the

f acts. Th e rel ation in reality bet w e e n brain and mind i s
apparently a s re s pect s temporal co n n e ctio n s v e ry comple
, ,

The whole p s y chological theory o f atte n tion a s e xperiment ,

ally i n ve stigated amply illu s trate s thi s H e re agai n , too

,
.
,

s ome o f th e phe n omena are di s ti n ctly u n favorable to any

theory which mai n tain s a s trict co n comitant corr e l ation b e

twee n brai n s tate s a n d state s of mi n d Some o f the phe n om
-
.

e n a are calculat e d to illu s trate rathe r the i n uence o f the

mind o v e r the body ; and all o f them leave totally unexpl ained
the origi n a n d d evel opment of ti m e co n s ciou s ne s s a s s uch
-
.

For it c a n s carc e ly be said t o o ofte n that whe n we have

explain e d th e ti m e rate and order i n time of state s of con
-
264 M I ND A ND B OD Y

s c i o u s n es s we h av e not eve n begu n to e xpl ai n time con s ciou s -

ne ss as s uch . E n d u r i ng and s u cc e e d i ng con s ci ou s s ta te s , in

t hem s el ve s c on s i de r ed , a
f or d us no f u ll ex p l a n a t i on o f th e c on

ti on s Se n s a i ca bl e to t h os e s t a t e s
s c i ou s n e ss o f ti m e -
r e la as a
pp l .

tio n s feeli n g s m ome n t s o f co n ation might co m e a n d go
, ,

for e ve r without by the mere f a ct of their comi n g a n d goi n g

, ,

a ccou n ti n g for o r arou s i n g t h e co n s ciou s n e s s of ti m e Thi s .

con s ciou s ne ss i s a n e w a n d u n iqu e reaction of the s ubject of

all the s t a te s of co n s ciou s n e ss ; it impli e s th e a ctiv e a n d i m
mediat e r e lating work of mi n d accordi n g to th e l a w s of i ts ,
1
o w n lif e .

Stil l further the sy n th e s i s of all tho s e n e ural p roc es s e s

,

which take place with a s u f ciently n ear approach to S imul

,

t a n e i ty by mean s of i n n umer a ble a s s oci a tio n tract s co n nect

,
-

i n g the di ff e re n t c e rebral ar e a s i s the bodily corr e l a t e o r , ,

preco n dition of that u n ity i n v a ri e ty which e very complex

,

s tate o f co n s ciou s nes s di s pl a y s Or to rev e rs e the s tate .

,

me n t t h e di ffere n t factor s o r mom e nt s which are fu s ed
, , ,

i n con s cious experie n ce a s kn own to i ts own s e lf co n s ciou s -

subj ect are i n re s p e ct of th e i r n umb e r ki n d a n d mode of

, , ,

unio n d e pe nde n tly rel a t e d to the co m bi n ation i n activity of

,

the di ffere n t el e me n t s a n d ar e a s o f th e n ervou s s ub s tance

of the brai n That s ci e n ti c a n aly s i s which direct i n t r ospec
.

tio n carri e s a lit t le way but which experiment accompanied by ,

trai ned u s e o f i n tro s pectio n p u sh e s much farthe r s how s the ,

enormou s complexity o f our appare n tly mo s t S impl e s tate s of

adult co n s ciou s n e s s If however s ome s tat e s are compared
.
, ,

with other s in the s a m e i n dividual o r th e wealth of on e mind ,

with the relative pov e rty of a n oth e r our e s timate o f the ra n g e ,

o f thi s comple xity i s gr e a tly increa s e d Y et e a ch s tate o f .

con s ci ou sn e s s can b e called a sta te at all only o n t h e s uppo s i

tion that it h a s a certain u n ity f or th e s ubj e ct of all th e s tate s .

Thi s unity of co n s ciou s ne ss i s i n d e e d u n i q ue It i s not to .

be de s crib e d after the a n a log y of any mat e ri a l unity s e called - .

1 S ee P sych o l ogy , Desc rip tiv e and E xpl a n a to ry pp

, . 3 10f .
 M I ND AND B ODY 26 5

I ts ex pl a nation cannot be wholly derive d from or eve n s u g ,

g e s t e d by any unity which th e di ff erent ne rve e leme n t s o r

,
-

n e rve ce n tre s are made to have by the u se of co n n ecti n g n e rve

-
,

element s o r a s s ociation tract s within the o n e br a i n Y et

-

,
.

moder n empiric a l p sychology wh e n pu r s ued fro m s ev e ral ,

di ff e r e n t poi n t s of view e nforce s the conclu s ion that the

,

phy s ical vari e ty in unity i s i n part the explanatio n of the

, ,

particular characteri s tic s wh ich each p sychic a l u n ity eac h ,

p sycho s i s regard e d a s a comple x of ma n y f a ctor s di s play s , .

C lo s ely connected with t hi s form of cau s al rel a tio n i s the

d e pe n dence of th e train o f idea s and of memory upon th e c o n
tinned i n tegrity a n d the habitu a l dynamical a ss ociation s o f
, ,

th e c e r e bral s ub s ta n ce A bri e f de s criptio n of the n atu re of

.

thi s cau s a l r e l a tio n a take n fro m the s cience o f p sychol ogy

s ,
1
,

will s u fce The i n organic te n de n cie s o f a molecul a r kind ,

ho w ever o nl v fai n tly fore s hado w the organic ; it i s i n the

,

n e rvou s sy s te m that all thi s e ff e ct of habitual fo rm s of activity

b e come s mo s t pro n ou n c e d The nerve cell s like all c e ll s
.
-
, ,

have th e powe r of n ouri shing them s e l ve s and of propagati n g

thei r ki n d The n utritio n brought to them by the blood i s
.

u s e d for th e e nlarg e me n t of t h e c e ll under the pri n cipl e that ,

each cell build s it se lf i n accordanc e with the mol e cul a r char

acter i t h a s alre a dy a ttai n ed Each cell al s o m a y b e h eld
.

to prop a gate it s elf u n d e r the la w s of hered ity But at th e .

s a me time i ts i n t e r n al molecular alteration a n d the activity of

the co n n e cted cell s are mutually i n terd e pe n de n t Thu s what .

i s call e d the orga n ic memory o r tend e n cy to r e actio n a n d

furth e r dev e lopm e nt accordi n g to certa in li n e s d e p e n d e n t

upon pa s t action a n d pa s t d e v e lopme n t i s gai ned for e ach
portion o f the n e rvou s sy s tem R et e ntion a n d r e production
.

on the phy s ic a l S id e o r a s phy s iological co n d itio n s not o n ly o f

,

the occurre n ce and r e curre nce but al s o of the as s ociatio n o f

,

mental imag e s a r e thu s provid e d fo r

, .

The foregoi n g con s i d e rati on s a pply to the s pi n al cord ,
1
Psych ol o gy , De sc rip tiv e a nd Ex pl a na to ry pp
, . 242 f .
26 6 M I ND AND B O DY

an d to the l ower part s o f the brai n B oth expe ri ment and .

ob s ervati on S how that th e s e ne rvou s s tructure s po s s e s s a t

bi rth ce rtain aptitude s a n d te n de n ci e s co n n ected wi th the
habits phy s i ol ogi cal and p s ychi cal of race breed parent
, , , ,

age etc But the s e orga n s whether i n the ca s e of the new

,
.
,

bo rn puppy or of the new born i nfant cannot at rst do s ome -

,

th ings wh i ch they can l e a r n to d o ; u s i ng sti l l the same c on

v e n i e n t gure of s peech th e y need to acqui re an d c a n , ,

acqui re an organi c me mory on the ba s i s of the experi ence

,

of the i nd i vi dual A s w e have el s ewhere ob s erved ,

. ve ry i

e leme nt of the nervou s s y s te m e s peci al ly i n the more s i g ,

n i ca n t of i ts central orga n s , may be con s i dered a s a mi n ute

area i nte r s ected by an i nde ni te numb e r of curve s of d i ff erent

d i recti on s and orders ; thus a mol e cul ar commot i on i n any
s uch are a may accordi ng to i ts characte r a n d poi nt of
,

gre ate s t i nten s ity run ou t i nto the sy s tem al ong any on e of
,

these many curve s I n every such s mal l fragment the

.

wh ol e curve s l umbe r s But pre emi nentl y true i s al l thi s

.

-

of th e n ervous el ement s of the ce reb ral centre s where the s o

called p s cyh i c nerve cel l s are Of the e ff e ct of s ti mulati on

-
.

1
u po n them o n e wr ite r af rms that the se cell s n ever return ,

afte r th e i r e xci tati o n to thei r ori gi n al co n d iti on
,
.

H e nce t he m e c ha n i sm of r ep r e s en ta ti ve i m a g e s a s t hey ,

occu r an d r e cu r in con n e c ti on w i th ea c h o ther ,

ha s i ts p hy s
i olog i ca l c on d i t i on s in c er ta n i d y n a m i ca l a ss oc i a ti on s a m ong s t
t he p y h i c n e r vou s e l e m e n t s
s c the spontaneou s recu r . An d
rence of som e o f the s e i mage s r a t he r t ha n othe r s a s s tart e d ,

by thi s or that external s ti mul ati o n d e p e nd s u pon the char ,

acter numbe r a n d s trength of the dynam ical a ss oci ati on s

, ,

wh i ch mak e up th e organi c memory s o call e d of the ne r ,

-
,

vou s organi s m concerned i n the whol e proce ss of i deati on .

Of th i s form of cau s al rel ati on too howeve r i t would have , ,

to be s ai d that the enti re e xpla n ati on o f the rel ated s tate s

1 M . Rc ih e t, Le s O

rigi n es e t le s M oda li t
s d e la M m oire . Rev Ph i losop h
.

Ju n e, 1 8 86 .
 M I ND AND B ODY 26 7

of co n s ci ou s ne s s cann ot be fou n d i n the characteri s ti c s of

t h e br a i n s tate s -
R ec og n i ti ve memory
. a s we h ave al ready

had repea t e d occa s i on to r e mark i s a s pi ritual acti vity

whi ch su s tai ns pecul i a rly i nti mate and nec e ss ary re l ati on s
to the s e l f k nown real ity i d e nti ty and u n i ty of the m i nd
-
, , .

M or e ob s cure and d oubtful i n S pi te of al l the ad vance s ,

o f p sychol ogi cal a nd e xperi me ntal p s ychol ogy are the i n ,

u e n ce s o r cau s al acti on s , o f the brai n i n re s pect to the

,

phe no m e na k n own i n con s c i ou s n e s s a s f ee li ng an d w i lli ng .

In al l i n te n s e o r e moti onal form s of f e e l i n g the pre s ence of

factor s that have the i r ori gi n i n the condi ti o n of the p e ri ph
e ral part s of the bod i ly organ i s m i s obvi ou s e n ough The .

pecu l i ar modi ficati on s of con s c i ou s n e s s i n wh i ch s trong

a n ger fear surpri s e gri ef etc con s i s t are u n d oubte d ly
, , , , .
,

l arge ly due to th e cond iti on s i nto whi ch the mu s cle s the ,

va s e motor s y s tem and the i nte rnal organ s of the che s t and
-
,

abd omen are thrown W i thout u s i n g an unj u s ti abl e gure

.

of s peech we may s a y that the s e emoti on s are t o n o s mall

, ,

exte nt feel i ngs of the accomp a nyi ng bodi ly co n diti on s

, .

There i s al s o good reason to s u s pect that s i mi lar pe ri pheral

element s of a bod i ly s ort with a w e ak e r degr e e of i nte n s ity, ,

ente r i nto ou r s enti me n t s of apparently the mo s t ideal a n d

s pi ri tual k i nd I ndeed we h ave e l s ewher e mad e probable
.
1
,

the co n j e cture whi ch n ds the phy s i ol ogi cal cond iti on s o f al l

fe el i ng i n the s emi chaoti c s u rpl us o f n e rvou s proce s s e s
-

ori gi n ated by s ti mul i ; but regarde d a s rel ati ve to th e ten

de n c i e s of the e n ti re mol ecul ar m e chan i s m Of the plea s .

u re pai n qu al i cati on o r a s pect of fe e l i n g phy s i ol ogi ca l ly
-
,

co n s id e red we s e e a gai n h ow t h e k i n d and a mount o f t h e

,

s ti mul ati o n o r the place of i t s appl i cati on to co n jectural

, (

pain n e rv e s
-
or ple a s u re h a s i n m a n v ca s es
l ittl e to do with th e re s ulti ng a m ou n t s o f pl e a s u r a bl e or
pai nful fe e l i n g ; but th e way the s ti mul ati on ts i n w ith t h e
e x i sti ng c r bral cond iti o n s a n d the amou n t of d i s tu rb
e e
,

1
P sych ol ogy , Desc riptiv e a nd E xpl a na t o ry pp
,
. 1 73 f.
26 8 M I ND AND BO DY

an c e i t o cc a s i o n s i n the c e rebral c e n tre s i s the ch i ef

,

d e t e r m i n i n g cau s e of s e n s uou s pl e a s ure o r pai n .

W i ll i n the u s e of that word whi ch corr e s po n ds to
-

the comple x d ev e lopme t of adult co c i ou n

n n s s e s s i n vol ve s
al l the s o cal l e d facultie s of the mi n d w ith the i r h i gh e s t
-
,

pote n ci e s a n d i n th e i r most S p i ri tual form B u t i f the word .

co n ati on be u s ed for th e con s ci ou s s po n tan e ou s acti v e , ,

a s p e ct of al l me n tal li fe , i ts phy s i ological conditi on s so ,

far a s s ci e n ce c a n di s enta n gl e th e m s e e m to l i e i n that ,

automati c molecular acti vi ty which be longs to every l i ving

cel l but pecul i arly t o the central n e rvous m a s s e s
,
.

A ccord i n g to a ge n eral bi ol ogi cal l a w the co n s ti tuti on ,

and fu n cti o n s of the h i gh e r ne rvou s ce n tres bec ome m ore

i mporta n t and d e term i n ati ve for th e whol e re al m of bodi ly
and of p sychi c l i fe a s we a s cen d the ani mal s eri es A t the
,
.

h e ad of thi s s e ri e s s ta n d s m a n The s upreme ne rvou s cen

.

tr e s of man are at th e s a m e ti me mo s t i n tri cat e l y organ i zed

a s phy s i cal s tructur e s a n d al s o re l ati ve ly m o s t i nue n ti al
,

for th e co n trol of al l the phy s i cal a n d me n tal d e vel opment of

the a n i mal A ccordi n gly the automati c ( or ce n trally
.
,

ori gi n a t e d ) fu n cti o n s of the h um a n brai n are fa r more com

preh e n s i ve a n d co n trol l i n g than are the automati c acti vi ti e s
of a n y othe r n e rvous mech a n i s m In othe r word s what .
,

the br a i n of a hum a n b e i ng i s a n d what i t do e s of i t s elf , ,

s o to spe ak has far m ore i nue n ce i n d ete rm i n i n g the

,

charact e r a n d d e v e l opm e n t of the e n ti re l i fe of the i ndi

vi dual than i n the ca s e of any other a n i mal .

I t i s not with perf e ct certai n ty but wi th a hi gh degree ,

of probabi l i ty that we are able to s a y

,
A u t om a t i c ( or ,

ce n t r a l ly or i g i n a t e d ) n er vo u s a c t i vi ty i s t h e p e cu li a r p hy si ca l

f a c ti ve c on s ci ou s n ess of
c or r e l a te o ,
th e c on a ti ve e l e m e n t, i n a l l

s c hi c l if e
p y T h e e n larg e d amou n t o f th i s form of n eu ral
.

a ctivi ty i n ma n s brai n c orre s po n d s o n the phy s i cal s i de

, ,

to h i s s up e ri or i n t e ll i g e n t c o n trol ov e r h i s o w n bodi ly an d
m e ntal e vo l uti on Th e automati c a lly acti n g brai n a n d
.
 M I ND AND B ODY 26 9

the autonomou s ( or s el f acti ve a n d control l i ng ) mi nd may

-

1
be sai d to b e correlated .

F i n ally s c i e nti c p sychol ogy p o i n t s ou t ce rtai n cau s al

,

relati o n s whi ch e xi s t b etwee n the ge n e ral character of the

bod i ly orga n i s m more e s peci ally of t h e s tructure a n d func
ti o n s of the b rai n and the ex i s tence to n e a n d mo s t con , ,

s pi c u ou s char a cteri s ti c s o f the l i fe o f con s ci ou s n e s s In .

othe r word s what the i n d i vi dual man i s p sychi cal ly con

, ,

s ide r e d e ithe r i n re s pect to the whole cour s e of h i s p s y ch i cal

,

devel opme n t or i n re s pect to the more general f e ature s of

h i s p sychi cal l i fe at a n y parti cu lar peri od i s d e pende n tl y ,

con n ected with the char a cte r and d e vel opment of th e bo d i ly

organi s m Thi s pri n ci pl e thu s broad ly s tated admit s o f
.
, ,

i nde n ite i ll u s trati on a n d proof It i s enough for ou r .

pre s ent pu rpo s e s merely to refe r to s ome of i ts mo re i mpor

ta nt appl i cati o n s The pecu l i ariti e s whi ch d i s ti n gui sh the
.

s ex e s are e s peci al ly worthy o f note h e re I n s pi t e of the .

modern e ffort i n a pol i ti cal a n d s oci al way to m i n i mi ze or

, ,

ove rl ook the s e d i fference s the s ci e n ti c s tudy o f the mal e

,

and the fe m al e of the human s p e ci e s i n both phy s i ol ogi cal ,

and p sychi cal re s pe ct s onl y se rve s t o multi ply and e m ph a

,

s i ze the s e d i fference s Not i n th o s e re s pect s al o n e wh i ch

.

are obv iou s to all d o men and women d i ff e r In very bl ood .

and ti s s u e and i n the mo s t s ubtl e w ay s and hi dden corners

,

o f the phy s i cal and me n tal be i n g of both are they u n l i ke ,

.

A n d the d i ff ere n c e s of a mental s ort are many o f th e m , ,

pl ai nly a ss i gn a bl e fo r the i r cau s e s t o ori ginal or d e vel oped

d i fferenc e s of a bodi ly k i n d .

In th i s s ame con n ecti on may be menti on e d the dependen ce

o f tran s i e n t o r more pe rma n e n t p s ychi cal m a ni fe s tati on s
upon tho s e bodi ly chang e s wh i ch bel ong to the d i ffe r e nt age s
of l i fe
. H e r e of cou r s e the great cl i mact e ri c s are e s pe
, ,

c i a ll y si g n i ca n t That change i n the s enti me n t s whi ch

.

c ome s wi th the a g e of puberty , and the s udden and emphati c

1
P sych ol ogy , Des c riptiv e and E xpl an a to ry pp
, . 21 6 f .
27 0 M I ND A N D B O DY

s tre s s the n l ai d o n the p s ychi cal pecul i ariti e s of sex are ,

obvi ou s e n ough .But p s ychol ogy i s ju s t begi n ni n g s ucce s s

fully to i n v e s tigate th e s e i m portant me n tal change s which
go o n far more s lowly a n d qui e tly i n co n s ta n t d e pendence

upon the gro wth the nutriti o n the wa s t e a n d the decay o f

, , ,

the vari ou s bod i ly ti s s u e s The p s ycho phy s i c a l d octri n e of

.
-

d i s pos i ti on o r m ood a s wel l a s the phy s i ol ogi cal e xplana

, ,

ti o n s o f the ri s e a n d cour s e i n d e vel opment o f al l manne r o f

s o call e d d i s ea s e d o r a b n ormal mental co n d i ti o n s
-
e n force s ,

the s ame pri nci ple In fact the ci rcui t of the t we n ty fou r
.
,
-

hour s of d ay a n d ni ght ca n n ot b e complet e d for a n y n ormal

per s on w i thout a ff ord i ng a n i llu s trati on of thi s truth The .

n e ce ss ity for s leep at all th e characte r of the ch e mi cal

,

change s whi ch go on i n the bl ood and i n the ti s sue s of the

brai n d uri ng s leep and the changed p s yc h i cal cond i ti on i n
,

wh i ch from the p s ych ol ogi cal poi nt o f vi ew s l e e p con s i s t s

, , ,

can o n ly be unde rs tood a s we admi t the cau s at i ve acti on of

body upon m i nd .

The cul mi n a ti on of th e enti re argume n t i s s oo n reached

the topmo s t p oi n t of e xp e ri e n c e from wh i ch al l i s to be s e e n
that ever can be se e n a n d where al l b e yo n d what i s i mme
,

d i a te l y vi s i bl e re s t s i n total a n d i rremovabl e darkne ss

when th e obvi ou s depe n d e n c e o f a n y co n s ci ou s ne ss whatever
u pon the states of the brai n i s pr e s e nted to ou r vi e w Only .

a s the phy s i cal pre cond iti o n o f a cerebral s tructur e mome n tly
-

nouri shed w ith a supply of su f c i ently a e rated bl ood a n d ,

it s e l f e ngaged i n tho s e my s te ri ous molecular change s wh i ch

co n sti tute what we i n o u r i gnorance cal l n e rve commo -

ti on i s ful lled doe s a n y c orr e l ate d s tream of c on s ci ou s ne ss
,

appe ar C ut o ff the s tr e am of blood a n d the s tream of con

.
,

s c i ou s n es s d i p s d own b e n e a th i ts ow n s o cal le d thr e s hold ; nor

-

d oe s i t a ppea r agai n u n til that phy s i cal change o n wh i ch i t

d e pend s reappear s P ol lute the s tr e am of bl ood w i th the
.

deox i d i zed product s of the bod i ly organ s or w i th drug s o r , ,

i n oth e r w a y s a n d the s tr e am of p s ych i cal s tate s i s corre

,

s pon di n g l y d i s tu rbed .
 M I ND AND B ODY 27 1

What need however ,

to i l lu strate further th e Obvi ou s
,

dependence of mental phenomena upon the s e ch a n ge s ,

ob s erve d or i nferred whi ch are ne ce ss ari ly a s cri be d to th e

,

l i fe of the body For ou r part a s we have al re ady s ai d on

, ,

admit tin g the fact s we fee l n o he s itati on whatever i n con

s i de r i n g the two cla s s es of phenomena under the c tegory
a

o f cau s ati o n .
A nd s urely whateve r any on e can properl y
, ,

mean by the word cau s ati on as e xpre s s i ve o f re lati on s

e xi s ting between t wo ser i e s of phenomena or bet wee n two ,

bei ng s both ackn owledged to be re al that may o n e mean ,

w ith equal propri ety when s peak i n g of bodi ly change s a s

rel ate d to depe n dent m e n t a l phenomena .

Th e s ame thoroughne s s co u rage and con s i s tency mu s t be

, ,

i n s i s ted upon h owever i n tre ati ng of the th i rd clas s of

, ,

phe n omena on whi ch a phi l o s ophi cal v i e w o f th e real rel a

ti on s of body a n d mi n d mu s t be made to depend What i s .

popul arly call ed the i nue nce of m i nd ove r the body i s
equ ally mani fe s t to on e wh o stud i es wi th candor th e enti re
el d of p sycho phy s i c a l fact s H ere i n deed the two e nd s
-
.
, ,

o f t hat s e ri e s of happe n i n g s al ong wh i ch the cau s al s equence

run s are not i n fr e qu e ntly much m ore rmly w ith i n ou r gra s p

than i n the ca s e of th e cl a s s of fact s ju s t previ ou s ly c on
s i de r e d . That c e rtai n changes i n con s c i ou s n e s s d e termi ne
cha n ges both obvi ou s an d s ubti le i n the functi on s a n d v e r v
,

s tru ctu re of the bod i ly s y s tem i s a propo s i ti on b a s ed upon a

,

wi de range of experi e nce s Of the s e exp e ri enc e s too a

.
, ,

bri e f reference to s ome of the more i mporta n t cla ss e s mu s t

s uf ce .

N o on e u s i ng th e l anguage of c ommon s ense and stati ng -

,

th e a ppare n tl y ju s ti abl e co n cl u s i on from the mo s t fa m i l i ar

fact s woul d th i n k for a mo m e n t of denyi n g th at s omehow
,

the m i n d co n trol s a part of the bod i ly organ s i n accordance

w ith con s ci ou s i d e a s wi s he s de s i re s and pl an s Oft e n
, , ,
.

ti m e s i mmed iate ly after the clear o r even th e rather ob s cu re

,

me n tal pi cture of s ometh ing to b e done s ome change i n

27 2 M I ND A ND B O DY

the po s i ti on of on e l i mb rel ati ve to the re s t of the body or ,

s ome movement o f the whol e body i n s pac e for ex ample

,

ari s e s i n c on s ci ou s ne s s the e xecuti on of the i d e ated

,

movem e nt i s d i s covered actual ly to b e taki n g place I n d e e d .

,

s o c ommo n i s th i s e x peri e n ce that i t i s qu i te a s hard t o s e e

how wi thout i t man could l i ve at al l a s t o s ee how he cou ld

,

d i s pen s e with the i nuence of the percepti o n s i n c on v e v i n g

i nformati on a s t o pre s e nt bodi ly r e l ati o n s to othe r th ings .

Thi s rough popular way of reg a rdi n g the rel ati on of me n tal
i de a s to the e xe cuti on o f tho s e bod i ly m oveme n t s i n whi ch
the i deated acti on c on s i s ts o n ly fai ntly r e pre s ent s what psy
c h ol og i c a l sci ence h a s d i s covered to be the real s tate of the

ca s e N ot a n i dea of a n y k i nd i t i s probabl e c a n attai n

.
, ,

any con s i dera bl e vi vi d n e s s and l i fel iken e s s i n co n s ci ou s ne ss

wi thout s tarti ng o ff or at lea s t i n s ti tuti ng a conditi on of
,

strai n wi thin the moto r mechani s m of the body Ve ry

,
.

v ivi d and l i fe li ke i dea s h ave a l arge dynamo geneti c -

value Here too the testi mo n y of sc i enti c p s ych ol ogy i s

.
, ,

cl ear : Ev e n the i dea of movement tend s to re al i ze i t s elf i n
actual movement ; wh i l e the rel ati on of the me n tal i mage of
any particul ar movement to the c orre s po n di n g actual move
m e nt i s s uch that the l atte r, i n a vol untary w a y i s not ,

po s si ble without the forme r The attempt h a s been mad e to

.

sh ow that i n i nd i vi dual s and i n race s the energy of mom e n

tary e ffort i s rel ated to the habi t ual e xerci s e of i n t e llectual
functi ons In ge n eral negroe s are s a i d t o have le s s powe r
.
,

o f gra s p to exert pres s u re than h ave whi te men ; i n t e l li ge n t

per s o n s more power th a n per s on s of l ow i n tellect ; a n d s o

on It i s eve n cl ai med that momentary e x erci s e of i n t e l l i
.

gence provoke s a m omentary exaggerati on of the ene rg y of

vol untary movement s H owever al l th i s may b e ev e rybody
.

,

kn ow s that to thi nk o f d oi n g a n yth i ng cre ate s i t s own

tendency to actual i zati on i n doing To th i nk of jumpi n g .

from a b rid ge or tow e r o r bank i s too s tron g a temptati on

fo r s ome persons s afely to try to re s i s t i t On e c a nnot well .
 M I ND AND B ODY 27 3

h o ld th e i de a of k i cki n g s trik i ng eat i n g s i ngi n g danc i n g

, , , , ,

f e n ci n g e t c wi thout s ta r ti n g motor tend e n ci e s i n tho s e

,
.
,

parti cular d i recti o n s Inde e d i n a l arge cla s s of o u r m o s t

.
,

compl i cat e d m o tor a cti vi ti e s the mov e ment fol l ow s upon the
,

i dea with l ittl e or n o co n s ci ou s i n te rve n ti on of fe el i n g s of

i ntere s t or S i gn of pu rpo s e ful conati on 1
.

Thi s dy n a mo geneti c i n u e n ce of i dea s over the m u s c u
-

la r s v s te m although the mo s t i mpr e ss i ve form of the e ffi ci e n t

,

ene rgy of the i de a ti n g proc e s s e s i s by no mea n s th e i r o n ly ,

form of i n u e n ce The gu i dance a n d t h e i n h i biti on of gro s s

.

bodi ly cha n ge s by i d e ati ng s tate s of con s ci ou s n e s s s hould

al s o be taken i n to the accou n t A s i de from tho s e early .

ra n d om automat i c move m e nt s whi ch the hu man i nf a n t

e x hibi t s al mo s t all the m a n ag e m e nt of h i s motor orga n i s m
,

i s plai n ly tel e ol ogi cal M ov e m e nt uni formly take s pl ace i n

.

the s e rath er than other mu s cle s or group s of mu s cl e s and , ,

thus and s o rathe r than othe rwi s e becau s e of s ome p a r t i cu ,

l ar e nd to be re ach ed The s phere o f the purely ph ys i ol og i

.

cal r e e x e s pu rpo s eful movement s whi ch are n ot a ff e ct e d

by the state of co n s ci ou s ne s s and a r e i n n o w i s e p sych i ,

cal i n the s e n s e o f be i n g co n s ci ou s i s i ndeed greatly , ,

enl arged by ex pe ri e n ce Thu s i t come s about th at m a n y.

very compl i cat e d and s eem i n gly pu rpo s e fu l m oveme n t s o f

th e body may be control l ed by the h ab i tual c o ord i n a ti on s -

o f the mechan i s m and withou t any pre s e n t i m m e di at e i n u

ence from i de a s It i s i n th i s way l argely that a dult s walk

.
,

tal k d re ss e a t a n d perform any act s of acqu i r e d sk i ll

, , ,

whi ch may bel o n g to the i r dai ly empl oyment Thu s al s o .

s ol d i er s may march o r s erv e thei r gun s member s of an ,

orche s tra may conti n u e pl ayi n g th e i r part s whe n co n s ci ou s

n e ss h a s nearly or qu i te d e parted On the othe r hand i t i s .
,

the gu i d i n g force o f i dea s th e d e p e n d e nc e of what the bo dy

,

d o e s u pon th e cau s a ti ve i nuence o f the qual i ty of c o n s c i ou s

ide a ting proc e s s e s wh i ch i s only l e ss i mpre ss i ve becau s e i t
,

1 P syc h ol ogy , De sc ript iv e and E xpl a n a to ry pp, 23 0 f .

18
 M I ND AND B ODY

is a much more fam i l i ar and co n s tant ex peri ence H ow .

qu i ck ly and strongly do we feel thi s i nuence wh e n a n y

mark e d ch ange i n these proce ss e s occur s " N ot o n ly may
e nti r e ly new groupi n g s of the mu s cle s and movem e nt s o f the

whole trunk i n new d i recti o n s be at o n ce e ff ecte d ; but even

the characte r o f the respi rati o n of the pul s e and he art beat
,
-
,

of al l the va s e motor acti on and of th e secretory proc e s s es

-
,

may be cha n ged .

The mecha n i s m of i nhi biti on and the phy s i ol ogi cal ch arac
ter of th e functi o n s wh i ch re s ult i n i nh i biti o n are ve ry
ob s cure The att e mpt h a s bee n made t o account for the
.

i nhi biti on of mu s cul ar movement s ol ely by co n tracti on of

antagon i sti c s et s of muscle s But thi s can scarce ly be the
.

enti re account For there are certai n mu s cle s whi ch fal l

.

unde r the di rect i n uence of con s c i ou s ne ss that have no ,

ant a goni s ti c mu s cle s Such are s ome mu s cle s i n the head

.

and face A typ ic a l i n s tanc e of an auton omou s mu s cl e

.

i s that u s ed i n accommodati on of the eye for near d i s tance s .

The mu s cl e s controlle d by the faci al nerve wh i ch of al l ,

motor nerv e s h a s th e mo s t di rect anatomi cal con n e cti o n with

th e motor ce n tre s of the brai n are i n stanc e s of s i m i l ar
,

autonomou s mu s cl e s When th e more vi vi d and l i fe l ike

.

i dea s are i n pos s e ss i on of con s ci ou s ne s s they n ot o n ly ex press

,

them s el ve s po s iti vely i n the corre s pond i ng bod i ly cond iti on s ,

but th e y al s o i nh ibi t or prevent change s w h i ch woul d occu r

i f the s e bod ily cond iti ons were left whol ly wi thout i nuence
from s uch con s ci ou s i deati on .

In general it i s n o unmeaning gure of s peech which r e

,

gards t h e enti re motor mech a n i s m ( the mo s t s ubtil e and

-

impalpable part s of it mo s t truly ) a s con stantly re s pon s ive to

the i n uence of the i de a ting s oul What a facil e s ervant of
.

his mi nd to portray for ob se rvation th e characte r of h i s

,

mental i mage s i s the f a ce of th e accompli shed a ctor " A nd

,

how d i ffi cult i f not impo s sible i s it for even the mo st cool
, ,

a n d well controlled o f men to prevent the quick re s pon s e o f

-
 M I ND AND B ODY 275

the bodil y members to the image maki n g activity of the mind " -

A nd what other accou n t can be giv e n of all thi s if we reje ct ,

every pr e j u diced trave s ty of a real explanation than that ,

which r e gard s the ideati n g s tate s of con s ciou sn e s s as calling

forth the appropriate condition s of the cerebral centres and so ,

through the brain a n d outgoi n g n e rv e tract s commanding e x -

pr e ss ion for them s elve s ? For a s M Fouill e h a s rightly , .

i n si s te d
,
I d e a s a r e f or ce s I n the ca s e o f that complex
.

molecular mecha n i s m which con s titutes the human body ,

with i ts unique rel a tion s to the s tre a m of con s ciou s ne s s the ,

variou s s tate s o f con s ciou s ne s s s ucce e ding e ach othe r in that

s tream cou n t for s omething importa n t a n d real C ha n ge s in .

thi s mecha n i s m are i n itiated directed a n d inhibited o r

, ,

ch e cked by the activiti e s o f id e ati n g con s ciou s n e ss

,
No .

ma n s body c a n un d er ordin a ry circum s tance s be con s idered

, ,

a s d oi n g what it actually i s doi ng without admitting a cau s al

i nu e n ce fro m that man s idea s A n d i n s tead o f disputing

.

this truth on the ba s i s of vague o r incorrect notio n s of s uch

word s a s cause e n e r gy i n u en ce etc we are rather to adjust
, , ,
.
,

ou r meani n g s and u s e s of the s e word s to the obviou s S i g n i

c a nce of th e facts .

N ot o n ly i n the ca s e of the more den itely ideo motor -

cl a s s es o f bodily chang e s i s thi s pri nciple illu strated but al s o ,

i n the ca s e of tho s e ch a n ge s which a r e s ometime s cl a s s e d a s

i mitative m ove ment s The s e mu s t be di s tingui s hed theo
.
,

r e t i c a ll
y at lea, s t from all purely phy s iological reexe s The .

di s ti n ction can be carried out i n a partially s ati s factory man

n e r although
,
p sychology h a s much i n ter es ti n g work i n
thi s line still to pu r s ue Thi s cl a s s compri s e s tho s e ( a s a
.

rul e ) s om e what complex a n d expre ss ive co n tractio n s of the

mu s cl e s that a r e call e d ou t in on e i n di vidual , by the pre s en
t a ti on of the mov e ment s re s ulting from co n s ciou s idea s a n d
f e elings i n a n other individual without howeve r awakening
, , ,

the id e a s a n d fe eli n g s them s el ve s o r the con s ciou s purpo s e

,

to ex pre s s them I n infant s s mile an s wer s i n i mitation o f
.
,
27 6 M I ND AND B ODY

s mile frown of frown gri mace of grimace etc B u t here

, , ,
.
,

a n d e ve n i n the ca s e o f ma n y s imilar mov e m e n t s i n adult s it ,

i s diffi cult to tell how much o f the r e s ult i s to b e a s crib e d to

t h e fai n t s tarti n gs of i n choat e ide a s a n d feeli n g s that e xpr e s s
th e m s el v e s i n sympathetic form s of mov e m e n t h o w much to ,

s u b co n s ciou s but complicat e d ge n eric a n d i n h e rit e d r e e x e s

-

and how much to involu n tary but co n s ciou s co n ation n di n g i ts

way alo g the w e ll wor n ch a n n e l s o f motor di s ch a rg e
n - 1
A lo w
form but only a l ow form of i n u e n c e from co n s ciou sn e s s i s
, ,

n ece s s ary to accou n t for th e origi n a n d character o f th e s e i m i

t a t i v e movem e n t s Thi s may be argu e d from th e tim e at which

.

th ey b e gin to appear ( fourth to s eve n th mo n th o f the life of the

child ) ; a n d al s o from the f a ct that idiot s and s avage s are
s om e tim e s mo s t ex c e llent i mitator s th a t c e rt a in a n im a l s ev e n
,

di s play the powe r o f i mitation a n d that hypnotic subj e ct s ,

di s pla y a wide ra n ge o f m oveme n t s i n the s ame wa y It i s .

o n ly on the ba si s of thi s ki n d of i n ue n ce of mi n d ove r body

that the lower form s of s ympathetic feeli n g a n d action can
s pread s o rapidly over mul titud e s o f m e n ; i n d e ed thi s form ,

o f s preadi n g oftentime s appear s more l ike a s imulta n e ou s

e xplo s io n th a n lik e a S l ow l v cr e e pi n g r e .

In thi s s ame co n n ectio n r e fe r e nce s houl d be mad e to the

pre s e n t extended and s ucc e s s ful u s e of the pri n cipl e of s u g

ge stion i n the e xplana t ion e s peci a lly of hyp n oti c phe n om
en a . The phe n ome n a of hyp n o s i s a lth ough they have o n ly ,

rec e ntly bee n s ubject e d to s cie n ti c tr e atm e nt a n d are still

exc e e dingly ob s cure illu s trat e all the th re e clas s e s o f c a s e s
,

n ow u n d e r co n s ideratio n Tho s e cha n g e d co n ditio n s of the

.

bodily functi o n s e s p e cially of the end organ s o f s e n se and -

of the nerv e centre s i n which phy s iologic a lly co n sidered

-
, ,

the s t a te of hyp n o s i s co n s i st s are to be reg a rd e d a s cau s ally

,

connect e d with the pecul iar me n tal phe n om e n a of the hyp

n ot i c s ubject. But con v e r s el y th e ch a n g e s i n co n s ciou s ne ss
, ,

i nitiated u n de r the p sychological pri n cipl e o f s ugge s ti on are

1 P sych ol ogy , Desc ript iv e a nd E xpl an a t o ry p ,
. 228 .
 M I ND AND B ODY 277

cau s ally connected with the chang e d phy s iological condition s .

No w it s hould not be forgotte n that the principle of s ugge s tion

i s d e nitively a p sy c holog i ca l p r i n c i pl e a n d n othi n g el s e In the
,
.

co n ict whi ch h a s go n e on b e t we e n the attempt s a t explaini n g

a l l the comple x phenomena of hyp n otism from the two m a i n

poi n t s o f vie w the phy s ical and phy s iological o r the psy
, ,

ch o l o g i c a l the l atte r h a s
,
s teadily triumphed along the
e n tir e l i n e On ly by i ts u s e have the s e phenomena rec e iv e d a
.

r e a lly s cie n ti c though a s yet o n ly partial s ol u tio n The

, , .

s cie n c e o f mag n eti s m a s it i s u nder s tood a n d pur s ue d by

,

t h e phy s ici s t h a s little o r no light to th row upon the phenom

,

ena o f s e called animal mag n eti s m
-
Tho s e who attribute
.

the productio n of the hyp n otic s tate t o the action of any kind
o f phy s ica l c a u s ation upon the brain a r e obliged to re s ort to

occu lt a n d hypothetical force s a n d e n titie s s uch a s are entirely ,

u n k n ow n to tho s e phy s ical s ci e nce s with w hich i nve s ti gator s

from the phy s ical a n d phy s iologi cal poi n t s of V iew ought to
n d th e m se lve s mo s t clo s e ly allied H ow i mpotent i s all
.

thi s to account for the p r ofou n d e ff e ct u po n s ome hypnoti c

s ubj ect s of the s i n gl e word

s le e p

" On the contrary the ,

p sychological pri n cipl e of s ugge stion i s one that h a s s e cured

the cl e are s t po ssible recog n itio n a s e x planatory of an e n or
mou s n umbe r of diff eren t s ubordi n ate cl a ss e s o f p sychical
ph e n omen a .

Th e ob s erved fact s in ca s e s of hypno s i s are a s a rule of , ,

th e following orde r I n s ome man n e r by word look

.
, ,

g es ture or s ome othe r for m of s ugge stiv e s ti mulation of an

,

e n d organ o f s e n s e a n id e a or s e t of id e a s i s introduce d
-

, ,

i n to the con s ciou s n e s s of the s ubject The n with th e mo s t .

,

s e n s itive a n d w e ll practi s ed of t h e s ubject s a profound mod i

-
,

c a t i o n of the bodily orga n s s peedily take s pl a ce What thi s .

modi cation i s a s d e s cribed with the ex actne s s and detail

,

dema n ded by phy s iological s ci e n c e s o far a s t h e c e r e bral cen

,

tr e s a r e co n c e r n e d we a r e a l mo s t w h oll v u n a ble to s a y But

, .
,

then there i s a s ye t l ittle or no s cie n ce of the mo s t normal

,
27 8 M I ND AND B ODY

phy s iol ogy of the cerebral centre s The conditi on i n to which

.

the mu s cular external s en s ory , r e s pi ratory and circulatory

, ,

sy s tem s are thrown in hypno s i s i s of cour s e much m ore

obviou s B ut nearly the whol e of our k n owl edge on thi s
.

point empha s ize s to a truly a s toni shi n g d e gre e the inuence

, ,

of i d e a s over the co n dition s of the bodily orga n i s m .

A nd when it i s di scovered h ow s tigmata may be produced

by suggested id e a s ; h o w i n the s ame way the s ecretio n s may
, ,

be stimulated or inhi bited and e ven made to come to orde r at

,

a particular s et time ; h o w poi s on s may be counteracted o r

thei r e ffect s s imulated i n a really dangerou s form ; h o w mar

vello ns latent p owers i n s o c alled organi c memory o r i n
-
,

the u se o f the bodily organ s ( s uch a s imitative s inging to ri val

L ind and i mitative acting that would be well worthy o f a
,

s tar p e rformer ) ,
o r in clairvoyance and variou s form s

of tactful i n s ight and far s ight can be b rought i n to exerci s e ;

-
,

how pai n ful s e n s atio n s can be alleviated or wholly q ue n ched ,

and incredible rigidity a n d s tre n gth of the motor appar a tu s can -

be i nduced i n immedi a te sequence u pon a n appare n tly com

pl ote i mpotency wh e n s u ch fact s a s the s e are di s cov e r e d
, ,

what remai n s to be do n e but t o ad mit the m a s evidence of

the c a u s al inuence of m i n d over body ? H ow i n deed c o uld , ,

the mo s t high and d ry the ol ogical dogma of the s ubj e cti on

- -

of the body to the mi n d be any more emphatical ly ex pre s se d

than it i s by the s e fact s What coars er form of the cu rrent

s pi ritual i s m e xi s t s than that which the s e hypn otic s tudie s

sugge s t
But the s ame s tate s of con s ciou snes s whi ch in o n e a s pect ,

o f them a r e call e d o u r ide a s are i n anoth e r rel ated but n ot

, ,

identical a s pect called our feel i n gs o r emotion s The i n u

, .

ence of a ff e ctive con s ciousne ss u pon th e condition of the

bodily o rgani s m i s i n the ca s e o f all i ts more i n te n s e form s
, ,

parti cularly m ark ed The very natu r e o f the emotion s and

.
,

even of the i nt ellectual ae s thetic a l and ethical s entime n t s

, , ,

can be under s tood only a s we con s ider h o w the y tak e up i nto

 M I ND AND B ODY 9

them s el ve s a s it were the e ffect s i n con s ciou s ne s s of a cc om pa

, ,

nying bodily cha n ge s But for the u n prej udiced a n d u n dau n te d

.

s tudent of empi rical p sychology , the Oppo s ite co n clu s ion a

p
pear s e qually j u s tied Indeed i n treati n g scienti cally of
.
,

the ideo moto r a n d i mitative movem e nt s it i s nece s s ary to

-
,

recognize the i n ue n ce of fe el i n g ove r the mu s cul ar sy s tem .

H ere the p sycho physical theory of phy s iognomy h a s a large

-

and intere s ti n g eld f or re s earch E ve ry appetitive co n dition .

of co n s ciou s ne s s every pa ss io n and s tro n g d e s ire m ould s to i t s

, ,

expre s s ion the e ntire appropriate mu s cular appar a tu s unle s s ,

it be i nhibited by s ome re s training feeli n g or idea H e re to o .

, ,

a s in the ca s e o f s ugge s ted ideas s o far a s the s eque n ce of ,

e vents can be traced e mpirically a n d e xplai n ed i n ac cordance ,

w i th u n d o u b t e d experience it i s the mental s tate wh ich i s ini

~
,

t i a t i v e o f the pecul iar train of re s ult s S ome i n sulting word .

,

for ex ample ex cite s anger ; o r s ome sugge s ted thought o r

,

s ugge s tiv e s ight arou s e s amative pa s s io n ; o r s ome s ound of ,

no m a tter how faint inten s ity s tir s the feeling o f fear ,

and ,

i mmediat ely the profou n de st modi cation s of the enti re bodily

sy stem re s ult .

N or i s i t i n the s e coarser form s of expre ssi on al one that

the i n ue n ce o f affecti ve co n s ciou s n e ss ov e r the bod ily s tate s
i s mark e d and wo n derful L et the apprecia tive l i s tene r n ote
.

the character of the tones which are produced by a m a s terful

pl ay e r on the vi olin ; or bett e r still that fall i nto the air from
, ,

the open m outh of t h e skilled s inge r Tho s e vibrating mole .

cul e s of s tring s and educated woody bre are fo r th e char ,

a ct e r o f thei r mol e cul ar motion s depende n t upon the d e licately

,

trained mu s cl e s o f the bow arm a n d u pon the d e ft and s ensi

-
,

tive tactual traini n g of the hand with which the s paci n g i s

made A nd thi s line of phy si cal s e que n c e s c a n be traced
.

back to the e ducated molecul e s of th e s en s ory motor centre s -

o f the musicia n s brain

B ut i n what cau s e s
. cond itions , ,

or

i n u c n c es

u s e whateve r wo rd
,
-
you will s hall a n ,

expl a nation be fou n d for the expre s s ive Shadi n g which these
28 0 M I ND AND B ODY

s ucce s s iv e tone s a t every i n s tant receive ? It i s a mocke ry ,

that ke e p s the promi s e of ex plan ation to t h e c a r alo n e a n d

br e ak s i t n ot only to the heart but al s o to the i n tell e ct if a n y ,

other a n s w er to thi s qu e s tion be give n than thi s : I t i s chiey

i n the educated f e eli n g s of that s oul who s e actual lif e of con
s c i ou s n e s s i s i n ferred as standi n g at the oth e r e n d of the

compl ex cau s al s erie s and as an s weri n g i n i ts e s s e n tial char

,

a c t e r i s t i c experience to o u r own s elf co n s ciou s lif e

-
Without .

the con s tant in uence of that life of co n s ciou s arti stic fe e li n g ,

the s e p e culia r motor e ffect s could never in t h e le a s t degree

-

s ati s fa ctorily be explai n ed . A n d all the s ci e n ce that h a s
b e e n or i s or e ve r will h e d oe s n ot at all di s turb thi s an s wer .

Thi s s cie n ce o n ly rehear s e s the s tory a s to wh e re a n d how th e

r s t re s po n s ive molecular change s of a bodily s ort take place .

Th e cha n ge s them se lv e s mu s t s till be accou n t e d for a s havin g

their expl a n a tion i n the s tate s of affective con s ci ou s n e ss that
call them forth .

M or e e mphatic a lly s till i f thi s we re po s s ible are we

comp e lled to admit that the conative a s pe ct of con s ciou s nes s
( or i n i ts highly devel op e d form vol itio n s d e e d s of will
, , , ,

choic e s ) i n ue n ce s the bodily s t a te s To e n force thi s clai m

.

i n detail it w ould o n ly be n ec e s s ary to r e p e at wh a t h a s a l

,

ready be e n s a id i n other co n nectio n s ( pp 8 5 f ; . . a n d to

add i n n u me rabl e oth e r d ata t a ke n from t h e e m pi rical s cienc e

o f p s ycholog y . The i n u e n c e of att e n ti o n upo n the co n di
tion s of the bodily orga n s i s b eyo n d d oubt B v thi s i n u e nce
.

th e v are i n th e e arlier s tage s o f dev e lopm e n t m a d e c a pabl e

, ,

o f more e xact a n d re n e d motor activitie s By it profou n d

.

modi c a tio n s of the s ecretory a n d nutritiv e fu n ctio n s are

brought a bout There eve n s eem s rea s on to s uppo s e that
.

through thi s a l tered metaboli s m under the i n uence of att e n

,

tio n perma n e n t orga n ic cha n ge s may b e cau sed It i s neither

,
.

comfor tabl e nor s afe for a n y on e to a t te n d t o the co n diti on

a n d worki n g of t h e bodily organ s overmuch e s p e ci a lly i n a
,

curiou s o r a n xiou s way A nd whe n attenti on i s it s elf ar

.
 M I ND A N D B ODY 28 1

re s te d and guided by s tro n g feeling or i s accompanied by ,

s tro n g e motio n al di s turba n ce s th e e n tire s t a t e o f co n s ciou s

,

ne s s b e com e s a n excita n t a to n ic an irrita n t or a cau s e of

, , ,

depre s s ion of t h e mo s t powerful ch a ract e r T h e re i s far .

more s ci e n ti c i n forma t ion obtain a bl e a bout the e ff e ct of

xed id e a s upo n the bodily co n ditio n s tha n a bout t h e e ffe c t

o f brain state s i n t h e productio n of
-
xed idea s .

It i s ho weve r , wh e n the con s id e ration o f the higher form s

,

of volu n tary actio n choo s i n g plan n ing and co n trivi n g

, ,
is
reached th a t th e co n trolli n g in u e nc e of mi n d over the bodily
o rga n i s m i s mo s t e m pha s ized i n the popul a r thought : N or
d o the s ubtl e s t i n ve s tig a tion s of s ci e ntifi c p sychology di s cover
a n y valid rea s on s why thi s s hould not be so H e re the v e ry .

natur e of atte n tion is s ele cti v e and s o d e ter mi n a ti ve of the

,

co n dition of th e orga n through which attention i s gi ven ;

for att e ntion i s both i n n ervating of that particular organ

and e n ervati n g of other orga n s not i n lik e man n er , ,

s e lected for u s e

R em e mber to forget L ampe s aid Ka n t ;
.

,

a n d the s ame philo s oph e r habitually fro m pri n ci pl e paid n o

, ,

a tt e ntion to th e p a i n ful f e eli n g s i n h i s ch e s t although when ,

h e did a tte n d to th e m he al w ay s fou n d th e m th e re A ll e d u .

catio n dep e nd s upo n the recog n iti o n of thi s pri n ciple The .

pal s ied m a n c a n oft e n although it b e withi n v e ry narro w

limit s co n trol h i s tre m bli n g limb s if h e wi ll The s am e ,
.

thing i s tru e of t h e fre n zied movem e n t s of th e i n s a n e a n d ,

e ven of the s e lf rallying pow e r e xhibit e d by t h e f a i n ti n g a n d

-

the dyi n g The que s tio n of s o calle d fr e e do m o f will n ee d
.
-

not be i n volv e d i n any way here ; w e a r e s i mply c a lli n g a t

t e n tion to th e r e s ult s i n modifying the bodily co n ditio n s of
, ,

that s tate of con s ciou s n e ss which i s called will .

I n directly th r ough volu n tary co n trol over the adj u s tme n t of

,

t h e bodily orga n i s m the greater part of o u r s e n s e e x p e rie n c e s

,
-

m ay be brought u n der th e s a m e pri n ciple In thi s ma n n er .

th e quality qu a n tity time rat e a n d o rde r of ou r s e n s e e x pe r i

, ,
-
,
-

e mee s become d e p e n d e ntly relat e d not merely in a direct way

,
28 2 M I ND AND B ODY

to the brain stat e s which are prod uced by external and inter
-

nal s tim uli but al s o to the volition s of the mi n d I n deed

,
.
,

the v e ry r e ality of o u r o wn bodie s and of al l phy s ical thi n g s ,

i n their r e lation s to our bodie s i s dep e n d e ntly connect e d with ,

1
o u r feeli n g s a n d willi n g s So that no one s s tate s of con.

s c i ou s n ess are s imply r e gulative of the change s in h i s

body ; they are al s o through th e ir i n ue n c e ,
con s titutive ,

of the s e bodie s and of the thing s k n ow n through the bodily

organ s Thu s ari se s i n p sychol ogical s cie n ce that impres s io n
.

o f the nature o f mi n d o n which Id e a l i s m in s i st s a s not only ,

the controlle r but al s o th e cr e ator o f a l l thi n g s e ven o f the ,

b ody o n which it appear s it s elf p e culiarly dependent .

A nd nally the re remai n s to n otice that wide but vague

, ,

real m o f relation s u pon which a c e rtain for m of ani

mi s m so called chi e y r e li e s Of mood di s po sition tem
,
-
,
.
, ,

p e r a m e n t etc as,
p sychical . a
,
a i rs a s certai n characteri s ti c ,

and p e rs i s te n tly recu rri n g form s of con s ciou s ne s s a fair ,

amou n t of k n owledge exi sts ; far more i ndeed tha n of the , ,

conj ectural phy s ical ba s is which may be s uppo s ed to corre

s pon d to the s e s ame term s W hy then s hould it not b e h e ld .
, ,

that every s oul moul d s i t s o wn body to suit it s elf The a ff i r

m a t i v e an s w e r to thi s i n qui ry s eem s at r s t s ight to be capti
v a ti n
g . It i s ho w ev e r

oppo
, s ed by all tho s e fact
,
s u po n whi ch

M aterial i s m a n d D uali s m rely Still there are ma n y of the .

,

fact s u pon which it doe s r e ly that mu st u n doubtedly be t a ken

i nto ou r total account A n d the co n s ta n t and domi n ant i n
.

u e n ce upon the o rga n i c fu n cti o n s w h ich i s exerci s e d by tem

po r a r i ly o r permane ntly e xi s ting mental mood s i s i n not a ,

few ca s e s the o n e mo st impre s s ive thi n g k n own to be true

,

concer n ing the relation s of body a n d mind .

1 On t hi ubj
s s e c t se e th e e x i gly i t r ti g h p t r f P r f
ce e d n n e es n c a e o o e ss o rJ a m e s,

Th e Pe r p ti
ce on o f Re a li ty ,

in Th P ri ipl
e f P y h l gy
nc es o s c o o ,

v ol . ii
.
 C H APTE R IX

M ATE RI AL I SM A ND S P I RI TU AL I SM

pol em i cal d i s cu s s i on of th i s a n d th e fol l owi ng

T
HE
chapter s should be preface d by two remark s wh i ch are
u nde r s tood to apply to i t through out A nd r s t the term s
.
,

empl oy e d to de s i g n ate the metaphy s i cal the ory whi ch i s

d e fe n ded a s w e ll a s tho s e to de s i gnate Oppo s ed th e orie s
, ,

s houl d b e fr e e d from th e i n uence of al l prejudi ce n ot to ,

s a y opprobri um The meani ngs w ith whi ch the s e te rm s are

.

to be empl oyed w i ll be s omewhat stri ctly de ned ; a n d the

e ffort w i ll be made to remai n faithful to the sam e meani ngs
throughout A nd i f w e on ou r part are not fri ghten e d away
.
, ,

from a certai n form of D ual i s m by the di s favor i nto whi ch

i t h a s of l ate fall en or made angry by th e l ofty a ssumpti on
,

of s ci e nti c s u peri ority w ith whi ch i t s n al departure

from the are n a of metaphy s i cal co n te n ti on i s s ometi mes

announced n e i the r ought any of ou r opponent s to be a n gry
,

o r fright e n e d at bei ng cal l e d

materi al i s t s
If D ual i s m.
,

i n the form i n whi ch i t wi l l be mai n tai n ed cann ot h old i ts ,

grou n d by appeal to fact s a n d by clear a n d l ogi cal thi n k i ng ,

why the n of cou r s e l e t i t r e ti re from the e l d Th ough why

, , .

i t s r e ti r e m e n t a s a defe a ted co n te s tant for s ci e n ti c and

phi l o s oph i cal ho n or s sh ou l d be con s ide red parti cul arly d i s
grac e ful i t i s d i ffi cul t t o s e e
, S o too i f M at e ri al i s m or
.
, ,

M o n i s m ca n n ot hol d the conte s t e d terri tory i n an equally

h o n or a bl e w a y why the n l et them reti re
, , ,
We s hal l be
.

amo n g th e l a s t e i th e r to boa s t of vi cto ry and cl ai m ex clu s i ve

28 4 MA T E RI AL IS M A ND S PI RIT UAL IS M

ri ght to the ti tle cham pi on o f moder n s ci e n c e o r to i n s ult ,

a f a l l e n adv e r s ary L e t i t be l e ft t o m e n l i ke H e rr B ii ch n e r
.

to talk about the s tra n gle d s n a ke s o f the ology and meta
phy s i c s lyi n g arou n d the cradl e of the you n g H ercule s
,

moder n s ci e n ce ; a n d to y oung s ters who are fre s h fro m thei r

the s e s a s ca n d i date s for a d octorate i n phi losophy to a f rm
( for e x ampl e ) that M o n i s m i s t h e o n ly sci enti c doctri n e
i n the se d ay s A s for u s we acknowl edge i n uence from n o
.
,

k i n d of p hobi a whatever unle s s i n de ed i t be the fear
, , ,

of a pretence o f sci ence o r of the m i s l e ad i n g u se of a mb i gu

,

o u s a n d m y s ti cal l a n guage i n the s upport on ly app a r e n t o f

, ,

cheri s hed ten e ts of the p opu lar fai th s .

But s eco n d i t s houl d not be forgotte n that the pre s ent d i s

, ,

cu ss i e n i s con ne d to the relati on s of the hu ma n body and the

hum a n m i nd . W e are n ot now seek i ng a theory of th e rel a
ti on s of al l s o called matte r to m i nd i n general or of the rel a
-
,

ti on s of al l n i te bei ng both materi al a n d s o call ed psychi cal

,
-
,

to A b s olute B e i ng o r the Worl d G round

,

-
M o n i sm i n t h e
.

m a cr ocosm u s, t h e Un i ve r se, d oes n ot n e ce ss a r i ly , by an

y m ea n s,

i mp ly M on i sm i n t he m i cr ocosm u s, I n deed o n e mi ght

ma n .
,

tak e the po s iti on of the m ate ri al i s ti c M o n i s t o r of th e P an ,

the i s t with refe rence to thi s l a rge r a n d all i n cl u s i ve phi l o

,
-

s oph i cal problem and yet co n s i s te n tly mai ntai n that s o far a s
,

d i sti n ct n i t e b e i ngs can be s pok e n of at al l the phe n omen a ,

o f t h e mental o rd e r a n d tho s e b e l ongi n g to the s o calle d bo dy -

co n nect e d therewi th have a dual rathe r than a u n i tary

grou n d On the othe r hand p s ych ol ogi cal duali s m
.
, or

dual i s m a s the met a ph y s i cal ex pl anati on o f th e two ord ers

of phe n ome n a i n the l if e of man d oe s n ot d e bar on e from
the po s i ti o n of a M on i s t when attempti ng a th e oreti cal con
s tructi on i n expl anati on of al l e xperi e n ce ; that i s a s y s te m ,

o f ph i l o s ophy whi ch i ncl ude s al l order s o f fact s .

The ph e n omen a refe rred to i n the previ ou s two chapter s

are e x plai n e d i n accordance wi th th a t m e t a phy s i c s of m i n d
wh i ch the s ti l l e arl i er ch a pt e rs e s tabl i shed o n ly by a du al ,
 MA T E R I AL IS M AND S P I RIT U A L IS M

i sti c hypothe s i s A t th e b e gi n n i n g of t h e d i s cu s s i on i t
.

'

a pp e ared th a t D ual i s m i S t h e m e taphy s i cal V i e w wh i ch the

mu ltitud e v i rtually adopt ; and that i t i s al s o the m e taphy s

i cal po s iti o n whi ch mu s t b e tak e n by every stud e nt of a n y
o f the parti cular sci ence s p s ychol ogy n o le s s than al l the ,

oth e r s ci e n c e s wh o w i s he s to d e al wi th th e ph en omen a i n
the mo s t s tri ctly sci enti c way The d e tai l ed s tud y of al l .

t h e se ph e n omen a whi ch have a s pec i a l b e a ri n g on the prob

l e m of the rel ati o n s i n r e al i ty of body a n d m i n d d oe s not
alte r e s s enti a l ly thi s m e t a phy s i cal po s iti on or th e ph il o ,

s oph i cal conclu s i on s wh i ch foll ow fr o m t h e s u rv e y wh i ch i t

a fford s P sych ol ogi cal sc i e nc e t e l l s u s what a r e the me n tal

.

phen omena ; i t d i s cover s thei r factor s a s k n own by th e m o s t

s earch i n g analy s i s th e i r ge ne s i s and order of ari s i n g i n
,

co n s ci ou s nes s P hy s i ologi cal a n d p s ycho phy s i cal s ci e n ce

.
-

S p e ak s i n d e tai l of the po r ti o n s a n d functi o n s of the body

wh i ch are correl ate d w ith t h e d i ff e rent cl a s s e s of me n tal
phenom e na a n d with the i r ge n e s i s and ord e r of a ri s i n g i n
,

th e s tr e am o f con s ci ou s ne s s I n i t s m odern form phy s i o .

l ogi cal p s ych ol ogy e mpha s i z e s the structure an d fu n cti on s of

t h e nervou s s y s te m and e s peci al ly of the hi ghe r cerebral
,

centr e s ,
-
both a s th e ulti mate dete rmi n i ng antecedent s or
concomit a nt s a n d al s o a s the u lti mate d e termi ned con c om i
,

tant s o r s e quent s of the me n tal ph e n ome n a It d i s cl o s e s .

s om e th i ng ( but n ot a s yet a gr e at d e al wh i ch can prop e rly

, ,

be cal l e d s ci e n c e ) of t h o s e p e cul i ari ti e s of the s tructu re a n d

the fu n cti o n s of th e nervou s s y s t e m th at are s pe c i ca l l y
connect e d wi th th e d i ffe ren t ki n d s of mental phe n ome n a It .

may h ope to k n ow more i f by p a ti e nt and d i l i gent but

,

cauti ou s a n d mod e s t re s e arch i t s hal l me ri t th i s reward .

A n y i n cre as e i n the co n qu e s ts o f p s ycho phy s i c s and phy s -

i ol o g i c a l p sych ol ogy h ow e ve r far i t m a y e xt e nd

,
w ould ,

seem how e ve r only to s ub st itute a more s ci e nti c dual i s m

, ,

for the popul ar dual i s m re s pecti ng the re lat i on s i n real i ty o f

body and mi nd Suppo s e fo r exam pl e that the wh ole
.
, ,
 M A TE R I A L I S M AND S P I R IT UAL IS M
d om a i n occupi e d by the vari ou s cl a ss e s of corre l ati ons
betwe e n th e s e two k i n d s of phenomena had b e e n i nve s ti gated
and r e duce d to formu l a s i n term s of e x act s ci e n ce S t i l l i t .

woul d be a comp le te sci en tic d u a li sm wh i ch woul d re s ult .

Th e cha s m beween the two k i nd s of phenome n a woul d not

h ave bee n i n the l ea s t degree narrowed o r at al l bri dge d ,

ove r N ot s o m uch as a s tri nge r o r a s mall cord to wh i ch

.
,

a s tri ng e r may n ow be attached woul d have been s hot acro ss

,

that cha s m N or as we have repeatedly s ai d woul d the

.
, ,

m e taphy s i cal i mport of the phe n ome n a have bee n altered .

P hy s i ol ogi cal s ci ence woul d s ti l l de s cribe the bodi ly s true

tu re a n d functi on s i n cl ud i ng the mo s t s ubti l e texture and
del i cate op e rati o n s of the c e rebral mecha n i s m i n te rms of
phy s i ca l sci e n ce and a s be l o n gi n g t o a phy s i cal be i n g i n
, ,

term s of th e m e taphy s i c s of phy s i c s P s ychol ogi cal s ci ence.

woul d sti l l de s cri be the mental phen omena i n term s that

h ave a un iqu e mean i n g an d are pe cu l i ar to i t s elf and a s ,

belo n g i ng to a p s y ch ical be i ng i n terms of the metaphy s i cs of

,

p s ych ology .

It woul d appe ar then that the nal word s whi ch s ci e n ce

, ,

and ph i lo s ophy ( u n less p hi l osop hi ca l sp ecu l a ti on be ex tend e d

so a s to con s i d e r bot h body a nd m i n d i n t he i r r e la ti on s t o t he

A bsolu te or Wor l d G r ou n d
can utter on th i s s ubject mu s t
be s omethi ng l i ke the fol l owi ng : The human body i s a v a s t
col lecti on of materi al eleme n t s who s e characteri s ti cs and
changi ng rel a ti o n s a dmi t of de s cri pti o n a n d e xpl a n ati on i n
te rm s o f chemi cal phy s i ologi cal and oth e r form s of phys i
, ,

cal s ci ence . It bel ong s to b i ol ogy to i nve s ti gate i ts gene s i s

and d evel opme n t I ts real i ty i s o n ly s uch a s i s character
.

i s t i c o f tho s e el ement s of a materi al k i nd whi ch ente r i n t o i t ;

i t s i deal i ty i s only formal and parti al i n that meani n g of ,

the word i deal i ty wh i ch prope rly appl i es to al l phy s i cal
be i ngs . I t s u n i ty al s o i s only formal and temporary The .

m i n d o f m a n , h oweve r i s a un i que be i ng sel f known to be

, ,
-

of anothe r o rder, and to have real i ty i deal ity and , ,
 MA T E RI AL IS M AND S P I RIT UAL IS M 28 7

uni ty i n the meani n g of tho s e term s whi ch h a s al ready

bee n s u i c i e n t ly e xplai n ed I ts charact e ri s ti c s be com e mani .

fe s t i h devel opment I t r e a lly i s w ha t i t becom e s ; i ts chi ef

.

capac ity and s ol e ori gi nal faculty may be s ai d to be that of

runn i n g a u n i que cour s e of h i s tory a progre s s i ve l i fe ,
-

proce s s i n ti me Thi s uni que be i n g cal led
. Soul or ,

M i nd s u s ta in s a variety of re lati on s to the phy s i cal bei n g

,

of the body D ep e n d e n tly determi n ed tran s acti on s i n th e

.

two be i n g s a s thu s d e n e d are c on s t antly tak i n g place

, , .

What they are and the formula s w h i ch e xpre ss them can

, ,

o n ly be known a s th e re s ult of the requ i s ite s cienti c i n

qui ry But the s e re lati o n s may t ly be s pok e n of a s ca u sa l
.
,

ju s t as al l s i mi l ar relati o n s may be ; n o r i s thi s to the

prej ud ice of the real i ty of e ithe r of the s e two re lated be i ngs ,

o r to the real i ty of the tran s acti o n s Indeed i t i s only as .

,

reci procally dete rmi ned tran s acti on s i n re al be ing s that

s i mi lar relati on s can be con s i der e d at all .

A s we have el s ewhe re s aid the reality o f the development

1
,

o f that unique ord e r which i s calle d t h e M ind can be under

s tood only i f it be regarded a s t he p r og r e s si v e m a n if e s ta t i on i n

c on s c i ou s n es s o f t he l if e f
o a r ea l be i ng whi ch , a lt hou g h t a i ngk
i ts s ta r t a nd d i r e cti on , as i t wer e , f r om the a c t i on of t he

h
p y s i ca l e lem en ts o
f t he body , p r ocee d s to f
u n old
p ow e r s t ha t

a r e su i
g e n e r i s , a c cor d i n
g t o l a ws of i ts own .

Ye t it i s not
incon s i s tent with thi s ,
but i s rather a p a rt of the s ame truth ,

when it i s al s o s aid : Th e a ssu m

p t i on t h a t th e m i n d i s a r ea l

be i ng , w hi c h ca n be a cte d u
p on b y t he br a i n , a n d w hi c h c a n a c t

on t he bod y t hr ou g h t he br a i n , i s the on ly on e c omp a t i ble wi th

?
a ll t h e f a cts of K n owl e dge
ex o n thi s s ubject
e r i en ce
p
w hich goe s beyo n d th e s e and s imilar declaratio n s i s n o t i t ,

would appear to b e h a d Wi s do m that i s more prof o und o r

, .

lofty c a n n ot be att a i n ed ; it i s ce rt a inly not to be found in

tho s e impo s ing terms of modern s ci e nce which when ex ,

1 l m t f Ph y i l gi l P y h l gy p
E e en s o s o o ca s c o o , . 63 2 .

2
Ibi d p 6 6 7
.
, . .
 28 8 MA T E R I AL IS M AND S P I RIT UAL IS M

a m in ed, s tate the s a m e ultimate fact s i n a l e s s i nt e lligible

w a y a n d a s combi n e d with ce rt a i n u n i n telli gibl e o r u n w a r
,

r a n t a b l e metaphy s ical a s s umption s N or do e s it ye t a pp e ar .

h ow we are e v e r going to get above b e n e ath around o r , , ,

behind the my s tery o f s uch ultimate fact s i n s ci e nce a n d

philo s ophy .

D i ffer e n t co n cl u s i o n s from tho s e ju s t a n n ou n c e d are p f ,

cour s e to b e fou n d a s rival claim a nt s to th e all e gia n ce of

,

thoughtful mi n d s both throughout the hi s tory of philo s ophy

,

a n d at the pr e s ent tim e A ll form s of s p e cul a tive Opi n ion

.

regardi n g the real relation s of ma n s body a n d mi n d m a y b e

reduced to four The s e a r e M at e riali s m Spi rituali s m ( of the

.
,

mo n i s tic ki n d ) M oni s m a n d D uali s m

, The form e r pai r
, .

a gr e e i n refe rri n g all phe n ome n a both the s o called bodily -

a n d the s o call e d me n t a l phe n ome n a to a s i n gle real bei n g

-

of an order to which o n e of the two cla s s e s o f phe n ome n a

immedi a tely a n d obviou s ly corre s po n d s a s th e ir ground , .

M ateri a li s m maint a i n s that th e body ( o r m ore e s peci a lly the

nervou s sy s t e m a n d a b ove all the b rai n ) i s th e on e reality of
,

which both k i n d s of ph e n ome n a a r e a n d to which th e y mu s t ,

be refe rr e d M oni s tic s piritu a li s m m a k e s the r e v e r s e claim 1

. .

It cl aim s that the s o called body h a s only a phe n om e n al e x

-

i ste n c e ; the body i s but a s erie s o f ph e n om e na that are

i n deed of a s p e ci a l orde r but a r e phe n ome n a of th e reality
,

called M i n d a n d are to be r e fe rred t o s uch re a lity a s th e i r

,

s ole grou n d Both M a teriali s m a n d Spiritual i s m thu s agr e e

.

i n ack n owledging the e xi s t e n ce of o n e ki n d of real being o n ly

they agree al s o i n ide ntify n thi s o n e ki n d of bei ng with the
'

know n bei n g of e i ther the body or t h e mind I n re s pect of .

th e i r m e t a phy s ical i mplicati ons th e y may be s aid to be a t

l e a s t i n telligible ; while M oni s m i n i ts cu rr e nt form i s ce r
t a i n l y not intelligibl e There i s therefore a ce rt a in s a ti s f a c
.

tion i n d e aling with the s e two theori e s of th e relati on s o f

1 In s pi t e o f se v r l bvi u bj ti t th
e a o o f
s o ec on s o e u se o th e w rd o

s piri tu li m
a s

h
i n t i s wa y, w e k w f qu ll y ppr pri t w rd t
no o no e a a o a e o o e m pl y o
 MA T E R I AL IS M AND S PI RIT UAL IS M 289

body a n d mind The exi s te n ce s ab out which o n e i s talki n g

.
,

wh e th e r i n d efe nding or i n controv e rti n g e ither theory a r e ,

at l ea s t m a nageable i n term s o f k n owledge commo n to all

p a rtie s But h ere again the c a s e o f M o n i s m i s n o t s o
.
, ,
.

For the third form of s p e culative opi n io n re s pe cti n g the

r e lation s i n re a lity of the body a n d mi n d o f man we have ,

rese rved the name M o n i s m

Thi s t e rm ther e fore do e s
.
, ,

not cover s imply the a ss ertio n that body a n d mi n d com

mouly thought of a s two r e al e xi s tence s of a di ffer e n t and i n
cert a i n re s pect s oppo s ed orde r are i n reality only one
being Fo r thi s it h a s j u s t been s een both M ateriali s m a n d
.
, ,

Spirituali s m agree in af rming But M o n i s m a s the term i s

.
,

now cu s tomari ly employed hold s th at both body and mind , ,

a s kn own by perceptio n a n d by s elf con s ciou s n e s s are phe -

,

n om e n a of o n e and the s ame real being whic h i s howev e r , , ,

n e i th e r of the two Both ki n d s of th e phe n om e n a i n to which

.

the di r e m pt i v c proce ss connected with all human deve lopment

s eparat e s experience on thi s point are to be referred to o n e

and the s ame bei n g ; but thi s bei n g is not the body and i s not
the mind Since body and mind are both phenomen a of this
.

one being they are thought to b e properly s poken of a s i ts

,

t o
w a s p e ct s o r face s or s ide s The inferred or .

a s s umed reality i s then s poken of a s t w o faced

two
or -

s ided,

an

identity root of being a s it were i n which
-
, ,

body a n d mi n d a s known both alik e have thei r grou n d

, , .

The fourth form of a m e taphy s ic s of mi n d a n d body i n ,

thei r relatio n s i s that D uali s m who s e po s ition s and c on

,

elu ion
s s except s o far a s they a re furthe r evi n ced by the
critical treatment of rival theorie s have already b e en
defended and di s cu s sed .

The po s ition of M at e riali s m with reference to the relation s

i n real ity of ma n s body and mind i s reached a s the re sult of
a narro w a n d ex a ggerated o r ev e n exclu s i v e e s timate of
, ,

c ertain phenome n a with the accomp a nyi n g u se of a nai ve

,

and u n c r i t ic a l metaphy s ic s It may therefore be s t be , ,

29 0 .
MA T E R I AL IS M AND S P I R IT UA L I SM

r e fute d by following it along the line which i s cu stomarily

pur s ued i n the attempt to e s tabli sh it It i s only however
.
, ,

when a critical treatm e n t i s given to i ts crude m e taphy s ical

foundatio n s that the whole s uper s tructure o f materiali s m
,

fall s into a heap o f unorganized rubbi s h G l i mp s e s o f thi s

.

truth have alr e ady bee n had . It h a s bee n s e e n h o w the

attempt to e s tabli s h materiali s m a s a fo rm of phe n o me n ali s m
i nevitably lead s to s olip s i s m which i s the ve ry oppo s ite
,

ideali s tic e xtre me from the po s itio n from which the argu
ment of materiali s m s et s o u t For thi s rea s o n and becau s e
.
,

fe w writer s can in the s e day s be found willi n g con s i s tently to

avow and frankly to defe nd ( tak ing to them s elve s wha t eve r
opprobrium s till attache s to its name ) the tenet s o f thi s
S pec ulative t h eory we nee d n ot enter into great d etail
, .

The fact s upon which M ate ri al i s m bu i ld s i ts conclus i on

that the phenomena o f con s ci ou s ne s s i ncl ud i ng tho s e of
s e lf consci ou s n es s and k n owledge
-
with al l of metaphys i cal
,

i nference o r fai th wh i ch the ve ry nature of k now ledge
i nvol ve s are d ependently conne ct e d wi th the brai n s tate s -

mu s t be admi tted ; they are of the orde r pre s e n ted u n der the
s econd cl a ss i n the l a s t chapte r .But even i n th e e n deavor
to mai ntai n a s tri ctly s ci e n ti c attitude t oward al l the
phe n omena i t becomes n e ce ss ary to ad mi t th at a ll th e
,

phe n omen a d o n ot poi nt equal ly c l e a r l v i n th e s ame d i r e c

ti on In fact an al most or qu i te equal ly n u m e ro u s and
.
,

i mpres s i ve cl a s s ( th o s e of the orde r treated a s th i rd i n the

l a s t chapte r ) poi n t i n the oppo s i te d i r e cti on M any u n .

doubted fact s a t any rate warn u s again s t a h a sty ge neral i

, ,

za t i o n t o the e ffe ct that the be i ng o f the b rai n wi th i t s ,

s tate s i s th e only real i ty to b e recog n i zed

,
E v en i f the
.

e x i s tence and fu n cti ons of the b rai n we re s u f ci e nt to a ff ord

the ful l metaphy s i cal e xpl anati on ( as i t ce rtai nly i s n ot ) of
tho s e s tate s of con s c i ou s ne s s who s e gen e s i s and characte r a r e
kn own to be d e p e n de n t upon bodi ly c a u s e s there woul d s ti l l
,

remai n to be e xplai n e d ce rtai n other facts o f e xperi ence

 MA T E RI AL IS M AND S P I R IT UAL IS M 29 1

where bodi ly s tat e s are e qually clearly known to b e depend

e nt upon s tate s of co n s ci ou s ne ss Now when M ateri al i s m .
,

i s brought face to face w ith thi s l atter cl a s s of undoubted

facts i t a s a rul e adopts on e of two o r thr e e unworthy and
, ,

not qu i te ho n e s t mode s of procedure Fo r e ither ( 1 ) i t

. .

pa ss e s ove r i n e n ti re s i lence the s ci enti c and criti cal c on

s i derati on o f the s e fact s or ( 2) i t s o mi n i mi z e s a n d pre s ents
them a s to br e ak the force of the i nfe re nc e s wh i ch mo s t
natural ly an d i nd e e d i n s ome ca s e s nec e ss ari ly o w from
, ,

t hem ; o r nal ly ( 3 ) i t a ss ume s o r a ss ert s that they too

, , ,

l i ke the fact s of the orde r whi ch d o d i s ti n ctly favor i ts con

el u s i o n s m us t be explai n ed by the materi al i s ti c hypothe s i s
, .

The r s t two of the s e three mode s of procedur e are s o

obvi ou s l y unwarra n table a n d the c orrecti ve s and s uppl e
,

ment s wh i ch they n e e d have al rea dy b e en s o fully pre s e n ted ,

that we s hall pa s s them by a s s uf ci e n tly refut e d But wi th .

the other favori te tr i ck of th e advocate s of the mate ri al i s ti c

hypothe s i s a f e w word s may tl y be read on the ma t te r of
fai r deal i ng .

There are i nnume rable ca s e s whe re i n the cl eare s t owi ng ,

stream of con s ci ou s ne ss we k now that ou r i dea s fe e l i n gs , ,

vol iti on s and m e ntal m ood s are foll owed by corre s pond ing
,

modi cati on s o f th e co n d iti on s of ob s e rvabl e b od ily o rgan s .

By ph ys i ol ogi cal and p s ych o phy s i cal re s earche s we a r e l e d

-

to th e knowl e dge ( k n owl edge although a s ye t much m i xed ,

wi th h al f certai n i nfe renc e s w i th d oubtful con j e ctu re s d i m

-
, ,

s urmi s ings a n d a horde of myth s abou t mol ecu lar e x i s tences

,

and do i n g s wh i ch w i l l p e rhap s s ome day, p e rhap s nev e r be

, ,

cleared up) that th e s e m od ifi cati o n s o f the e xt e rnal bod i ly

organ s a r e d e pend e n t upon preced in g changes o f a certai n ,

o r de r
,
.
i n d e n it e r e gi o n s of the central nervou s s y s tem At .

once the n by a s ort o f bl i nd ru s h o r sudden tou r d e f or ce

, ,

doe s M ateri al i s m th i n k to capture thi s orde r of ph e nom e nal

r e l ati on s al s o It a s s um e s a n d a s s e rt s that th e s e s t a te s of
.

consci ou s ne s s wh i ch are known i n ou r more obvi ou s e x pe

29 2 MA T E RI AL IS M AND S P I RIT UAL IS M

i
r en c e as determ i ni n g the s equent b odi ly s tate s are them
s elve s on ly phenome n a of the brai n A s know n me n tal .

s tate s they are thu s c orrelate d wi t h whol ly i nfe r e nt i al a n d

,

l argely c onjectu ral brai n s tate s Th i s i s l ittl e better than

-
.

to s a y ,
I need the s e fact s a s proof s a n d I take them ,

becau s e 1 need them No t only t h e fact s whi ch s e em
.

favorab le to the hypoth e s i s but al s o tho s e whi ch ( at r s t

,

u s h certai n ly ) s eem unfavorabl e to i t are declare d to be ,

ex pl i cabl e s ol ely i n term s of the same hypoth e s i s B ut i t .

woul d s eem that the hypothe s i s i t s e lf i f i t i s to be e nte r ,

t a i n e d at all a s a hypothe s i s even ought to be s ugge s ted by

, ,

a n d n ot to be the very oppos ite of the on e sugge s ted by, a ful l

hal f of al l the known fact s .

But i t may be repl i ed H a s i t n ot ju s t been adm itted that

,

the phenomena of co n sci ou s ne s s i ncl ud i n g th o s e of s el f

co n s ci ou s ne s s and knowl e dge wi th al l of m e taphy s i cal
,

i n f e rence or fai th wh i ch the ve ry n ature of k n owl edge

i nvol ve s are d ependently co n ne cted wi th the br a i n s tate s -

A n d are not the s e parti cul ar i dea s feel i n g s v ol i ti o n s
, , ,

me n tal m ood s etc

, .
,
wh i ch have the appeara n ce o f bei n g
them s e l ve s th e a n teced e nt s or cau s e s of bod i ly cha n ge s ,

ph e n om e n a of con s ci ou s n e s s too ? A n d i f they are phe

mom e na o f co n s ci ou s n e s s why s hould i t n ot be at l ea s t a
,

ten abl e hypothe s i s whi ch a s cribe s the m to th e producti ve

acti v i ty of the brai n i n accordance wi th the materi al i sti c
,

te n et s ?
Wh a t howeve r ( we urge i n oppo s iti on ) d o e s al l thi s ,

amou n t to m ore th an to s a y that i f y ou grant t o M at e ri al i s m

al l th at i t demand s the n i t may po s s ibly be carri e d to s uch
,

an exte n t a s con j ectu rally to account for al l the ph e nomena

The fact s ti l l remai n s however that certai n phenome n a
, ,

s eem di ametri cal ly Oppo s ed to i t ; a n d th at the s e a r e a s wel l

a ss ur e d a s th ose that s eem to favor i t and u pon th e ba s i s of

,

wh i ch i t undoubtedly as a m a tte r o f fact s e t s ou t to e st a bl i s h

i t s e l f B ut what i s he re a sk ed for may turn ou t to be
.
 MA TE R I AL IS M AND S PI RIT UAL IS M

altogether too much to gra n t e s peci al ly s i nce i t s eem s to

,

i mpl i cate a whole s y s tem of metaphy s i cal a ss umpti on s .

A mo n g the metaphy s i cal a ss umpti on s of M ateri al i s m m ay

readi ly be detected the fol low i ng : ( 1) There i s no real be i n g
to be cal led mi nd ; but the b ody with i t s nervou s sy s tem,

and ce ntral organ s of the brai n i s the on ly real be i ng ( 2)

,
.

The brai n d oes ex i s t real ly ; and ( 3 ) It i s the c a u se or e x pl a n ,

a t o r y ground , o r accou ntable age n t , f o r the phenom e na o f

co n s ci ou s n e ss Each on e of the s e a s s umpti o n s howeve r

.
, ,

requi re s cri ti cal exam i nati on The s econd a n d third cannot

.

be grante d true a s we are ready to adm i t them i n part to , ,

be w ithout i nvolvi ng the refutati on of mate ri al i s m The .

r s t i s fal s e a s the whol e of the preced i ng treati s e has ai m e d

,

to show a s everybody bel ieve s and as the clai m s of a s p i ri t

, ,

u a l i s t i c moni s m wh i ch are val id i n re futati on o f mate

(
r i a l i sm
,
howeve r unabl e to e s tabl ish the i r own complete
su f ci e n cy ) s ucce s s fully mai ntai n .

H itherto i t h a s bee n a s s ume d that the mate ri al i s ti c

hypoth e s i s can expl ai n som e of the fact s of c o n s ci ou s ne s s ,

however i n s u i c i e n t o r doubtful i ts e xpl anati on of othe r

fact s of the s ame ge n e ral order mu s t be hel d to be B ut now
.

th i s apparent conce s s i on mu s t b e retracted ; i t i s qu ite u n true

and even un i nt e l li gibl e i n the form i n wh i ch M ate ri al i s m
need s i t i n o rde r to e s tabl i s h i t s el f a s a te nable work i ng
hypoth e s i s A l l the phen ome na o f con s ci ou s n e s s tho s e
.

favorable to the materi al i s ti c tenet a s we l l a s tho s e u nfavor

abl e to it are qu ite i nex pl i cabl e w ithout refe re n ce of them
to the one s ubj e ct o f th em all to the s o cal led m i n d
,
-

.

A s phenom e na they are phenomena of the m i nd ; none of them

,

can be for a moment con s i de re d a s ph enome na of the b rai n

i n any s e n s e o f the s e word s s uch a s the materi al i s ti c
hypothe s i s requ i re s I n s upport of th i s general decl arati on
.

t wo mai n cl a s s e s of rea s on s m ay be all e ged F i r s t the u t te r

.
,

d i s paratene s s a n d i ncompar a b il ity of mental phenomena and

those phen omena wh ich are s c ienti cal ly known to be
.
294 MA T E R I AL IS M AND S PI RIT UAL IS M

exhi bi ted by the br a i n ; and s e con d th e f a ct that m a t e ri al

, ,

i s m ca n n ot eve n state i n a n i n t e ll i gi bl e form i ts co n c e pti on

, ,

of the real rel ati on s b etween me ntal phenom e n a a n d th a t

ex i s te n ce wh i ch i t cal l s the brai n .

A s to the i n comparabi l i ty of the t wo cl as s e s of ph e n om e n a

-
t h e ph e nomen a of co n s ci ou s ne ss and th o s e ph e n om e n a o f
exten s i on m oti o n we i ght i n e rti a etc whi ch be l o n g t o th e
, , , ,
.
,

m ateri al s ubs tance of the brai n the re can be n o d i s pute .

A nd i n truth n o on e i s fou n d to di s pute th e m e r e fact of

, ,

i ncomparab il ity S o long then a s attenti on i s k e p t c on

.
, ,

c e n t r a t e d o n thi s fact tho s e w h o take t h e materi al i s ti c p o s i

,

ti on a s a s pecul ati ve hypothe s i s may i n s ta n tly be recal led

to an agreement o n a fundame ntal poi n t w i th the m o s t
pronou n ced advocate s o f the s pi ri tual i s ti c v i e w H e wh o .

nd s i n matte r the promi s e and pote n cy of e ve ry fo rm
of l i fe ,
i ncl udi ng the p s ychi c l i fe cal le d m i nd freely c on

fe s s e s that h e knows of n o rudi mentary organ eve n who s e ,

devel opment m ay by and by e n abl e u s t o bri dge over th e

cha s m betwe en the mo st re ne d phy s i cal change s i n brai n
state s and the s i mple s t p sychi c fact o f a s en s ati o n or of an ,

i dea ari s i n g i n con s ci ou s ne ss Th at i s t o s a y ch e m i co

,
.
,

phy s i cal changes i n the n ervou s s ubstance s b e l ong t o on e

order of phenomena ; they are m ol ecul ar a n d atomi c move
ment s i n a materi al thi ng C orrelated c ha n ge s of con s ci ous
.

ne s s a s such bel ong to an other and d i ffe rent order o f

, ,

phenome na ; th ey are me n tal ; they are n ot m olecul a r and

atom i c movement s ; they ca n not be conce i ve d of a s b e i n g o r ,

a s becomi ng , o r a s ari s i n g ou t o f mo l e cul ar a n d atomi c ,

m oveme n t s H ere few materi al i s t s i f a n y w ould d i s s ent

.
, , ,

from the fol l owi ng s tatem e nt of th e mo s t pronou n ced of

m odern s pi ri tuali st s i n ph i l o s ophy H e rma n n L otze ,
1
H ow
ever far we pur s u e the c our s e of the s en s e exci t a ti on th rough -

th e nerve i n howe ve r many way s we s uppo s e i ts form

,

changed and conve rted i nto ever ner and m ore d e l i cate
1 M i c r ocosm u l i 1 48 s, v o . . .
 MA T E R I AL I S M AND S P I R IT UAL IS M 295

moveme n t s w e can n e ve r prove that i t i s i n the nature of

,

a n y mov e me n t s o produced to cea s e as m ovement of i t s ow n

accord a n d to r e appear a s a b ri ght color a s a tone a s a

, , ,

s we e t ta s te The cha s m i s never bri dged ove r between the

.

l a s t s tate o f the mate r i al el e me n t s w ith i n ou r reach a n d the

r s t ri s e of the s en s ati on ; and s carce a n y one w i l l che ri sh
the vai n hop e that at a hi gher stage of development sc i enc e
wi l l nd a my s teri ous bri dge i n a c a s e where i t i s the
i mpo ss ibi l ity of a n y s ure cros s i n g ove r that force s i t s elf on
-

u s wi th the most e vi d e nt d i s ti nctne s s .

But a s matter o f fact al s o there i s al mo s t as l i ttl e that ca n

be urge d agai n s t the u n a n s werable truthfulne ss o f the s e n
tence whi ch L otze i mmed iately add s to th o s e ju s t quoted

On the recog n i ti o n of th i s ab s olute i n c omp a r a bi l i ty w i t h

on e anothe r of phy s i cal event s and con s ci ous s tate s has
al way s re s ted the convi cti on of the neces s ity of nd ing a
s peci al grou n d of explanati on for p sychi c l i fe The s e
.

word s s i mply s tate i n an unnece ss ari ly cauti ou s way th e

, ,

fact th at al l m e n foll owi ng the i nevi tabl e law s of the deve l

,

o pm e n t of s elf co n s ci ou s n e s s a s cribe co n s ci ou s s tate s a s such

-
,

to the self kn owi ng subj e ct of th e m to th e m i nd who s e s tate s

-
,

they are . But i na s mu ch a s s tate s o f th e brai n can b e kno wn

only as i nf e rre d or conjectured ch a n ge s of the ord e r per
c e i v e d t o take place i n thing s a s d i s ti nct from the Sel f they
, ,

a s cribe those s tates to a parti cular k i nd of thi n g cal led the

brai n .

Thi s convi cti on of the ne ce s s i ty of nd i ng a speci al

grou n d of e xpla n ati on for p sych i c l i fe op e rate s both po s i
t i v e l y a n d negati v e ly again s t M at e ri al i s m po s i ti vely , ,

whe n we h ave r e gard to the natu re o f s el f con s ci ou s ne ss ; -

and negati v e ly wh e n we h ave reg a rd to the natu re of that

,

percepti on through whi ch knowled ge i s gai n ed of the brai n .

What s elf co n s ci ou s n e s s a f rm s i s th e attributi on of c on

-

s ci ous s t a t e s to a Self a s the i r s ubject o r ground

,
w ho s e
,

state s they are Or i f on e plea s e s to u s e l anguage mor e

.
29 6 MA T E R I AL IS M AND S P I R IT UAL IS M

i mpre s s ive i n the co n te n ti o n agai n st mate ri al i s m s el f ,

consci ou s ne ss i s the a ffirmati on that al l s tate s of con s ci ous

ne ss are phe n omena of the m i n d or Sel f a n d n ot of s ome
, ,

bodi ly org a n or part or of s ome e xtra bod ily th i n g C on

,
-
.

v e rs el the pe rcepti o n s of the qual iti e s a n d change s b e l o n g

y
,

i n g to the b od i ly member s i n clud ing the ne rvou s sy s te m

,

a n d th e brai n a n d ( s i n ce i mmed i ate knowledge by t h e s e n s e s

,

i s rarely po s s ibl e on thi s s ubject ) the subtle s ci e n ti c i n fe r

en ce s whi ch upon the ba s i s of percepti o n s extend tow a rd
, ,

the knowledge of the s e qual iti es and change s a r e al l a f r ,

mati ons of othe r phenomena ( e xten s i on moti o n we i ght i n , , ,

erti a ,
as bel ongi n g to a materi al s ub s tanc e and a s n ot ,

o f the Se lf o r M i nd
,
Bu t i t h a s repeatedly been s hown that
.

i t i s thi s ve ry d i sti ncti on between the two s ubje ct s of the

two orde rs of phe n omena on the ba s i s of wh i ch the e nti re
d i s cuss i on of the real re lati on s of body and m i n d ori ginate s .

H ere agai n the metaphy si c s of M ateri al i s m i s detected on

the poi nt of comm itti ng ha r a lei r i -
.

Suppo s e howeve r that the nece ss ity of ndi n g a s peci al
, ,

grou n d of e xpla n ati on for p s ychi c l i fe be for the m oment

overl oo k ed a n d i ndul ge n ce be a s ke d for the u s e of the
,

current w ord s by wh i ch phe n omen a of co n s ci ou s n e ss are

referre d to the br a i n a s the s ol e real ly ex i s t e nt o f whi ch
they a r e then th e que s ti o n recu rs a s to how the s e word s s hal l
,

b e i nterpreted L et them be taken a s gure s of s pe e ch ; s ti l l

.

i t mu s t be po ss i ble to s a y what that i s re al i s s i gn i e d by

the s e gu re s of s peech Thi s h ow e ve r i s what M at e ri al
.
, ,

i s m i s foreve r u n abl e to put i nto hu man l a n guage It can .

n ot s e t forth that i s to s a y the rel ati o n s that e xi s t

betwee n the real be i n g of the b rai n and i t s me n tal perform
an oe s ( the p s ych i c s tate s whi ch t h e the ory co n ce i v e s of a s
b e l o n gi ng to the brai n a s phen omen a of th e brai n ) i n t e rm s
wh i ch are take n from a n y a nal ogou s rel ati on s wi th i n the whol e
real m of hu ma n e xperi e n ce By thi s i t i s n ot s i mpl y m e a n t
.

to s a y that relati ons betwee n brai n s tate s and co n s ci ous

-
 MA T E R I AL IS M A ND S P I R IT UAL IS M 29 7

states or eve n between con s ci ou s s tate s and the s ub s tance

,

brai n a r e uni que ; that the relati on s them s el ve s a s rel ati on s

, , ,

are not s tri ctly a n alogou s to a n y othe r re lati on s Every .

metaphy s i cal the ory re s pecti ng body and mi nd may be com

p e l l e d to adm i t thu s much . It i s meant the rathe r to a frm , ,

that th e u s e of al l word s whi ch s ugge s t them s e l ve s o r a r e ,

actual ly e mpl oyed to s e t forth the s e re lati on s i n m a te r i a l i s

,

ti c term s, i s i nhe rently uni ntel l igible .

I n th i s conn e cti on i t i s w o rth wh i l e s omewh at fur the r to

con s i de r the i n a pp r Opr i a te n e s s and e ve n th e i mpo s s ibi l ity of

apply ing the t e rm s ubject to r e lati o n s betwee n the b rai n
a n d the con s ci ou s s tate s . Indeed what conce i vabl e mean
,

i ng can be attache d to such a decl a rati on a s th i s : The brai n

o f A i s real ly the s ubject o f the parti cul a r f e e l i ng s
,

thought s an d vol iti on s

,
a ,
b c d e t c that co n s titut e the
, , , .

s tr e am o f co n s c i ou s n e s s wh i ch the s o cal le d mi n d o f A act

-

u a l l y a ss i gns to it s el f ? C ertai nly the e xperi enc e f rom wh ich

i s deri ve d t h e conc e pti o n of what i t i s to be the s ubje ct
o f s tate s co n s i s t s i n the ve ry acti vi ty wh i ch attribut e s m e n

tal s tat e s to the E g o al on e a s the s ub ject o f them all On ly .

anal ogi cal ly ca n thi s parti cul ar rel ati on that e xi s t s b e tw e e n

stat e s a n d the s ubj e ct of them be projected u po n phy s i cal
be i n g s l ik e the brai n ; a n d i n doi ng thi s the relati on r e m a i n s
mea n i ngl e s s u nti l i t i s i nterprete d back i nto o u r experi e n c e
with our s elve s .

On ly i n an a n al ogi cal way i n deed can the brai n be s ai d

, ,

to be the s ubj e ct of a ny k i n d of s tate s ; but i n n o w a y what

e ve r c a n i t b e s ai d to be the s ubject o f con sci ou s s tate s T o .

s peak of th e br a i n a s the s ubject of th e phe n om e n a o f con
s c i ou s n e s s would th e n be s ometh i ng far d i ff e r e nt from a war
, ,

r a n t a b l e u se o f a gu re o f s pee ch It woul d be s om e th i n g
.

di e r e n t from ev e n a perver s i on i n the u s e of a s ometi m e s

warrantabl e gu re of s p e e ch It would be the d e s tructi on i n
.
,

the very act of mak i ng u s e of al l the r e al m e ani n g wh i ch ren

,

der s po ss ible any s uch gu re o f s peech I am the s ubje ct of .

29 8 MA TE R I AL IS M AND S P I R IT UAL IS M

my co n sci ous state s ; and t hey are m i n e m y s ta te s To be ,

~
.

s elf co n s ci ou s i s n ot only to have con s ci ou s s tate s but to a tt r i

-
,

but e the m t o the Self a s i ts s tates ; a n d nothi n g el s e e x c e pt thi s

actual p sychi cal e xpe ri ence whi ch i s al l i n con s ci ou s n e s s and
,

al l of co n s ci ou s ne s s corre s pond s to the rel ati on whi ch i s

,

tl y d e s cri bed a s be i n g th e s ubject of con s ci ou s s tate s

.

What word s then s hal l M ateri al i s m empl oy to ex pre s s i t s

, ,

concepti on of the re al relati on between the brai n and t h e

con s c i ou s s tate s s o a s at le a s t to make i ts the ory under
s tood For s ure ly we h ave a ri gh t to i n s i s t on s ometh i n g
, ,

t hat can be gra s ped by thought In reply i t may be s u g .

,

ge s t e d that t e rm s l ik e g e nerati on producti on fu n c , ,

t i on or el aborati on etc w i l l tl y apply to thi s c a s e
, ,
.
,
.

Thu s Vogt i s b ol d enough to decl are th at a s contracti on i s

the functi on of the mu s cle s a n d a s th e k i dneys s ecrete ,

u ri n e s o and i n the s ame way d oe s the brai n generate

,

thought s movement s and feel ings

,

,
A n d M L uys D r . .
,
.

M aud s l ey a n d othe rs are fond of s peaki n g of th e el abora

,

ti on of s e n s a t i on s a s tak i n g pl ace i n the l owe r regi on s of

the brai n an d of thought s a n d s e n ti me n t s i n the h i ghe r
,

regi on s H ere th e word s l owe r and h i ghe r are l ocal ly

.

co n s i dered ; a n d the p sych i cal product s are s pok en of a s

corre s po n d i ng i n s ome s ort to th e d i ffe re n t produ ct s or ,

stage s o f the same product whi ch mi ght be el aborated i n ,

the s ucce ss i ve s tor i e s of a m i l l f o r cotton wool l e n or s i l k '

, ,

fabri c s B ut i n the i n tere s t s of s ci enti c th i nk ing we s hal l

.

co n ti n ue to i n s i s t upon attach i n g d e n i te c oncepti on s to s uch

word s a s the s e when th e y are empl oyed t o s e t forth the
,

rel ati on s between body and m i nd W i th the s e i n te re s ts i n .

v ie w l e t u s then gi ve a bri e f e xami nati on to H err Vogt s

,

d ramati c decl arati on s .

I t wi ll be ob s erved that i n the on e s e n tence ju s t q uote d

th ree word s are empl oyed ; a n d th e d e cl arati on i s added that
the s e al l e xpre ss e s s ent ial ly one a n d th e s ame r e l ati on .

The s e thre e word s are fu n cti o n s ecreti o n and genera , ,
 MA T E R I AL IS M AND S P I RIT UAL IS M 299

ti on. Two of th e thre e or d i nari ly s tand for perfectly

de ni te and we l l u n der s tood phy s i cal proce s s e s When i t .

i s sai d that the k i dney s s ecrete uri ne i t i s mea n t of , ,

cours e that a certai n phy s i cal s ub s tance whi ch h a s p rope r

,

ti e s that can b e mea s ured a n d te s ted i n c h e m i co phy s i cal -

way s re s ult s from ce rtai n phy s i cal proce s s e s i n the sub s tance
of a certai n bod i ly organ B oth product a n d produci n g
.

ag e nt bel o n g to preci s ely t h e s ame order of be i ng s ; a n d the

proce ss e s i n wh i ch t h e rel a t i on betwe en the two co n s i s t s can
b e traced by s e n se perc e pti on W ith thi s mean i ng of the
-
.

w ord s we can t ly u se the term s ecreti on a s a ppl i ed to

th e h um a n brai n ; we can s a y that a s th e ki d n ey s s ecrete

uri n e s o a n d i n the s ame way doe s th e brai n secr e t e the
,

s erum fou n d i n i t s ve n tri cle s etc ,
The word generati on
.

ex pre s se s another sort of rel ati on between two k i nd s of

phy s i cal s ub s tance s I n i ts pri mary mean i ng i t i n vol ve s
.

certai n product s of s ecretory and other proce ss e s i n the

bodi ly orga n s a uni on of the s e product s and then that
, ,

my s teri ou s dev e l opm e n t of cell s from cell s i n wh i ch th e

growth of the embryo con s i s t s I t i s howe ve r, qu ite appro
.
,

r i a t e to apply the s ame term to that rel ati on whi ch ex i s t s

p
betwee n the n e w cel l s of a n y ti ss ue and the ol d cel l s ; s i nce
by gro wth bi furcati on prol i f e rati on etc of the forme r th e
, , ,

producti on of the l atter take s pl ace It m i ght then tl y be .

s ai d that ju s t a s th e othe r ti s s ue s of the body k e ep them

s e lve s al i v e o r i n crea s e i n volume by gene rati on o f the i r own

,

l i k e s o a n d i n th e s ame way doe s the brai n ge n e rate
, ,

n ot th ought s and feel i ng s certai nly but new nerve cel l s and ,
-

n e rv e b r e s neu rogl i a and th e l ik e

-
, , .

N ow i t i s po s s ibl e that even thi s b ri ef attenti on to s uch

pal p a bl e n o n s en s e a s that of H err Vogt wi l l prove i rri
tati n g to s ome r e ade r s If s o l et the qu e sti on be rai s ed
.
,

wheth e r the po s i ti o n of M at e ri al i s m i s a n y l e s s real ly ab s urd

when i t i s not s o p a l pably ab surd a s th e u s e of the coar s er
materi al i sti c terms i s wont to render i t ; whether i ndeed , ,
3 00 T
MA ER I AL IS M AND S P I RIT UAL IS M
i ts real absurdity doe s n ot co n s i s t i n i ts complete i n ab i l ity
to expre s s i ts v i ew of the rel ati ons between brai n and state s
of co n s ci ou s ne ss i n a n y i n te ll i gible terms whate ve r .

The word functi on certai nly s eem s to promi s e s ome
rel i ef for thi s mo s t severe s trai n upon the und e r s tand i ng .

I t i s a va g ue and s u f c i ently i n den it e term ; i t i s thu s

capabl e of be i ng used w i th a more s oothi ng and capti vati n g
e f fect I t i s p e rfe ctly evi de n t however that thought s and
.
, ,

feel i n g s cann ot be consi d e red a s the functi o n of the brai n

i n th e s ame way a s c o n tracti on i s the functi on of the

mu s cl e s . For the obv i ou s fact whi ch i s e x pre s s ed when
co n tracti on i s s poken o f a s the functi o n of the mu s cl es i s
that the s e bod i ly memb e rs are actual ly perce i v e d to be s ome
ti me s l onger an d th i n n er and then agai n s h orter and
,

th i ck e r ; and th i s obvi ous fact physi ol ogy accounts for by

a s cri bi n g i t to a re arrangeme nt of the mol ecul e s foll owi ng
upon sti mul ati on through the sen s ory nerve b r e s depend
-

i ng upon the conve r s i on of s tore d i nto k i n eti c m ol ecul ar

e ne rgy and back agai n N ow there are i n fact no func
, .
, , ,

ti o n s of the b rai n th at go o n i n preci s ely th e s ame way a s
thi s functi on of contracti o n i n the mu s cles For s uch i rri .

t a b i l i ty and contracti l i ty i s the pecul i ar functi o n of the

mu s cle s B ut i n a s i mi l ar way th at i s a s a rearra n ge
.
,

m e nt of the mol ecul e s po s s ibly co n nected wi th i ncrea s e an d

,

d i mi n uti on i n ce rtai n l ocal i ti es o r d i me n s i o n s o f the organ

i s m th e bra i n h a s the phy s i cal functi on of s udde n m ol e c
ul ar movement But s uch a functi o n i s n o more l i ke the
.

fu n cti o n of th i n k i ng or of fe e l i n g a s i t bel o n g s to the

,

m i n d a n d c on s i s t s i n proc e ss e s i n c o n s ci ousne ss than i s ,

the contracti on of th e mu s cl e s Ind eed here agai n a s

.
,

al way s we come u pon the complete i ncomparabi l ity of the

ph e n omen a o r functi on s wh i ch bel o n g to th e two order s of
, ,

b e i n g s B ra i n i s s ome what l i ke but n ev e r wh ol ly unl ik e

.
, ,

mu s cl e i n i t s fu n cti on s ; that i s both con s i s t of molecu lar

,

change s ; but both are equally and total ly unl i ke m i nd .

 MA T E RI AL I S M AND S P I RIT UAL IS M 3 01

I f, h oweve r on e choo s es to u se the word functi on to

,

e xpre ss the fact that a s t h e cond iti on s of the brai n the

brai n state s vary s o ( th a t i s i n correl ati on wi th o r
-
, ,

dependence u pon them ) do the consci ou s s tate s vary wh y , ,

the n th i s rel ati o n may be admi tted a s a fact But the rel a
,
.

ti on doe s n ot account for i t s elf In truth M ate ri al i s m i n .

,

an n ounci ng the rel ati on i s only s ayi n g ove r i n othe r and ,

l e s s clearl y i ntel l i gible t e rm s the ve ry fact s for whi ch i t

,

a s s u m e s to gi ve an account .

N ot l e s s u n i n t e l l i gibl e real ly i s the concepti on wh i ch

, ,

M ateri al i s m woul d encourage u s to form by u s e of s uch

word s as elaborati on producti on an d the l ike What
, , .

that corre s pond s to any conce i vabl e relati on i n real i ty

betwee n the brai n and con s ci ou s s tate s i s e xpre s se d when we

are tol d that s e n s ati on s are e laborated i n preci s ely s uch
centre s of the brai n and th ought s and feel i ngs i n such othe r
,

centre s By th e elaborati on o f sen sor y p r ocesse s that i s

.

to s a y nerve proce s s e s wh i ch are c orre l ated wi th or ca u s ally

,
-

rel ate d to se n s ati o n s co n s i dered a s s tate s of consci ou s ne s s ,

o r mod i cati on s of s e n s e c on s ci ous n ess
-
someth i ng i s unde r
s tood about wh i ch exact k nowl edge i s conce i vably obtai n

able s ometh i ng al s o that can be compared wi th othe r forms

,

of s o called elaborati on
-
The c h e m i co phy s i cal mol ecul ar
.
-

change s become a s they reach the brai n ce ntre s and s pread

,
-

through th e m more and more c ompl ex i n dependence upon

, ,

the ch e mi cal co n s tituti on h i s tol ogi cal structure and phys i o

, ,

logi cal functi o n s of the s ub s t a nce composi n g these centre s .

But i n al l thi s proce s s of el aborati on the nerve proce ss es d o -

not become more el aborate consi dered a s s e n s ati on s or

p sycho s e s and th i s for the very good rea s on th at they do
, ,

not become any more l ik e sensati ons or any other form of ,

p s ych os e s Only by th e m o s t glari ng s ubre pti on , by a d i s

.

hone s t s muggl i n g i n of the very thi n g whi ch i t w a s promi s ed

-

s houl d be expl ai n e d can one s peak of a n y form of p sychose s

,

as be i ng elaborated by the brai n On the other han d, .

3 02 MA T E R I AL IS M AND S P I RIT UAL IS M

what i t i s to el aborate thought s feel i n g s and pl ans i s , ,

perfectl y wel l known by eve rybody i n accordance wi th ,

abundant e xperi e nc e But s uch a proce ss Of e l aborati on

.

goe s on on ly i n co n s ci ou s n e s s ; i t i s apprehend e d a n d e x
pl ai ned o n ly i n terms of consci ou s n e s s ; a n d i f i t i s to be
a s cri bed t o any agent a s the e laborator that agent mu s t ,

be the s elf c on s ci ou s s ubject o f al l the con s ci ous states

-
.

N or i s the te rm producti on any more favorabl y to be

regarded than are tho s e wh i ch have al ready bee n e x ami ned .

The prod ucti on of a n y pi ece Of mec h a n i s m con s i s t s i n

that new form gi ven to pre ex i s ti ng materi al whi ch i s due to
-

the Operati on Of the mechani s m u pon the mate ri al If i t i s .

a ca s e of the product of a n y Of tho s e mol ecul ar mechan

i s m s wh i ch are k n own as the organs of the human b ody the ,

rel ati on between organ a n d product s i s pre ci s ely the same

as that wh i ch has already been con s i de red u nder the terms
s ecreti on generati on and functi on
, ,
.

Fi nal ly none Of the ph ra s e s de vi s e d by th ose wh o d o not

,

w i sh to be und e r s tood a s e s pou s i n g M ateri al i s m and ye t who ,

hol d to the p s ychol ogi cal po s i ti on s wh i ch we re e xami n ed i n

the r s t chapte r are o n e wh i t bette r or m ore i ntel li gi bl e .

What for exampl e can be meant whe n we are told that the
, ,

brai n mu s t be r e garded a s th rowi ng Off th e enti re mental
s tate c on s i dered as a p s ych i cal u n i ty ? "L et i t b e i n s i s ted
upo n again that n o faul t i s fou n d wi th the u se Of gu re s of
S p e ech when em pl oyed to i n d i cate i ntel l i gi bl e r e al re lati on s .

On the co n trary i t i s mai n tai ned th a t th e r e a l r e la ti on w hi ch

,

M a te r i a l i s m a t te m
p ts to e s t a bl i s h i s i tse lf
f or essen t i a lly a nd

e ver u n i n te ll i i bl e ; and th at al l gure s of S pee ch however

g ,

s uggesti v e and s edu cti ve are mere word s wi th out mea n ing
,

wh en empl oyed to set forth the fund amental met a phy s i cal
tenet of thi s theo ry " It appear s then that there ex i st s a s
.
, ,

l i ttl e o f a rud i mentary organ for con ce i vi ng i n materi al ,

i s t i c fa s h i on the rel ati on betwe en brai n and con s ci ou s state s

,

as for c once i vi ng of the comparabi l ity or i denti ty of the two

 MA T E RI AL IS M AND S P I RIT UAL IS M 3 03

ki nd s Of phe n om e na B ut thi s amount s t o say i n g that

.

the theory c a n n ot d en e t he r e l a t i on s i n r e a li ty be twe en body

and m i n d wi t hou t a ssu m i ng the f the v e r y be i ng
ex i s ten c e o

w hi c h i t sets ou t t o d e n y . For when i t i s d i s cov e r e d what i t s

ter m s mean th e y are found to a s s um e the d ep e n dence Of
,

phenomen a bel onging to on e s ubject or ground upon change s

i n an other s ubj e ct or grou n d That i s to s a y the con s ci ou s
.
,

s ubj e ct
,
and not the br a i n ge n er a te s o r produce s o r e x e r
,

ci s es its pecul i ar fu n cti on i n the form of certai n s e n s ati o n s ,

thought s a n d fe e l i n g s rather tha n other s becau s e of i ts

, ,

d e p e n de n t co n nec t i on w ith the brai n an d wi th i ts fu n cti on s

and ge n e rated prod uct s A n d as to a n ythi ng m ore than th i s
.
,

mate ri a l i s m ca n not tel l what it d o e s m e a n It begi n s th e n .

, ,

by d e n yi ng the e x i s tence o f mi nd ; but i t admit s th e i n com

p a r a b i li t
y o f the two ord e r s o f phenomena O n attempti n g .
,

h ow e ve r to a s s i gn th e o ri gi n of a n y mental phe n ome n a to a

,

bei ng wh o s e whole nature i s de nable only i n te rm s of othe r

i ncomparabl e phe nom e n a i t nd s n o word s appropri ate to
,

expre s s i t s meta phy s i c a l tenet Te rm s that are t to i ndi

.

cate the rel ati o n s of the b rai n to i ts o wn s t a te s are on ,

account Of th e i ncomp arabi l i ty of th e phe n omena totally ,

u n t to ex pre s s th e r e lati on s of th e s a me brai n to s tate s of

con s ci ou s ne s s a s s uch . But te rms wh i ch woul d be t to
expr e s s the rel ati o n of s tate s of con s ci ou s ne ss to the bei n g
th at ge n e rate s o r produce s them ( to the i r s ubj ect ) i mply the
real e xi s t e nce o f the m ind .

Thu s f a r th e argument h a s n ot been i rr e verent a n d s cepti cal

toward the metaphy s i cal i dol o f M at e ri al i s m NO a tt a ck h a s .

bee n mad e upon the real e x i s tence of the brai n Th e word .

b rai n h a s b e e n al l owe d to s tand f or s omewhat wh i ch

count s i n the r e alm Of the real ly e x i s tent although we have ,

decl ined to wor sh i p i t a s the g o d whi ch the m a te ri al i s ti c h y

t h e i demand s But uppo s e that from the poi nt Of vi e w
p o s s . s

Of the phenome n a as a s ci enti c p s ych ol ogy pre s ent s th em the ,

advocate Of the s pi ritu a l i s ti c hypothe s i s grow s grud gi ng and

 3 04 MA T E R I AL IS M AND S P I R IT UAL IS M

ag n o s ti c ; s u ppo s e that the i co n ocl a s ti c temper be l e t l oo s e

a gai n s t thi s i d ol Of materi ali s m ,
i t wi l l not be l o n g before
the j e e ri n g cry o f a metaphy s i c a l I deal i s m i s heard s ayi n g ,
?
t o i ts r i v a l theory ,
Wh e re i s now thy god For from
the i d e al i s ti c poi nt Of vi e w what i s thi s brai n wh i ch i s s o
,

boldly brou ght forward a s the secrete r ge n erator pr pr o ,

- -
,

i et i c a lly

A s a t h i ngSc
l
l

du c e r Of the l i f e Of consci ou s ne s s
k nown i t can s carce ly be deni e d that the brai n i s only a
,

ce rtai n col lecti on of phy s i cal and chemi cal ch aracteri sti cs
that mu s t be d es cribed i n term s of s e n s e e xper i ence or Of -
,

m ore or le s s we i rd cre ati o n s Of i magi nati on a n d i nte llect .

But p sychol ogi cally c o n s i dere d al l s en s e e x p e ri ence i s

,
-

re s olvabl e i n to co n s ci ou s s tate s ; and S O l i kewi s e are al l

acti vi ti es Of i magi nati on wh e t he r i t be e n gaged i n pi ctu ri ng
,

furi es and d ragons or m ol ecul e s a n d atom s ; al l i nferences

,

Of i nt e l l e ct a s w e l l whethe r they re ach out toward un s e en

,

brai n s i n s i d e of perce i ve d s kull s or toward the un s ee n G od

i mmane n t i n al l ni te ex i s tence s No w th e brai n as a
.
,

real ity a mi ghty g e ne rator or secreter of co n s ci ou s s tate s

, ,

appear s from thi s poi nt of vi ew to b e i t s e lf only a ph e n om e

non Of the m i nd ; i t i s i t s el f an i mage a n d an i nf e r e nce

g e n e rat e d by p s ych i c acti vi ti e s wi thi n th e e ver ow i n g -

stream of con s ci ou s ne ss A S s ci e nti cally kn own S i n ce

.
,

al l k n owle dg e i s Of mi n d an d i n m i nd the brai n i s i t s el f

,

gene rated not generator

,
.

Such i ndeed i s a ll that the brai n i s or can eve r be wi th

, ,

ou t fai th . Fo r M ateri al i s m l i k e al l othe r m e taphy s i c s

, ,

mu s t be save d by fai th , i f s aved at al l ; and i t may tu rn

o u t that even thu s i t can be s ave d only a s i t were ,
through ,

the r e . It i s only th at my s teri ou s form o f mental ity to ,

wh i ch p sych ol ogi s t s have gi ven S O m a n v name s c all i ng i t

,

s ometi m e s bel i ef i n real ity ,s ometi mes the pe rc e pti on

of re al ity ,
s ometi mes i n s ti ncti ve i nference t o r e al i ty,
a n d cl a s s i fy i ng i t n ow w ith the i ntel lectual and now wi th

the emoti on a l a n d n ow with the conati ve acti vi ti e s that ,

 MA T E RI A L I S M AND S P I RIT UAL IS M 3 05

i mpart s to the S O cal led b rai n a s to the enti re physi cal -

worl d al l the actual ity whi ch i t can clai m b e for e the mi nd

,

to have We have s poke n of a form of me n tal i ty
. be ,

cau s e percepti o n bel i ef i n s ti nctive i n fere n ce a r e a ll m en ta l

, , ,

proce s s e s A S w a s s ai d long ago ( s e e pp 1 1 4

. o n ly a s be i n g .

i s i mpl i cated i n knowledge d oes be i ng e x i s t for u s Th i s i s .

a s true Of the brai n a s it i s true Of other phy s i cal bei n gs .

I ts ex t r a me n tal i ty i s i mmedi ately depe n d e nt upon that a c t i v

-

i ty Of faith whi ch i s a moment i n ce rtai n con s ci ou s s tate s .

On wh at then u nl e s s i t be u po n the ex erci s e Of a narrow

, ,

and b igoted fai th d oe s the m ateri al i s ti c hypothe s i s depend

,

to contradi ct the large r, more pre ci ou s and more conv i nci ng ,

faiths that make val i d i ts own compl e te contrad i cti on 1

M on i s ti c s pi ritual i s m from the poi n t of v i ew of scie nti c ,

p sychology h a s an u nd oubtedly gre at advantage a s a s ati s

,

factory ph i los ophy o f m i nd ove r mate ri al i s m It i s only .

when criti cal attenti on i s d i r e cted toward i ts metaphysi cal

i mpl i cati ons and i ts l ogi cal and legi ti mate outcom e i n a
complete metaphy s i cal s y s tem that thi s theory of the rel a ,

t i o n s Of body a n d m i nd i s s e en to be un s ati s factory For .

from the p s ychol ogi cal poi n t Of vi e w al l the Objecti ve and

m o s t compl e tely e xtra mental s i de Of e xperi enc e mu s t be -

con s i dered a s b e longing equally wi th the mo s t s ubj e cti ve ,

and completely i ntra me ntal to the phenome n a Of con -
,

s ci ou s n e s s Th ings are k n own to b e w ha t they are o n l y i n

.

te rm s of kn owledge ; i ndeed to s a y thi s i s ta u tol ogi cal but , ,

to attempt to s a y anythi ng wh i ch co n trad i ct s thi s i s t o

a tt empt the u n i n tell i gible the ab s urd Tha t thi ng s really ,
.

1 Some r
r m y b i li d t b w ri d t wh t pp r t t h m
ea de s a e nc ne o e ea e a a a ea s o e ex

cess iv p l m i l ff rt b t w d up t hi f rm f th ry ; p i ll y i f w
a o e ca e o es o e on s o O eo es ec a s nc e e

wri t r w f u d t
e s a re pt th t i tl M t ri li t
no o n t dv t p lyo a c ce e e a e a s s,

or o a oca e o en

it ts t I mu t h w v r b ll w d t l i m l r ppr h i f m y w
en e s . s , o e e , e a o e o c a a c ea a e en s on O o n

ai m d f th pr p t iv v lu d pr t d f u h p l m i Th m
s , an o e os ec e a e an e se n nee o s c o e cs. e nu

b er f r l m t ri li t i b y
o ea m t b m
a e ur d by t h wh
a s s p t th s no ea n s o e eas e os e o a cce e

na m mu h l e, b y th um b r f t h wh t k th p i t t hi k t th
c e ss e n e O o se o a e e a ns o n ou e

i u f th p y h l gi l d phil phi l p i ti whi h t h y p u

ss e o e s c o o ca an oso ca os on s c e es o se .

20
 MA ER T I AL IS M AND S P I RIT UAL IS M
a re c an be k nown on ly a s i t i s s omehow i nvolve d or i m
pl i e d i n al l k n owledge B ut knowl edge i t s elf i s and eve r
.
,

mu s t be a pa s s i n g proce s s i n con s ci ou s n e s s A n d al l thi s

,
.

i s a s true of t h e knowledge of b rai ns a s i t i s of the k nowl

e dge Of any other mate ri al thi ng ; i nd e ed few m ateri al ,

th i ngs re qui re S O much work Of i magi nati on Of i nference , ,

and of fai t h faculty a s doe s th i s S O cal led h u ma n b rai n
- -
,

w ith i ts pecul i ar al l e ge d con s ti tuti on and functi on s Thi s .

l i ne Of argu me n t has just been used to compl ete the refuta

ti on of materi al i sm ; u se d i n thi s way i t i s qu i te unan ,

s wer a b l e . It i s not however equal ly s ati s factory f or

, ,

establ i s hi ng the con clusi ons Of mon i sti c S pi ritu al i s m .

I n the cri ti cal con s i derati on Of thi s second form Of con

ce i v i n g Of the rel ati ons of body and mi nd i t i s wel l to refe r ,

back to the fact s to be e x pl ai ned The s e fact s are ful ly set

.

forth only i n co n necti on w i th the recog n i ti on that whi le ,

all k nowledge as s uch i s undoubtedly a mental tra n sact i on ,

k nowle dge i ts el f i s ju s t a s undoubtedly both of thi ng s an d

of Sel f a s two d i fferent a n d i n certai n i mportant re s pects
, ,

i ncomparabl e k i n d s Of bei ngs P ercepti on i s i n de e d for

.
, ,

p s ychol ogy a men tal proce s s ; and i ts p roduct i s a mental

ach i evement .But kn owl edge by p er cep ti on i s attai n ed only

a s the Object percei v e d i s s e t ou t Of the Self and regarded
a s hav i ng tho s e attribute s of exten s i on wei ght i nerti a etc
, , ,
.
,

and that capacity of movem e n t whi ch i t i s i nconce i vabl e

shoul d al s o b e attri butes Of the Self That i s to s a y we
.
,

here come ag a i n al th ough from the Oppo s i te p oi n t of v i ew,

,

u pon the i n comparabi l ity Of the phe nom e na and s o upon ,

th e nec e s s i ty o f a s s umi ng a S peci al grou n d for the physi cal

phenome n a .

A s a matte r Of fact moni s ti c Spi ri tual i s m d oes n ot O ffe r

,

the s l i ghte s t val i d s ci enti c exp l anati on for two Of the three
c l as s e s of phenomena referred to i n th e l a s t chapte r When .

i ts advo cate tak e s the po s iti o n of the s tud e n t Of s ci ence ,

he describes an d e xplai n s i n nume rabl e cha n ge s i n the c on
 MA T E R I AL IS M AND S P I R IT UAL IS M 3 07

sci ous state s the i r con s tituti on S O t o s peak the i r ari s i ng

, , ,

s equence , and pa s si ng a way prec i s ely a s d oe s the mate

r i a li s t .H e too , can te ll why th e s tream Of con s c i ou s n e s s

,

i s troubled or cea s e s to ow , wh e n the arteri e s Of the neck

,

are compre s s e d only by app e al to the causal i n uence of the

,

brai n a s an i nterm e d iate factor But thi s brai n n o more

.

'

comes i nto h i s con s ci ou s s tate s i n the form Of a percepti on

, ,

th an i nt o the con s ci ou s s tate s of the materi al i s t Why .

,

the n does he ack n owl edge the ab s olute nece s s ity Of i nferri n g
,

i t a n d the hypotheti cal s tates i n i t a s accou n ti n g f or the ex

, ,

i st e n c e and character of al l con s ci ou s s tate s ? A s he pur s ues

the s ci e n ti c s tudy Of m e n tal phenomena from the poi nt s Of
v i ew Of modern phys i ol ogy and p sych o phy s i cs he too -
,

become s u n a v oi dably m ore and more i mpre ss e d w ith the

importance for co n s ci ou s s tate s Of the ch e m i co phy s i cal
, ,
-

co n stituti on and behavi or of thi s a s sumed materi al and

e xtra me n tal
-
entity In bri ef a s a s tud e nt Of s ci enti c
.
,

p s ychol ogy h e can no more expl ai n th e phen omena without

thi s form of a work i ng hypothe s i s than can the ranke s t
materi al i s t wh o i nvesti gat e s the s am e phe n ome n a .

N ow i t i s po ss i bl e for the advocate of thi s form Of ph i l o

,

S oph i cal Spi ritual i s m a s i t was s ee n t o be for the mate

,

r i a l i st th e mome nt he i s al arme d by the scent Of battl e

,

between metaph y s i cal s chools to attempt a r e tr e at to the

,

e n tre n ch ed po s iti on o f thoroughgoi ng Ide al i s m Where a s .

mat e ri al i s m mai ntai n s that al l mental ph e nom e na i n clud ,

i ng tho s e of th e k nowledge of S elf are s e cr e ted ge ne r , ,

at e d el aborat e d or otherwi s e prod uced by the bra in the

, , ,

counte r th e ory may m a i ntai n that al l s o called materi al -

b e i n g s ( i n clud i ng our own body a s a pe rc e i v e d e x tend e d

Obj e ct a n d i ts i nferred i nt e r cra n i al co n te nt Of a brai n ) e x
,
-

i s t o n ly as ge n erated a n d projected by con s ci ou s ne ss i nto a

S pac e ,
a l s o ge n er a ted by the s ame agent It i s not unl i kely
.

that m a teri a l i s m wi ll have a mu ch mo re d i f cul t and e x pe n

s i ve campai gn upo n i t s h a n d s i f i t come s i nto th e Open eld
,
 MA T E RI AL IS M AND S P I RIT UAL IS M

and lay s S i ege to the s pi ritu al i s ti c s tro n gh ol d than woul d ,

be found n e ce s s ary when the relati on of the co n te n di n g

armi e s w a s rever s ed B ut i n h i s anx i e ty to s ave h i s s o
.

pr e ci ou s s oul even at th e co s t of forfe i ti ng the real e x i s t
,

e nce Of h i s le s s pre ci ou s brai n s what that i s val u able
,

and capabl e Of s u s tai ni ng l ife h a s th e theori s t taken wi th

h i m i n to h i s ci tadel ? H e h a s i nd e e d beaten h i s r e tr e at i n
the i ntere s ts of the s ame entiti e s a n d ve ri ti e s that M .

Flournoy esteemed s o preci ou s To h i m a s to M Fl ournoy .

, .
,

i t i s s ou ls hi s E g o a n d the other E g os wi th the i r l ove s a n d

,

hate s the i r mem or i e s and the i r hope s whi ch s ee m mo s t

,

worthy Of s avi n g from the de s tructi ve i ss ue s Of the cam

p ga i n. A n d i f they may be s aved h e too can wel
,
l s pare the

real e xi s te n c e of the very bread he e a t s B ut to be con .

s i s tent he has h i s o w n pre s ent Ego an d no other , for com

,

pa n y and for su s tenance i n th i s i mpregnabl e strongh old .

A l l othe r Egos are kn own to h i m only a s ex i stences i nfe rre d

i n the i nterests of explai ni ng the change s that tak e place i n
perce i ved th i n g s A nd they too wi th equal con s i s tency may
.

be consi dered S i n ce th e y s ta n d at the s eco n d or th i rd remove

,

fro m h i s co n s c i ou s s tate s a s bu t proj ected i d e a s o r rathe r as

, ,

i deati on proce s s e s Of a certa i n order attributabl e to the Sel f

-
,

as thei r s ol e grou n d .

I n truth th e s ol e legiti mate metaphy s i cal outcome o f a

,

mo n i s ti c Spi ri tual i s m i s a compl ete s ol i p s i s m Sti l l furth e r .

,

when s omewhat more hard pr e ss ed by ri va l phi l o s ophi cal

-

theori e s i t man i fe s ts plai n s i g n s of a return to ph e n ome nal

,

i sm . For i f that metaphy s i cal

mome n t that be l i ef,
fe e l ing i n s ti ncti ve i nference whi ch nece s s ari ly e n t e r s i n t o
,

al l percepti on of th ing s be n ot val i d the co n clu s i on i s not ,

d if cul t that n o metaphy s i c s i s val id If the ph e nomen a Of .

the phy s i cal orde r together w ith that attributi on of them to

,

a S peci c ground whi ch al l devel oped human con s ci ou s n e s s

natu ral ly mak e s may b e regarde d wi th s uch di s tru s t Of thei r
,

metaphy s i cal i m pl i ca ti on s why n ot the phenomena o f the

,
 MA T E R I AL IS M AND S P I R IT U AL IS M 3 09

cal led p s ychi cal orde r al s o ? Why attempt to talk or

SO-

t h ink of entiti e s e i ther p s ychi cal or phy s i cal ? The phe

n o m e n a and the rel ati on s between them are al l that can be

s ci enti cal ly known . But here once more , we c ome face

,

to face w i th th e i nv i n cibl e and u n changeable i ncomparab i l ity

o f the phenomena a s the ve ry thi n g to be recog n i zed and

explai ned by al l s peculative theori e s of the re lati o n s betwee n

body and mi nd .

If howeve r, the advocat e Of Spi ritual i s m s ti l l feel s s trongly

,

the i nflue n ce of c o n s i derati on s that ori gi nal ly i n duced hi m

to accept h i s pos iti on h e is l ikely i n s ome way to e s cape
,

from the ph i l osoph i cal sol i psi s m i n whi ch he nd s hi m s el f .

To b e s afe i n the c i tad e l w i th only h i s ow n s oul s eem s

u n s ati s factory to h im I n practi ce the m e a n s of e s cape
'

.
,

wh i ch thi s manner of warfar e s how s are vari ou s On e may .

s oar ove r the wall s upo n the w i ng s of the metaphy s i c s Of

s enti me nt o r on e may make a s al ly by s ome h i ther to c o n

,

ce a e l d avenue s ome s ubte rrane an p a s s ag e Of argum e nt

.

But i f on e the n es cape the b e s i egi ng ho s t s o f M at e ri al i s m ,

on e i s l ikely s o on to be found i n t h e camp Of D ual i s m .

It mu s t al s o be adm i tted th at the langu age whi ch th e

S pi ritual i s ti c theo ry empl oy s to e xpre s s the relati on s of body
an d mi n d i f not S O wholly u ni n tel l igibl e a s that Of the
,

materi a l i s ti c the ory i s s ti ll far from be i ng cl e ar and sati s

,

factory I t i s not l i ke ly that any on e wi ll be fou n d t o

.

parallel th e ab s urd i ti es of writers l ike H err V ogt and s o ,

s peak Of the mi n d as secreti ng the brai n i n th e same
way as that i n wh i ch i t s ecrete s i t s o wn th ou ght s o r feel
i n gs N or i s th i s rel ati ve self control wholly d ue to the
.
-

Obvi ou s i n a ppr Opr i a t e n e ss Of s uch a word to ex pre ss the re la

t i On of the subj e ct Of con s ci ou s s tat e s to e ithe r Of th e two
cla ss e s of phenomena A certai n form Of a n i mi s m h a s
.

held i n deed a d octri n e whi ch m i ght be l iken e d to regardi ng

, ,

the mi nd a s the e l aborator or gene rato r of the d e vel op
ing bo d ily organi s m But ani mi s m as ord i nari ly hel d ,
.
,
3 10 MA T E RI AL IS M AND S P I R IT UAL IS M

r e gard s t h e body a s a real ex i s t e nce ; whi le i t exten d s the

meani ng of the word mi nd so as to i ncl ude al l those
force s a n d performances whi ch bi ol ogy deal s with only i n
term s of the ch e m i co phy s i cal s ci ence of l i fe
-
. It thu s bri n gs
upon i t s e l f the determi ned Oppo s i ti on o f p sychol ogy on the
on e ha n d an d Of bi ol o gy upo n the othe r ha n d For i f
,
.

psych ol ogy depart s fro m its characteri s ti c and only s afe poi nt

of vi e w whi ch i s the d e s cri pti on and ex pl anati on of states
,

Of co n s c i ou s n e s s a s s uch ; and i f i t undertak e s to u s e i ts
pecu l i ar pr inci pl e to e x pl ai n al l the v i tal proc e s s e s Of the
body from the i mpregnated egg onward ti l l death ,
the n i t
n ot only nd s i t s elf wanderi n g helple ss i n va s t a n d u n f a
m i l i ar regi o n s wher e i t can accompl i s h n othi ng for i ts ow n
good bu t i t i s s ure s ooner or l ate r to fal l i nto the hand s of
,

b i ol ogy a s a k i nd of ca n ni bal foe , a n d thu s to be qu ite

,

devo u re d M odern bi ol ogy too wi th i ts justi abl e deter

.
, ,

m i n ati on t o deal w ith i ts pecul i ar problem i n te rm s Of

c h e m i cO phy s i cal s ci enc e, nd s the cl ai ms Of thi s form of
-

an i mi s m parti cul arly o ffen s i v e .

Somethi n g di e r e n t from al l thi s mu s t of cou r s e he meant ,

i f mo n i s ti c Spi ri tual i s m venture s to S p e ak of th e mi n d a s

g e n e r a t i n g the bod i ly orga n i s m A ccord

e l aborati n g or .

i ng t o the d i s ti ncti ve metaphy s i cal cha racter Of the the ory ,

these w ord s mu s t be u s ed to de s cri b e the rel ati on ex i s ti n g i n

real i ty betwe en the e n ti ty mi nd and the phe n omena ord i
n a r i l y s upposed to have the i r ground i n the body . G enera
t i on i s howeve r a w ord wh i ch i s pri marily adapted only
, ,

to s e t forth certai n r e lati ons betwee n phy s i cal s ub s tan ce s or ,

i n ca s e the real ity of phy s i cal s ub s tance s be d e n i e d

between s ets Of phenom e na b e l ongi n g whol ly t o the phy s i cal
ord er I n a gurati ve way the m i nd may perhaps be S poken
.

of as generati ng the parti cu l ar th ought s feel i n g s a n d, ,

vol iti ons whi ch ari s e i n the s tream Of con s ci ou s n e ss But .

i f thi s gure of s peech i s empl oy e d t o s e t for t h the relati on

of th e Ego to i t s con s ci ou s s tates i t mu s t n ot be forgotten
,
 MA T E R I AL IS M AN D S P I R IT UAL IS M 3 11

that any i n terpretati on of i t i nto experience take s u s at once

back to the ulti mate facts o f s elf con s c i ou s n e ss In othe r
-
.

word s we really mean n othing more when we say that the

,

mi nd ge n erate s the s tat e s of co n s ci ou s ne s s tha n we mean
whe n we s a y that the very nature of self consc i ou s ness i s -

s uch a s that the s tat e s o f con s c i ou s ne ss a r e al l referred to

the on e s ubj e ct calle d th e Ego o r Self , .

N o w i na s much a s all percepti o n s Of the vi s i ble and tan

,

g i b l e organ s Of o u r o w n bodie s a s,
wel l a s al l i nference s to
the e xi s tenc e o f the actual ly i nvi s ible and i ntangibl e organ s
of the brai n are p e r c ep ti on s they t o o may be s poke n of i n
, ,

the s ame gurati ve way as g e nerate d by the mi nd On e who .

ai m s to keep clear of al l met a phy s i cal as s umpti on whatever ,

and s ucceed s i n doi n g th i s may perhap s s ati s fy on e S s elf

,

with s u ch gurati ve s tatement s a s the s e To s peak Of con .

sci ou s mi nd as by i ts percepti ve and th i nki ng acti vi ti e s

, ,

ge n er a ti n g a n d el aborati ng i t s own bod i ly organ s h a s ce r

t a i n l y a gho s tly s oun d. It can s carcely howeve r be call e d, ,

absolutely devoi d Of al l mea n i ng a s s oon a s the e ff ort i s

made to i n terpret the gu re s Of S pee ch i n vol ved i n th i s way
o f s peaki ng . But ala s for any complete mental s a ti s facti on
,

i n thi s form Of the metaphy s i c a l S pectre all p er cep ti on s , ,

h ow e v e r p sychol ogy m ay fee l obl i g e d t o regard them a s

me n tal s tate s and proce s s e s i mply a s p art Of the i r v e ry
, ,

e ss e n c e the at t ri buti on Of phen omena Of a n order i n com

,
.

par a bl e wi th m er e mental s tates to another k i nd Of be i n g a s

thei r ground " Inferred and hypotheti cal brai n s are a s truly
ch aract e ri z e d only i n thi s way a s are s tar s and s to n e s ; an d
the m e taphy s i cal faith whi ch enter s into the very heart of
the p e rceptive i nfere n ce or hypoth e s i s re n de r s th e m to th e
perce i vi ng min d i n the form Of e xtra m e n tal and m at e rial
-

sub s tance s a s per s i s te ntl y a s i t does s tar s a n d s tone s S O .

th at he re agai n the e ffort to c onc e i ve Of the relati o n s ma i n

tai n ing them s el v e s i n r e al ity betw e en m i nd and body wi th ,

only on e of the two be ings to serve as the ground Of both

3 12 MA T E R I AL IS M AND S P I R IT UAL IS M

cl as s es of phenomena break s i n piece s agai n s t the i n vi ncibl e

,

i ncomparab i l ity Of t h e ph e nomena Th e re s e e m s n o oth e r .

cons i s te n t and logi cal cour s e op e n ther e for e ex cept e i th e r

, ,

to deny al l real ity to both ki n d s Of b e i n g s a n d S O t o th e ,

rel ati ons b e t we erfi them a n d thu s to c om e aroun d to

, ,

phenomenal i s m agai n o r el s e to admi t that b e cau s e we

,

k now the phenomena to be i ncomparabl e w e r e qu i re a d i s

ti n cti on i n the i r metaphy s i cal grou n d Th i s i s to a frm that .

we know b oth body and m i nd a s al i ke re al but i n c om pa r

abl e be i ngs be cau s e capabl e Of enteri ng i n to su ch k n own
relati o n s.

By S i mi l ar trai n s of rea s oni ng i t may be S h own that th e

term s e lab orati o n , producti on etc d o n ot ad e quat e ly
,
.
,

e xpre s s any of the real rel ati on s i n wh i ch the m i nd s t a n d s

t o the bod i ly organ s I n othe r word s to pe rcei v e and to
.
,

i n fe r i s n ot a ltogethe r the s ame a s to gene rate o r to produce .

A nd there i s a parti cul arly gho stly sort of i n ept n e ss i n volv e d

i n us i n g the s e word s f o r the su m total of the re l ati o n s i n -

wh i ch the mi nd s tand s to the materi al organi s m and to the

phy s i cal fu n cti on s of the body .

It clearly appear s th e n that both M ateri al i s m and m on

, ,

i s ti c Spi ritual i s m a re s trong i n attack each u pon the othe r ; ,

but they are al s o both weak i n def e n ce Of th e m s el ve s e ach ,

agai n s t the attack Of the other Y et they can s carcely be .

s ai d t o be e qual ly weak i n e i the r attack o r defen ce ; for on ,

the whol e the s pi ritual i s ti c theory h a s qu i te dec i d e d a d

,

vantage s Ove r the materi al i s ti c On the wh ol e i t s po s iti o n s

.
,

can be rend e red both more i ntel l i gi bl e and m ore defe n s i bl e .

It leaves to u s i n the la s t extr e mi ty of ou r ght wi th the

,

a rch e nemy of al l kn owledge wi th agno s ti ci s m pu s h e d t o

-
,

the farth e s t po ss i ble l i m it s i n di s tru s t of al l th e acti vi ti e s

a n d conque s t s of the human mi n d the I a m he re and ,
- - - -

n ow be i ng
-
( I ch bi n hi e r u n d j etz t ) of the mi nd it s el f A n d .

thi s i s i n deed the i mpre gn abl e s tro n gh ol d from wh i ch i n v i n

cibl e reason may at any ti me c ome forth and co n quer the
 MA T E R I AL IS M AND S P I RIT UAL IS M 3 13

enti re domai n of k n owl e dge agai n . But why thi s proce s s

Of alternate retr e at a n d forth s al ly i ng s houl d go on foreve r
-
,

i t i s d if cult to s e e ; unle s s M ateri al i s m and Spi ritual i s m ,

a s mutually de s tructive metaphy s i cal theori e s are t o be the

,

on ly outcome Of the refle cti ve ph i lo s ophi cal m i n d .

It i s th e r e for e i n the i nt e re s t s Of admi tti ng all th e fact s

, ,

empha s i zed by both the s e i mp e rfect theori e s and al s o Of

,

e s caping th e i r one S i ded and mutual ly d e s tructi ve conclu

-

s i o n s and tende n ci e s that p s ychol ogi cal M o n i s m s et s u p i t s

,

cl ai m to be the true and complete phi los ophy Of the relati on s

between body and min d .
 C H APTE R X

M O N I SM A ND DU A L I S M

HE d i scou rse by whi ch i t i s s ought to commend that

metaphy s i cal the ory Of the real relati o n s Of body an d
mi nd for wh i ch the term M oni sm h a s been re s erve d i s

,

ordi n ari ly d i s ti ngui s hed by two remarkable p e cul i ari ti es .

The r s t Of the s e co n cern s the method empl oye d to e s tabli sh

the the ory Thi s method make s upon the thoughtful cri ti c
.

an i mpre ss i on corre spondi n g to that de s cri be d by H e gel s

s arca s ti c cri ti ci s m of Sche ll i n g s evol uti on Of the A b s ol ute ,

a s though s hot ou t of a gun Someti mes the the ory i s
.

ev e n proclai med a s the only theory whi ch any on e l aying

cl ai m to s ci enti c culture ( si c) c an cre d i tably e s pou s e ; and
thi s i s done wi thout any preparati on beyo n d a vagu e reference
to the s ucce ss of mod e r n p sych o phy s i c a l s ci ence i n d i s cover
-

i ng new and s ubti l e correl ati on s of mental a n d cerebral

phenomena . Someti me s howeve r i t i s i ntroduce d by a pre
, ,

vi o n s cri ti ci s m Of the ri val theori e s Of D ual i s m M ate ri al i s m

, ,

and Spi ri tual i s m The s e ri val theori e s havi n g b e en found

.

qu ite un s ati s factory or eve n absurd and sel f contradi ctory

,
-
,

M oni s m i s then a s s ume d to be nece s s arily true ; for i s i t n ot

the on ly po ss i bl e remai n i ng form Of the ory ?

The argume n t from la s t re s ort i s s e l d om very c on v i n c
i ng ; i t h a s i n dee d s omethi ng e ss enti al ly u n d i g n i e d and
i nvi di ou s about i t M oreover the parti cular way i n wh i ch
.
,

each Of i t s th ree ri val s i s handled an d d i s mi ss e d become s

e x ceedi ngly i n s tructi ve concerni n g the po s s ibl e tenden ci e s
 M ON IS M AN D DUAL IS M 3 15

and intenti on s of M o n i s m i t s elf D ual i s m a s a m e t a ph y s i

.
,

cal theory Of the r e l ati on s i n real ity o f body a n d m i n d i s ,

cu stomari ly treated by the mo n i s t w i th ve ry s peci a l c o n

tempt I ndeed the Word dual i s m i s apt to be e mpl oy e d
.
,

i n that vagu e i n de n ite manne r whi ch i s mo s t co n v e ni e n t

,

for a n y te rm to wh i ch feel ing s Of p e cul i ar Opprobri um a r e t o

be att a ch e d Spi ri tual i s m a s a ph i lo s oph i cal theory d e al i ng
.
,

w ith the s a me relati o n s i s i n t u rn treated w i th s carc e ly

,

le ss s ca n t cour te s y It would s ee m a s though the dough t y

.

k n i ght Of m o n i s m thought i t qu ite e nough t o throw b oth

M at e ri ali s m and Spi r i tual i s m hor s d e c om ba t i f the terribl e ,

black ag on whi ch the pri n ci pl e Of the con s e rvati on and

corr e l ati on of e ne rgy i s i n s cri b e d b e brough t upon the el d
and waved vigorously wi th accompa n i m e nt Of much S houti n g .

M at e ri al i s m howeve r Ofte n get s out Of thi s battl e w i th c om

, ,

p a r a t i v e ly s mal l real damage to i t s mo s t e s s e nti al requi re

ment s It i s i ndee d reb u ked f or i ts i n s u f c i e nt def e n s ive
.

e qui pment ; but i t i s al s o Often not a l ittle comforted w i th

ph ra s e s that can hardly b e i nt e rpreted and promi s e s that ,

can s carc e ly be full led wi thout v i rtual ly gr a nti ng certai n

,

of i t s mo s t i mportant cl ai m s Fo r the k nowl e dge wh i ch

.

moni s m i mpart s a s t o what a re the e s s e n t i al cha ract e ri s ti c s

of th e

o n e be i n g

who s e t w o a s pect s or face s o r S i de s

, , ,

or mani fe s tati on s are cal led re s pecti vely th e body a n d the

,

mi n d i s much bett e r ex pre s s ed i n qua s i mat e ri al than i n -

p sych i cal o r s pi ri tual term s Thu s are we left wi th an ulti

.
~

mate choi ce between mate ri al i s m and agno sti c i s m a s o u r

n al word on the proble m of the re al relati o n s between
body and mi nd .

N ow to sp e ak pl ai nly i t s e e m s to u s that le s s a s sumpti on

, ,

and voci fe rati on and m ore Of car e ful ly dev e l oped and cl e arly
,

ex pre s s e d criti ci s m i s a duty wh i ch may prope rly b e l ai d

,

upo n th e con s ci e n ce Of th e curr e nt mo n i s ti c theory D ual i s m .

i s i ndeed ev e rywhere exce pt i n schol a s ti c c i rcl e s wh e re

, ,

the s omewhat arti ci al po i n t of vi ew Of the s tudent of p s ycho

3 16 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M

phy s i c s temporar i ly prevai l s th e accepte d metaphy s i cal

-

th e ory o f the r e lati on s o f body a n d mi nd The s tudents of .

the ch e m i cO phy s i cal s ci e n ce s are al s o cle arly per s uade d Of

-

th e re al i ty of the body an d Of the tru t h that i t mu s t be c on

,

s i d e r e d by the m a s a real i ty of the s ame s ort a s al l materi al

thi n gs a r e ; i t may ther e fore be held to be kn own a s havi n g

the prop e rti e s wi th wh i ch the s e s cience s are accu s tomed to
deal . M o n i s m i s then o n ly one of s everal m e taphy s i cal
, ,

the ori e s ; a n d i t i s by far the most s ch ol a s ti c a n d r e mote of

the m al l from b oth the popu l ar a n d the s ci e n ti c poi nt s of
v i e w It i s s carcely th e n for thi s r e a s on i f for n o oth e r to
.
, , ,

be adopt e d w i thout thorough d i s cu s s i on Of i ts cl ai ms to hol d

r i ghtful ly the e ld of criti cal ph i l osophy N ow i n v i e w of .
,

th e wi de S pread prevalence of mo n i s ti c tenet s among th e

-

mo s t bri l l i ant an d accompl ishe d writers of the age on topi cs

i n p s ychol ogy and p sych o phy s i cs an d on the rel ate d meta
-
,

phy s i cal problem s i t i s undoubtedly a bol d declarati on t o

,

mak e but we venture to make i t : N ot a s i ngle treati se

, ,

sati s factory as to i ts survey Of facts and maki ng the i mpre s

s i on of s ound n e s s i n argu me n t can anywhe re be foun d i n
,

the defence of th e s e tenet s Thi s i s why atte n ti on i s here

.

c a lle d to the method of moni s m i n p sychol ogy a s on e of its

remarkabl e pecul i ar iti e s .

The othe r pecul i ari ty Of the modern moni s ti c doctri ne a s

t o the real rel ati o n s of body and mi n d co n cern s the c h aracte r
Of the agno s ti ci s m i n wh i ch the doctri n e s e e m s nece s s ari ly
to en d We are a s s ure d
. and thi s i s th e e s s e n ti al charac
te r i s t i c of the doctr i n e that b ody and mi nd r e a l ly a r e on e
i n be i n g ; but that th i s un itary b e i n g mu s t be th ought o f
n e ith e r i n terms of exten s i on and moti on an d a s com i ng ,

u nde r the pri nci pl e Of the co n s ervati on and correlati on Of

e nergy nor a s a s el f co n s c i o us th i n k i n g f e e l i ng and wi l l i n g
,
-
, , ,

s ub j e ct aft e r the anal ogy Of mi nd

,
B oth k i nd s Of be i ng
.

about whi ch al l men k n ow s omethi n g or th i nk they kn ow

s om e th i n g h ave now be en me rged i n the i d e ntity o f on e

 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 3 17

being ; but about thi s one bei n g me n neithe r know anyth i n g ,

n or can eve r h Op e t o know anythi n g I n deed i f we are i n .

,

c l i n e d to pr e s s the que s ti on What s ort of a b e in g i s thi s

,

whi ch i s the grou n d of both body a n d mi n d but i s ne ith e r ,

body n or mi nd and i s not t o be de s cribed i n term s d e ri v ed

,

from human e xperi e n ce w i th e i the r body or mi n d ? we are

l ik e ly to be warned away w i th a lofty wave Of the hand o r a
s ol e mn s hak ing o f the head It woul d s e em th at the mon i s
.

t i c hypothe s i s r e gard s i t as ei ther profane o r hopele ss even to

a skand pre s s s uch a que s ti on But so arbitrary a l i m it to
.

the i nqu i ri e s of human re a s on s eems to u s both un s c i enti c

and u n ph i l OS Oph i ca l .

N ow every thi n ke r upon phi lo s ophi cal problem s S houl d be

,

ready to r e cog n i ze the l i mit s of human knowledge A nd .

every ree ctive th inker upon the problem of kn owle d ge it s elf

the epis temol ogi cal problem d i s cover s that certai n ult i
mate s beyond o r back of whi ch reason cann ot go mu s t b e
, ,

recogn i z e d i n the di s cu ss i on of al l phi l o s ophi cal problem s .

But aft e r mon i sm h a s made i ts metaphys i cal tenet a ppear

before u s a s th ough S hot ou t Of a gun

why S houl d we , ,

wi thout further e xami n ati on co n s i der th e s ubstance di s ,

charged a s bel ongi ng n ot only to th e real m of the supe r

,

natu ral but e ven to that Of th e unkn owabl e ?
,
The
Obj e cti o n s to s u ch na i ve agno s ti ci s m wi ll appear more ful ly
i n the d e tail ed c ri ti ci s m of thi s the ory .

The g en u i n e i m p u lse t o a d ef en si bl e p hi losop hi ca l M on i sm

beg i n s p r e ci s e ly wher e thi s i n d ef e n si bl e m on i sti c a n s wer to t he
r oble m f
o t he r ea l r e la ti on s be twe e n body and m i n d wou ld
p
ha ve u s su
pp ose t he en ti r eFor what i s the
i n qu i r y m u st en d .

s i tuati on i n wh i ch a s ci enti c ex aminati on Of al l th e fact s

h a s l eft u s i nvolved ? The S O cal led body o f man i s s een on -

,

the on e hand to bel ong t o th e total i ty of the phys i cal worl d ;

,

i t i s i n re s pect of the sci enti c account Of i ts prope rti es and

,

functi on s qu oa d body just as trul y ranked under the gen

, ,

e ral cla s s of the phy s i cal the n on p sych i cal as i s any -

3 18 M O N IS M AND DUAL IS M

oth e r m a teri a l s ub s ta n c e But the s o c a l l ed mi nd appears

.
-

to i ts e lf a s mi n d o n ly a s i t di ffe re n c e s it s e lf from the phy s i

c a l by t h e po s s e s s i o n Of properti e s and functi o n s whi ch are

me n t a l a n d n on phy s i cal Y et th i s parti cular c ol lecti on of

-
.

mat e ri a l el e m e nt s wh i ch i s r e ally i n a co n s t a n t u x wh i l e
,

r e mai n i n g formally S O S i m i lar a s to b e cal l e d th e s a m e

body i s known to s u s tai n pecul i a r and eve n u n i que rel a
,

ti o n s t o th e m i n d C ertai nly the n there i s n e e d o f on e

.
, ,

pri n ci pl e to bi n d i nto a un i ty a s i t were al l the k n own fact s

, ,

an d val i d a ss umpti on s whi ch thi s compl e x probl em i n vol ve s .

Fo r al l phy s i cal th i n gs i n cludi n g the parti cul a r phy s i cal

,

thi n g cal l e d the human b ody a s wel l a s the m i n d p a r t i c u

,

l a r l y re l ated to s uch huma n body b e l ong to the On e Wor l d

, .

I t i s th i s worl d i n i ts un ity and total ity wh i ch ph i l o s ophy

,

ai m s to und e r s tand W e can n ot then , approv e o f a the o

.
,

r eti c a l mod e s ty wh i ch seems n ot o n ly u n n e c e ss ary b ut

unfai thful to the l e gi ti mate ta s k and natural d e s ti n y Of phi
l OS Oph y i t s elf
. Thi s ta s k and thi s de s ti ny w ou ld s e e m to be
l eft altogether u nful l led by the bare conclu s i on ba s ed on ,

the u n i que rel ati on S i mpl y of ma n s body a n d m i n d t ha t on e

,

be i n g s e rve s S o to S peak th e i r common grou n d On a .

far broade r foundati on than th i s we S h oul d bu i l d s e curely ,

n ot on l y the k n owledge that thi s o n e B e i n g e x i s t s but al s o ,

the kn owl e dge w ha t the natu re of th i s o n e Be i n g i s .

U n doubtedly the body and m i nd Of e ach i n d i v i dual a n d all ,

thi n gs a n d a ll s oul s that are have the i r bei n g i n thi s On e
,

Bei n g .

P hi lo s ophers cal l thi s Bei ng the A b s ol ute or W orl d
G round ; a n d were thi s the pl ace val i d rea s on s mi ght be ,

gi v e n f or holdi ng that th i s On e B e i ng i s a sel f con s ci ou s -

,

rat i o n al W il l ,
the per s onal A b s ol ute whom fai th cal l s

G od .

It wi l l be noti ced h owever that the current psy
, ,

ch o l og i c a l mon i s m becomes dogmati c a gno s ti ci s m at th e

ve ry place where true phi l o s oph i cal moni s m b e gi n s to tak e

hol d on the term s Of its probl e m It wi l l s oon be S hown .

that the the ory i s als o o f no u s e t o p sychol ogi cal sci ence
 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 3 19

where thi s s ci ence mo s t need s hel p ; and a s well that i ts , ,

metaphy s i c s i s du e to i n su f c ient ree cti ve th i nki ng On .

th e contrary the a ssu mp ti on of t he i mm a n e n ce of A bsolu te

,

M i n d i n tha t wor l d of N a tu r e to w hi ch both the hu m a n body

and th e h u m a n s ou l be l on g , i s the y p on l o s tu l a te w hi ch wi ll

ma ke va li d t he w hole f r ea lm o
p sy cho
p hy si c a l -
s ci en c e .

Fi r s t ho wever i t wi l l be Of advantage to i l lu s trate what

, ,

h a s ju s t b e e n s ai d concerni ng the mo n i s ti c doctri n e of the

relati ons Of man s body and mi nd by bri ef reference to the

ca s e Of a mod e rn wri te r H ere agai n P rofe ss or HOff di n g i s

s elected becau s e he i s on e of the mo s t fai r i ntel l i gent , and

, ,

plea s i ng of m odern wri ters on thi s metaphy s i cal probl e m

from the poi nt o f v i ew of a s ci e nti c p sychol ogy I n the .

1
earl i er part of h i s chapter on M i nd an d Body

H Off d i n g
d i s cu s s e s the ri val the ori e s of D ual i s m , M ate ri al i s m , a n d
Spi ri tual i s m The r s t of th e t hree he di s mi ss e s because Of
.

i t s i nco n s equence chi e y i n re s pect Of the way i t deal s
( ,

with the doctri ne Of the pe r s i s te n ce of energy and

vaguene ss M ateri al i sm i s the n convi cted Of O ffe n d i n g

.

agai n s t the concepti o n s derived from ex p e ri enc e i t s e lf .

Spi ritual i s m a s a S pecul ati ve doctri n e hold i ng that the

,

b ody i s only a form or a prod uct Of one or s everal me n tal

be i n g s i s thought to prejudi ce t oo m uch th e l ead i ng c on
ce pt i on s of experi e nti al S ci en ce

A curi ou s confu s i on Of
.

thought perv a d e s the thre e p a ge s d evoted to the d i s cu ss i on

of thi s form Of mo n i s ti c s pi ritual i s m a s may be s ee n from ,

the fact th at L otze i s brought forward and d e cl a red to be i ts

mo s t di s ti ngui s hed repre s entati ve i n moder n phil o s ophy ;
wherea s L ot ze s po s iti on i s th at of duali s m i n reg a rd t o the

relati on s of body a n d m i n d i n m a n Th e s tructure of the .

2
body s ay s h e
,
i s gradual ly pu t tog e the r from s catte red
,

co n s ti tuent s of the oute r worl d and i nvolved i n perpetual ,

u x i t i s conti nually gi vi ng back parts wh e nce they came .

1 u li
O t n es o f Psych ol o gy ,
hp C a . 11.

2 Mi rc ocosm u s, v ol . i b k ii i h p iv
. oo . c a . . at i ts l
c ose .
3 20 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M

W ith what then c oul d the s ou l form a uni ty

, ,
If i t i s alte r
n a t e l y ble n d e d w ith the e n teri ng s upply Of the b ody a n d
d i vi de d from the d e ca yi n g r e m n a n t i n wh a t el s e can that
'

un i ty con s i s t than i n reci procal acti o n s that unrol l them

s e lve s and the n come to an e nd accord i n g a s the cour s e Of ,

N ature i n on e ca s e add s new eleme n t s to tho s e at work i n ,

another force s oth e r s ou t of the i r relati o n s ? I t s i nner

l ife can nev e r become o u r s ; and wh e n the un i on of d i ff erent
be i n g s on whi ch ou r l i vi n g form depend s fal ls to pi ece s ,

whi l e we s hal l al l h ave go n e through s omethi n g together i t ,

w i l l be a s bei ng s ori gi nal ly d i ffere n t that afte r a pa s s i n g

contact agai n s e parate The reason f or H Off d i n g s m i s t a ke
.

a s t o L ot z e s po s iti on i s n ot ob s cure ; he n d s L otze ex pre s s

1
i ng doubt a s to whether the phy s i cal pri n ci pl e Of the per
s i s tence Of energy i s i n any way even i f i ts w i dest po s s ible ,

appl i cati on b e admitted i ncompati ble w ith the real i nter

,

acti on of body and m i nd .

But when the thre e ri val theori e s a r e s uppo s ed to h ave

bee n e f fe ctual ly d i sposed of H Off di n g i ntroduce s the theory
,
'

of moni s m i n the foll owi n g word s : On ly the fou rth po s s i
b i l i ty then s eem s to be l eft
, ,
If i t i s contrary to the d oc
.

tri ne Of the p e r s i stenc e Of phys i cal e n e rgy to s u ppo s e a

tran s i ti on from the on e provi n ce t o the othe r and i f n eve r , ,

th el e ss the two provi nces e x i s t i n ou r experi e n ce a s di s tinct

, ,

then the two s et s of phenome n a mu s t be u n fol de d S i mul

t a n e ou s l y each accordi ng to i t s l aw s ; S O th at f or e very
,

phenomenon i n the world Of c o n s ci o u s n e ss there i s a corre

S p on d i n g phenomenon i n the worl d Of matte r a n d c onv e r s ely ,

( s o far a s th ere i s rea s on to suppo s e that con s ci ou s l i fe i s

correlate d with materi al ph e n omena ) The paral lel s al ready .

d rawn p oi nt di rectly t o s uch a rel ati on ; i t w oul d be an

amazi n g acci de n t i f wh i l e the charact e ri s ti c marks r e
, ,

pe a te d them s el ves i n thi s way there were n ot at the f ou n d a ,

ti on an i n n e r con n ecti o n B oth the p a r a ll e l i s m and the

Allgem i ne P h y i l g i c a d h i s l rg r w ork M ta ph y i cs
1
n I hi s e s o o n n a e o e s .
 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 3 21

or ti on a li tybetwee n the act ivity of con s c i ou s n e ss a n d

p p
ro

cerebral acti vity poi n t to an i d en ti ty at bottom The d i ffe r .

ence wh i ch remai n s i n s pite o f the po i n t s of agreem e n t c om

pel s u s to s uppo s e that on e a n d the s a me pri n ci pl e h a s found
i t s e xpres s i on i n a doubl e form W e hav e n o r i ght t o tak e
.

m i n d and body f or two bei n g s o r s ub s t a n c e s i n r e ci procal

i nte racti on W e are o n the c o n trary i mp e l l e d t o co n c e i ve
.
, ,

the m a ter i a l i n ter a cti on b etwee n the e l e m e n t s compo s i n g the

brai n a n d ne rvou s s y s tem a s a n ou te r f or m of t h e i n n er i d ea l

u n i ty o f con s ci ou sn es s .

In S O far a s the s e words of H off d i n g co n t a i n a n y val i d

appeal to fact s and t o i n te ll i gibl e r e a s oni n g w e S h al l c on ,

s i de r them o r the i r equ i val e n t s

,
l at e r on L e t i t o n ly b e
,
.

n ot i ced at pre s ent h oweve r th a t M o n i s m i s h e r e i n trodu ce d

, ,

a s the s ol e remai n i ng po s s ib i l ity aft e r the oth e r three

the ori e s have be e n d i s carded ; but furth e r that the li ght , ,

whi ch th i s th e ory i s s uppo s ed to S h e d u pon th e fact s of

paral l e l i s m an d proporti o n al ity a o r ds u s n o m e a n s of

u ndersta n d i ng what i s me ant by the i d e nti ty d e ri ve d from
them For at th i s poi nt a s u s ual th i s form of mo n i s m
.
, ,

become s a d ogmati c agno s ti ci s m H e n ce H off d i n g goe s o n

.

to decl ar e : C oncern i ng the i n n e r r e l a ti on of m att e r a n d

m i nd we teach n oth i ng ; we su ppo s e o n ly that on e b e i n g

"

work s both .Thi s decl arati on i s not s i mply m e a nt to

a f rm that p sychol ogy and i ts d i rect m e t a phy s i cal outco m e

teach n othi n g ,
a s th e foll ow i ng s e n t e nc e s pl a i n ly s h ow
-
" .

B ut wha t k i n d of be i n g i s th i s A n d why h a s i t a d ou bl e

form Of ma n i fe s t a ti on ? Why d o e s n ot on e form s u f ce ?
"

A S th ough o n e coul d here t a l k of m a n i f e s t a ti o n i n any ,

conce i vabl e m eani n g of th e word w i th out i mplyi n g s ome ,

t hi ng ma n i f e s te d to s om e m i n d tha t i s ,
two form s of ,

b e i ng a n d n ot on e al l s u f c i n g form " I n a n s we r t o s uch

,
-
.

i nqu i ri e s H Off d i n g goe s o n to s a y : The s e are qu e s ti ons
,

whi ch l i e beyo n d the re al m of o u r k nowl edge A n d then .

i mm e d i a tely i t i s added , a s th ough s ome othe r th e ory th an

21
3 22 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M
the m o n i s ti c , s urely s et the l i mi t to ou r k nowledge on thi s
,

s ubj e ct :

M i nd a n d matter app e ar t o u s an i rre duci bl e
dual i ty, ju s t a s s ubj e ct and Object
. A lready however the
, ,

author woul d app e ar to have w andere d far beyo n d h i s

pri mary probl em wh i ch wa s to expre s s the general re lati on s
,

i n r e al i ty betwe e n m i nd and b ody ; for mi n d and matte r ,

o r the m e n ta l a n d the materi al w orld s h ave n ow taken the
,

pl ac e of th e more l i m it e d d omai n of di scu s s i on s ugge s te d by

the form e r t e rm s A nd s o we read : The i d e n ti ty hyp othe
.

s i s regard s the s e worl d s a s two mani fe s tati on s Of on e and the

same b e i n g b oth gi ven i n e x peri e nce ; o r agai n : The
,

hypothe s i s pronou nc e s only that the s ame powe r whi ch l i ve s ,

e x pand s and tak e s form i n th e oute r worl d Of th e materi al ,

,

al s o d i s cl o s es i t s elf i n i ts i nner worl d a s thi nki n g, feel ing ,

an d w i ll i ng .

N ow i t i s n ot i ntended to charge every representa ti on of

,

th e mo n i s ti c doctri ne a s to the rel ati ons Of body and mi nd

wi th b e i n g gu i lty o f s uch i n co n s equ ence and vague n e ss as
th i s d i s cu s s i on of P rofe s s or H Off d i n g s certai nly di s pl ays

.

Ye t i t i s n ot u nfai r to u s e hi s d i s cu s s i on a s an i l lu s trati on
of what th i s d octri ne i s ord i n ari ly foun d capabl e of doi ng for

the rati onal expla n a ti o n of the phenome n a ; a n d th e s en

te n oe s qu ote d ab ove really gi ve th e pri nci pal poi nt s wh i ch
mu s t be con s i d e re d for i ts thorough compreh e n s i on and
criti ci s m .

L et i t be n oted then that the enti re argument con s i s t s of

, ,

two part s th e r s t of whi ch may be accepted a n d the s eco n d

,

r e ject e d ; or b oth may be accepted or re jected togethe r The .

r s t part i s a n al l e ged S ci enti c g e neral i zati o n ba s ed u pon

,

f a ct s o f e xperie n ce ; the seco n d part i s an i nfe rence or s eri e s

,

of i n f e re n c e s havi n g a metaphy s i cal import a n d pre s e nti ng

,

a cl a i m to fol l ow l ogi cally from the s ci enti c general i za

ti o n
. W e deny both the s ci enti c general i zati on and the

ph i l o s oph i cal i n ference ; both the p a r a lle li sm and the
r o or ti on a li ty
p p between the acti vity of consci ousne ss and
 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 3 23

cerebral acti vi ty a s B o di n g u n d e r s tand s them , and al s o

,

h i s l ogi cal conclu s i on a s to a n i d e n t i ty at bottom .

Th e metaphy s i c s of M oni s m bu i ld s upon the decl arati on

that the bodily phe n ome n a and the phe n omena of con s ci ou s

ne ss or ( to use the phra s e o f the author ju s t quoted ) the
,

activ ity of co n s ci ou s n e s s a n d cerebral acti vi ty m ay b e ,

n ay m u s t be
,
conce i ved Of a s two perfectly paral l el an d
-

proporti onal s eri e s of phe n ome n a H e n ce o n e seri es m ay be

.

s poke n of a s t h e oute r form Of that i deal uni ty whi ch
the other i s To refe r agai n to M Flournoy s compact s tate
. .

ment of what he call s th e pri nci pl e of p sycho phy s i cal -

paral lel i s m Every p s ychi cal phenomenon has a deter

m inate phys i cal conco m i tant .

N ow we w i l l not be S O cru e l a s to force the moni s t to

,

prove that h i s l aw of parall el i sm or concomitance i s

true for the whole world Of mi nd and matter ; o r rather, ,

for the two worl d s the out e r world o f the materi al an d
,

the i nne r worl d of thought fe el i n g and wi ll i ng For , ,
.

thi s woul d l e ad at onc e e i ther to th e d octrine of Fechne r as ,

m ai n tai ned i n hi s N anna o r th e Soul L i fe of P l ant s ; o r

-
,

perhap s even to the wi ld s pe culati on Of C l iff ord , who woul d

,

correla te wi th e very movement Of every molecul e or atom

s ome i t e m at l east o f u norga n i ze d s ou l s tu ff ; o r el s e t o -

t h e ea s i er i f le ss plea s i ng a s s umpti on of a World Soul the -

,

activi ty of whose c on s ci ou s n e s s woul d have to be s tri ctly

correl at e d wi th the m oti on s of al l s o called m at e ri al th i n g s
-
.

In th i s way on e mi ght po ss ibly bri ng upon the advocat e s o f

m o n i s m the je er i n g requ e s t of the mate ri al i s t to poi n t o u t a
.

ce rebru m S om e whe re that S hal l be s i zable a n d comple x

enough to r e pre s e nt th e brai n of th e S o cal led Worl d Soul - -
.

P o s s ibly too s ome of them mi ght be co n verted from the i r

, ,

agno sti c i s m to th a t saner form of mo n i s ti c theory wh ich

nd s i n a s elf consci ou s and rati o n al M i nd n ot the p sychi cal
-
,

correl ate o r concomi tant , but the real and u lti mate G round
of the enti re material world .
3 24 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M

Si nce i t i s the purpo s e of thi s treati se to carry everyth ing

regard i ng the n a ture of the human mi n d an d its relati ons to
the bod i ly organi s m back to the true court Of appeal to ,

th e facts and pri n ci pl e s e s tabl i s hed by a sci enti c

p sy
ch ol og y,
thi s l aw of al leged p s ycho phy s i cal paral lel i s m
-

wi l l now be ex ami ne d i n the l i ght of known fact s That i t .

i s not it s elf i mme d i ately k n o w n a s a fact o r even warranted

,

by i mmed i ate and i ndi s putable i nference from the fact s has
al re ady been S hown to be true .

It i s o n ly i t w a s the n
sai d ( s e e pp 24 3 f )
. . by a compl i cated a n d even doubtful
network Of i nfe rence s that we c a n reach th e kn o wl edge or

eve n the c oncepti on o r s u s pi c i o n that the re i s a s tri ct con

,

c omitant correl ati on of brai n s tate s and s tate s of con s c ious

-

ne s s .

U nd oubtedly many fact s s ugge s t and eve n prove , ,

s om e s or t of correl ati on between the acti vi tie s o f con s ci ou s

ne s s and the cerebral acti viti e s But i s thi s correl ati on to

.

be s poken Of a s a s tr i ct and i nvariable p s ycho phys i cal -

parallel i s m ; i s i t e ve n S i gni ca n t of parall el i sm and

proporti onal i ty between b ody and m i n d i n the stri cter ,

s ense of these word s ? Fo r i t s houl d not be forgotte n that

D ual i s m t oo i n s i s t s upon a correl ati o n between b od i ly and
, ,

mental phenomena Indeed i t i s thi s gen e ral fact for whi ch

.
,

i t clai m s to gi ve the be s t s peculati ve account .

It i s not alway s e a s y to d i s cover preci s ely what M oni s m

me an s by a paral l el i s m b etwe en th e activi ti e s of con
s c i ou s n e s s a n d th e cerebral acti vi ti e s A l l men k now cl early
.

enough what parallel i s m i n S pace i s ; but of cou r s e th ere

can be no tal k of s pace rel ati on s of the parallel orde r
b etw e e n co n s ci ous states and b rai n s tate s I S i t the n to be
-
.

suppo s e d th at the p arall el i s m o r concom itance i s one of the ,

stri ct e st o rd er i n ti me
.
It woul d then be ne ces s ary to hol d
that at eve ry un i t Of ti me x there i s happeni ng i n th e cere
' '
bral ce ntre s s ome ch em i c O phy s i cal change ( c p i n to c p ,
-

to whi ch the re s tri ctly corre s pond s a s h appeni ng i n ,

consci ou s ness at the s ame uni t of ti me s ome change of ,

 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 3 25

p sychi cal states (p s i n to N ow there are s ev e ral ,

apparently i n s uperable Objecti o n s of a s ci e nti c order to thi s

vi ew For i n the r s t pl ace , there i s good rea s on to s u p
.
,

po s e that the m ole cular changes i n the cerebral sub s tance

have that conti nu i ty i n ti me wh i ch di s ti ngui s hes al l phy s i cal
change s of thi s s ort They fall that i s to s a y und e r the
.
, ,

l aw s of mol ecul ar moti on a s kn own but onl y i n an i mper

fe e t an d conjectural way to the c h e m i co phy s i cal s c i e n ce -

o f l i vi n g organ i s m s The cerebral centres may be sai d to

.

b e al w a y s worki ng though with varyi ng degree s of i nten s i ty

,
.

B ut the ow of con s ci ous s tates i s appare ntly n ot of the

s ame orde r There i s i ndeed a s o cal led s tre am of c on
.
-

s c i ou s n ess ; a n d th i s s tream d oe s n ot con s i st o f a mere suc

ce s s i on of d i s connected i nd i vi dual s tate s s ome of whi ch are ,

repre s e ntati ve of pa s t s tat e s U nde r al l ordi nary c i rcum .

s tanc e s a t l ea s t
,
e ach S O cal le d s tate contai n s el ement s that
,
-

are a s i t were r e si d u a of th e preced ing states a s wel l a s

, , ,

other element s anti ci patory Of and s ure to pass over i nto , ,

1
the s ucce e ding s tate s .

The anal ogy howeve r whi ch the word m oti on s ugge s ts
, ,

when a ppl i e d to both terms i n thi s al leged p s ych o phy s i cal -

parallel i s m i s by n o means complete A nd much of the .

argume n t Of M oni s m for a complete parall el i s m i s ba s e d

upon mi s l eadi n g gures of s peech conceal ed by th e i mper
feet analogy What i s meant by molecul ar moti on s i n the
.

cerebral hemi s phere s ; what by the S pread i ng or move ,

ment of neural proce s s e s from cerebral centre to cerebral

,

ce n tre al o n g the connecti ng a ss oci ati o n tract s ; what by s u c -

c e s s ron Of l ocal nerve commoti ons o r s equ e nce s of tran s

m i t te d n erve commoti on s from centre to centre i n the brai n

-

al l th i s may be i magi n e d o r at lea s t con jectur e d What , .

i s meant by s ucce s s i on of con s ci ou s s tat e s ( the only form of -

movem e n t wh i ch the S O cal l ed s tr e am of con s ci ou s ne s s can

-

have ) i s k nown by d i rect e xp e ri enc e But s ome of th e .

1 C mp r
o a e P sych ol ogy , Desc rip tiv e and E xpl a n a to ry pp
, . 37 f .
3 26 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M

i mportant characteri s ti c s of the two k i nd s of movement are

s o totally u nl ike , eve n a s re s pe cts the i r common category

of ti me ,
and as t o S pace , i t i s ab s urd even to s pe ak that ,

the term s paral lel i s m and concomitance i n thei r stri cter

,

mean i n g s eem i nappropri ate The whole m a s s of the brai n

,
.
,

and i ndeed of the enti re nervou s mechan i s m i s cea s ele s s ly ,

i n moti on b oth i n s pace and i n ti me Th e s equence i n

,
.

movement Of con s ci ous s tate s i s Often abrupt d i sconti nuou s ; ,

an d i t i s always det e rmi n ed by purely p s ych i cal proce s s e s ,

wh i ch are i nseparabl e a s pect s or factors of the s tate s ,

such a s s electi ve atte nti on d i s cri m i n ati ng con s ci ou s ne ss

, ,

a n d i dea s of ends to be gai ned by the rete n ti on and d e t e r m i

n ati on of s ome rather than other of the s tate s i n the mental

trai n .

Y et m ore cl ear does the i nappropri atene s s of th i s u s e

of the words paral lel i s m and concomi tance appear when ,

i t i s con s i dered that so far a s i s k nown on e of the two

, ,

seri es of terms n ot i nfrequently drop s enti re ly ou t and ,

that for c on s i derable pe ri od s of ti me M oreove r scarcely

.
,

any general pri nci pl e of phy s i ol ogi cal p s ychol ogy an d

p sycho phy s i c s i s any more certai n than thi s the nerve
-
,

proc ess e s m u st a tta i n a g i ve n d eg r e e of i n ten si ty i n order that

c orrel ated con s ci ou s s tates may r e s ult at al l Sti ll m ore .

pu zzl in g for the theory of s tri ct concom itan ce i s the

u ndoubted fact that the nece s s ary degree Of i n ten s i ty i n the

phy s i cal s eri e s apparently vari e s with the s ame i nd i vi dual ,

and i n dependence upo n p s ychi cal a s wel l as phy s i cal pre,

conditi on s In s en s ati on and pe rcepti o n i magi nati on a n d

.
,

thi n k i ng th e den ite nece s s ary ce rebral proce s s e s mu s t

,

attai n a ce rtai n amount of vi gor and i n s i s tence a s i t were , ,

o r n o correl ated p s ycho s i s e merges i n co n s ci ou s ne ss In .

deep sl eep i f th e ol d fa shi one d a p r i ori an d metaphy s i cal

-

vi ew be d i s card e d i t would s e em that there i s s ometi mes

a c ompl ete c e s s ati on of al l con s c i ou s s tat e s Bl e s s ed are .

tho s e that can l i e down and S l umber for hour s and then ,
 M ON IS M AND D UAL IS M 3 27

wak e as though the i r s oul s had meanwh i le cea s e d to e x i s t "

But i f f or the s ak e Of ru n ni ng al ong p a r a lle l to the ch e m i c o
,

phy s ical seri e s of eve n t s the s ou l thi n k s i t nec e ss ary to k e ep

,

u p at lea s t s ome k i nd of anti c a n d grotesque performanc e s

i n dream s wh i le the brai n i s e n gag e d i n repai ring i ts s tru e
ture wh at s hal l be sai d of the the ory of concomitanc e i n
,

ca s e s Of acci de n t t o the S kul l ? When the pati e n t ju s t ,

trepanned r e s ume s the p s ych i cal s e ri e s at the pl a ce w h e re

,

i t w a s Obvi ou s ly broke n o ff s ome h ou r s before mu s t i t be

,

hel d that s ome other d i s parate and unr e membered p s ych i ca l

s e rie s h a s be e n runn i ng paral l e l w i th the work of the
Oppre s s ed but n ot de s troye d cerebral s ub s tance ?
It wa s p e rhap s the obscure feel i n g of these d i f cultie s i n
the way of the theory of stri ct paral le l i sm o r concom ita n ce ,

whi ch l e d P rofe s s or H Off di n g t o qual ify h i s s tateme n t by the

word s encl o s ed i n the parenthe s e s ( s e e p . Th e two
s et s of phenomena mu s t be u nfol ded S i multaneou s ly , e ach

accord i ng to i ts l aw s ; s o th at for eve ry phenom e no n i n the

world of con s ci ou s ne ss there i s a corre s pond i n g ph e n ome n on
i n the worl d of matter and co n ver s ely ( s o far a s there i s
,

rea s on to s uppo s e th at c o n s ci ous l ife 18 correl ated with

materi al But wh o doe s n ot s e e that h e re

are two co n tr a d i ctory statem e nt s i nclude d i n on e s e n tence ?
For the t w o s e t s Of phen omena cannot u n q u a l i e d ly be s ai d

to be unfolded s i multaneou s ly and at the s ame ti m e th e
,

propo s i ti o n that for every phenomenon i n t h e world of matter

there i s a corre s pond i ng phe n omenon i n the worl d of con
s c i ou s n e ss be qual i e d accordi n g to the ph ra s e i n the

pare n the s i s Or d oe s H Off di n g mean to i mply that a c or
.

re s pond ing phenom e non i n the co n s ci ou s ne s s o f the A b s o

l ut e Or pe rhap s i n s ome con s c i ou s n e s s of l ower gangl i a and
,

s pi nal cord that i s not our s ,

i s to be a s s um e d a s parall e l
w ith tho s e c e r e br a l phe n o mena that l ack corre s pond i ng
s tate s i n that s tr e am of co n s ci ou s n e s s we cal l o u r Own ?

NOW, both M ateri al i s m and moni s ti c S pi ri tual i s m h a ve

3 28 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M

way s Of explai ni n g s uch fact s a s th e foregoi n g that are ,

va s tly s uperi or to anyth i n g wh i ch thi s form of M on i s m can

propo s e I n deed i t i s ju s t the s e phe n ome n a on whi ch the
.
,

materi al i s ti c hypothe s i s mo s t rel i e s For i t poi n t s to them .

a s proof that th e phen omena of con s ci ou s ne ss are mere

epi phe n om e n a ; S i nce these are only phenomena Of the

brai n wh e n eve r ( and here vari ou s a n al ogi e s i n the behavi or

,

Of other materi al s ub s tance s m i ght readi ly be s ugge s te d ) i ts

.

ch e m i c O phy s i c a l acti vi ti e s reach only a given l ow degree of

-

i n ten s ity Spi ritual i s m , too h a s i t s own appropri ate w a y

.
,

of accounti n g for th i s cla s s of fact s B e l ievi n g a s i t doe s

.
, ,

i n the ex i st e nce of a m i nd wh i ch a s an e n ti ty i s capabl e Of

produci ng both k i nd s of phe nomen a i t can freely r e s ort for , ,

purp o s e s of e xplana t i o n to al l ma n n e r of un co n s ci ou s an d
,

yet truly mental phen ome na Spi ri tual i s m can con s i s tently
.

S p e ak o f s ubl i mi n al and s u b con s ci ou s mod i cati ons
-

an d s tate s to be attr ibuted t o the s am e mi n d that i s con

,

s ci ou s whenever i t h a s temporari ly l ai d asi de i ts functi on of

,

bei n g co n s ci ou s .

B ut how s hal l the metaphy s i cal tenet of M on i s m account

for s uch s tra n ge i n terrupti o n s i n the l aw of paral le li s m after ,

i t h a s e s tabl i s h e d it s el f on the as s u mpti on Of a s ci enti cally

proved c omplete parall el i s m ? L et u s be perm i tted to su g
ge s t for i ts u s e s omethi ng lik e the fol l owi ng mythol ogi cal
l angu age Th e on e b e i ng whi ch i s neither body nor mi nd
.
,

as we k n ow them but i s of a total ly unkn own character

, ,

neverthel e s s f ee ls s omewhat parti cul ar i n i ts choi ce of occa

s i o n s o n wh i ch to mani fe s t both of i t s a s pect s or face s i n a , ,

s tri ctly concomi tant way Someti me s i nde ed i t prefers to

.
, ,

S how o n ly one of the two namely tho s e cerebral proc e ss es

, ,

o f a l o w degree of i n ten s i ty that h ave for the i r end ch i ey , ,

the repai r of the cerebral sub s tance But wheneve r i t .

deci de s to mani f e s t it s el f i n the phy s i cal s e t of phe n om
ena ,
w i th a gr e ater degree of i nten s ity ( al be i t i n a s omewhat
pecul i ar way ) then i t al s o deci de s c o ncom i tantly to mani fe s t
,
 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 3 29

i t s elf i n the other and p sychi cal s e t of phen omen a ,
become con s ci ou s a s i t w e r e,
.

Several puzzl i n g n ot to s a y i rreverent que sti o n s m i ght

, ,

perti n e ntl y b e a s ked about thi s u nk n o wn b e i n g whi ch the

m oni s ti c theory a ss um e s For exampl e how doe s i t k n ow
.
,

w h e n the cerebral ma n if e s tati o n h a s att a i ned a s u f c 1 e n t i n

te n s ity and corr e ct ch aracter to warr a nt or make ne ce ss ary , ,

the corre s po n d i n g ma n if e s tati on i n co n s ci ou s n e s s ? Why

doe s i t le ave i t t oth e manif e s tati o n cal led con s ci ou s m i nd
to s a y s o much a s i t certai nly thi n k s it s e lf to s a y concern
, ,

i ng what the preci s e f or m Of m ani fe stati on S hal l be ? A nd

why S houl d th e ma n i f e s t a ti on cal led m i n d go on w ith s o much ,

i mmode s ty n o t to s a y gr e ed to a ss ume for i t s e lf a real a n d

, ,

c o n trol l i n g e x i s t e n ce a s m i n d ? W hy s houl d i t never be

w i l l i n g or eve n able to recogni ze it s e lf a s mer e ly a ma n i
, ,

fe s tati on or a s pect , or face of that one real i ty whi ch
, ,

the mon i s ti c metaphys i c s a s s ert s to be i ts ground ? The s e

qu e s ti on s woul d s urely s eem u n an s werable at l e a s t u nti l i t ,

i s s ugge s ted that thi s u n i tary b e i n g may it s e lf be a mi nd

be i ng But th i s a n s w e r i nvolve s the surrender of the u n i n
.

t e ll i g i b l e hypothe s i s of a s tri ct temporal concomi ta n ce i n

th e two s et s of phenome n a and al s o of the metaphy s i cal
,

conclu s i on a s to the u n knowabl e character of th i s common

grou n d .

P e rh ap s h owever the word paral leli s m m u s t be i n t e r

, ,

pr at e d a s mea n i n g an ab s olutely compl ete qu al it a ti ve cor

r e s po n d e nc e betwee n con s ci ou s state s on th e on e S i d e a n d

b rai n s tat e s on th e other S i de In thi s ca s e the t e rm pro
-
.

o r t i on a l i t mi ght be accept d omewhat better de n i ng

p y e a s s

t h e real mea n ing But i n th e pa ssage al ready qu oted

.

( pp. 3 2 0 f )
. i t s e e m s certai n t h at th e author i nte n d s s omethi ng

d i ffer e nt by the two word s ; for h e d e clare s Both the ,

p a r a lle li s m a n d the p r op o r ti on a li ty b e twe e n the acti vi ty of

co n s ci ou s n e s s a n d cerebral acti vity point to an i d e n ti ty at
bottom .

P rofe s s or H Off d i n g s eem s the refore , t o mai ntai n

,
3 30 M ON IS M A ND DUAL IS M

that not o n ly d o th e two s e ri e s Of ph e n om e na run on S i d e by

s i de e xc e pt i n the fre quently recurri n g ca s e s wh e r e on e
,

o f the two drops for a ti me e n ti r e ly ou t o f e x i s t e nc e but ,

al s o th at they vary perpetually i n s uch a way as to make

e ach i ndi vi dual , o r s equence of i ndi v i dual s bel ongi n g to ,

the on e s eri e s ha ve i t s ex actly corre s po n d i n g i nd i vi dual ,

a n d s equence Of i nd i vi dual s b e l o n gi n g
to the other s e ri e s That i s to s a y, for ev e ry brai n s tate
.
-

B B , there i s a stri ctly corre s po n dent c on s ci ou s s t a t e or

"
,

m i nd s tate , M M
-
If th e r e fore w e had attai n ed to a
"
.
, ,

completed p sych o phy s i cal s ci e n ce gi ven a n y on e of the

-
,

i n ni te number of po s s i bl e i nterveni n g brai n s t a t e s -

s ay

B or B a a n d to nd the ex actly corr e s po n di n g m i nd

s tate hI or M woul d be a prob lem wh i ch coul d hav e only

d 0
,

on e an s wer . N ow S i nc e both brai n an d m i n d are although

, ,

i n ways qu i te pe cul i ar to them s el v e s b oth capable Of ,

devel opment the e nti re l ife s h i s tory of e ach would con s i s t
,

of two s eri e s o f qual itati vely corr e s po n dent phe n omena .

Such a the ory a s thi s i s e x ceedi n gly capti vat i n g ; i t s e ems

to h ave al l th e charm Of e xtrem e s i mpl i city coupled with the
h i ghe s t d e gr e e of valu e a s a s ci e n ti c e xplanati on L e t i t .

not be forgott e n h o w eve r, that i t i s a the ory ; a n d

,
i t may
be added w i thout f e ar Of s ucce s s ful contrad i cti on the
theory i s ba s ed upo n an extrem e ly m e agre amount of i n d i s
u t a b l e f a ct s It i o n ly the s ci enc e Of cer e bral phy s i ol ogy
p . s ,

whe n i nv e s ti g a ted by i t s e l f i n way s appropri ate to a ch e m i c o

phy s i cal s ci en ce of the mo s t hi ghly c ompl i cated orde r and ,

wi thout a n y i n u e nce from the ori e s i n e ith e r p s ych ol ogy or

m e taphy s i c s wh i ch c a n i mpart the kn owledge or ev e n
, ,

re a s onably co n jecture preci s ely wh at the brai n s tate s are

,
-
.

But a s ye t eve n g e n e ral nerve phy s i ol ogy h a s had al mo s t n o

-

su cce s s i n s olvi ng i n a truly s ci enti c fa sh i o n ( that i s as a

, ,

problem maki n g an appeal to re cogn i z e d pri nci ple s i n chem

i s t r y a n d mol ecul ar phy s i c s ) the beh avi or Of a s i ngl e nerve
,

u nde r el ectri cal s ti mul ati o n I s i t s trange , th e n that the

.
,
 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 3 31

mos t l earned and yet ca n di d s tudent s o f cereb ral phy s i ol ogy

declar e that there e xi s t s n o i n formati on about brai n s tat e s -

that at al l approache s the s tage when i t can be cal led

scienti c k no wl e dge ?
A bout con s ci ous s tate s a great deal i s both popul arly and
s c i enti cally k n own a n d s ome of thi s knowledg e i s Of the
,

mo s t i n dub i t a bl e order We know for e x a m ple what i t i s

.
, ,

to have the pai n of toothache o r to gri eve over the l o s s Of a

,

fri end or to a s pi re to d o our duti e s bette r ; o r perhap s to

, , ,

l i ft up the heart i n l ove to what s e e m s to u s holy and

d iv i n e B ut ev e n what i s the correl ate d brai n s tate a s
.
-
,

accurately de s cribed i n term s of chem i s try a n d molecular

phy s i c s wh i ch an s w e r s to th e b odi ly pai n c a n not b e tol d
,

with a n y degree Of co n d e nce A n d a s to the pecul i ariti e s

.

o f tho s e brai n s tate s th at are s tri ctly proporti o n al to ou r

S pi ri tual gri ef ou r a s pi rati o n s a n d ou r l ove , c onj e cture can
, ,

s carcely reach far enough to tel l what s uch an i nqu i ry i s to

be u n d e r stood t o mean A t a n y rate the s tudent Of nerve

.
,

phy s i ol ogy who S houl d hereupon announce a s a s ci enti c

d i s covery the ch e m i co phy s i cal formul a s Of s uch all e ged
-

qual itati ve paral l e l i s m o r proporti onality a s the m o n i s ti c

theo ry a s s um e s mi ght r e a s onably b e s u s pecte d of h aving
,

bec ome the v i cti m of e xtreme paran oi a .

A l l adm i t th e i n co m parab i l i ty of t h e two s eri e s of phe

n om e n a ,
the ce rebral and the mental E a ch o f th e fou r
.

S peculati ve the ori es that attempt to accou n t fo r th e r e lati on s

o f th e two admi t s al s o s om e k i nd of correl ati on o r rel a ti on ,

d e termi n i n g i n som e s ort the charact e r of the two s e ri e s .

The brai n s tate s wh i l e th i s organ h a s phy s i ol ogi cal l i fe

-

, ,

n e v e r cea s e to be evol ved The con s c i ou s s tate s ri s e and

.

fall vary i n i n t e n s ity a n d c ompl ex ity acqu i re m arv e l l ou s

, ,

n e w ch a ract e ri s ti cs o f a h i ghly i d e al and ab s tract k i n d ;

ano n th e y cea s e altogethe r or d ri vel and s putt e r for h ou rs

,

at a ti m e o n ly to re cu r w i th he ight e ne d powe r compl ex i ty

, , ,

a n d i d e a l ity U ndoubtedly the two s e ri e s bear a clo s e

.
,
 33 2 MON IS M AND DUAL IS M

even though i t may Often be an i n d i re ct rel ati on to each

othe r But i t i s a wi de jump n ot to s a y a l o n g i ght from
.
, ,

thi s n arrow land of Op i n i on a n d conjecture to the proud

hei ght s of the pri n ci ple of stri ct p sych o phy s i cal parallel i s m-
.

A nd we dec i dedly object to bi n d i ng th e parti ally expl ored

co n ti nent Of p sychol ogy to the unknown and wa s te ocean of
cerebral phy s i ol ogy a s though they were but two e q ual and
p e rfectly s ymmetri cal h alve s o f on e S phere .

M or e over more careful a n alyti c thi nk i ng s eem s to S how

,

that any i nterpr e tati on wh i ch m ake s the paral l e l i s m or

O o r t i on a l i t of br a i n a n d mi nd o n e o f qual i ty l ik e
p p
r y ,

that wh i ch tri e s to e xpre s s the pri n ci pl e i n term s of s pace or

of ti me i s l argely meani ngl e s s
,
H ere the commo n fallacy
.

o f mo s t argume nt s i s not di f cult to real i ze although i t has ,

s carcely e ver been poi nte d o u t clearly It i s a s s um e d that

.

i f con s ci ous s tate s may be k nown a s vari able i n i n ten s ity ,

qual i ty and ti me rate an d brain state s may be conjectu red
,
-
,
-

to be vari abl e u nde r the same categories then by cons i de r , ,

i ng the co n s ci ou s ne s s wh i ch goes w ith a ll the former as a

s ort o f my s ter i ou s s urplu s age s o to S peak
, ( wh i ch i t i s of ,

c ou r s e i mpo ss ibl e to expl ai n ) the p sych o phy s i c a l pri nci pl e

, ,
-

m a y b e a n n ou n ce d a s proved beyond doubt B u t the re i s n o

.

c on s ci ou s n e s s i n general ; there i s n o S i mpl e con s ci ou s ne s s

that may be regarded a s a s ort of u n i ver s al m i nd s tu ff to -
,

b e d i ffere n ti at e d accordi n g to the vari eti e s Of th e brai n s tate s -

w ith whi ch i t i s corr e lat e d There are o n ly the actual

.

co n cr e te me n t a l s tate s ; an d con s ci ou s n e ss i s but an a b

s t r a c t i on d e pe n dent f o r i ts ori gi n on ou r e xp e ri e n ce with
,

the s e s tate s N or are the s tate s of c on s ci ou s n e ss eve r

.

S i mpl e a s they are k nown i n s el f con s ci ou s n e ss On the

,
-
.

co n trary they al w ay s a r e mo re o r l e s s compl ex ; they h ave

,

m a n y factor s ,
i f by factor s i s meant p a rti al p sych i cal
proce s s e s S ome of the s e s o cal le d factor s o r a s p e ct s of al l
.
-
, ,

the co n s ci ou s s tate s and the s e s uch as are nece s s ary to

there bei n g any con s c i ous state s kn own t o the S elf at al l
 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 3 33

not only have n o k n own c orre s pondi n g cerebral acti v iti e s ,

but i t i s eve n i mpo ss ibl e to conj e cture what coul d be meant

by corre s pond i n g c e reb ral activ i ti es f or certai n cl a ss e s of
mental performances That i s to say, they are un i quely
.

m en ta l and sp i r i tu a l acti vit i e s ; and th ey have n o common

categorie s even of an analogou s s ort w i th any of the ce re
, ,

bral acti viti es It i s thi s i ndi s putable and mo s t a s tound i ng

.

fact whi ch i nuence s at l east on e of the two s ava n t s to
whom M Flournoy refer s ( see pp 29 f to deny the pri nci pl e
. . .

of p sychophy s i cal paral le li s m i n the way i n whi ch moni s m

s tate s i t .Thi s general deni al may now be i l lu s trate d by a
few of the many appropri ate parti cul ar s .

The cer e bral a cti vi ti es i f i t coul d ever be known pre ci s ely

,

what they are wou l d doubtle s s al l be fou n d s tatable i n

,

terms of moti o n Thi s i s al l that the power s Of s o called

.
-

matte r e n able i t to d o wheth er i t be con s i dere d a s a g g r e

,

gated i nto ma ss e s or a s acti n g i n the form of mol e cule s or

, ,

as atomi c acti on w ith i n the mol e cu l e s The m ate ri al world .

,

i ndeed never ceas e s to move ; but then m ove m e nt exhau s t s

, ,

s o to s peak i ts capaci ty ,
M ateri al cha n ge s are all i n the
.
,

la s t analy s i s to be de s cri bed a s changes Of relati ve po s iti o n s

,

i n s pace Thi s state me nt i s a s true Of th e br a i n wh e n

.
,

con s i dered a s capable of b e i ng made the s ubj ect Of ch e m i c o

phy s i cal s ci e nce a s i t i s of any other porti on of matt e r
, .

C ea s e l e s s mole cul ar and atomi c m oveme nt s wi thi n th e ma s s ,

nerv e commoti on s and change s under the i nuence o f s o

-
,

called e le ctri cal , chemi cal and thermi c cond iti on s co n s ti

, ,

tute th e s er ie s Of cerebral phen omen a w ith whi ch the

acti viti e s of consci ou s ne ss are suppo s ed by moni s m to run , ,

qual i tati vely parallel o r proporti onal That i s to s a y th e .

,

phy s i cal s e t of phenomena i s al l of on e and e ss enti al ly
the same fundamental Orde r .

When howe ver analyti c attenti on i s tu rned upon the

, ,

other set of phenome n a upon the acti vi ti e s of consc i ou s

,

ness the ca s e with them i s found to be by n o means th e

,
334 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M

s ame The devel oped p sychi cal phe n omena are al way s on
.
,

the contrary found to be of thre e fundamental ly d i ffe rent

,

orders although c O ex i stent w ith varyi ng degree s of i nten s i ty

,
-

and compl ex i ty i n the u nity of consci ou s ness For the on e .

fact to whi ch the behavi or of the Self te s ti e s i s a three

fold fact ; n amely not o n ly d o I se n s e perce i ve i magi ne
, , , ,

rememb e r th i n k ( a l l of whi ch m ay be con s i der e d a s bel o n g

,

i n g to the mai n branch of i nte l lective o r cog n iti v e activi tie s ) ,

but al s o I feel and I s tri ve act or w i ll

,
Kn owing s ome
, ,
.

thi ng fe el i n g s omehow and doi ng s omewhat al l b e long at

, , ,

the s ame ti me to al l ful l orbed con s ci ou s s tate s ; and yet al l

-

s uch s tat e s may be con s i dered as u n i ti es ab s tractly but not

real ly s eparabl e by s el ect i ve attenti on w i th i n the stream Of

con s ci ou s n e s s ; a n d they must al l be referred to on e and the
s ame Ego a s thei r subject o r grou nd Now, to s peak of
, .

th i s three S ided and yet u n i quely u nitary s eri e s Of mental
-

phenomen a a s qu al itati v e ly paral le led by or proporti onal to , ,

the fu n dam e ntally di ffere n t s eri es of b rai n s tates whi ch are -

al l of e ss e nti al ly the s ame order i s to make an unwarrant ,

abl e and even mea n ingle s s u s e Of terms .

M oreove r th e vari ati on s i n rel ati ve i nten s i ty and c om

,

pl e x i ty of the s e p s ych i cal functi ons i n the am ount Of the

tot a l con s c i ou s n e ss whi ch they re s pecti vely ab s orb S O to ,

s peak do n ot appear to be rel ated to the cerebral proce s s e s

i n s uch a way a s to favor the concepti on Of paral lel i s m
o r proporti onal i ty It i s tru e th at n o de n ite sc i enti c
.

knowle dge ex i s t s as to what are the cereb ral c onditi o n s or

co n com itant s Of the thre e d i ffe rent mai n orders of mental
ph en omena P hy s i ol ogi cal psych ol ogy h a s al most nothi ng
.

that can b e call ed s ci e nti c t o s a y i n an s we r to th e

que s ti on : W hat a s pe cts o r characteri s t ics Of the ce rebral
, ,

nerve commoti ons are representati ve Of tho s e a s pect s wh i ch

-

on th e S i de of con s ci ou s ne s s we cal l Intell ect ; what of ,

Feel i n g ; an d what , of W i l l ? In the ca s e of bod i ly o r

sen s u ou s feel i ng s wi th the i r strong ton e of pleasure or pai n
,
 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 3 35

howeve r i t s eem s to be vari ati on s i n the i n te n s i ty of nervou s

,

proce s s e s whi ch p s ycho phy s i cal s cie n ce h a s ch i e y t o tak e

-

i nto the accou n t Whe n th e dynamo geneti c value of the

.
-

s ti mulati on s i ncre a s e s i n a certai n way a n d doe s n ot become ,

too i n t e n s e the corr e s pondi ng consc i ous s tate s d ev e l op an

,

i n crea s e of the i ntelle ct ive a ffecti ve and conati ve a cti vit i e s

, , .

Th a t i s to s a y, the wh ol e l i f e of the m i n d i n al l of i ts thr e e

.
,

fundam e ntal form s of functi oni n g i s expanded i n s ome s ort ,

o f c orrel ati on w ith i ncrea s ed i nten s i ty i n the cerebral

proce s s es But here the very word e xpa n s i o n i n d i cate s a
.

vari e ty of cha n ge s i n the state s of c o n s c i ou s n e s s no n e of ,

wh i ch p reci s ely corre s pon d to exten s i v e o r i nten s i ve magn i

tudes of a phy s i cal s ort , and s ome of wh i ch s eem to bear n o
anal ogy or l i ke n e ss whatever to such magn i tude s .

The i mportant poi nt furthermore i s e s tabl i she d by

, ,

e xperi ence that a s the cerebral acti vi ti e s i ncrea s e i n

, ,

i n te n s i ty beyond a certai n degree the con s ci ous l ife become s

,

more and more ab s orbed i n feel i n g Of a p ai n fu l k i nd .

Inde e d by e xceed i n gly great a n d s udden i ncr e a s e i n the

,

i n t e n s i t v o f th e b rai n proces s e s the i n tel l e ct a n d wi ll may

-
,

temporari ly be al mo s t or qu ite overwhelmed with hu ge wav e s

o f pai n ful f e e l i n g N ow here i s certai nly a very odd s ort
.
,

Of c ompl i cat e d rel ati on to be expre s se d by the s i mpl e nai ve , ,

and un s ugge s ti ve u s e Of word s l i ke p aral leli s m and propor

"

t i on a l i ty . H o w compl i cat e d the rel ati on i s mi ght b e i l lu s

t r a te d by ho s t s of p sych o phy s i cal fact s i f s uch i llu s trati on
-
,

wer e dem a nded A nd what i s true of the aff ecti ve a spect Of

.

co n s ci ou s s tate s a s r e l at e d t o vari ati on s i n b rai n s tat e s i s -

also true of the i nt e l lecti ve and conati ve a s pect s But the .

di f culti e s o f th e general p robl e m a s brought before the ,

pri nci pl e o f p sycho physi cal paral l e l i s m
-
are greatly ,

i ncre a s ed on ndi n g that e ach of the th r e e so cal led f a cu l -

ti e s s eem s to demand a d i e r e n t se t of formul a s to expre s s

th e vari ed relati on s i n wh i ch i t stands t o th e ch e m i co
phy s i cal performances Of the b rai n A n d not only S O, but .
3 36 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M

the modern the ory ( now i n i ts mai n outl i ne s e s tabli s hed on

, ,

a rm ba s i s o f ob s e rvati on and experi ment ) of the l oc a l i za

ti on o f cerebral functi on i ntroduces a great vari ety of other
compl i cati on s .

The fact s an d the i mmed i ate l egi ti mate i nfe re n ces from
,

t h e fact s then warrant some s uch statement s a s the fol l ow

, ,

i ng : A l l vari ati ons i n the ch e m i cO physi cal processe s of th e -

bra i n are s ub s tanti al ly Of on e orde r ; they are atomi c and

mol ecul ar mov e ments w ith d i fferi n g i nten s iti e s and e xtend
,

i ng ove r vari ou s porti ons of the cerebral areas W ith them .

are corre l ated vari ati o n s i n th e co n s ci ou s s tate s o f three

fundamentally di ff ere n t a n d i rre ducible o rde r s n e ithe r o f ,

wh i ch i s whol ly anal ogou s ( not to s a y l ike ) to the vary

i ng ch e m i c O physi cal proce s s e s
-
Each of the p sychi cal .

ord er s S O far as i t can be S poken of a s proporti onal at al l

,

to the cerebral p roces s es fol l ow s a great vari ety of rul e s , ,

m o s t of whi ch are wholly unk n own ; an d the vary i n g propor

ti on s of these psych i cal act i vi ti e s a s they e nter i nto e ach ,

c ompl ete con s ci ou s state , are very d i fferent for the d i ff erent
c on s ci ou s s tate s .

Suppo s e howeve r that the conditi on of ou r s ci enti c

, ,

k n owl edge b e i l lu s trated concrete ly A certai n human .

body that Of my enemy forms an i mage on the reti na s of

my eyes On the phy s i cal S i de d i ffus i ve nerve commoti on s
.
,
-

i n the S O cal led vi s ual centre s Of the brai n of a l ow degre e

-
,

o f i nte n s i ty result
,
On the S i de of c on s ci ou s n e ss I p er ce i v e
.
,

the e xternal Object S i mi lar nerve commot i o n s then e xtend

.
-

ov e r vari ous a ss oci ati on tract s ; and other centre s po ss ibly

-

s omewhat d i s tant become i nvolved ,

I remember that thi s .

i s my enemy an d th at he h a s done me su ch a w rong On

,
.

the phy s i cal S i de an acou sti c wave of a l ow degree of

, ,

i nten s ity n ow e ffe cts the e xci tement of ce rtain proces s es i n

,

the au di tory centres Of the cereb rum On the p s ych i cal s i de, .

I hear a wh ispered i nsul t f rom my e nemy A nd n ow, at .

once , the soul l eaps i nto a markedly d i ff erent characteri sti c

 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M

state of con s ci ou s l ife ; I become exceedingly angry ; but

thou ghts Of duty a n d of s e lf r e s pect i mmed i ately ari s e , and
-

I dec id e to put down the a n ge r ( o r i f not I let i t rage and

, , ,

fal l upon the man o r ru s h off to buy a p istol ) D i f cult a s

,
.

i t i s to suppose that th e s udden and i nten s e emoti on i s

pre ceded , o r ke pt pace w ith by the i nten s ity and e xt e n si ve
ne ss o f th e ce rebral commoti o n s i n s te ad of b e i ng it s elf the
,

excitant of the s e c ommoti on s whi ch foll ow a s i ts re s ult thi s ,

i nqu i ry i s n ot to the poi nt i n ou r pre s ent contenti on For .

thi s co n te n ti on i s to the e ffect that the pri nciple Of p s ycho

phy s i cal paral lel i s m proves to o me agre a n d un i nte ll i gible
i n the accou n t wh i ch i t gi ves of s uch mani fol d experi ence s .

Where i t i s i ntel l i gibl e i t i s pai nf u l ly meagre ; a nd where i t

,

attempt s to remedy thi s m e agrene s s by becom in g ful l a n d

den i te i t i s utte rly uni ntell i gi bl e
,
.

In bri e f s uch word s a s paral lel i s m
,
concomi tan ce
, ,

p r Op o r t i on a l i ty
,
and the l i ke are al l tak en from relati vely
S i mpl e re l ati on s betwe e n bei ngs bel ongi ng to the s ame k i nd .

They are th e refore n ot adapt e d to ex pre ss the i n n i te com

, ,

pl e x i ty of relati on s whi ch the s ci e n t i c s tudy o f p sycho

phy s i c s a n d phy s i ol ogi cal p sychology re veal s A nd i f on e .

s tretch e s and s trai n s thei r Obvi ou s meani ng i n the e f fort t o ,

make them cove r thi s i n n i tu d e of relati on s then on e begi n s ,

t o talk i n gure s o f S peech for who s e i nterpretati on an

appe al i s ma d e to a cru de psychology on the on e S i de a n d to ,

a mythol ogi cal phy s i ology o n the othe r ; o r el s e a s qu ite

too freque ntly h appen s on e begi n s to talk utte r no n s en s e .

A n d n o w were on e d i s po s e d to mai nt a i n th e s c e pti cal a t ti

tude toward M oni s m whether on e be i n o n e s own ri ght
, ,

,

an A gno s ti c a M ateri al i st , a Spi ritual i s t o r a D ual i s t

, , ,

on e m i ght mock at th i s s trange k i nd o f a god who s e t e mple ,

i s ere cte d u pon th e parallel wal l s of the p s ycho phy s i c al -

pri nci pl e H ow d oes thi s u n i tary bei n g n d i ts way s a fely

.

through al l the compl i cated pe rformanc e s whi ch i ts t wo s e ts

of proporti o n al mani fe s tati on s perpetually demand of i t ?

22
3 38 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M

We have already noti ced ( p 3 29) the d i f culty whi ch thi s

.

bei ng mu s t have i n know i ng the ri ght ti me at wh ich to wak e

up the s uspe n ded p sychi cal s e ri e s and begi n to mani fe s t
,

i t s el f a s a con s ci ous mi nd paral lel wi th the conti n uous

,

phy s i cal s eri e s B ut th i s d i f cul t y i s s l ight i ndeed compare d

.

w ith that whi ch i s n ow found to be i nvol ved i n i ts dai ly

ta s k . Why , i n the p sychi cal s eri e s d oe s i t hab itual ly
,

s e lect a three fold form Of mani fe s tati on an d yet cl i n g to

-

the on e fold form of mani fe s tati on i n the ch em i cO phys i cal

- -

s eri e s ? I ndeed , i f i t rece i ve s from the law s of N ature at

l a rge the term s on whi ch i t mu s t mani fe s t i tself i n the
phy s i cal s eri e s s i nce body and brai n a r e , a s bel ongi ng t o
,

the ch e m i c O phy s i cal order part s of N ature

-
,
why sh oul d
,
-

i t mani fe s t i tself a s m i nd i n a three fold way at al l ? D oe s

-

i t rec e i ve any of the cond iti on s of the p sychi cal form o f i ts

mani festati on from the consci ou s ne s s Of the parti cul ar mi nd
that i t man i fe s t s ; or d oes i t perh ap s rece i ve them al l from
, ,

the A b s ol ute M i nd wh i ch woul d surely k n ow how the On e

,

U nkn owabl e Be i ng ought to behave a s a m i n d , i f i t were

goi n g to man i f e s t it s el f i n th i s way at al l ? A nd once ,

more h ow do e s thi s u nitary bei ng k now the ri ght way pe r

,

p e t u a l l y to keep up s uch i n nitel y vari ed forms o f the

p sych i cal mani fe s tati on s i n an a pp r op r i a te proporti onal i ty
,

to the vari ati on s i n i ntens ity and l ocal i ty of the phy s i cal
mani fe stati on s ? To s uch que s ti on s a s the s e M ate ri al i sm , ,

Spi ri tual i s m and D ual i sm al l have at lea s t s ome attempt

,

at an expl anati on t o propose B ut M o n i s m can respond

.

only w ith the a gno s ti c negati ons and warn i ng s N O wonde r .

th at M o n i s m i s force d at th i s poi nt i nto a compl ete agn os

t i c i s m i nto a c onfe ss i on o f i gnorance S O compl ete as to
,

ren der uni ntel l i gibl e the very al leged s ci enti c pri nci pl e
upon wh i ch i t i s founded .

That the pri nci pl e Of psycho phys i cal paral lel ism , or pro
-

p or t i on a l i ty i s n ot only from th e rst i nadequate but al so

,

becomes u n i nte l l i gible i n i ts attempt to summari ze the

 M ON IS M AN D DUAL IS M 339

facts of e xperi ence a s to the rel ati on s of body and m i nd i s ,

f u rthe r ev i dent a s s oon a s we e xami n e i ts appl i cati on to any

o f the S O cal led h i gher orders of m e ntal phen omena
-
For .

the s e phenomena d o n ot fal l under c omm on categor i e s wi th

th e ch e m i c o phy s i cal proce s s e s of the brai n ; they can n ot
-

therefore be calle d paral le l or proporti onal to these pro

ce ss e s i n a qu al itative way I n a gu rati ve way i t may
.

be s ai d i ndeed , that as to i ntensi ty qu al ity compl ex i ty

, , , ,

ti me sequence and d urati on certai n e lement s o f al l con s ci ou s

-

s tate s are paralle l or proporti onal to the brai n s tates

,
-
.

But even here t o spe ak wi th sci enti c e x actnes s , i t i s

,

nece s s ary to remembe r that al l compari s o n s are apt to e n d

i n mere g u re s of s peech A S to what really occu rs we
.
,

mu s t not be m i s l ed by ou r word s For e x ample the i nter

.
,

on o f Weber s l aw depends upon h o w far i t i s ad mitte d

p r e t a t i
that vari ati on s i n i nten s i ty of ou r s en s e experi ence e x i s t
-

a s d i s ti ngui s hed from what are real ly changes i n qual i ty o r

tone M ore ov e r e ven i n thi s real m , as the adva n c ing

.
,

s ci ence o f p s ycho phy s i c s m ake s

-
cleare r eve ry ye a r the ,

quantitati ve relati on s between th e t wo s et s of phenomena a r e

exceedi ngly compl i cated ; and what i s yet more to the
poi nt s ome of the s e re l ati ons are d i re ctly depe n dent upon
psychi cal factors f or wh i ch it i s a s yet and probably al way s
,

w i l l be utte rly i mpo ss i ble t o menti on ( much le s s reduc e to

,

sci enti c term s) any cerebral c orrel ate H er e m i ght be

.

i n s tanced the dependence of the i nten s i ty of s e n s ati o n s or ,

o f the con s ci ou s order o f sen s ati ons u pon fel t i nte re s t u pon
, ,

s electi ve att e nti on , and u pon practi cal end s wh i ch are c on

c e i v e d and chosen by the mi nd and the n projected i nto a n

,

i deal futu re .

A nd when the l ower and narrow real m Of categori e s that

may i n some s ort be made c ommon to acti viti es of c on
s c i ou s n e ss and o f the cerebral s ub s tance i s left beh i nd we ,

at once ente r a regi on o f the bl ackest n i ght s o far a s any ,

l i ght or gu i dance from the pri nci pl e of p sych o phy s i cal paral -
3 40 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M

l el i sm is co n cer n e d H ere P rofe s s or H offdi n g and all

.
,

adherent s to s i mi l ar doctri n e , mi ght wel l be a s ked : In what

de nite ch em i c O phy s i cal proce s s of the brai n s ub s tance doe s
-
-

th e o n e Be ing mani fe s t it s elf, that i s paral lel or propor

t i on a l to the m oni s t s o w n con s c i o u s metaphy s i cal fai th i n

the real ity Of s uch a be ing or i ndeed i n any real be i ng

,

at al l ? A nd what mol ecul ar or atomi c changes are the

s tri ct concomi tant o r proporti onal of the Identi ty wh ich
t h e mo n i s ti c theory pred i cate s of such bei n g ? B ut l et the
i l lu s trati on of ou r Objecti on s begi n at a somewhat m ore Ob
v i ou s l evel .

It i s a pl ai n p sych ol ogi cal truth that the mo s t pri mary

proce s s e s of a real ly i nt e l le ctu al l i fe are S O uni qu e i n nature
that con s i dered a s i n t elle c tu a l activi ti e s they h ave n o c on
, ,

ce i v a bl e not to s a y actually k n own

,
qu al itati vely parallel or
,

proporti on al cerebral proce s s e s A n d thi s truth appl i es to

.

al l th e phenome n a of human consci ou s ne ss i n S O far as such ,

phenomen a become Obj ect s Of sci enti c Ob s e rvati on For .

no mental phenomenon can b e an Obje ct of knowl edge f or h i m

to who s e me n tal l i fe i t bel o n gs wi th out bei n g known a s s uch
an d n o other phe n omeno n th at i s w ith out bei n g d i s
, ,

cri mi nated a s s i mi l ated and rel ate d to oth er s tate s i n the

, ,

total s tream of con s ci ou s ne s s E very mi n d w h e n thus

.
,

acti ng a s di s cri mi nator compare r a n d r e l ating agent w ith

, , ,

reference to i ts own conte n t i s ce rtai nly n ot to b e th ought

,

of a s e x i s tin g and acti ng apart from th e very l i fe w h i ch

con s i st s i n the content di s cri mi nated compared and rel ated , ,

.

Intel l e ct does n ot l iterally S i t al oft and pre s i de over the

sen s ati on c ontent o r the i d e a s cla ss i fyi ng them a s the

-
,

s ki l ful mai l agent pi tche s the l etters th at come unde r h i s

-

eye i nto the proper box es o r bags But i mman e nt i ntell ect .

i s a nece s s ary part i s the es s e n ti al acti ve a s pect or rathe r

, ,

e s s e n ti al S pi ri tu al acti vi ty it s elf of every state Of con s ci ou s

ne s s i f s u ch st a te i s to b e mad e an Object of knowl edge at
,

al l A n d thi s S pi ri tual acti vity whi ch i s the fundamental

.
,
 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 41

thi ng i n al l k nowl edge i nvolve s i n i ts hi ghe r man i festati on s

,

selecti ve attenti on the fee l ing of s elf acti vi ty ( of b e i n g

,
-

mental ly al i ve and doi ng i f y ou w i ll ) recogniti ve memory

, , ,

and the co n s ci ou s adaptati on of the mecha n i s m of i deas an d

of the i deo motor b odi ly apparatus to practi cal end s
-
.

What i s me a n t by cal l i n g on e ch e m i c O phy s i cal proce s s i n -

the cerebral sub s ta n ce s l i ke or u n l i ke another whethe r ,

parti al ly o r total ly , al l m e n can under s tand although i n ,

preci s ely what feature s th i s l i ke n e ss co n s ist s no man may be ,

abl e s ati s factori ly to s a y A l l m e n can al s o under s tand

.

what i s m e ant by the l ikene s s or unl ikeness of p s ych o s es a s

k nown to the s ubject of t hem For i n d e ed i t i s in th i s .
, ,

i mmedi ate re cogn i ti on of l ike and unl i ke mental s tate s that

al l k nowl edge begi n s and al l argument e nd s C ons i de red .

m e rely a s re s pe ct s the i r s e n s ati on or i deati on content on e -

,

m ay perhap s be al lowed to s peak of l ike p sycho s e s be i ng

paral lel or proporti onal t o l i ke cerebral proce ss e s But .

a s to wh at i s meant by a cerebral proce ss that i s paral l e l

o r proporti onal to the i ntel lectual acti vity Of rel ati ng as ,

s uch to the s e lf c on s c i o u s work of d i s cri mi nati ng

,
o
th i s i s ,

s omethi ng to wh i ch we nd i t quite i mposs ibl e to attach any

clear conce pti on .

To avoi d m i s under s tandi ngs s o frequent and gros s are ,

they at ju s t thi s poi nt let the probl em propo s e d to the

,

advocate s of ex act p s ych o phy s i cal parall el i s m be kept

-

s te ad ily i n mi nd The complete i nadequ acy of the psycho

.

l ogi cal th e ory wh i ch woul d re s ol ve al l mental phenom e na

i nto s e n s a ti on s a n d revi ved we ak e r i mag e s of pa s t sen s ati on s
a s s oc i ate d u n d e r certai n al leged l aws of S i mil ari ty contra s t , ,

etc m a y b e s ai d to be both demon s trate d and co n fe s se d

.
, .

The re cent att e mpt of "i e hen and other s to revi ve thi s twi ce
dead theory Of the mi nd s nature and acti viti es by i njecti n g

i nto its vei n s according to the method s o f m ode rn med i cal

,

s cience a fe w d rop s of re d bl ood from the vi gorou s i nfa n t

,

known a s phy s i ol ogi cal p s ychol ogy w il l succeed n o bette r ,

 M ON IS M AND D UAL IS M
0
0 42

than the earl i e r un s ci enti c attempts Indeed the m odern .

,

form of the the ory mu s t i nevi tabl y fare worse ; for i t i s far
more remote from any i ndubitabl e and we l l k nown fact s than -

w a s the Engl i sh Sen s ati onal i s m and A s s oci ati onal i s m of a

generati on ago On e may approve or d i s approve of the t e rm

.

appercepti on ; on e may adopt or reject any parti cul ar vi e w

Of appercepti on ; but on e S hould not be dece i ve d i nto
tak i ng mere word s for re al iti e s e s pe ci al ly n ot w hen these
, ,

w ord s stand for myths i n s tead Of known fact s and laws .

W hat mu s t be accou nte d f or by every p sychol ogi cal theory

i s not s i mply the fact that mental phenomena occur i n seri e s
havi n g vari abl e qu al iti es quanti ti es ti me rate and ti me
, ,
-
,

orde r whi ch may be con ce i ve d of a s paral leled by cerebral

,

phenomena w ith proporti onately vary ing qual i ti e s quant i ,

ti e s ti me rate and ti me order

,
-
, Wha t m u st be a ccou n ted f or
-
.

i s t he f a ct t h a t I kw
no t hi s t hi ng , or s t a te , o f my own t o be
li k
e or u n li k
e s om e oth er t hi ng ,f my own or othe r s ta te o .

Even the si mpl e s t con sci ou sn ess of si m i la r i ty i s a far d i ff erent

fact from the me re ex i sten ce of s i mi la r p r oce s ses phy s i cal or ,

p s ych i cal , p lu s con s ci ou s ne s s thrown i n a s i t were i n

, , ,

the lump A nd the d evel ope d compl e x k nowledge Of thi ngs

.

l i ke an d unl ik e i s , Of cou rse , a yet more compl i cated a ffai r .

L et then the ch em i c O phy s i cal p roces s e s , l i ke and unl ike ,

, ,
-

run on fore ver ; l et the adm i s s i on b e made that consci ou s

ne ss i s a general phenome n on i ncomparabl e whol ly to the s e
proce s se s ; l et th e furthe r d i s covery be made that d i ffe rent
states of con ci ou s ne s s are ( when regarde d S i mply content
w i s e and wi th re s pe ct to qu al i ty qua n tity a n d ti me rate of , ,
-

sen s ati ons and Of revi ved i mage s of past s en s ati ons) propor
t i on a l i n s ome sort t o these proce s se s an d i s then the ,

co n s ci ou s ne s s of S i mi l arity , con s i de re d as the un i que mental

acti vi ty that i t i s to be s pok en of as proporti onal
,
to
the s e pro ce s s e s ? On th e contrary, n o on e can form th e
s l i ghte s t c oncepti o n Of what s uch an appl i cati on of th e term

proporti onal i ty mi ght mean ; or Of the term s that coul d be

 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 3 43

employe d to make i nt e ll i gibl e a l aw Of the proporti onal

vari ati on i n the t wo k i n d s of phe n ome n a ev e n i f s ome lucky
,

i nve s ti gator i n cereb ral phy s i ology s houl d suppo s e hi m s e lf

to have d i s covere d the exact nature Of the re q u i s ite cerebral
ch a ng e s .

What h a s bee n s ai d of both the pri mary an d the m ore

elaborate proce ss e s of i ntel l e cti o n hold s true Of re cog n iti ve
memory ; for th i s me ntal ach i e ve ment i nvol ve s the s e i ntel
l e c ti v e proce s s e s and cont a i n s al s o s ometh ing u ni que and
,

belongi ng to it s el f H ere agai n there are c e rtai n a s pect s or

.

factor s of the co n s c i ou s s tates that m a y be s poken of a s

havi ng thei r corr e l ate s i n the ch e m i c O phy s i cal proce ss e s Of
-

the brai n The p s ycho phy s i c s of i deati on undoubt e dly

.
-

te n d s to s h ow that th e recurre n ce o f s i mi l a r a s s oci ated ideas

i n con s ci ou s n e s s i s s omehow depende n t u pon the recurre n ce
of S i m i lar neural proce s s es i n the s ame cerebral area s ,

i ncludi n g th e i r a ss oci ati on tract s -

The di s po s i ti on t o r e
.

member t o i magi n e a n d to th i n k i n certai n way s rathe r

, ,

than other s i s s omeho w dep e nd e nt upon dy n ami cal a ss oci a
ti on s whi ch have bee n e s tabl i s hed b e t we e n d i ffer e nt rel ated
neural el e ment s and upon the functi on s bel o n gi ng to them
,
. .

A nd i f on e ll s up the s cant mea s u re of ou r val i d i nfer e nce s

on thi s s ubj e ct wi th a l iberal amount o f conj e cture o n e may ,

p e rhap s r e nd e r i ntel l igi bl e the m e a n i n g of the te rm p sycho

phy s i cal parallel i s m a s ex i s ti n g between recurre n t s i m i l ar
brai n proce s s e s i n s e ri e s a n d the trai n of a s s oci at e d i mag e s
-
,

i n con s ci ou s ne s s con s i dere d m e r e ly a s s uch

,
B ut thi s i s
.

far i n d e e d from accounti n g for t h e whol e of recogn i ti ve

m e mory For what I remember r ec ogn i t i v e ly I know a s i n
.

the p a s t of ti m e and a s belongi n g to m y pa s t to the pa s t Of

, ,

th e sa m e S e lf that I now am Thi s m e mory th e r e fore

.
, ,

i nvolve s n ot only i deati on and compari ng acti vi ty but Ti me ,

con s ci ou s n e s s co n s ci ou s ne s s o f S e lf and con s c i ou s n e s s of

, ,

Self Id e ntity H ere agai n to u s e the l a n guage empl oye d

-
.

i n the confe s s i onal of the rankest materi al i s m even we

3 44 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M

have not a s yet the rud i mentary organ whi ch woul d
e nable u s to conce i ve of ch e m i c O phy s i cal proce s s es that -

S h a l l v ary proporti onately or i n a for m of qual itati ve par,

all el i s m with th e s e form s of con s ci ou s n e ss H e re agai n

, .
,

th e n we are face to face w ith u n i que s pi ri tual acti viti e s

,

that cannot even gurati vely a n d i n an a n al ogi cal way

, ,

be c orrel ated wi th acti vi ti e s Of brai n molecul e s an d atom s .

Thu s d o e s the pl ai n ma n s memory propo s e a problem to the
advocate of the pri nci ple of p s ycho phy s i cal paral le li s m -

wh i ch not o n ly cannot be an s wer e d but cannot even be ,

brought i n to term s o f h i s s ci e n ce at all For s o m e thi ng .

more than a de n ite s eri e s of i deati on proc e s s e s with a -

,

vague g e neral addendum Of consci ou s nes s i s her e s eek i ng ,

i ts pr oporti o n al i t s paral lel c h e m i c O phy s i cal proces s e s ;

, ,
-

S p e ci al u n i que a n d i ncomparable form s Of s p i ritual l if e are

, ,

demandi ng recogn i ti on w ith probl e m s that have no parallel

,

or proporti on al i n any phy s i cal pro c e ss e s .

B ut k n owl e dg e a s h a s been repeatedly urge d i n th i s

treati s e and S hown el s ewh e re from the s tandpoi nt of
,
l

p sychol ogi c a l s ci ence i nvol v e s all the d e vel oped acti vi ti e s

bel on gi n g to w hat we cal l m i nd The my s tery Of k n owl e dge
.

can not be re s ol ved i n to the my s tery Of an u n k n own bei ng

m a ni fe s ti n g i t s el f i n two paral l e l a n d proporti o n al s eri e s of
utt e rly i ncomparabl e phe n om e n a To make thi s deni al cle ar .

a n d t o enforce i t appropri ately woul d requ i re a detai led

criti cal treatment of the theory Of knowledge It mu s t .

s u f ce at pr e s ent to s a y th a t the po s i ti o n take n by th e a d v o

cate s of an exact p sycho phy s i cal paral lel i s m i s i ncompatibl e

-

wi t h a n y true theory of kn owl e d ge ; and not o n ly S O the ,

po s i ti on ca n n ot even b e s tated i n term s con s i s tent wi th the

fundame ntal po s tul ate s of k n owledge .

In bri e f t he n the al lege d s ci enti c pri nc i ple Of p s ych o

, ,

phy s i cal paral lel i s m i s far from be i ng the self evi de n t con -

1 S ee
P sych ol ogy , Desc r iptiv e and E xpl an a to ry ,

p assi m, an d es p i ll y
ec a

hp
c a . x x u.
 M ON IS M AN D DUAL IS M 3 45

el usi on of modern p sych o phy s i cal re s earch wh i ch i t i s s o

-

often and S O ra s hly a s s um e d to be E ven the s i mple s t r e la .

t i o n s between the ph e n ome n a of the l owe s t orde r o f con

s c i ou s n e s s and the co n comitant cerebral acti viti e s are far too

uctuati n g, compl i cated and cha n ge abl e to b e sub s um e d

,

under thi s pri n ci ple Of parallel i s m i n s pace we ca n n ot

.

S peak appropri at e ly i n th i s co n n e cti on Of paral l e l i s m i n .

t ime there i s only an i n complete a n d broken a nalogy A n d .

when on e tri e s to th i nk out clearly t h e co n cepti on of a com

p l e t e qual itative paral l el ism o n e n d s t h e p r i n c i pl e s oon
,

end i ng i n i nade qu acy a n d nally becomi n g u n i n t e ll i gibl e or

,

ab s urd S c or e s of d iff e r en t c omp li ca te d f or mu la s a pp e a r to

.

be n e c e ssa r y in or d e r e ve n ve r
y i mp erf ect l
y to ex
p r e ss t he

i n n i te ly v a r i e d r e l a t i on s del i cate s ubti le and ch a n ge

so , ,

abl e i n depe n d e n ce u pon cond iti o ns p e rpetual ly ari s i ng i n

both s et s of phe n ome na be twe en the body a n d the m i n d .

Suppo s e h ow e ve r th at th i s al lege d s ci enti c l aw S houl d

, ,

nal ly curb i ts pri de an d put i t s el f i nto s om e such shape as

that the eye Of u n der s tand i n g could take i n i t s outl i n e s ti l l ,

the metaphy s i cal theory cal led M oni s m would not foll o w

a s a matter of cou r s e It i s by n o mean s a s e lf ev i dent

.
-

argument a s P rofe s s or B o d i n g s e em s to a ss ume from

, ,

th e paral l e l i s m and proport i onal i ty o f the two s et s of

phenom e na to a n i dent ity of bei n g at bottom On the .

contrary th e more obvi ous and i nt e l l i gi bl e i n f e re n ce woul d

,

seem to l e ad from the two se ts of a d m i tte d ly i n c omp a r a ble

p h e n om e n a h
,
ow e ver paral le l they may r un an d h oweve r
proporti onal th e y may i n s ome r e s pect s appe a r t o tw o k i n ds ,

of e n ti ti e s a s th e i r ground Or i n ca s e the p ri nc i pl e of
.
,

parci mony i s to be co n s e rv e d at al l ri s k s l e t u s turn e i ther ,

materi al i st s or s pi ri t u a l i s t s a n d make on e k n own k i n d of

,

be ing d o the work nec e s s ary to produce th e t wo s et s of

phenomena But thi s woul d lead e ithe r to D u a l i s m on the
.

on e ha n d ,
o r t o M at e r i al i s m or Spi ri tual i s m o n the othe r .

A nd , i ndeed M oni s m i s the mo s t wa st e ful po s s i bl e form

,
3 46 M ON IS M AN D DUAL IS M

Of a metaphy s i cal theory for the rel ati o n s between body and
min d . B ody we know and m i nd we know ; a n d i f we are
,

compel l e d t o a s s ume any real be i ng to furni s h a metaphy s i cal

grou n d f or the phenome n a then w e can afford on e ki nd Of
,

b e i n g for e ach k i n d of phenomena B ut thi s th i rd unknown .

a n d u n k nowabl e s ort o f bei ng what doe s i t here ? I f the

, .

ph e n o m e n a are not S O i ncomparable that they cannot properly

b e r e ferr e d t o on e real i ty as i ts mani fe s tati on then ou r ,

choi ce l i es betwee n the s o call e d body and the s o called

- -

m i n d ; a n d thus materi al i s m an d s pi ri tual i s m mu s t ght i t

o u t b e t w ee n them s el ve s .M oni s m h a s no s tand i n g a s a
th i r d m e taphysi cal theory But if the i ncomparabl e char
.

act e r of th e t wo s ets of phenomen a forbi d s e ither the mate

r i a l i s t i c or the S pi ri tual i s ti c hypothe s i s then the dual i s ti c
,

hypoth e s i s wou l d seem for the ti me to hol d the el d .

M o n i s m again h owever , has then no r a i son d e tr e a s a ri val

,

m e t a phy s i cal theory .

N or c a n i t b e s ai d on val i d groun d s of general meta

ph y s i c s that two be i ngs whi ch behave w i th such ni ce regard
for the pri nc ipl e of proporti onal ity as d o the body and the

m i n d m u s t be at bottom on e and the s ame b e i ng ; u n le s s
w e are prepar e d to admi t that al l parti cular be i n gs by vi rtue ,

o f the gen e r a l f a ct of the i r bei n g c o n nected at al l i mply the ,

U n i ty i n R e al ity of them al l Oxyge n atom s for ex ampl e

.
, ,

al ways b eh ave w ith a s tri ct regard for the pri nci pl e of

proporti o n al ity whe n they come i n to c hemi cal re l ati ons
,

w ith hydrogen atoms But Oxyg e n atom s foll ow anothe r

.

formul a i n the i r b e havi or u n de r S i mi la r chemi cal rel ati on s

wi th n i troge n atom s ; and S O s ti l l anothe r formul a wi th
,

carbon a tom s Indeed i t i s the ge neral pri nci pl e o f propor

.
,

t i on a l i ty w ith v a ri e d parti cul ar formul a s whi ch ch aracter

, ,

i z e s al l the atom i c rel a ti o n s and S O ru l e s the s tructu re Of

,

al l thi n gs a s co n s i d e red i n term s o f the atomi c the ory A nd .

y e t ch e mi cal s ci ence a s s u m e s that th e re are about s eventy

d i fferent k i n d s o f atom s, i n s tead of only on e at b ottom
 M ON IS M A ND DUAL IS M 3 47

i dentical be i ng i n Orde r to accou n t for the world of be i n g s

,

that have atomi c s tructure Why, then , S houl d not t wo

.

k i nd s of bei ngs be abl e to conduct th e m s elve s accord ing to

the s tri cte s t pri nci ple of proporti onal i ty i f seventy k i nd s of ,

be ings can accompl i s h the s i mi l a r ta s k whe n set to them ?

In S hort the moni sti c mu s t b e make s no impre s s i on a s a
,
-

l ogi cal argume n t u pon us at al l .

The an s we r to the for e goi ng and to al l s i m i l ar i n qu i ri e s

may i ndeed lead u s to the hypoth e s i s of on e M i nd Be i n g
, ,
-

a s the G rou n d al i ke of al l th i ng s an d o f al l n ite m i nd s .

But i t ce rtai n ly doe s n ot l ogi cal ly bri ng u s wi th a yi ng

l eap, a s it we re to the s tandi ng grou n d of the m on i s ti c
,
-

theory for the spec i al rel ati on s of body a n d m i nd If .

s eventy d i f fere nt ki nd s of be i ng s can get al ong s o wel l and

bui l d togethe r the u nity of a materi al world cannot the ,

human m i nd and the human body get along togethe r e qual ly

wel l wi thout sacr i ci ng e ithe r k i nd of enti ty
But the more the argument Of M oni s m empha s i ze s the
i ncomparab i l i ty of th e two s et s of ph e nom e na a s agai nst th e ,

the ori e s Of M ateri al i s m and Spi ri tual i s m the more i l l ogi cal ,

i t makes i ts own conclu s i on a s agai n s t the the ory Of

D u a l i s m On the othe r hand the m ore i t empha s i ze s the
.
,

all e g e d paral lel ism and proporti onal ity Of th e t w o s et s of

phe n omena the more i t prepare s the way for e ithe r mat e ri a l
,

i s m o r S pi ri tu al i s m as agai n s t b oth i t s e lf and dual i s m ,

whi l e w i th dual ism i t i s , o f cours e i n mo s t d i rect an d i rre

,

c on c i l a b l e coni ct In general then m o n i s m h a s al l the

.
, ,

d if culti e s and objecti on s of a l l the othe r theori es agai n s t

i t ; and the re i s not on e Of the argu m e nt s i n favor of each of
the othe r the ori e s that strongly i n cl i ne s to i ts s i de .

Fi al ly i ts decl arati on of the i d e nti ty Of matte r and
n ,

m i nd i n a be i ng that i s ne ither matt e r nor m i nd l ands the

m oni s ti c the ory , not S i mply i n the u nknown a s i t woul d ,

have us b e l i e v e but i n th e ab s urd It i s agreed by al l

, .

analy s ts of the fundamenta l form s Of mental l i fe that the S O

348 M ONIS M AND DUAL IS M

cal led pri n ci pl e of i d e nti ty 1 m ark s the extreme l i mi t beyond

w h i ch our compreh e n s i on ca n n ot pa ss Thi s pri n ci ple can .

n o t i t s e lf be pro ved ; for all proof begi n s a n d e nd s and

be come s val i d only as the a ss umpti on of thi s pri n ci pl e i s

made Indeed the ve ry attempt to questi on t hi s pri nci pl e
.
, ,

to pa s s i t unde r cri ti cal re vi e w o r to e xpl ai n what i t mean s ,

by re s olving i t i n to s omethi n g more S i mpl e a n d fundame n tal ,

i s ab s urd and s e lf contrad i ctory I n al l the s e re s pe ct s the

-
.

pri nc i ple of i denti ty d i ffe r s totally from the s o c a l le d -

pr in ci ple of s uf ci ent re a s o n ( of the nature of whi ch

enough for o u r pre s ent pu rpo s e h a s al ready been s ai d ,

a n d w ith wh i ch the pri ncipl e of i dentity i s s ometi mes

compare d) .

W i thout further de s cri pti on and l i m itati on h oweve r the , ,

pri nci pl e Of i dentity i s a pure ly ab s tract pri n ciple Even .

wh e n annou n ced wi th the barest po s s i ble a mount of l i mi ta

ti on a s i n the formula s of formal l ogi c A
, A ; and A ,

n ot n on A
: i t i s a s s umed that e xperi ence de ne s the
-

term s to whi ch the pri nci pl e i s co ncretely appl i ed Even .

i n af rm i n g th at A i s A s ometh i ng mu s t b e known about ,

w h a t parti cular A sta n ds a s s ubje ct of the af rmati on ; an d

al s o w ha t th e A empl oyed a s predi cate i s Otherwi s e i t ,
-

cannot be s a i d whethe r thi s A real ly i s o r i s n ot the s a m e a s , ,

t ha t A ; o r i n other word s whethe r the bei ng de s i gnat e d by

, ,

the l ett e r A real ly i s the s e l f s ame be ing a s known i n two -

succ e s s i ve e xp e ri e nce s w ithi n the con s tant ow of the s tream

Of con s ci ou s n e s s or wh e th e r there real ly are t w o very S i m
,

i l a r b e i n g s rel a ted unde r th e form of jud gme nt .

N ow i t woul d be a mo s t i n te re s ti n g a n d we venture to
,
.

i ma gi ne a m o s t puzzl i n g i nqu i ry to addre s s to P rofe s sor

H Off d i n g and to al l advocate s o f a s i mi lar form Of M o n i s m
,

Wh at d o you r e al ly mean by af rmi n g i d e nti ty of a b e i ng
wh ich i s n ot body nor mi n d but i s the c ommon groun d Of ,

1 Com p r wh
a e at is sa id in th e a uth r o

s

I t r d u ti
n o c on to P hil os oph y ,

pp . 205 f .
 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 349

both and yet i s of a natu re u nknown and unkn owabl e S urely

,

noth i ng le ss than thi s c an be meant : The be i ng i n w h i ch

the grou n d o r re al s ource Of the two sets of phe n ome na i s
found r e mai n s e ve r on e and the s el f s ame wi th itself ami d -
,

al l cha n ge s i n the form s Of i ts two fol d mani festati on -

But .

the reply i s r e ady at once : Such a decl arati on i s meani ng

le s s w ith r e gard to any real i ty u nl e s s i t s omeho w be k now n ,

o r at lea s t a s s umed wha t ki n d of a r e al i ty i t i s about wh i ch

,

o n e i s talk i n g A s to the meani n g Of the s elf s amene s s -

.

and t h e u n i ty whi ch may be attribute d t o m i nd we have ,

already expl ai n ed ou r s el ves at l ength ( chapte r s V and .

a n d by w a y Of compari s on and contra s t the meani ng whi ch

the s e word s mu s t be a r when appl i e d to phys ical real iti e s

, ,

h a s al s o bee n i nd i cate d What i t i s to be i denti cal as

.
,

every s e l f co n s ci ou s rememberi ng an d s el f r e e ct i v e m i nd
-
, ,
-

k now s i t s el f to be , i s then perfectly cle ar Wh a t i t i s for .

a phy s i cal real ity as for exampl e an atom or a ma s s o f

, ,

matter to be i denti cal i s r e lati vely cl e ar ; but only i f on e

may be al l owed to i nterpret back i n to term s of s el f con s ci ous -

expe ri ence word s wh i ch are al way s empl oye d i n a gu rati ve

way when appl i e d t o materi al th i n g s But w h at i t i s f or
.

a be i ng that i s ne ithe r m i nd nor matte r a n d about wh i ch ,

we d o n ot know and cannot k now a s t o what i t i s to be ,

i denti cal ,
to remai n on e and th e s el f s ame n o c on
- -
,

c e pt i on wh atever can be formed Indeed about s uch a b e i n g

.
,

the moni s ti c theory h a s absolutely n o ri ght t o u se word s l ik e

i denti ty
,

onene ss and s e lf s a m e n e s s
,
-

Id e n ti cal "

.

W i th what i ndeed i s th i s X thi s total ly U nkn own th i s

, , , ,

u ni tary b e i ng Of the p sychol ogi cal moni s t i d e nti cal ? W ith ,

it s el f ? Thi s mu s t be s o S i nce i t i s n ot i denti cal wi th e ither

,

matte r or m i nd B ut h ow c a n a be i ng remai n the s ame wi th

.

its Self i f s uch be ing have no k i nd of a Sel f w ith whi ch to

, ,

remai n the s ame ? Th i s i nqui ry forces moni s m Of the type

we are cri ti ci s i ng to th e a dm i ss i p n that i ts X s ta n ds for n o
real ity whi ch can be anythi ng or d o anyth ing, n ot to s a y,
350 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M

perform all the wonderfu l and compl i cate d functi o n s of man i

fe s ti ng i tself appropri ate ly i n two paral lel but i ncomparabl e
seri es Of phenomena I ts i denti ty be i ng i s a barren ae s th e t
.
-
,

i ca l ly and ethi cal ly worthle s s i ne f ci ent a n d n on ex i s tent

,
-

abstracti on ; l et i t be at once to s sed over i nto the death

k i ngdom of ab s tract thought .

The moment however the con s i derati on of k

, , i n d s Of be i ng
i s i ntroduced as i t mu s t be i n the i ntere s ts o f the real i ty
,

an d appl i cab i l i ty of the very word i dentity it s e lf the Ol d ,

puzzl e over the i ncomparabi l i ty Of the phenomena recurs ;

a n d al l the debate as to the true metaphy s i cs of the rel ati ons

o f body and mi nd must be gone ove r wi th agai n For hu man .

k nowledge comprehe nd s on l y two k i nd s of be i n g s mind , ,

and thi ngs ; and the metaphys i c s of p sycho phy s i c s mu s t -

take i ts choi ce between the two That i s to s a y If thi s X i s

.
,

to be anyth i ng more th an me rely an X ( a l etter that s tan ds

f or no re a l i ty
,
and s ome k i nd of a real being i t mu s t be i n ,

orde r to be decl are d o n e and the s ame wi th i t s Self ) the n X ,

mu s t s tand for e i t her mi n d be in g or m ateri al be ing You

-
.

c annot i denti fy the two The formul a whi ch e xperi ence

.

assert s w ith the m o s t i rre si sti bl e convi cti o n and w hi ch i s ,

a s sumed and demanded i n al l empi ri cal i nve s ti gati on an d i n ,

al l s tatement of e mpi ri cal re s ult s i s thi s : M i nd i s n ot matte r ;

,

m i nd i s n ot i d e nti cal with body o r brai n , for b ody and brai n

bel ong to an other spe ci e s Of bei n g t o S O cal led matte r
,
-

( A i s A ; a n d B i s B ; but A i s n ot B) The i n com pa r a

.

b i l i ty Of the phenomena forbi d s i denti cati on of the bei ngs

wh ose the ph enomen a are A n d i n dee d the ve ry meani ngs
.
, ,

Of the words uni ty and self s amene ss are speci cal ly
-

d iff erent when appl i ed to mi nd an d to body or brai n

, .

Th e m on i s ti c theory Of the rel ati on s i n real i ty of mi n d and

body begi ns by found ing i t s el f upon a n i n adequ ate and m i s
taken empi ri cal gene ral i zati on the S O cal led pri nci pl e of
,
-

psych o phy s i cal p a ral l el i s m U pon thi s i nsecure foundati on

-
.

i t bu i lds up a metaphys i cs whi ch i s a s un i ntell igi ble a nd

 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M

e ven absurd as i t i s unwarranted by i ts al leged foundati on

i n fact.

W e return then to the s pecul ati ve v i ew of D ual i s m a s th i s

, , ,

v i ew h a s al ready been explai ned and d e fended . To summa

ri ze the argume n t s i n i t s behalf, the dual i s ti c theory i s the
popu l ar and o n ly ju s ti abl e metaph y s i c s for the i nve sti gator
wh o wi sh e s to conne hi mself as clo s ely a s po s s i ble t o the
s ci enti c study of e ither mental phenomena o r the phenom

e n a Of the phy s i cal S c i ence s. It i s al s o the o n ly i ntell igibl e

and defen s ibl e conclu s i on of a criti cal metaphy s i c s a s appl i ed
to the study of the real rel ati ons of body and mi nd Before .
,

howeve r we i nd i cate agai n how ou r i nve s ti gati on s i nto the

,

metaphy s ic s Of mi nd lead ou t i nto the general el d of phi

l OS Oph y from whi ch th ey have themsel ve s borrowed s o much ,

and al s o how they prove the absolute truthful ne s s of a more

i ntel l igibl e and defe n s i bl e form Of mon i s ti c d octri ne we shal l
,

bri e y ex ami ne certai n obj ecti on s whi ch may not seem already
to h ave bee n s u f ci ently remove d .

The ordi nary objecti on s to the dual i s ti c v i e w Of th e real

rel ati on s betwee n the bo dy and the mi nd have reference t o
certai n c oncepti ons Of the natu re and appl icati on of th e pri n
c i pl e of cau s ati on. On thi s poi nt the Opponents Of D ual ism
are wont to cri ti ci s e i ts adherent s f or thei r vi e w re s pecti ng

the i nteracti on of these two al lege d s ub stances ; and to thi s
cri ti ci s m i s general ly added the i mpo ss i bi l i ty of r e conc i l ing
the dual i s ti c v i e w with the phys i cal pri nci pl e of the per
si ste n ce of energy TO cl ear u p compl etely th i s ob s curi ty
.

woul d requ i re a th oro u gh and comprehens i ve criti c ism of the

e nti re pri nci pl e of causati on an d such cri ti cism bel ong s t o
,

another branch of ph i l osophy than that wh i ch i s n ow e n g a g

i ng ou r atte nti on A few words on thi s poi nt i n add i ti on
.
,

to the di scus s i on al ready gi ve n i n e arl i e r chapters ( s ee

pp 21 0f must su f ce
. .

The word i nteracti on may be used appropri ately e nough
to describe , un der on e term , al l rel ati ons i n real ity between
35 2 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M
the body and the mi nd i f only cl ear and con s i s tent c on cep
,

ti on s a s to the mea n i ng of the word b e formed an d m ai ntai ned .

Indeed thi s i s the only s i n gl e word that appropri ately covers

,

i n a general way the s e relati on s

, What p sychol ogi cal
.

s ci ence wi s he s to k n ow i s of cour s e the preci s e ch aracter

, ,

o f the i nde nitely great number Of relati on s and the form a,

l a s that comprehe n d an d e xpre s s the i r di f ferent m ai n cla s se s .

A n i ntell i g e nt i n ve s ti gator by n o mean s u nderstand s by

the word i nteracti on s ome actual i nu x Of phy s i cal e nergy
from the brai n i nto the mi nd ; o r conversel y a return of
, ,

p sych i cal energy from th e mi nd upon th e b rai n But then .

, ,

i t i s nothi ng of th i s s ort wh i ch i ntel l i gent an d cri ti cal meta

phy s i c s i ntends by ad mi tti n g any form of i nteracti on ,

whethe r such i nteracti on be c once i ve d of a s taki n g pl ace

betwe en di ff erent ma ss e s or mol ecul e s Of matter or between ,

d i fferent p s ycho s e s i n the str e a m of con s ci ou s ne s s ; or agai n , ,

between p sych o s e s a s acti vi ti es Of mi n d on the on e s i de and

, ,

brai n s tates upon the other s i de C rude noti o n s of i nte r

-
.

acti on l ike th i s may wel l be l eft to th ose phy s i ci st s who

de s pi s e m e taphy s i c s for e x clu s i ve u s e i n the i r own real m
, .

For tho s e wh o have the s l i ghtest acquai ntance wi th cri ti cal

metaphy s i c s i t s carce ly need be s ai d th at th e whol e l i s t Of

con cepti on s whi ch under s tand terms l ik e tra n s iti on of

energy and con s ervati on and corre lati on Of e n e r gy as
, ,

though energy were an enti ty separabl e from concrete acti ve

thi ng s or acti ve m i nd s i s qu i te absurd
,
What i s mea n t by
.

the i nter a cti on Of any two bei ngs ( for e x ampl e x a n d y ) i s ,

S i mply thi s , the acti on of x and the acti on of y are depe n d

ently re lat e d i n su ch manner that the r e l ati on may c on ,

c e i v a b l y at l ea s t be s tated i n terms Of s om e l aw or formu l a

, .

M ore concretely , whe n x b e have s i n a certai n way then as ,

a matte r of fact y behaves or has ju s t behaved i n a certai n

, ,

way ; and conversely The refore we say th e reason or

.
,

ex pl anati on of the behav i or of b oth x and y i s parti a l ly to b e

found, each on e, i n the behavi or of the other But such a .
 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 353

r ea s on or e xpl anati on i s never more than par t i al . F or

p a r ti a l l
y a ls o, a nd o f t en y
c hi e or e ve n a lm os t ex cl u si v e l
y,
the ex
p l a n a ti on f
o th e i n ter a cti on f
o eve r
y t wo be i ng s i s t o

be f ou n d i n t he s o ca ll e d
-
n a tu r e of the be i ng s w h i ch i n ter
a ct ; tha t i s, the i n ter a c ti on i tse lf i s r e cog n i z e d as a m od e f
o

be ha vi or w hi ch h a s no f u r t h e r ex l a n a ti on tha n th e se lf a cti v i ty
p
-

f
o t he bei ng s whi ch i n ter a ct .

The my s t e ry Of that re al relati on between d i ff erent bei ng s

wh i ch i s de s i g n ated by al l term s of i nteracti on i s equally
fundamental a n d gre at whatever h e the k i n d s of be i ngs b e
,

twe e n or amo n g whi ch the i nteracti on i s co n cei ved a s tak i n g

place Only experi e nce can tel l u s between what k i nd s Of
.

b e i ng s i nteracti on at al l i s po ss ible ; only s ci enti c i nqu i ry

can se t the formula s for s t a ti ng the term s of s uch i nteracti on ,

i f i t e xi s t at al l Shall on e af rm i n l ofty a p r i or i fa s hi o n
.
, ,

that u n l ike bei ng s cannot i nteract ? But the enti re modern

c h e m i co physi c a l theory of the worl d i s bu i lt upon th e fact
-

that s ome s ev e nty fundamental ly d i ffe rent k i n d s of bei ngs ,

by th e i r co n s tant i n teracti on under an i n n i te vari ety of c i r
c u m s t a n ce s and accordi ng to i nnumerabl e formul a s d o actu ,

al ly con sti tute the re al ity Of thi n g s Shal l thi s i nteracti on .

betwee n atoms be c once i ved of a s a k i nd of phy s i cal tran

s iti ou requ i ri ng c ontact of atom wi th atom o r a s i nvol vi ng ,

a conti nui ty i n the phy s i cal sub s tratum w i th i n wh i ch i t

takes place Then the e ver present and utterly my steri o u s
fact of gravitati on contrad i ct s the a s sumpti on A nd by .

wh at ri ght doe s a n y advocate of the mo n i s ti c th e ory of the

rel ati o n s b e twee n body a n d mi nd dogmati ze a s to th e i m pos
s i b i l i ty of two s uch unl ik e bei n g s actuall y ex i s ti n g toge the r

under term s of u ni qu e i n teract i on ? That ca n be wh i ch i s .

That the s u n a n d t h e earth and e ven the rem ote s t xed s tar s
, ,

wi thout a n y known medi um betw e en them pay attenti on t o ,

each other i n a n i n de n it e ly compl i cate d way ; th at the

vari ous atoms wh i ch e nter i nto the co n s ti tuti on of the pr o
tagon of the human b rai n c o n s pi re together to produce th i s
23
354 M ON IS M AN D DUAL IS M

pri mary sub s tance whi ch ( eve n accordi n g t o the mo n i s ti c

hypothesi s ) s erve s a s the mani f e s tati on of real ity correl ate d
with th e phenomena Of con s ci ou s nes s al l thi s i s every
,

whi t a s my s teri ou s a s the fact that b ody and m i nd con s tantly

i nte ract i n a great vari ety of way s .

On the other hand the a l leged i ncompatib i l i ty of D ual i s m

,

w ith the phy s i cal pri n ci ple of the per s i s t e nce of e nergy
grow s ou t of the s ame crude metaphysi c s w ith i ts mi s lead ,

i ng gu res of S peech a n d i t s u n warra n tabl e d ogmati s m .

N e ed th i s ground be gone over yet agai n ? L et phy s i cal

s ci ence ,
as i t advance s conti nu e to r e d uce to manageabl e
, ,

approx i mate math emati cal formulas the i nteracti on s Of

m a ss e s i n a qua n ti ta ti v e w ay when the s e ma s s e s mai ntai n
,

only very S i mpl e rel ati ons w i th each other L et i t gene r .

al i ze i t s tri umph s w ithi n the S phere of s u ch re lati on s and ,

m ake on e s upre me attempt at a formul a common to them

all ; an d then l et i t cal l th i s formul a by the title the

conservati on and correl ati on of ene rgy W i th re s pect eve n
.

to th o s e qu a li ti es an d qu a li ta ti ve cha ng es i n materi al thi ng s

whi ch the d i ff erent s ense s tak e account of thi s pri n ci pl e of ,

the con s ervati on a n d correl ati on of energy h a s nothi ng to

say ; upon ou r ex peri en ce wi th the phy s i cal worl d qu a li ta ,

ti v e ly co n s i dered i t h a s n o l i ght whatever to throw

,
An d .

even w i thi n th e s phe re of rel ati on s of quanti ty th e phenom ,

e na of mol e cul ar phy s i c s of chemi stry a n d of l i vi n g organ

, ,

i sm s a t pre s ent far overtax i ts powe r s A s h a s al ready been

.

s ai d,
i t can a s yet gi ve n o ad e quate expl anati on Of the
beh avi or o f the S i mpl e s t mu s cl e nerve preparati o n un der the
-

acti on of the el ectri c a l cu rrent H ow i n d e ni tely far Off i t

.

i s from expl ai n i ng the qu a n ti t a ti ve rel ati on s Of the d i ff er

ent el e ment s of the brai n ma s s i t i s s carcely po ss ibl e to
-
,

conce i ve W oul d i t n ot be wel l then to wai t unti l i t s tri

. , ,

u mph s are m ore nearly compl e te i n th e gro ss er porti ons of

the phy s i cal s phere before we al l ow i t to pul l the pal l over

the p s ychi c half ,
-
before we ve nture i n i t s name to con
 M ON IS M AND DUAL IS M 355

tr a d i c t the pl aine s t fact s of dai ly me n tal ex peri en ce and ,

the mo s t obvi ou s and d i rect i nference s from tho s e fact s ?

S t i l l furthe r s uppo s e that the pri n ci ple of the per s i s tence
,

o f phy s i cal energy had bee n emp i ri cal ly de mo n s trate d a s

appl i cabl e to al l quantitati ve rel ati on s among the ele me n ts of

the brai n ma s s On e woul d then n o more be warranted than
-
.

n ow i n concei vi ng o f the relati on s betwe e n th is mas s and

t h e acti vi ti e s o f co n sci ou s ne ss i n term s Of mere quantity ;

and of course even the acknowledged quantitati ve rel ati on s

, ,

c ould not prope rly be co n ce i ved of a s i n s tance s of the tran

s i t i on of s omethi ng calle d e n e rgy b e twee n th e two The .

rel ati on s between brai n a n d mi n d are wh at they are ; i t

remai n s for s ci ence to nd out pr e ci s e ly what they are an d ,

th e n t o frame i ts formula s a s be s t i t may u pon the ba s i s of

al l the fact s I t w i ll cer t ai nly be a l ong t i me before the
.

co n crete fulne s s of actual l i fe ju s t at the pl ace where i t

,

culmi n ate s i n its hi ghe s t expre s s i on s on both S i des on

,

the s ide of phy s i cal l ife i n the human b rai n on the S i de of ,

p sych i cal l i fe i n h u man con s c i ou sn e s s i s brou ght under

,

term s of mathemati cal formula s Thi s part o f the world

.
,

l ike al l the re s t of the world i s s omethi ng f a r more an d

,

othe r than a s yste m of re lati on s expre ss ibl e i n t e rm s o f

mea s urem e nt A nd the n there wi l l alway s remai n the
.

que s ti on a s to the ori gi n mea n ing and appl i cati on of the

, ,

very word energy But th e me re m e n ti on of thi s que s ti o n

.

bri n g s u s around agai n to the s ame Old poi nt Of s tarting ,

n amely to the very ex peri ence wh i ch th i s form o f moni s ti c

,

theory i n the i nte re s t s of the pri nc i ple of the persi s tence

,

of energy unde rtakes t o i nval i date or deny

, .
 C H APTE R XI

O RI G I N A ND P E RM A N E N CE OF M I ND

T has bee n ou r i ntenti on thus far to keep metaphys i cal

di s cus s i on cl ose to i ts ba s i s i n that empi ri cal sci ence
whi ch de s cribes and e xplai n s the phenomena of mental l i fe .

I f at a n y ti m e the d e parture from th i s ba s i s h a s s eeme d

s ome what too w i de for a le ap commen s urate wi th the s trength

Of the human m i n d o r even to amou nt to a ight in regi on s
,

w i de of thi n ai r i t h a s s ti l l been ou r w i s h frequently
,

to d e s cend agai n i n obedi e nce to the cal l Of s c ience and to ,

s urvey ane w the fact s i n whi ch the s pecul ati ve p oi nt s of

s tarti ng s houl d al way s l i e I n othe r word s the con s tant

.
,

ai m h a s bee n to ground a metaphy s i c s of mi n d i n the s c i ence

of p s ychol ogy ,
borrowi ng from gene ral metaphys i c s and
from phy s i cal and phy s i ologi cal s ci ence o n ly s uch conclu s i on s
a s m i ght seem nece s sary to gi ve compl etene ss and consi s t

en cy to our c oncl us i o n s It S hould be remembered h oweve r

.
, ,

that the na i ve and i n sti n cti ve faith s o f all human nature are
al s o fact s ; and the s e facts cannot s afely be d i s regarded It .

i s rather the bu s i ne ss Of cri ti cal metaphy s i cs to con s i de r a n

a l yt i ca l l y s uch faiths and s o far as po s s i ble to harmon i ze
,

them wi th on e a n other an d wi t h the othe r fact s an d l aw s of

p s ychol ogi cal s ci ence It i s by pu r s ui ng th i s cou rse that
.
,

a s w e tru s t, a val i d c lai m has been e s tabl i she d for ou r

metaphy s i cal vi ew s .

C ertai n problems remai n h oweve r whi ch cannot be d i s

, ,

cussed or eve n approached for pre s entati on , i n qu ite the

,
 OR I GI N A ND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND 85 7

same way They are now to b e con s i dered ch i e y becau s e

.
,

Of thei r cl o s e conn e cti on w ith the probl ems whi ch have

al ready b e en exami ned Fo r th e i r sol uti o n s o f a r a s
.

s ol uti on can be S poke n Of i n s uch a ca s e they r e qui r e

large account to be taken of c o n s i d e rati on s that bel o n g to
the ph i l o s ophy of N ature to th e metaphy s i c s o f eth i c s a n d
,

o f art a n d t o the phi lo s ophy of r e l i gi on

,
A fte r b e i n g rai s e d .

and touched upon i n th i s tr e ati s e they may b e ha n ded ov e r ,

to the s e othe r d omai n s of phi lo s ophy perhap s to b e met ,

and grappl ed w i t h there at some future ti me , .

Whence came th i s bei ng whi ch i s c al led the H um a n

M i nd Where doe s i t go o r where and how e xi s t ( i f at

,

al l ) whe n i t s pre s ent rel ati on s to the body are t e rmi nated
,

by d eath ? Where and what i s i t eve n b e fore th e s e rel a ,

ti ons are te rmi nated , when al l c on s ci ou s acti v iti e s o r forms ,

o f i t s mani fe s tati on have temporari ly cea s e d

,
What i s the
pl ace wh i ch i t hol d s the parti cular s e t o f functi o n s wh i ch i t
,

e xerci s e s i n that vast Sy s te m of Thi ng s of whi ch men

,

vaguely form an ab s tract conception and to wh i ch th ey gi ve ,

a name pl ea s i ng the i r fancy and pe rhap s ex citi ng awe i n

, ,

them s elves and i n al l beh ol der s by begi nni ng i t w ith a ,

capi tal lette r ? What i s the place of man s m i n d i n N ature

The s e are que s ti on s S O va s t i n the i r i mport and many S ided -

wi th re s pect to th e con s i derati on s to wh i ch they d i r e ctly or

i ndi rectly le a d that n o appeal to p s ychol ogi cal s ci e nce
,

S i mply wi ll at al l s ati s fy them Y et they are i nqu i ri e s as.

to the ori gi n natu re , d e s ti ny a n d s i g n i cance o f the m in d

, ,
.

They al l there fore have the i r root s a s que s ti on s m e rely i n

, , , ,

the phenomena of mental l i fe We re the s e ph e nomena not .

what they u n doubtedly a r e s uch qu e s ti on s would ne ve r ,

ari s e . C row s d o not s i t s ol i tary o r meet i n compa n i es upon

the wi the red branche s of fore s t trees to meditate ove r S i mi lar -

probl e m s rai s ed by the phe nomen a of an i mal con s ci ou s ne s s .

No r d o o u r mo s t i n tell i gent and bel oved comrades th e d ogs ,

that wal k and hunt w i th u s when l i vi ng and someti mes ,

 OR I G I N AND PE RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

gri eve ove r ou r grave s whe n d e ad d i s turb thei r occupati ons ,

o r i nterpre t the i r own dreams i n a way to s i gni fy an i nte rest

i n problem s l i ke the s e .

To be more preci s e que sti on s as to the ori gi n conti nuance

, , ,

a n d de s ti ny o f the human mi nd and a s to i ts pl ace and ,

valu e i n a w orl d s y s tem h ave a ps ychol ogi cal ori gin Th ey

-
, .

them s el ve s ori gi nate i n th e nature of the mi nd wh i ch rai s e s

s uch i nqui ri es about i t s elf The s ol uti on whi ch they .

rece i ve u n l e ss they i s sue i n total ly vai n s pecul ati on mu s t

, ,

be i f not gi ve n or s ugge s ted by p s ychol ogy at l ea s t S haped i n

, ,

accorda n ce w i th th e fact s l aws and l egiti mate metaphy s i cal

, ,

co n cl u s i on s Of th i s s ci enc e .

Th e i nqui ry afte r the Ori gi n of M i nd i s l ik e al l s im i l ar ,

i nqu i ri e s l i abl e to be qu i te m i s unde r s tood ; i t may therefore

,

be an s were d i n an u n s ati s factory o r even un i nte l l i gibl e and ,

ab s u rd way through the use of i nappl i cabl e anal ogi e s or

,

gure s of s p e ech When ce d i d I com e

. The re ecti ve Ego
may cert a i n ly attai n the deve l opment nece ss ary to rai s e thi s
i n qui ry i n tel l i gently Wh e n ce come s the m i nd of every
.

m a n ? Thi s i s a que s ti on w i th whi ch metaphy s i c s espe

c i a l ly i n the crude form i n wh i ch i t i s found i n the ol ogi cal

ci rcle s n atural ly bu s i es i t s el f Th e term s Of thi s que s ti on .

are of c our s e der i ve d from human ex peri ence w i th the

, ,

pa ss a ge of th i ng s i n s pace Every th i ng x wh i ch appe ars .

, ,

at any parti cul ar pl ace a b or c not hav i ng previ ou sl y

, , , ,

bee n n oted there mu s t of cour s e have c ome from s ome other

,

pl ace be i t an m o r an n or a p
,
N o th i n g can be newly .

found at a b o r c that h a s n ot arri ved there from s om e

, ,

wh e nce s uch as m o r n or p
,
In the popul ar condence .

thi s i s a s tru e of the mete orol i te who s e fa ll n o eye h a s

'

wi t n e s s ed a s i t i s of the fam i l i ar stone wh i ch has m ark ed

,

the bou ndari e s of a eld and has rece ntly bee n m oved s ome
,

whi th er because the owner s terr itory has been enl arged .

The pl ai n man wh o i s unacquai nte d wi th the metaphys i cs

,

of modern phy s i c s doe s n ot feel i n the same way , howeve r

, ,
 OR IGIN A ND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND 59

abo ut the new tree wh i ch h e d i s cover s i n th e S pot th at he

remembers as vacant i n h i s boyhood day s I ts appe arance .

i n thi s pl ace i s accounted for by h i s be i ng tol d that a S eed

w a s pla n te d there year s ago by the wi nd o r by s ome human
ha n d I n S pi te Of the atte mpt i n c e rtai n quarter s to make an
.

r i or i pri nci pl e ou t o f the per s i s tence o f matter and i n

a
p ,

S pi te of the al leged i mpo ss i b i l ity Of c o n cei vi ng of an a b s o

lute begi nni ng Of th i ng s the average mi nd d o e s n ot recog
,

ni ze such a pri nci pl e or feel s uch an i m po ss ib i l i ty The

,
.

truth i s th at thi s prin ci pl e i s not a p r i or i at all ; n or i s the

impo ss ibi l ity ab s ol ute If then any x may b e co n ce i ve d
.
, ,

of as a growth ,
albe i t a physi cal growth i t may al s o be ,

conce i ve d of a s bei n g new at a b or 0 without havi ng c ome

, ,

th ithe r from s ome m or n or p .

Stra n ge to te l l howeve r the popul ar i magi nati on although

, , ,

i t re cogni ze s the m i n d a s i n s ome s ort a deve l opment ( and

s o more nearly ,i n re s pect of i t s pre s e n ce an al ogou s to ,

the growth Of a tree than to the pa s s age i n s pace of a s tone ) ,

prefe r s to con ce i ve of i t a s tran s ported from s ome other place

and made to e n ter the body e ith er at bi rth o r at concepti on ,
,

o r at some ti me betwee n th e two The rea s ons f or th i s

.

preference l i e i n the very n ature of s el f con s ci ou s ne s s and -

,

of the Ob s erved relati on s of co n s ci o u s acti vi ti e s to the m ove

me n t s of the body as nece s s i tati n g for the i r ge n e s i s a n d
,

expr e s s i on certai n gu rati ve way s o f thi nk i ng and cer t ai n

c orrespond i ng gure s o f s peech That cri ti cal metaphy s i c s
.
,

however wh i ch l ay s bare the re al ity Of mi n d and the nature

,

o f i t s real r e lati o n s to th e body S h ow s the true m eani ng o f

the s e concepti on s a s wel l a s the ab s u rd i ty of tak i ng the m i n

a l i t e ral way In te rms Of S pac e the o n ly an s we r to th e
.
,

qu e s ti on Whence come s the mi n d ? mu s t be The m i n d

, ,

com e s from nowhere ; f o r i t n eve r w a s a s mi nd i n s pace i s , , ,

n ot n ow i n s pace and i t ca n not be co n c e i ved o f a s comi n g

,

and goi ng i n s pace .

The an s wer ju s t gi ven must n ot i n i t s elf be understood to

3 60 OR I G I N AND PE RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

the prejudi ce of the doctri ne Of tran s mi grati on of s oul s or ,

o f the i mmortali ty of t h e s oul s n o w e x i s ting It o n ly S how s

.

what mu s t be hel d to be the re al meani n g of the s e d octri n e s ,

i n ca s e the re i s e vi d e n ce for hol di n g them t o b e tru e at al l .

By the tran s m i grati on of s oul s ,
nothi n g i n t e l l i gibl e or
defen s ibl e can h e meant ex cept thi s : The same s oul x , ,

whi ch at pre s e nt su s tai n s pecul i ar rel ati on s of i nteracti on to

that body whi ch n ow h a s i ts place at a or b or c i n pa s t ,

ti me s u s tai ned S i mi l ar re l ati ons t o another b ody wh i ch had

i t s pl a ce i n some i magi nabl e o r wholly co n jectural m o r n

or .
p The doctri n e of the i mm ortal i ty Of m i nd t oo can , ,

an s wer the que s ti on Where d oe s the mi nd go at death only

,

by sayi ng : The s ame m i nd whi ch h a s h ad i t s conne cte d body

at the p l ace s a an d b and c w i l l have another body w ith
whi ch i t w i ll be s omehow connected ; and thi s body wi l l be
at the con j ectural pl ace s m an d n and p B ut wh at i s
.

properly meant by continu i ng to be the same s oul or m i n d ,

wi t h a ch anged b ody h a s alre a dy been made cl ear i n di s
,

cu ss i n g the id enti ty and unity of m i nd .

S i n ce the r e i s ab s ol utely n o proof or even i mpre ss i ve evi

,

dence a s i t s eem s to u S that the pre s ent m in d of a n y

i nd i vi dual man p revi ously e x i s ted a s th e sa m e mi nd i n
rel ati on s of i nteracti on wi th a n ot her body i t m u s t be sai d
,

that the qu e s ti on as to whence c ome s the mi nd i s me an
i n g l ess i f we atte mpt to state i t i n term s of S pace N O mi nd
.

come s from anywhere E ve ry m i nd on the contrary
.
, ,

begi n s to a s sume th e s e i nd i rect and gurati ve r e lati ons

wh i ch are the only ones i t can hol d t o s pace wheneve r i t ,

begi n s th o s e acti vi ti e s i n wh i ch i ts very ex i s tence a s m i nd ,

and a s known to i t s el f to ex i s t are found to consi s t E very

,
.

mi nd mu s t be conce i ved Of after the a nal ogy rather of a

g r ow th but al s o of su ch a growth a s the sc i e n ce of psychol
ogy S how s that i t actual ly i s .

If an i nqu i ry i nto the ori gi n Of the mi nd of the i nd i vi dual

ma n be pursued i n term s not of the ge ometri cal order but Of
 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND 361

bi ol ogi cal s ci e nce the an s wer i s s carcely less s ati s factory

,
.

Thu s the anci ent the ol ogi cal debate between the cr e ati on i s t
a n d the traduci an i s t the ori e s Of the ge ne s i s of m in d w a s

c arri e d on by both partie s w ith an al mo s t complete d i s r e gard

both Of p s yc h ol ogi cal s ci e n ce and of cri ti cal metaphy s i c s of
mi nd But the m odern s tudent of b i ol ogy who h ol d s to the
.

s o cal led e vol uti on of the mi n d of man from that of the l owe r
-

a n i mal s i s s carcely le ss g u rati ve a n d un i nte l l i gi ble than

,

w a s the o l d fa s h i one d advocate of traduci a n i s m

-
On e may .

k now at lea s t what i s meant by s peak i ng Of the deri vati on of

a parti cul ar bod i ly organi s m w hethe r that of a man o r of
, ,

the l ower ani mal s from othe r organi s m s For here the
,
.

word derivati on cover s certai n ob s ervable acti vi ti e s Of

generati o n of embryoni c growth Of bi rth and Of s ub s eque n t
, , ,

characteri s ti c phy s i cal devel opm e nt On e may al s o k n ow

.

what i s mea n t by the developme n t Of the i nd ivi dual m i nd ;

alth ough t e rm s deri ved from bi ol ogi ca l e voluti on are far t oo
often employed i n p sychol ogy i n a thou ghtl ess and real ly
i mperti nent way N 0 previ ou s me nt a l acti vi ty or con s ci ous
.
,

s tate can real ly be conne cted w ith the fol l owi n g acti vi ti e s
,

and s tate s a s the i r progen itor S O as to ex pl ai n the gene s i s

,

Of the l atte r i n the s ame way i n wh i ch the exi s t e nce and

acti on of the pare nt s ex plai n the ori gi n of the O ff s pri n g ; o r
even i n the s ame way as that i n whi ch the earl i e r form s of
bod i ly devel opm e nt expl ai n the ori gi n of the l ate r form s .

N oth i n g real ly rem ai n s of any of the previ ou s con s ci ous

s tates whi ch can ente r i nto the next fol lowi ng s tat e s as the ,

s pe r m a t o zoii n buri es i t s e lf i n the e o r a s the atom s Of the

gg ,

s i ngl e cell pers i s t and un i te i n the gene s i s Of two cell s from

one another by bi furcati on ; or agai n a s e ve ry ti s s ue of the

, ,

an i mal body bu i ld s it s elf up by tak i n g i nto i tse lf the pabu

l um brought t o i t i n the arte ri al bl ood .

To S pe ak Of parent s as tran s mi tting the i r mi n ds to the i r

o ffs pri n g i n part or i n wh ol e i s to use words that h a v e n o
, ,
.

a ss i gnabl e m eani ng That the characte r of th e i nd i vi dual

.
3 62 OR IGIN AN D P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

mi nd whi ch begi n s to be and wh i ch devel op s i n the pecul i ar

,

r el ati on s to the tra n s mi tte d b odily organ i s m whi ch h ave

al ready been e x ami ned i n detai l , i t s elf d i ffe r s s ig n i ca n tly

accord i ng to the d iff ere nt mental pecul i ariti e s of tho s e i n
who s e act o f phy s i cal generati on thi s o rga n i s m begi n s ,

s ci ence a s wel l a s ord i nary Ob s e rvati on abunda n tly S h ow s .

It i s thi s general fact of expe ri ence wh i ch gi ve s to the

mate ri al i s ti c hypothesi s on e o f i ts s trong e s t argume n t s .

The re a s ons f or thi s fact, s o far a s they can be traced back

i n the s e ri e s of k nown event s are undoubte dly to be fou n d
,

i n the phy s i cal charact e ri s ti cs i mparted by generati on to the

organi s m under the b i ol ogi cal pri nci pl e s of hered ity vari a ,

t i o n etc That i s to say the real gene s i s of the i nd i vi du al

,
.
,

man s o far a s i t connect s hi m w i th the race pertain s to the

, ,

bod i ly organi s m A n d S i nce the characteri s ti cs Of that

.

s tream of c on s ci ousnes s whi ch i s calle d the mi nd are a s a ,

rul e notably S i mi l ar i n the case Of o ff s pri ng and the i r

,

a n ce stry the materi al i s ti c h ypoth e s i s s eem s to a ff ord the

,

be s t s ol uti on Of al l the k n own fact s .

But d i f culti e s e me rge on furthe r reecti on whi ch are

si m i l ar to th o s e that accompan y al l attempt s to s tate cl early ,

and t o defend with due reference to al l the fact s the m ate ,

r i a l i s t i c metaphy s i c s of mi nd
. For the devel opment Of the
i nd i v i dual mi nd by n o m e an s appears to be wholly deter
m i n ed by s uch ance s tral cond iti on s a s can be carri ed ove r
i n th e tran s mi ss i on of phy s i cal l i fe The r a ther i s the l i fe
.

of e a ch m i nd a uni que p sych i cal hi story i n wh i ch repeate d

a n d self d i recte d acti viti e s Of the con s ci ou s Ego tak e an

-

i mportant part If sci enti c p s ych ol ogy req ui r e s us to

.

re cogni ze the i nuence of th ose occul t cau s es whi ch we i n

ou r al mo s t complete i gnor a n ce cover u p wi th term s l ike the

ori gi nal n a t u r e of the mi nd i t al s o equally re qu i re s u s to
,

recogn i ze the potent and more obvi ou s con d i ti o n s whi ch

attend the acqu i ri ng and i mprov i ng Of c ha r a c ter . The s e
l atte r condi ti ons emphasi ze rathe r the i ndependence of i ts
 OR IGIN A ND PE RMAN E N C E OF M I ND 3 63

s o- calle d ance stry whi ch characteri ze s e ach i ndi v i dual mi nd ,

and , a s w e l l the work i ng Of that s i de Of mental l ife whi ch
,

mater i ali s m nds i t mo s t d i f cult to take at al l i nto i t s

account .

It i s n ece ss ary the refore to account for the fact s to wh i ch

, ,

the traduc i a n theory of the s oul s ori gi n appe al s i n s ome

,

what l ik e the fol l owi ng way Tran s mi s s i on or gene s i s of

.

mi n d by the act of phy s i cal generati o n i s a n i mpo s s ib i l ity .

It i s i n co n ce i vable what that can be brought i n to accord with

tenabl e concepti ons of the m i n d s re al ity i d e nti ty and
, ,

uni ty and w ith the true v i ew of i t s rel at i o n s to the bod i ly

,

organi s m coul d po s s ibly be meant by th e traduci an th e ory

, .

On th e other hand the p e cul ia r r e l ati on s whi ch th e m ind

, ,

con s i d e red as a re al se lf s ame and uni tary b e i ng s u s tai n s t o

,
-
, ,

th e body are S ign i cant n ot s i mply of the fact that man i s

,

an ani mal bu t al s o o f the fact that h e i s a membe r of a

,

S pe ci e s a n i nd i vi du a l i ndeed but al s o on e Of a race

, , , .

The pecul i ar rel ati ons su s tai ned by every mi nd to that bodi ly
organi s m wi th wh i ch i t i s spec i ally connecte d have to d o ,

therefore n ot S i mpl y w ith s i ngl e m ental state s ; they h ave

,

al s o i n a h i ghly i mportant way, to d o w ith the whole cour s e

,

o f mental development Thi s ge neral fact we are obl i ge d to

.

expre ss by s peak i ng Of the mi nd as though i t had a nature
before i t began re ally t o b e ; an d a s th ough thi s n a tu r e or

rather the mi n d when i t had only thi s n a ture and had as ,

yet d one noth i n g by way o f begi nni n g i ts d e ve l opment

were tran s mitted from the parent s i n th e i r a c t of ge n e rati on .

But to i nt e rpret l i te ral ly the s e s e du cti ve gur e s of S p e ech ,

o r t o construct a sy s te m of m etaphy s i cs out o f them so as

thu s to account f or the ori gi n of the mi n d i t i s nece ss ary to ,

s e t as ide e ve ry truth whi ch the criti cal met a phy s i c s of mi nd

succeed s i n e s tab l i s h i ng on a ba s i s Of a s certainabl e facts .

N or i s the cre a ti oni st theory o f the o ri gi n of the h um a n

mi nd i n the form i n whi ch th i s the ory i s popul arly con
,

ce i ve d, any l e s s u nwarr a ntabl e or even uni ntel l i gi bl e Th i s .

3 64 OR I G IN AND PE RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

the ory s ome what coar s ely e xpre ss ed a s s u me s that the

, ,

pare n t s i nd e ed generat e the body but th a t G od produce s ,

from hi m el f
( s an enti ty cal led the s oul , and put s i t

re ady made , a s i t were , i nto thi s body

- But a s to h ow .

on e s hal l conce i ve of a so ul o r mind that h a s never pe r

, ,

formed any Of tho s e acti vi ti e s i n wh i ch the ve ry e x i s ten ce of

s oul ,
or mi nd , i s known to con s ist thi s problem sugge s t s ,

numerou s in qui ri e s to whi ch the remotest sugge s ti on of an

answe r can never be Obtai ne d A nd after havi ng somewhat .

s cornful ly rejected the u n itary but unk n owabl e e ntity wh i ch

h a s been su gge s ted by p sychol ogi cal moni sm a s the truly

re s po n s i bl e cau s e of both set s of phen omen a on e cannot be ,

c onsi s tent and yet accept an equal ly unk nowabl e e ntity i n

the form of a sou l that has re ally not yet be gun to be a s oul ,

as the ca u s e of n o phenomena N or i s i t ne cessary further

.

to poi nt ou t the ab s urd ity wh i ch attache s itsel f t o every

attempt at the concepti on of a re ady made s oul ; or Of the -

manner i n wh i ch afte r con stru cti on i t i s brought h i the r as

, , ,

i t were and po s i ted i n i ts tenement Of a body

,
.

I n bri ef, the ori gi n of every min d S O far a s s u ch origi n i s ,

knowable or conce i vable at al l must be put at the e x act ,

poi nt of ti me when that mi nd begi ns to act ; i t s ori gi n i s i n

and of the s e i ts rst consci ous acti vi ti e s B e fore thi s r s t .

acti vi ty the m i n d i s n ot But even thus i t cannot be.

adm itted that , properly S peak in g any m i nd s pri n gs i nto ful l ,

bei ng at a l eap as i t were For the ori gi n of e very mi nd i s

,
.

i n a proce s s of devel opment ; a s h as al ready been s een i t ,

real ly e x i st s more and more and i s more and m ore of a sel f

,

same a n d un i que S pi ri tu al uni ty as its cour s e o f devel opment

runs on The ex i ste n ce of m i n d wi th r esp ect to i ts or ig i n a s well
.
,

as wi t h r e sp ec t to the d eg r e e f
o i ts ex i s ten ce, i s n ot hi ng a
p a rt

f r om those a cti vi ti e s i n wh i ch the lif e

f a nd
g r owth o mi n d
con si s t These acti viti es a r e i ts exi stence It begi ns to be
. .

when they begi n I t spri ngs con stantly i nto a ful le r bei ng
.
,

ori gi nati ng i n a hi ghe r meani ng Of the word i n a per
 OR IGIN A ND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND 3 65

petu a l proce s s a s the devel opment of the s e activi ti e s goe s

,

on . Thi s ve ry d e vel opment i s on e i n whi ch the mi nd come s

to i t s elf more and more a s i ts hi ghe r faculti es emerge and
,

take co n trol of the s eri e s of consci ous s tate s .

In a mod i ed way, howeve r the theory of creati on a fford s,

the only i nt e l l i gibl e expl anati on of the r s t o ri gin , a n d of

the pe rpetual proce s s of ori gi nati ng ( or ri s ing i n to bei ng ),
whi ch bel o n gs to the i nd ivi dual huma n mi nd A t the poi nt .

at wh i ch the i n qu i ry havi ng been brought thu s far, mu s t

,

n ow be left a vague reference to the Order of N ature a s

,

cond iti on i n g the ri s e and deve lopment of every s tream o f

human con s c i ou s n e ss woul d s ee m to be the la s t word that can
be s ai d The mode of be i ng and devel opment whi ch bel o n gs
.

to the uni que nature of the mi nd can be only parti al ly a s ce r

ta i n ed . The con d iti ons u nde r whi ch the stream of con
s c i ou s n e s s begin s and ows alo n g i t s accu s tome d cour s e can

be only i n a mea s ure s tated The s e are i n deed s ubj ect s for
.

con t i nued s ci e nti c re s earch ; but th i s research reveal s cer

tai n cond i ti on s whi ch take hold o n the great and al l i nclu s i ve -

cour s e of the worl d s uni ver s al bei n g and of worl d wi de

-

eve n t s Ou t of th i s U ni ver s al Being wi thout see mi ng

.
,

wholly to be accou n t e d for by i t doe s every s tream o f con ,

s c i ou s n e s s ari s e In the mi d s t of thi s U n i ver s al Bei n g

.

without getti ng al l i ts l aw s of deve lopment from i t but on ,

the co n trary S h owing pl ai n s i gn s of a certai n uniqu e s e lf

, ,

determ i ned development do e s every s tream of co n s ci ou s

ne s s run i t s cour s e I n to It at th e end and S O far a s
.
,

hu man ob s ervati on can fol l ow every stream of con s ci ou s n e s s

,

merg e s i t s el f But even i n thi s nal rel ati on we cannot s a y

.

wh a t that i s real the s oul r e tur n s to N atu re hav i ng ori gi ,

nal ly r e ce i ved i t a s N atu re s gift The world of th i ng s

.

s eem s n o ri cher i n conte n t becau s e on e o f the worl d o f s ouls

h a s s eemi ngly cea s ed t o be .

Whe n h oweve r th i s probl e m of the s oul s ori gin i s carri ed

, ,

over i n to the l arger d omai n of general ph i lo s ophy an d a ,

3 66 OR I G I N AND PE RMAN E N C E OF MIND

cl e arer d e n iti on i s s ought for ou r conc e pti o n of the Ord e r

o f N ature o n e may wel l r e ach a s ub s tanti al agree ment w i th
,

the word s of L otze : A t the p lace where a n d at the mom e nt

,

wh e n the ge rm of an org a ni c be i n g i s forme d ami d the

,

coh e re n t sy s tem of the phy s i cal cour s e Of n ature thi s fact ,

fur n i s h e s the i nci tement o r the m ovi ng rea s on wh i ch i nduces

that all comprehe n din g On e Be i n g
-
pre s e n t n ot other
wher e s but eve n here to beget from h i m s e lf b e s i de s as a , ,

co n s i ste n t suppl e ment to such phy s i cal fact the s ou l belong ,

1
i ng to thi s organ i s m Only a s to the mome n t when
.

the be i n g of any s oul begi n s ne ither bi ol ogy n or p s ychol ogy ,

furni s h e s any sure s ci ent i c i nform ati o n S i n ce n e ither s c i ,

e nce can tel l when that r s t acti vity of c on s ci ou s n e ss take s

pl ace i n wh i ch , as h a s repeatedly been S hown , the real ity Of
soul s con s i s t s .

A s omewhat S i m i l ar l i ne of c on s i derati on s has a deci s i ve

i n fl ue n ce when the problem of the P ermane n ce of th e M i nd
I s rai s ed H ere t oo the term s whi ch are cu s tomarily
.
, ,

e m ploye d a n d wh i ch mu s t i n de ed be empl oye d by every , ,

th i nk er s i n ce n o othe r term s e x i s t
,
are al l s o full of fal s e
an a logi e s a n d m i s l ead i ng gur e s of S pe e ch a s to make a
criti cal i n t erpretati on qu ite i nd i s pen s abl e to the a s cert a i n
ment of truth Th e popul ar co n cepti on hol d s that the mi nd
.
,

after i t h a s once bee n ori gi n ated a n d put i n to the body ,

p e rmanently e x i s t s i n thi s s ame body wi th s ub s t anti a l ly the ,

s ame form an d d e gree of ex i st ence unti l i t d e part s f r om the ,

body at death That i s to s a y th e popular concepti on i nter

.
,

p r e t s the s pace r e l ati on s whi ch the term s i n curr e n t u se

-

i mply a s thou gh they were l it e ral ly tru e of th e bei n g and

r e l ati on s o f m i n d co n s i de red a s the real s ubject of co n s ci ou s
s tat e s A n d i f th i s popular co n cepti on be gi ven a rel i gi ou s
.

tur n wh e th er i n favor of or i n oppo s i ti on to the ord i n ary

,

ten e t of th e i mm ortal i ty of mi nd th e s ame e rroneou s and ,

i mpo s s ibl e a ss u m pti on s c o n ti n ue t o be made Thu s the .

1 O t u li nes o f P syc h ol ogy ( t hird 81 .

 OR I G I N AND PE RMANE N C E OF M I ND 36 7

e xti ncti on of any sou l may be conce i ved of as somethi ng

ove r and above the complete and nal ce ss ati on of con s ci ou s
ne s s A ft e r the actu al conti nui ty of the mi nd s l i fe h i s tory
.

-

i s forever broke n off , s ome ad diti onal exerci s e of force i s

thought nece s sary i n orde r to termi nate the mi nd s clai m
r e al ly to e x i s t Or on the contrary the fa ith and hope
.
, ,

that thi s l i fe hi s tory i s uni nterrupt e d or w i l l be re s ume d at

-
,

s ome ti me i n the future afte r the bod i ly organi s m h a s

s u ffere d d i s s oluti on , i s made t o repo s e upon an al leg e d
permane n cy of th e total ly uncon s ci ou s e xi s tence o f the m i n d .

It i s even thought nece s s ary by s ome to ma i n tai n i n the ,

i nter e s t s of thi s faith and h ope that the s oul mu s t alway s be

,

active at l ea s t a s a dre amer e ve n i n the profounde s t s l e e p

, ,
.

H ere i ndeed the thought that a to t ally uncon s ci ou s s oul

, ,

i s s carcely worth prese rv i ng forev e r g e t s the bette r of a nai ve

co n de n ce i n the permanence of s uch a s oul Thi s vi ew of .

cou r s e q u ite overl ook s th e fact that i f not i n S leep at a n y

, , ,

rate under ce rtai n other conditi on s a compl ete c e ss ati on of

al l con s ci ou s s tate s takes place w ith out the de ath of the
body ; a n d al s o that mo s t of ou r d ream s are s carc e ly of a
character t to make them s erve a s worthy pe rma n ent occupa

ti on for an i mm ortal m ind .

Ou r treatment onl y ai m s to le ave th is que s ti on of th e pe r

m a n en c e of mi n d i n sati s factory S h ape for del i very to eth i c s
and to th e phi losophy of rel i gi on ; and thi s ai m may be
accompl i shed by bri ey con s i deri ng certai n phen om e na wel l
k n own to p s ych ol ogi cal sci ence i n the l ight of val i d m e t a
,
o

phy s i c a l co n c e pti ons of the mi nd s real ity, identity uni ty

, ,

a n d re al rel ati on s to the bod i ly orga n i s m The phe nom e na .

a r e of the foll owi n g orde r : If the wh ol e roun d of con s ci ous

s tat e s i s s u bjected to al l the mean s of ob s ervati o n d i rect ,

a n d i n d i rect ,
whi ch are kn own to modern p sycho logical
s ci e nc e al l degree s of i nte n s ity compl ex i ty and vari ety i n
, , ,

mi xtur e s ( S o to S p e ak ) of h i ghe r and l owe r forms of m e ntal

activi ty a re brought to v i e w Thi s general fact may be
.
368 OR I G I N AND PE RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

i ll u s trated by compari ng certa i n cl a s ses of co n s ci ou s s tates

with others that clo s e ly succeed them ; or by contra s ti n g the
total c on s ci ous e xperience of on e i nd i vi dual wi th that of
an other i n di vi dual ; or by v i ewin g the earl i er stage s of
devel opme n t i n the l i ght of the l ater and more mature
stag e s i n the ca s e of any mi nd that come s at al l ful ly to the
,

real i zati on of it s elf a s mi nd .

If for exampl e we compare the phen omen a of con s ci ou s

, ,

ne ss with on e another , as they occur i n the di ur n al cha n ge s of

every adult s experi ence , we ob s erve great uctuati on s i n the
i nten s i ty compl ex i ty an d r e l ati ve predomi nance of the s o
, ,

cal le d hi ghe r ove r the l o wer form s of mental acti vi ty .

P eri od s characteri zed by great i nten s ity of s en s at i on w ith a

vi vi d col ori ng of pleasure or pai n or by s trong emoti on s of
,

anger fear etc or by s t renuous and n obl e s e n ti ment s of

, ,
.
,

art , d uty or rel i gi on are qui ck ly foll owed by oth e r peri o ds

, ,

where the s en s e con s ci ou s ne ss nearly or qu i te d i s appear s

-
,

qui e s cence of feel i ng take s the pl ace of posi ti ve pl ea s ures or

pai n s a n d the s tre am of emoti on s and s enti ment s run s
,

S hal low a n d thi n or s eems qu i te dri ed up Th e man who

,
.

h a s ju s t bee n mo s t profou n d i n thought and witty i n S peech ,

or who h a s a moment ago r e e c t i v e l y co n s i dered and re s olved

u pon the w i s e s t and m ost comprehen s i ve plan s fall s a s l eep , .

A S h e de s cend s al ong i ts steep curv e i nto the extreme fa s t

ne s s of S lumber what he cal l s h i s m i nd bri e y d i s port s i t s elf
,

wi th s i l ly a n d i ncoherent i mage s that are thrown up feebly

above the thre sh ol d of consci ou s n e s s by th e my s teri ous force s
work i n g u n s e e n bel ow ; or i t wi ll s a s a poor s l ave of nature
, ,

to perform th e m o s t i n s ane and i mmoral deed s Thus d o .

the great a n d wi s e one s of earth during ev e ry peri od of ,

twe n ty fou r h our s run through the whol e s cal e of me ntal

-
,

performa n ce s Thi s s cal e it s e l f exte n d s from tran s acti on s

.

that s eem half ani ma l and half vegetabl e ( i f we may for the
mome n t a ss ume th e myth of a s oul f or plant s to be tru e ) to
tho s e that h ave i n the m more than a trace of what i s mo s t
exalted an d d i vi ne .
 OR I G I N AND PE RMAN E N C E OF M I ND 3 69

What i s true a s to the al mo s t i ncomparabl e vari ety of con

sci ou s s tates i n the bri ef dai ly e xperi ence of s uch m i n d s a s
be s t epi tomi ze the whole compa s s of mi nd l i fe for the race -
,

i s al s o i llu s trate d whe n we compare the mi n d of on e man

w ith that o f h i s fellow S ome of the s e d i ffe rence s admi t of
.

a s ort of measureme nt and reducti on to t e rm s e xpre ss i ble i n

more or l es s accurate mathemati cal and othe r formu la s .

But s ome of them s eem i rreduci ble to and i ne xpre s s ible i n

any s uch term s Thu s the p s ychol ogi s t i s l ed t o a s kthe
.

que s ti o n H ow s hal l we mea s ure that growth of mental l i fe
,

whi ch con s i s t s both i n deepeni ng and i n broadeni n g b oth i n ,

i nten s er feeli n g and i n h i gher a nalyti c S k i ll a n d n ot le s s ,

i n free and rati onal choi ce ? H ow s hal l we s tate i n term s

o f mere nu mbe r and quantity the d i ff erence between the
el d s of con s c i ousness i n the l i fe on the on e ha n d of , ,

A ri stotle and K ant or of Shak e s peare and G oethe and on ,

the oth e r hand of the mo s t degrad e d Bush man of the h ope

, ,

le ss i di ot, or of P ete r von H a ck l an d er the s oldi er wh o c oul d ,

neve r remembe r at on e t i me more than t wo o f the three

? 1
i ngre d i ent s of g unpowder The range of con s ci ou s s tate s ,

i n re s pect of al l the ch aracteri sti c s whi ch p sych ol ogi cal

s ci ence d i scovers i n the s e state s appears i mme n s e when the ,

hi ghest are compare d w ith the l owest amon g the countle ss

multi tude s of the human race Every i nd i v i dual too who
.
, ,

doe s not i n h i s l i fe hi s tory aff ord a ca s e of arre s ted deve lop
-

ment , wh o has i ndee d a true ment al l if e hi s tor y ru n s -
,

throu gh a wi de e xtent of mani fol d d i e r e n ce s a s e s ti mated

by compari ng h i s earl i e s t w ith h i s m ost mature and S i gn i

cant m e n t a l performance s Thi s ca a c i ty of d e ve l op m en t
p .

i s, bot h as r es
p e cts th e r a ce a nd p as r es e cts t he i n d i vi d u a l

m e m ber o
f t he r a ce , t he i mp or ta n t a n d a ll i n clu si ve -
c h a r a c te r
i s ti cf the m i n d of m a n a s comp a r e d wi th the lower a n i m a ls
o .

I n v i ew of s uch a s tudy of the phenomena of con s ci ou s ne ss

a s the foregoi ng compari s on s s ugge s t, al l the consc i ous states

1 P ych l gy
s o o , Desc ript iv e a nd Ex pl a na t o ry p
, . 45 .

24
37 0 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M IN D

may be regard e d a s c a pable of arrange ment al ong a scal e

who s e uppe r t e r m i n a t l on i s qu i te i nde ni te but who s e foot ,

re s t s u pon the zero poi nt where con s ci ou s ne s s appear s to

-

emerge from the uncon s c i ou s Two que s ti on s b oth of wh i ch .

,

are partly s ci enti c ( or at lea s t have the i r poi nts of s tart

, ,

i n g i n fact s that adm i t of an empi ri cal i nvesti gati o n ) and

partly s pecul ati ve , at once s ugge s t them s elve s The s e que s .

ti on s are both c onnected w i th the problem of the permanence

of mi nd . Fi r s t are al l the s e s o vari ed phenomena of con
,

s c i ou s n e s s to be regarded a s be lo n gi ng to on e and the s ame

s ubje ct ,
namely t o that real bei ng whi ch k now s it s e lf a s
,

really e x i s tent i denti cal and unitary by e xerci s e of i ts

, ,

pow e r s of sel f consc i ou s ne ss recogn iti ve memory , and r e e c

-
,

t i ve th ought ? Secon d i s thi s s ame be i n g to be S poke n of a s

,

permanently e x i s ting though unconsci ou s and s o capable o f

, ,

s ubl i mi nal mod i cati on s a n d performance s that i s a s , ,

a mi n d that doe s n ot fo r th e ti me bei ng at l ea st k now i t s el f

, ,

a s m i nd or d o any of the work of m i n d ?

,
To answer both
the s e que s ti ons af rmati ve ly gi ve s the ful l est pos s ible su p
port to the popu lar concepti on of the permanence of mi n d .

It w i l l at once appear ho w ev e r that these two que s ti on s d o

, ,

n ot s tand on the same ground s as cl ai mant s for the s upport

o f that cr iti cal metaphy s i c s o f mi nd wh i ch the previ ou s

d i s cu s s i on s h ave e s tabl i sh e d

The S o cal le d tri parti te
-
d ivi s i on of m an i n to body ,

s oul a n d s pi ri t i n roduce s the latte r two of i t s three d i vi s

, t
i on s i n the s uppo s e d i n tere s t s of the superi ority and rel ati ve
permanen ce of certai n co n s ci ou s acti vi ti es over other s B y .

gi vi n g to man a s pi rit a s s ometh i ng ove r and above a
,

s oul , th i s the ory think s the more truly to s eparate hi m from

th e othe r an i mal s For why i ndeed s i n ce s ome pri nci pl e

.
, ,

o f con s c i ou s states wh i ch may s erve a s thei r s ubject woul d

s eem to be needed for at least certai n of th e an i mal s s hou l d ,

i t not be s ai d that they t o o have s oul s ? A nd further i f i t , ,

bel o n gs to the ve ry nature o f sou l s to ex i st even when they ,

 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND 3 71

are doing noth i n g by way of bei ng co n s ci ou s why may not ,

the s oul s of our hor s e s a n d dog s be i mmortal But i f man

plai n ly po s s e s s e s s omethi n g i n the w a y of characteri sti c
type s o f co n s ci ou s acti vi ty whi ch th e othe r an i mal s do not
have th e re woul d s eem to be a ge n ui n e a dvantage i n gi vi ng
,

to th i s s omethi n g a s eparate name L et i t then be cal l e d .

the S pi ri t of man ; and let i t be conce i ve d of a s a seco n d

b e i ng put together wi th the s oul i nto co n necti on with the
, ,

a n i mal body A n d s i nce i t s ori gin i s d i ff erent a n d i ts v e ry

.
,

nature i mmortal it may wel l s urvi ve the S hock whi ch t e rm i

,

nate s the e xi s tence of both the bodi ly organ i s m and i ts

depe nde n t p sychi c prin ci pl e ( the a n i mal
The theory ju s t propounde d i s howeve r u s eful i t may be ,

1
as the s erva n t of practi cal or rel i gi ou s e nd s ab s olut e ly ,

untenabl e on ground s of psychol ogi cal s ci ence For r s t of .

,

al l i t a s sume s t o draw a perfectly arbitrary l i ne thro u gh

,

the phen omena of c on s ci ou sne s s a ss i gni ng tho s e on on e ,

-

S i d e to the s oul and those on the othe r t o th e s o calle d

,
-

S pi ri t B ut the sci ence of the s e ph enom e na S how s that al l

.

the hi ghe s t acti vi ti e s Of the mi n d develop upon a ba s i s o f

the l ow e r acti viti e s ; and i n deed that the h i ghe r a r e a s , , ,

acti vi ti e s on ly the re s ultant s o f the growth i n compl e x i ty

, ,

a n d c omprehe n s i v e ne ss o f the very s ame p s ych i cal power s ,

by wh i ch the mi n d l i fe take s it s el f i n hand from the begi n

-

n i ng M oreove r, the d i fference between the s tat e s of con

.

s c i ou s n e ss and the enti re ch aracteri sti c d e velopment bel onging

to the l ife of con s ci ou s ne ss a s th e s e s tate s and th i s l i fe ,

appear when man i s compared wi th the l owe r an i mal s can ,

not be mea s ured o r ex pre ss e d by as s i gn i ng to h i m s ome

parti cu lar set of characteri s ti c s that are a s i t were adde d , ,

1
rip rt i t divi i f m b i g i m r fr qu t ly t h
Th e t a e t p t f
s on o

an s e n s o e e en an no u or

w rd t h vi w t ugh t by th Bibli l wri t r S h pr p i ti i t d

a as e e a t e ca e s . uc a. o os on oes n o ,

of ur co rd wi th purp t di u h r A r ful x m i t i f th
se , a cco ou r ose o sc ss e e. ca e e a na on o e

subj t i ec phil l gi l d hi t ri l w y h w h w v r th t
n a o o ca uhp an s o ca a s o s, o e e , a no s c sy

ch l g i l t h ry
o o ca b d riv d fr m m u h l
eo b d f d d b y t h Bibli l
ca n e e e o , c ess e e en e , e ca
3 72 OR I GI N A ND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

to tho s e whi ch he has i n commo n wi th them M an s .

rea s on o r the
,
s pi ri t that i s i n m an i s n ot to be
regarded a s a s ort o f man s ard roof bui lt on to on e dwel l i ng
i n a bl ock al l the dwel l i n gs I n whi ch are otherwi s e s u b s t a n
,

t i a l ly al i ke On the contrary , i n every s et of character

.

i s t i cs from tho s e call ed l owe s t to tho s e pronou n ce d hi ghe s t

, ,

t h e s ou l of man d i fference s i t s el f from the s oul of any

other s peci es of ani mals I ndeed each k . i n d of s oul i s ju s t

,

that ki nd wh i ch i t really i s and n o other on account of the

, ,

pecul i ar complex ity of tho s e state s o f con s ci ou s ne ss an d the

pe cul i ar character of that hi s tory of d evel opment wh i ch
mark i t off from every other k i nd A nd nal ly the tri .
, ,

parti te d i vi s i on wh i ch become s a bi partite d i vi s i on i n the

,

realm of mi nd reache s the h e i ght of ab s urdi ty when i t nd s

,

i tse l f forced to as s i gn e s senti ally the s am e p s ycho s e s now to

the subj ect that i t e nti tles an ani mal s oul and then agai n ,

t o the s ubject wh i ch i t d i g n i es wi th the n ame of rati onal
and i mmortal S pi rit
.

If then the permanency of the m i nd s bei ng and acti viti es

i n al l the state s Of con s ci ousne s s i s to be mai ntai ned at al l ,

the l ower forms of su ch s tat e s down to the ve ry z ero poi nt -

of i nten s i ty , c ompl e x i ty and i d eal value mu s t be a s s i gned

,

to the same subje ct a s that wh i ch h a s bee n d i s covered to be

self k nown i n al l the h i gher form s To thi s v i e w there i s
-
.

n o s ci enti c ob jecti on ; on the contrary e ve rythi ng i s i n i ts ,

favor On the on e hand w ithout s omethi ng more than mere

.
,

co n s ci ousne s s con s i dere d as content of sen s ati on feel i ng

, , ,

or ideation without se lf con s ci ou s n e s s the reality id e ntity

,
-
, , ,

and u n itary character of the mind coul d n ot be e stabli shed at

all But on the other hand , when the s e characteri s tic s are
.

once e stabli shed by the devel opment of tho s e activitie s in the

actual exerci s e of which s uch reality identity a n d unity c o n , ,

si s t we d o not need anothe r s ubj ect to be re s pon s ibl e a s

, ,

it were for the inferior activitie s of consciou s ne s s In self

,
.

con s ciou s ne s s , re cognitive memory , and reective thinkin g ,

 OR I G IN AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND 73

the mind show s what it really i s , a being with i ntellective

c a pacity . In the highe r forms of ae sthetical an d e thical
emotion a n d s e n timent it e xpre ss e s i t s true nature a s capable
o f a ff e ctiv e cha n ge s In i ntelligent deliberative and r e s pon
.
, ,

s ibl e choice it exists as th e s upre me nite exhibition of that

re a lity which belo n gs alone to a being who i s s elf active and -

fr e e But i t the same mind al s o s u ff er s the s e n s uous

.

bodily pai ns an d pleasures which are mo s t nearly akin to

tho s e of the lower a nimal s ; it t oo wanders in the i n coh e r , ,

e nt and almost idiotic i magery of d ream s , an d act s wi th an

u n thi n k ing and machine like regularity in many of i ts habit -

ual forms of conation Indeed it not infrequently whether .

, ,

i n waki n g hour s or i n natural or hypnotic s leep divide s i t ,

s elf
,
s et s it s e lf over agai n s t it s elf a n d dramatize s i n mo s t ,

wond e rful fa shion a s was S hown i n on e of the earlier

,

chapte r s ( chap .

It i s s carc e ly nece ss ary i n detail to argue the propriety of

makin g a u nitary mind the pe rmanent s ubj ect Of all tho s e
co n s ciou s s tat e s ho wever low o r high i n kind or di ff ere nt i n
,

inten s ity which belong to each i n dividual s tream of con

,

s c i ou s n e ss .Some of the re as ons why this is h abitually don e

by scientic p sychology may however be menti oned A nd , , .
,

r s t an interchange a s it were bet ween tho s e activitie s Of

, , ,

con s ciou s ne ss that are actually app ropriated to the Self an d

tho s e that are n ot so appropriate d i s con s ta n tly taki n g pl a ce , .

Item s of s elf con s ciou s and r e ective knowl e dge n o t i n f re

-

qu e n tly d rop down below th e thre s hold of co n s ciou sn e s s
a n d never recur again s o far a s appear s except i n the S h a pe
, ,

o f vague a n d itti n g im a gery in dream s A g a in that which .

,

w e a r e oblige d by variou s co n s ideration s to judge occu rr e d i n

s ome mome n t o f alm os t u nco n s ciou s revery or i n s ome l ow

d r e amy s tat e all at o n ce s prings i n to the clear light o f s elf

,

co n s ciou s ne ss and accu s e s the a s ton i s hed mi nd of bei n g i ts

v e ry ow n progenitor The pale image s of p as t acts of highly
.

develop e d s elf con s ci ousn es s m ake u p i n part the phenom

-
, ,
3 74 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

ena of the most purely vegetable conditions of min d ; an d

act s of recognitive memory in t urn , s erve to attribute to the ,

Se l f as a part of i ts true life what w a s originally deemed

, ,

unworthy of even a pa ss ing notice .

M oreover a s the s cienti c study of mental phenomena

,

plai n ly S how s there i s no s uf cie n t warrant for that clas

,

S i e a t i on into higher a n d lower which the tripartite theory

as s ume s ; n or are the two classe s of facultie s a s s igned r e

s pe ct i v e ly to S pirit and to s oul s eparable i n a n y of the com

plex s tate s of con s ciou s ne s s which mak e up the actual life of

the mind G eniu s and tact on the on e hand and bli n d psy
.
, ,

chic o r p sycho phy s ical m e chanism on the other ha n d ofte n

-
, ,

S imulate eac h other s performance s ; or they work hand i n

han d for the attai nment of a common re s ult In all the mo s t .

deliberate thinking an d plan ning that which ari s e s into the ,

s tream of consciou s ne s s from the depth s of the p sych ic

automati s m or even ( s eemi n gly ) fro m the unconsciou s foun
,

dation of p sychic being mingle s freely with the curre n t of ,

the s elf con s ciou s life We are beholden to thi s half con
-
.
-

sciou s o r unconsci ou s S ide f or much of the mo s t fruitful

re s ults of what we call ou r intellectual e ffort a n d for ma n y of ,

o u r mo st s ucce s s ful a n d brillia n t plans The lin e s o f ob s cure .

feeli n g of the rea s o n s that are e ff e ctual without co n s ciou s

,

k n owl e dg e of th e rea s on why blend i n extricably with tho s e ,

which we co n s ciou sly hold i n ou r hand s fo r the guida n ce of our

s elv e s a n d o f oth e rs whither we have intelligently willed to go .

In bri e f the actual p e rformance s a n d th e real life hi s tory of

,
-

every mind are quite too much of a u nity to permit the s u p

po sition that the agent the subj ect of the hi story i s two , ,

bei n g s rather than on e Each o f tho s e great p sychologi cal .

principle s which mu st be a ssumed a s ex empli ed in the

development of every human mind empha s iz e s thi s truth .

H ere onc e more conclu s io n s m a y be quoted that hav e el s e

, ,

1
where bee n e s tabli shed a s the re s ult s o f detailed s cientic
1 P y h l gy
s c o o , Desc r ipti v e and E xpl ana to ry pp
, . 65 8 f .
 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND 3 75

e xamination i nto the i mport of actual mental phenomena .

There a r e it would s eem certai n principle s which bel ong to

, ,

al l de velopme n t of the mental life of man ; and every s tate of

con s ciou sn e ss and every stage of s o called faculty in e ver y
,
-

s tage of i t s formatio n appears to conform to th e s e principl e s

, .

They cannot i ndeed , be thrown i nto the terms of m a th e m a t i
,

cal formula s To attempt thi s would be not to i ncrea s e real

.

s cience but only to put forward the pretence o f s cience

,
We .

mu s t therefore be content to s tate the s e pri n cipl e s i n the

, ,

s omewhat vague general way which become s thei r nature ;

and we di s tingui sh the following fou r : The principle of C on

t i n u i ty ; the principle o f R elativity ; the pri nciple of Solidar
ity ; an d the principle of Teleological Import By the .

principle of C onti n uity we unde r s tand that w hen t he m e n ta l

l if e i s r eg a r d e d as a w hole , no br e a k s or su d den l e ap s a re

f ou n d , whe ther as betwe en i ts f

f a cu lti es , or a s be tween
a ct or s a n d

t he d ier e n t su ccessi ve s ta te s a n d s tag e s of i t s d ev el o m en t

p .

Stated more po s itively , the very di sti n ction s by maki n g

whic h the factor s are di ff erenced and the S O called facultie s -

de ned i n the real life of the mind shade i n to e ach othe r ;

.

an d the evidenc e of growth and progre ss which mark th e

d i ffere n t part s of the l if e of con sciou s nes s i n e ach period of ,

growth and each degre e of progre ss are s uch a s connect the ,

whole i nto on e proce s s of becoming In a word th e very .

,

nature o f t h e mi n d , s o far as s cien ce can ob s e rv e it , i s s ee n i n

thi s u n brok e n vital o w I ts bei n g i s i n being ju s t s uch a n
.

uninterrupted s tr e a m of p sychic life "The i mportant di ffer

.
~

cuc os b e tw e en thi s kind Of continu ity and that which
belo n g s t o the moveme n t of a body i n S pace o r to t h e ,

i ncrease i n i n ten s i ty of a phy s i cal p roces s from a mi ni

mum to a max i mum have al re ady ( pp 13 9 f ) been s u f
,
. .

c i e n t l y e mpha s i z e d "

By th e pri n ci ple of R elati vity as we u nde r s tand i t , ,

negati vely s tated i t i s deni e d th at any p sychi c factor or

,

comple x p s ycho s i s can e x i s t with out hav i n g i ts o wn de ni te

3 76 OR I G I N AND PE RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

qual i ty quanti ty , ton e of feel ing val ue i n combi nati on an d

, , ,

i n uence upon S imu ltaneous or succes s i ve factors and ps y

ch ose s dete rmi ned by the r el a ti on i n wh i ch i t s tands to othe r
factor s and psychose s i n the enti re m ental l ife Or s tated .

po s i ti vely ever y i n d i v idu a l e lem en t or sta te or f or m of

m en ta l lif e i s wha t i t i s on ly as r e l a ti v e to other e l e m en ts,
'

f
s ta t e s , a n d f or ms o t he sa me m en ta l lif e . P utti ng the
two foregoi n g pri nci ples togethe r , we may say the tr u e p i ctu r e

of m en ta l l if e i s tha t f a o f i n ter d ep en d en t
c on ti nu a n c e o

chose s ; or if we may be so far metaphy s i cal d es cr ip

p y s

ti ve psy cholog y e n d s i n a d op ti ng the con cep ti on of a be i ng wi th

a u n i qu e u n i ty of n a tu r e a n d a n e qu a lly u n i qu e hi stor y of

d eve lop m en t .

By the pri nci pl e of Sol i darity we i ntend to e mphasi ze
al l that is accompl i s he d i n mental de vel opment un der th e ,

foregoi ng tw o pri nci ples by the work i ng of habi t i n the

, ,

w i de s t p o s s i ble mean i ng of thi s l atter wor d The mental .

l ife i n i ts devel opment i s a wh ol e i n whi ch the conti nu ity

and rel ati on of a ll th e d i ffere n t factor s aspects state s an d , , ,

stage s mu s t be re cogn i zed But more than th i s to S peak

.
,

w i th n o unmeani ng gure of s peech the e ect of e ve r y ,

p a r ti a l or com
p l e te w or i ngk of t he p sy chi c m e cha n i sm i s f e lt
up on t he w ea l or th e w e e o f t he w hol e d evelop m en t ; a nd t hi s

d evelop m en t n e ce ssa r i ly ten d s t owa r d

f u n i ca ti on som e k
i d n o

of r e su l t To s a y
. thi s i s s carcely more than to cal l a tte n ti on
to th e truth that i n p s ychol ogy w e are de a l ing w i th b i ol ogi
c al phen omen a ; the be i ng cal led M i nd who s e h i s tory i s

'

the subject of ou r s tudy i s a l i fe Furthermore i t i s of al l

,
.
,

k nown form s of l ife i n comparably th e mo s t complex , the

mo s t ful l , at r s t, of unde ned po s s ib i l i ti e s .

F i nal ly, we cal l attenti on to the fact of the Tel eol ogi cal
Import of al l mental development N o sci ence of the l i fe .

o f mi nd i s po ss ibl e w ithout recogni z i ng the pre s ence o f nal

purpo s e i n the col locati on a n d arrangement whi ch the ph e

nom ona come t o have as the stream of con s ci ou s ne s s ow s
,
 OR I G I N AND PE RMAN E N CE OF M I ND 3 77

on . A cti vi ty to s om e
p ur
p ose f i s th e r u l i ng p r i n ci
p le o

m en ta l d evel op m en t Th e self con s ci ou s , i ntel l i ge nt adopti on

.

of a plan and s ele cti on of means for i t s pur s ui t i s d isti nctive

o f the a cm e of man s devel opment

The more comprehen s ive .

thi s pl an and the wise r the selecti on of mean s th e hi ghe r ,

i s the s tan di ng of th e i nd ivi d u al i n the scale o f i ntellectual

devel opment But ends sugge s ted by ae s theti cal and eth i cal
.

senti ment see m adapted to control large S phere s of hu man

activ ity ; and the l atter e s peci ally, from the ve ry nature of
the m andate w ith whi ch i t sancti ons the e nd that promi s es
i ts ow n s ati s facti on , h a s at lea s t a s ort of phenomenal s u
prem e cy But meanwhi le the princi ple s of C onti nu ity of
.
,

R elati vi ty and of consci ous and unconsc i ou s H abit forbi d

, ,

that any con s ci ou s ly acc e pted end shoul d b e i s ol ated , a s i t

were , from the enti re l i fe both bod i ly and p sychi c a l A nd .

when we regard the work i ng of all the s e pri nci ple s, i n every
detai l of mental devel opment we becom e aware that the ,

i mp or t f n a l
o ur
p p ose i n t he m en ta l lif e ex ten ds f ar bey on d
the cons ci ou s f e n d s on ou r own p a r t In othe r
a d o t i on
p o .

word s th e strea mof con s ci ou s ne ss appears n ot S O much as

,

a current owi n g we k now not wh ence n or wh i the r ; but

rathe r a s a cu rre n t desi gned from th e beginni ng both as ,

re s pect s i ts ob s ervabl e surface and its h idden d e pth s ,

partly sel f d i recte d an d part l y i mpel le d by h i dden force s

-
,

to the t performance of a certai n work But what that .

work mo s t t i s i f a n y s uch the re be s ci e n ti c p s ychol ogy

, ,

d o e s n ot i n ve s ti gate .

I n ne a combi nati on of al l the s e pri nci ple s as they
, ,

app e ar i n th e i r actu al ope rati on s ecu re s for every s o calle d ,

-

s tream of con s ci ou s n e ss th at conti n u ity related acti on , ,

sol i dari ty of characte r and that i ntel l i gi ble i mport a s

,

judg e d by the l i gh t of end s and i d e al s wh i ch are nece s s ary

to the h i s tory of what we cal l a S oul , or M ind
.

The s ci ence of mental phen omena , therefor e s h ow s how ,

un s ci e n ti c and even ab s urd are the v iew s i nto wh i ch we

 OR I G I N AND PE RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

are l ed by adopti ng the tri parti te d i vi s i on of the bei ng of

man e s peci ally S i n ce th i s d i vi s i on a ss i gn s the p s ych i cal
,

phenom e na to t wo s ubj ects rather than to on e

, and the s e ,

two belongi ng to di fferent o rd er s o f be i ng a s i t were On , .

the c ontrary thi s s ci ence cu lmi nate s i n the conclu s i on that

,

al l the d i e r en t orders of phenomen a wh i ch are al i ke

e ntitled t o be cal le d p s ychi cal o r phen omena of con s ci ous
,

ne ss must be a ss i gned to on e su bj ect ; f o r they are i n e x t r i

,

eably bou n d togethe r under the fore goi ng pri nci ple s i nto
the actual un ity of a m i nd s l ife hi s tory
Thi s conclu s i on
-
.

a f rm s the p er m a n en ce of m i n d a s the on e be i n g to wh i ch
m u s t be a ss i gned n ot only al l tho s e acti viti es wh i ch a r e
actu al ly ( as s elf consci ou s ) appropri ated to th i s Self but
-
,

al s o al l tho s e othe r con s ci ou s acti vi ti e s and s eem ingly more

pa ss i ve state s wh i ch are i n any way k n own ever to have
ari s en w ith i n the s tre am of con s ci ou s ne ss .

But what h a s the met a phys i c s of m i nd to s a y about allege d

psychi cal proce s se s wh i ch are u nco n s ci ou s s ubl i mi n a l
, ,

or be lo w th e th resh old t o empl oy ce rtai n j u s ti abl e
,

gure s of S peech commo n i n sci enti c p s ychology ? What

and where i s the m i nd when i t h a s n o co n s ci ou s s tate s ;
o r better when n o p s ycho s es
,
o r phenomena o f e i ther con
,

s c i ou s n e s s o r self co n s ci ou
-
s ne s s ex i s t ; whe
,
n i n fact so
,

far as can be j u dged by the m o s t unprejudi c e d i nterpretati on

o f th e i nd i cati o n s the stream of c on s ci ou s ne ss has f o r the
ti me run obvi ou s ly d ry or d i sappeared undergroun d ? I s
,

bl i n d to be S pok en of a s th e s t i l l e x i s ti ng and p er m a n en t
s ubject of s uch hypotheti cal proce ss es

Eve n on approach ing s uch qu e s ti on s a s th o s e wh i ch have

ju s t bee n rai s e d i t i s agai n parti cularly nece s s ary to s tri ve
,

for cl ear c o n c e pti on s to attach t o the word s wh i ch are

employed A nd he must have had a un i quely gr a tify i n g
.

e xperi ence i n co n s u lti ng the cu s tomary ways o f propo s i ng

the s e que s ti on s a s we l l a s th e d i ff erent po ss ible an s w e r s
,

given to them wh o h a s foun d word s a lway s employ ed i n

,
 OR I G I N AND PE RMA NE N C E OF M I ND 379

thi s w ay It s houl d also be n oti ced that the i nvesti gati on

.

of s uch que s ti on s i s an e nti rely d i ff e rent a f fai r from the

i nve s ti gati on of mo s t of those problems e ven the more per ,

p l e x i n g and profou nd wh i ch psychol

,
ogy hand s ove r to the

metaphy s i cs of mi nd Th e an swe r, i f a n y an s wer at al l i s

.

to be venture d upon must here be part i cul arly he s itati ng and

,

tentati ve Nor i s there from the ve ry nature of the ca s e

.
, ,

good rea s on to s uppose that more careful re s earche s w i l l

change the mental atti tude of the cauti ous observe r a nd
cl ear th i nke r toward thi s cl a s s of i nq u i ri e s .

The fact s whi ch propound to p sychol ogy the problem of

u ncon s ci ou s mental proce ss es are of the following ord e r .

F i r s t c ome s the ve ry s e ducti ve i nu ence of co n s i derati ons

,

S i mi lar to tho s e whi ch have just been admi tt e d i n evi den ce

for the pe rmanence of mi nd C on s ci ous s tates vary i n
.

re s p e ct of al l the i r characteri s ti c s from a max i mu m ( wh i ch

,

i s d i ff ere n t f o r d i fferent i nd i vi dual s ) down to ze ro or a ,

vani sh i ng poi n t ; and yet we a ss i gn them al l to the on e s u b

j e c,
t the M i nd The temptati
. on bec ome s almost i rre s i s tible
to go o n under cove r of th e s ame con ve ni ent gu re o f
,

S peech and to fol l ow thi s same p s ych i cal e x i s tence i nto the
,

or to u s e anothe r

real m of th e s o cal led uncon s c i ou s
~
,

phra s e
beneath the thre s hol d
o f i t s o wn c on s ci ou s
s ta te s . That wh i ch i s thought of a s on e a n d the s ame e xi s t
e n ce down t o th e very l i n e ( th e S O cal l e d t hr e s hold) where
-

i t s con s ci ou s acti viti e s cea s e a n d wh i ch a s i t were

,

com e s up the s am e on the other s i de of the peri od of ce s s a

ti o n c a n w ith d i ffi culty be th ought of a s pa ss i ng meanwhi le
,

e n ti rely ou t Of the re al m Of e xi st e nce .

M oreove r there appear to be many i n s tance s of acti vi ti e s

,

a n d th e s e re s embl e s uch as are ordi n ari ly pe rform e d i n

con s c i ou s n e s s whi ch e i ther cannot be rem e mbered a s con
s c i ou s l y performed or el s e wh i ch seem s ome h ow to have
, ge t
th e m s elv e s d o n e w ithout ab s orbi ng any part o f th e r e a l
though u n rem e mb e red consci ou s l i fe of the s oul S ome .
3 80 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M IND
s uch activ iti e s were consi dered when th e phenomena of S O

cal led double con s ci ousness were d i s cu s s ed ( se e pp 1 6 9 f . .

B ut bes i des the s e s emi con s ci ous-

acti vi ti e s there are
certai n experi enc e s for wh i ch uncon s ci ou s cerebrati on o r

s ubl i mi n a l p s ychi cal proces s es are cu s tomari ly a s s i gned ,

as two r i val theori es of e xpl anati on A n accountant for .

,

e xample goes to s l eep after the vai n e ffort to dete ct the

,

error i n h i s recko n ing or to s olve some d if cult probl em

,

i n gu re s ; h i s slee p i s d reamle s s or at le a s t he h a s n o
,

reason to s u ppo s e that he h a s d reamed of the subje ct mo s t

o n h i s m i nd when he fe l l a s leep ; but i n the morni n g the
error at once stand s detected or the problem w ithou t further
,

reecti on i s i mmed i ately s ol ved P erhaps thi s detecti on of

.

error or s oluti on of problem a s hes upon the m i nd i n such

a way a s t o suggest that real mental work though o f the ,

uncon s ci ou s order, must have been d one d uri ng the hour s of

S lee p The natural i s t the i nven t or the pl anner and th i nker
.
, ,

in any k i nd of re s earch may have a s i m i lar expe ri ence

, .

" A t thi s poi nt i t may perhap s perti ne ntly be a s ked why so

much s tre ss shoul d be la i d on seemi ngly abnormal o r remark

able phenomena o i thi s order For the i n uences whi ch
.

d etermi ne every trai n of a ssoci ated i d e a s and ( f or that ,

matter ) al l the arti culate d and habi tual m oveme n ts of the

bod i ly organ i s m s eem l arg e ly to ente r only parti ally i nt o
,

con s ci ou s ne s s ; th e y belong i n l arge mea s u re to the mental

regi on whi ch i s s ubl i mi nal or bel ow con s c i ou s ne ss .

Indeed the perce pti o n of every Object tho s e p s ych i cal

,

activi ti e s whi ch m ak e the vi s ual o r tactual object ari s e i n

co n s ci o u s ne s s a s ju s t wh at i t i s and n o othe r goe s on to a
very l arge extent s omewhere and s omehow S O a s to e s cape ,

the e y e of co n s ci ou s ne s s "
Whe n we pa s s from the fact s of more ord i n ary ob s ervati on
to the f a ct s that are more than ord i n ari ly i mpre s s i ve we m a y ,

be pu zzled and del i ghte d by the hour wi th a s toni s hi n g feat s

performed by u ncon s ci ous mi nd It i s needle s s f or the
.
 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF MI ND 381

present pu rpo s e to sele ct and repeat any of th e more

remark abl e of the s e stori es Y et here agai n i t S houl d b e
.

remembered h ow common and ordi nary , a s me re fact s are ,

s i mi l ar performa n ces on the part o f almo s t al l S peci e s o f

a n i mal s ; even the pl a n t s uncon s ci ou s ly perform deed s

that S i mul ate a more than human wi s dom The man A B .

i s e s teemed more than ord i nari ly favored amo n g h i s fel low s,

becau s e h e c an s e t h i s cerebral a n d p sychi cal mechani s m ,

S l eep s erene ly and s oundly a n d wak e to catch the trai n a t

,

pre ci s ely A M .B ut many pl an t s c an d o a l mo s t a s w e l l

.

a s th i s becau s e they somehow have the mechan ism i n the i r

,

i nh erited molecular s tructure s et for them Othe r pl ant s .

k now , w ith out co n s ci ou s ne s s ju s t i n what d i recti on to reach

,

f or the s upport they seek H ere mi ght al s o be i n s tance d a l l

.

the phe n omena of i n s ti nct i n ani mal s a nd men as we l l a s ,

tho se p e rformanc e s wh i ch for l ack of a bette r word , may b e

,

spoken of a s due to tact and many of the doi ngs of ge n iu s

, ,

the d eed s of mathemati ca l , mu s i cal and mechani c a l ,

prod i gi es Or i f on e i s i n l ack of l arge e nough s tore of

.

i l lu s trati on s re ady at h and on e h a s only to t u rn to V on

,

H ar t mann s P h i l o s ophi e de s U nbewu ssten and on e n d s

,

e xample s coll ected th e re by the score a n d by th e hundred .

For i t i s by n o mea n s true of man al one , but i t i s rathe r le s s

tru e of h i m th a n o f many of the l ower a n i mal s that wh at i s ,

done f or h i m i n a pl anful way S O as to e xpre s s it s el f i n the

bod i ly man i fe stati o n s of the stream of con s ci ou s n e s s o r ev e n ,

i n the very co n tent of the stre am i tself i s far more than ,

what i s co n s ci ou s ly d one by h i m .

Ther e can be no doubt that al l expl anati on s wh i ch do n o t

recogn i ze the proof of m i nd i n such performance s a s the s e
are qui te u n s ati sfactory The t ru th i s that n o wh olly new
.

e xpl anati ons for s uch perform a nce s as compar e d wi th the ,

e xpl anati on s gi ven for the performance s of mi nd i n c on

s c i o u s n e s s are po ss ible
,
The p sy chology a n d the p hi l osop hy
.

of th e s o ca lle d Un con s ci ou s ha v e no t e rm s t o eml a nd
p yo
-
 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF MI N D

n o a rg u m e n ts to p r e s en t whi c h a r e n ot t hem se l ve s the p r odu cts

of hu m a n consci ou sn ess .

Fi r s t the n , the appropri ate materi al i s ti c ex pl anati on i s

,

pr e po s ed for the s e fact s i n the term unco n s ci ous cerebra

ti on. It i s i ndee d s omewhat d i f cult to nd a cl e ar mean
i n g for s uch a term a s th i s For of cour s e s tri ctly s peak i n g
.
, ,

al l mere cerebrati on ( cerebrati on as su ch ) i s u n consci ou s .

C erebrati on i s a word whi ch i f i t me an anyth i ng de nite

, ,

mu s t be al l owe d to stand f or tho s e pecul i ar form s of m o le c u

l ar cha n ge the nerve comm oti o n s wh i ch occu r i n the
-

cerebrum N o w phy s i ol ogi cal p s ychol ogy sh ow s that certai n

.

n e rve commoti on s i n thi s organ whether centrally or pe

-
,

r i ph e r a l ly i niti ated , ch i e y, i t woul d s e em , from l ack of

i nten s i ty , but al s o perhaps for othe r unk nown cau s e s ,

are n ot accompani ed by changes of con s ci ou s ne s s U n con .

sci ou s cerebrati on , therefore , means nothi ng about wh i ch

any knowledge i s obtai nabl e or s uppo s abl e , ex cept nerve
commoti o n s i n the cerebral substance th at are u n a ccom
p a n i e d by consci o u sne s s A nd .i t cann ot wel l be d oubte d that
there are i n s ta n ces where , a s we h ave al ready see n ( pp 3 25 f . .

the p s ycho phy s i cal paral le l i s m ( i n wh atever mean i n g we

-

may properly a ppl v to thi s term ) i s broken qu i te o ff , because

o n e of the two paral lel seri e s has cea s e d for th e ti me t o exi s t .

But i t i s certainly a ve ry s trange and i l logi cal procedu re

to i denti fy cerebrati ons w ith true psychi cal proce s s e s just ,

at the very p oi nt where the on e c ommon characteri s ti c

( namely con s ci ousne ss ) of al l that i s k nown about the s e
.

p s ychi cal proce ss es h a s wholly de s erted u s On the oth e r .

hand , i f the materi al i sti c hypoth e s i s i s found i nade q u ate i n

the accou nt i t gi ve s of th o s e actual p sych o s e s o r s t a te s of
con s ci ou s ne s s whi ch are kn own to be c orrel ated wi th brai n
s tate s , i t w i l l scarcely prove m ore sati s factory to rev i ve i t i n

the i nte re s ts of e xpl ai n i ng sub s equent s tates of con s ci ousne s s

by mean s of hypotheti cal cerebrati o n s that , er hyp othesi , are
producti ve of n o con com itant states of con s ci ousne s s .
 OR IGI N AN D P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND 3 83

When h oweve r, the Oppo s i te or s pi ri tual i s ti c hypothe s i s

, ,

i n the s upposed i n tere sts of the permanent be i n g an d u n c e a s

i ng activity of mi nd rea s on s about uncon s ci ou s proce sse s a s
,

though they coul d be true p sychi cal pe rformance s w ithout

be i n g phenomena of co n s ci ou s ne ss i t e ncounter s material ,

i s m a t on e o f i t s ow n mo s t expo s ed poi nt s For what thi s .

hypothe s i s n o w conti n ue s to cal l p s ych i cal or me nt a l and ,

mi n d o r s oul h a s lo s t every known characteri s ti c that

,

di s tingui s he s i t from the non mental , the materi al an d -

,

s oul le s s performance s o f mere brai n H ow then can i t .

an s w e r the i nvi nci ble m ateri al i s ti c argu ment wh i ch mi ght

wel l take s ometh ing l i ke the fol lowi ng form ? Of cerebra
ti on s or doi ng s by the brai n there i s a s much proof when
, ,

con s ci ou s ne s s lap s e s a s ever before It can n ot b e su ppos ed

.
,

f o r e xampl e that thi s s ound s l eepe r or that man i n a

, ,

s woon th i s human anim al acti ng i n an i n s t i ncti ve and

,

yet planful way or that cla i rvoyant or hypnoti zed subject

, ,

h a s all at once l o s t from the skul l the cerebral s ub stance

wi th i ts c e rebrati on s i n n umerabl e But the s e parti cular
.

cerebrati on s n o w occu rri ng are uncon s c i o u s ; th at i s they ,

have n o repre s entati ve i n con s ci ou s n e ss the on e u n i ve r ,

sal characteri s ti c of a ll true m i nd state s and real me n t a l -

exi s te n ce s o far a s k n own A n d yet you r s pi ri tu al i sti c

, .

hypothe s i s a ss erts that the s e u ncon s ci ous performanc e s too , ,

are to be cal le d p s ychi cal and a i r m e d to b e l ong to the

,

m i nd What can be s ci enti cally cle are r than the propri ety
.

of as s i g n i ng them to the onl y s ub ject of who s e exi s tence

and acti viti e s i n al l such ca s es there i s any real proof

, , ,

namely to the brai n

, But i f th e brai n can d o the s e thi ngs ,

can be the only real s ubj e ct of any such acti vi ti e s a s th e

s pi ritu al i s ti c hypothe s i s i s w i l l ing t o cal l genui nely me ntal ,

why n ot of al l the ph enomen a of consci ousnes s ? In othe r

word s from the concl us i on that the u ncon s ci ou s i s some
,

ti me s t o be identi ed wi th the mental i t i s but a step to ,

the conc l u s i on that consci ousness i s me re i n s i gn i cant su r

3 84 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

plusage of the mental ; th at i t i s ep i phen omenal Not only -

.

the s e unco n s ci ou s m e ntal phenomena but al l s e cal led men ,

-

tal phe nomena m ay the n be thought of as real ly phen omena

of the bra i n ?
Spi ritual i s m havi ng once parted w i th that te s t of th e
,

p sych i cal ( namely con s ci ou s ne ss ) whi ch i s ack nowledged

,

by al l theori st s to be qu ite i n comparabl e w ith every k i nd of

ph y s i cal phen omen a can n o l onge r appe al to i t s ow n argu
,

ment a s i nvi ncibl e proof f or the re a l i ty of th e mi nd A nd .

what that h a s any val ue w oul d i t h ave saved from the dark
aby s s of non ex i s te nce i n ca s e its argument from the nature
-
,

o f the s ub s e quent states o f c on s c i ou s ne s s to u nco n s ci ous

p sych o s e s a n d me ntal be in g were accepted ? N oth i ng i t ,

would appear For of su ch an e xi s tence a s u nk nowabl e and

.

mere ly hypotheti cal m i nd stu ff n othi ng can be a ffi rmed ;
-

and t o su ch an ab s tract enti ty n o valu e c a n be as s i gned .

A l l a ffirmati on of ex i stence an d as s i gnment of value to

e x i s tence m u st b e mad e i n terms of consci ou s m i nd l i fe
.
-
.

Further d i i cu l t i e s wh i ch are far m ore than me rely

,

pol emi cal e merge a s soon a s the e ff ort i s m ad e t o th i nk ou t

,

the mean i ng of terms that a i r m e x i s tence of uncon s ci ou s

p s ych o s e s and u n con s ci ou s m i nd Surely the term psy
.
,

ch os i s i s not to be employe d for any sort o f processe s that

a r e n ot p roce s se s i n co n s ci ousnes s It i s preci s ely th i s
. a
con s ci ou s s tate o r a factor or a s pect of s uch s tat e
,
wh i ch -

i s meant by th e word p s ychos i s The p s ychi cal i s the c on

.

s ci ou s ; an d thu s th e p sych i cal i s d i sti ngu i shed from t h e

phy s i cal w h i ch we conc e i ve of a s the n on
,
co n s ci ou s ; o r at ,

l ea s t wh i ch w e d o not concei ve of a s con s ci ou s Nor d oe s

,
.

i t ea s e the pai n s of thought s i mply to change the word upon

wh i ch the thought i s bestowed To conje cture that proces s e s
.

e x i s t and are goi ng on whi ch are ne ithe r i n ou r con s ci ou s

ne ss n or of ou r brai n s but wh i ch mu s t be cal led mental
, ,

d oe snot help th e m atter For e ither the s e proce s s e s wh i ch

.

are n ot i n ou r c onsci ousness must b e i n some other c on

 O RI G IN AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M IN D 3 85

s c i ou s n ess , an d that othe r con s ci ou s nes s mu s t be a ss i gned to

the subl i m inal S elf ( our a lter E g o) or they must be cal led,

the consci ousness be longi ng to the basal gangl i a , the s pi nal

cord etc ; or else they be i ng proce ss e s i n n o con s ci ous
,
.

ne s s at al l are i nd istingu i s hable from the non m ental -

i n general .

Ina s much then a s we cannot i magi n e not to say prove ,

, , ,

the exi stence of unco n s ci ous but truly mental proce s se s the ,

ba s i s i n fact for bel i evi ng i n the m i nd s ex i stence a s a real
be i n g whose are th e consc i ou s proc e ss e s whe n n o consci ous
proce ss e s are tak i ng pl ace w oul d s ee m to be wh ol ly g e n e .

We seem forced then t o the fol l ow i ng conclu s i on : The re i s

, ,

ampl e s ci enti fi c ground for af rmi ng the permanent re al

bei ng of the mi nd as the s ubje ct of all the con s ci ou s s tate s ,

of that e n ti re stream of consci ou s ne s s whi ch c on s ti tute s the

l ife h i s tory of each mi nd A n i nvi nci bl e argume nt of the

-
.

metaphy s i cal order may be bu i lt on thi s ground of fact .

But to tal k of u ncon s c i ous psych o s es or mental s tate s i s

t o talk of the i nconcei vable of

wooden i ron
,

of the ,

uncon s ci ou s consci ou s as i t were A nd t o rea s on about

-

, .

the permanence of mi nd , qu oa d mi nd whe n n o actual ,

psychose s are known o r assume d as tak i ng pl ace i s to ,

jeopard al l s oun d argument i n the ph i l o s ophy of m i nd .

Such a s pi ri tual isti c hypothesi s can only end i n re duci ng ou r

metaphy s i c s to u n v e r i a b l e and me a ni ngle s s j argon about

ab s tracti o n s s uch as thi ngs i n them s el ve s and s oul s i n
- -
,
-

the m s el v e s ; myth ol ogi cal e nti ti e s that b e l ong to the

death k i n gdom of ab s tract thi nk i ng i n s tead of to the
-
,

l i ving real m of known real i ti e s .

No w fi nally to l eave the matter under di s cu s s i on i n thi s

, ,

s hape wi l l doubtl e s s be unsati sfactory to al l s tudent s of

me n tal l i fe , to those who remai n bound by the ord i nary

-

nai ve metaphy s i c s of reflecti ve but u n trai ned mi nd s and ,

al s o to tho s e wh o are expe rt i n metaphy s i cal cri ti ci sm The .

former w i ll at once ask , with a puz zl ed or a s cornful ai r :

25
3 86 OR I G I N AN D P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND
Wh er e then
,
the
,
is
m i nd whe,
n i t i s n ot con s c i o u s ( as i n

deep and d re aml e ss s leep or i n s wooni ng or i n c a s es of

, ,

s evere acci dent ) ? A n d i f the mi nd doe s n ot abi de al way s ,

w ith al l i ts power s s ti l l e x i s tent and ready to S pri ng f orth

i nto acti on at the r s t favorabl e opportuni ty how c a n i t ,

eve r reappear i n be i ng agai n i n f u l l e xe rci se of the s ame

,

power s j u s t a s though i t had been at work mean whi l e i n

,

s ome i nvi s i bl e sphe re ? S ure ly i t mu s t be admi tted that

,

the re i s somethi ng gho s tly and unreal ab ou t such an i nter

m ittent mi nd as this H ow can i t at on e m oment clai m
.

i nvi nc ibly to be the realest o f al l real iti es i n the w orld an d ,

the next moment cea s e t o be real at al l

Even tho s e wi se i n metaphy s i c s wi l l sympathi ze , wh i le
only parti al ly yet al l the m ore i ntel l i gently wi th the pop ,

ular objecti ons They wi l l n ot i ndeed a skWhere i s the

.
, , ,

m i nd for they know too we l l the folly hi dden i n that form

of questi on .But they wi ll feel i t to be i ncon s i stent wi th
th e d i gni ty and the power to persi s t, whi ch al l thought
attaches to the word real ity that any bei ng whi ch behaves
,

i n thi s i nte rmi ttent wa y s hould be sai d to be real .

Th e a n swe r to the r s t of the two questi on s ju s t rai sed i n

objecti on to ou r previ ou s deve lopment of the d octri ne of the
mi nd s permanency i s by n o means d if cult t o n d The

.

qu e s ti on Whe re i s the mi nd whethe r wh i le i t i s sel f

,

known a s consci ou s of i ts own bei ng and states or when ,

"
i t mu s t be conce i ve d of as i nert and u nconsci ous m ind
s tu f f can rece i ve only on e answe r Taken l iteral ly a s
.
,

a ppl i ed to the spati al mean i ng of the word whe re i t mu s t ,

a lway s be a n s wered : Th e m i nd i s never whether c on s ci ou s

,

or uncon s ci ou s anywhere
,
Spati ally consi dered the s el f
.
,

c on s ci ou s s ubje ct of al l the c on s ci ou s state s i s n ot to be

con ce i ved of as d i ff use d l ike a subti l e gas th rough al l the
b od i ly members ; nor a s s pread ou t wi th an equ i table d i s t r i
hu t i e n over the cerebral c e ntre s ; n or as l ocated wi th a
speci al resi denti al preference f or the pre frontal areas ; nor -
 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

as mov ing from cerebral centre to cerebral c e ntre ( l ik e a

poor tena n t cha n gi ng hou s e s i n a crowded c ity , or a b i rd
h e ppi n g from branch to branch on a tree ) ; n or as i mmovably
seate d at s ome parti cular mi nute are a o r mathe m ati cal
poi nt i n the cerebral sub stance If by M i nd be mean t the
.

s el f known S ubject of al l the con s ci ou s s tate s then th e s pa

-
,

ti al meani ng of the word wh e re i s ab s ol utely and i n al l
po s si bl e mod i cati on s al i ke i nappl i cabl e to i t The m i nd .

i s nowhere anywhere or everywhere al ike becau s e i t h a s n o

, , ,

wherene s s at all , i f we may be pardoned s o uncouth a word .

Ju s t at thi s poi nt however i t i s l i kely that the a s t on i sh

, ,
s

ment o f the reader untrai ned i n the metaphy s i c s of m i nd

wi l l reach i ts he i ght I n deference to thi s natural asto n ish
.

me nt, the n l et i t b e adde d i mmed i ately that what i s mean t

,

by applyi n g s uch te rm s t o th e m i nd i s s i mply th i s : There

are certai n cl as s es of e s tabl i she d relati on s e i ther i n du bi ,

tably known or fai rly i nfe rred wh i ch e xi s t i n real i ty b e tw e e n

,

the consci ous activi ti e s of the m i nd a n d th e l ocal i ty a n d

functi ons of th e bod i ly are a s The l atte r are i n de ed k nown
.

i n con s ci ou s ness only a s ou t and s pre ad ou t i n s pace .

The s e bodi ly area s ex i st i n space and all the i r functi on s

,

are phy s i cal changes of the s pati al order " What i t really i s
.

to be i n space to m ove i n space etc i s not now the
, ,
.
,

s ubject o f i nqu i ry ; t o answer s u ch q uesti on s bel ongs to

gen eral metaphy s i cs and n ot to the s pec i al ph i l o s ophy of

mi nd N or i s it nece s s ary for th e poi nt u nder d i s cu ss i on to
.

u se thes e word s i n a n y othe r than the i r popul ar s i g n i

canc e " But the consci ous state s of the mi nd a r e depend
ently connected i n a mo s t i nti mate way w i th the l ocal ity
, ,

of these bod ily are a s an d wi th the ch aracter of the i r spati al

,

p roperties ,
and wi th thei r ch angin g spati al re l ati ons It i s .

t hi s general orde r of fact s wi th the i nevi tab l e conclusi ons

,

from them wh i ch i s b a d i n regard and borne w i tness t o

,

wheneve r on e speak s i ntell i gently of th e m i n d as i n the
'

body or i n th e brain , or i n any p arti cul ar part of the
,

brai n .
3 88 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

The fact s of experi ence bel ongi ng t o the ab ove menti oned -

general o rde r are of two mai n cl a s ses ; on e of the s e i s

empha s i zed i n the dai ly experi ence of e very i ndi vi dual ,

wh i le the othe r i s the di s c overy of mode rn sc i ence Fi rst .

,

then a l l e xperi ence of the spat i al qual i ti e s and s pati al

,

rel ati on s of thi n g s i s i ndi ss olubly c onnected w ith the con

d iti on and acti vi ty of certai n areas of the b od i ly organi s m ;
and many of these areas are themselve s i mmedi ately known
by u se of othe r areas of th e same b odi ly organi s m But .

m ore e s peci al ly certai n experi ences and th e s e often the

,

m o s t i ntere s ti n g an d m ost fraught w ith i mme di ate or with

,

threateni ng pai n s and pleasu res con s i st of pe rcepti ons of

the bodi ly organi s m as a part s o to speak of ou r ve ry , ,

se lve s For exampl e ou r arm s l egs , and trunk s o far as the

.
, , ,

front s i de of al l these member s i s concerned are known by ,

ou r own eye s a s spati al ly extende d an d as m ovi ng i n s pace ;

and vari ou s areas of the e xternal part of the body are con
s t a n t l y be ing u nde s i gnedly fe lt or i ntenti onal ly e xplored by

other area s ( chi e y , by the hand ) of the s ame body But .

certai n mor e den itely sen s uou s ex peri ences s o far as pai n ,

ful or plea s urabl e w ith howe ve r s l i ght or strong a tone
,

of feel i ng they may be ti n ged are l ocal i zed i n s ome of ,

th e e xternal or i nteri or organs of the b ody A nd eve n ou r .

u rest ex erci se s of thought or i n dulge nce i n enti ment

p s s

are never free from at l ea s t the po s s i b il ity of som e ti nge

from thi s s omati c reverberati on Th e reas on fo r al l thi s .

i s the m ore evi dent when i t i s c on s i dere d that attenti on

i tsel f a s the constant accompan i ment of al l con s ci ou s ness
, ,

re qu i re s a s its con comitant and s upport the u se o f the motor

organ i sm a n d the c on s equent m odi cati ons o f s o call e d -

motor cons ci ou s ne s s
-
For furthe r i n s tance s a n d f or the
.

p s ychol ogi cal expo s i ti on of thi s cla s s of phenomena we may

1
n ow c ontent ou rsel ves with a reference .

1 To P syc h ol ogy , De sc ript iv e an d E xpl a na to ry pp

, . 5 19 f . an d t o th e ea rli er

c h pt r
a e s of t hi b k pp
s oo , . 87 f .
 OR I GI N A ND P E RM A N E N C E OF M I ND 3 89

Th e metaphysi cal meani ng of the foregoi n g order of phe

n e mena cannot however, be e xpres s ed i n term s of space
,
.

I ndeed , the v e ry e ff ort to d o thi s l ands us i n a regi on of

gro ss absurd iti e s The i r metaphy s i cal meani ng i s e xpre s
.

si bl e only i n te rm s of rel ati on s between con s ci ou s s tate s an d

the spati al qual iti e s and changes of the bodi ly organi s m .

In other wor ds the popul ar language i s a nai ve concre te

, , ,

i mpre s s i ve , and yet gurati ve way of e xpress i ng the depend

e nt connecti on of certai n consc i ous s tate s upon the ob s erve d
changes of the bod i ly organ is m Only i n thi s way can any
.

on e speak of the m i nd as e ithe r spread through out or seate d ,

with i n the body

, .

E s s entially the same conclu s ion follows with re s pect to the

modern s cience of the relations of the brai n t o the con s cious

state s Thi s s cience h a s i ndubitably shown that the con
.

s ci o us n e ss of being in the peripheral part s of the body is
illu s ory ; that thi s con s ciou s ne s s is it s elf , as it were , a gure
o f speech . The s ame kind of con s ciou s ne ss may be extended
into the stick that i s carried i n the hand , or i n to the clothing
that i s worn over th e head or the trun k I t has b e en e x pe r i
.
~

mentally demonstrated that the connection of all the peri

h e ra l parts o f the body with the s tate s o f con s ciousne s s i s
p

e s tabli shed through th e central nervou s sy s tem ; and i n man s

case it has been made highly probable that thi s connection

i s only through the c e rebral hemispheres In addition to thi s
.

general conclu s ion modern science h a s gone on to point ou t

,

s pecial conn e ction s bet ween particular area s of the cer e bral

hemi s phere s and partic ular state s o r factor s i n the c omple x

state s o f con s ciou s ne ss To e stabli sh all thi s i s the a i m of
.

the doctrine k n own a s the localization o f cerebral function .

But all h ope of ndi n g any on e s ingle poi n t o r s ingle minute ,

area , w h ere the s oul may be hypoth e tically s eated s eem s to

have peri shed ; and thi s not becau s e the limit s of knowledge
h ave been reached but b ecau s e increased exploration h a s
,

made u s familiar with the whole terr i tory .

3 90 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF MI ND

The m ea n i ng i n m etap hy si ca l ter ms Of the s e facts of cerebral

science a s ha s already been s aid is e s s entially o n e and the
,
.
,

same with that which interprets critically the popular e x pe r i

e nce Only n o w it is the brain with i ts s e veral are a s i n s tead
.
, ,

of the body at large which i s known to have the s e my s teriou s

,

real connection s with the con s ciou s state s W e are h e r e th en .

, ,

face to face with the ve ry s ame problem which h a s already

been di s cu s s ed with s u ch detail namely , th at Of the rela
,

tion s I n reality between body and m ind .

If now the attempt to vindicate the literal i nterpretation

, ,

Of all s patial term s a s applied to mind i n the intere s t Of i t s

suppo s ed permanency i s abandoned there still exi s t grou n d s
, ,

of obj ection to the view that i t s being cease s with the total

and yet temporary ces s ation Of con s ci ousne ss Examination .

of the s e ground s h o wever s ho ws that they all concern the

, ,

conception s which men feel compelled to hol d regarding

reality i n general ; that i s to say conce rning the an s wer to ,

the que s tio n s what it i s really t o be to come i nto bei n g
, ,

and to pa ss ou t of being to become to appear
, to , ,

manife s t one s s elf etc A nd here contrary t o the common

, .
,

Opinion , ou r f u ndamental faith s a r e no more vague a n d un ce r

tai n o u r ignorance i s n o greate r or ou r k nowledge more
,

strictly limited with re spect t o the e xi st e nces we call ou r

,

mind s than with re s pect t o those e xi s ten ce s we call thi n gs

,
.

For all huma n ex perience of things t oo i mmediately c on , ,

s i de r e d re s olve s it s elf into only thi s a series o f i ntuited

, , ,

remembe red o r i n ferred i mpre s s ions N ot soul s alone but

,
.
,

all phy s ical b e i n gs ( and the latter , it mi ght eve n be said ,

e s pecially ) are in a con s tant proce s s Of be coming The k n own .

be i ng of a ll t hi ng s con si s ts i n the i r m odes of be com i ng When .

they lap s e a s they all con s tantly d o from o u r con s ci ou s ne s s

, , ,

and then return i n form s which we r e member a s s u f cie n tly

similar to s ee m t o warrant s u ch a metaphy s ical hypothe s is ,

w e af rm : They have be en really exi stent all the while ; they

h ave been p er m a n en t i n being This permanency o f their .
 OR I GIN A ND PE RMAN E N C E OF M I ND 3 91

b e i n g whil e no knowledge Of them i s must be taken on faith

, ,

o r rather all ou r k n owledge Of things a s permanently e xi s t ,

ing i s s u ffu s ed with thi s ontol ogical faith

,
.

In like manner al s o are the Ob s er ved change s and perform

a n ce s of thing s explained by chang e s and performance s which

neve r have b e e n Ob s erved and neve r can be Ob s erve d ; a n d

not a few of the s e unob s erv e d performance s s ee m to be very
di ff e rent from tho s e which any thing h a s ever been actually Oh
s erved to do The whol e the ory of the co n s ervation and corre
.

latio n Of energy so far a s it depend s upon so called s tor a ge

,
-

o f en e rgy i s Of thi s order

,
A nd so i s the imagi n ed behavior
.

of the atom s i n chemical combi nation What ca n give gr e at e r .

toke n of bein g no real thing as any ordi n ary thing i s know n ,

to be than lumini fe rou s ether for example ? B ut why m u l

, ,

t i ply in s tance s ? The e n ti r e str u c tu r e of m od er n p hy s i ca l

s ci e n ce, if t hi s s ci en ce i s to be u n d er s tood as re
p r e sen t a ti ve o f

r ea l be i ng s a nd r ea l tr a n sa ct i on s, is su s ta i n e d i n
p er ma

n en c
y

by si m i l a r m e t a p hy si ca l hyp othe s e s owhere , . N ao

cording to s cie n ce ,
i s th e vi s ible and th e tangibl e also
the
permanent ; the thing s that are s ee n d o not re main but th e ,

thi n g s that are u n s e e n are s uppo s ed to be etern al and it i s ,

the s e which explai n thing s a s we perceive them to be .

It follow s then that every re ective thinke r will decid e

, ,

the problem a s to what that i s real can be valid ated from al l

thi s hypothe s izing accordi n g to h i s ultimat e conc e pti o n s of
,

the world of reality But betw e en materi al things and mi n d s

.
,

i n re s pect t o the s ubj e ct no w u nde r d i s cu s s ion th e re i s one ,

mo s t importa n t a n d de ci s ive di ff er e nce The hypothetical .

d oing s o f thing s ,at s u ch tim e s a s they are not i n co n s ci ou s

ne ss ( that i s not i n any way ob s ervable ) are at l e a s t i n
, ,

s ome mea s ure a n alogou s to the doin gs which have been

ob s erved Thi s i s c e rtainly true i n s o far a s al l the s e form s
.

of doing can be reduc e d to mode s of motion while to be ,

-
,

s ure it i s quite inconce ivable what tran s actio n I n reality Of

,

which thi ngs are c a pable i s meant by a mere tendency to
3 92 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

motion ; s i nce only mind s can tend to do and not actually
perform .

When however mind s are deprived of their con s ci ou sn e s s

, , ,

all that i s characteri s tic of their exi s tence as mi n d s h a s totally

departed Whether then o n e will s peak of them as e xi s tent
.

yet uncon s ciou s o r nor if by thu s s peaking b e meant any

, ,

thing i n any way intelligible , will depend upon the perma

ne n t relatio n which on e conceive s Of them a s havi n g to the
whole world of reality The ex i s ten ce whi c h u n con s ci ou s m i n d s
.

ha ve, if they a re to be th oug ht of as ha vi ng an

y ex i ste n c e at

a ll, c a n be n othi ng bu t a ce r ta i n a bi d i ng r e la ti on to a ll r e a l i t
y .

U ncon s cious nite minds e xi s t in that World G round on ly -

i n which all minds and thing s have their existence What i s .

meant by such a s tatement as thi s and the proof of this stat e ,

ment , if it be accepted at all it doe s n ot belong howe ver , to , ,

the pre s ent treati s e fully to di s cuss .

We come with thi s negative conclu sion a s to the perma

,

ncn oc of the being Of unconsciou s mind to a re con sideration ,

of the phenomena A n d now a s it seem s to u s the phe

.
, ,

n om e n a can all be accounted for i n strict con s i stency with

psychological principle s which appl y to the m o s t ordinary

experience the hypothesis Of entirely sublimi n al but genuin e ly
p sychical activitie s i s unnece ss ary I t mu s t be remembered .

agai n however that what i s called ordi n ary i s oft e n fou n d

, ,

to be the mo s t mysteriou s when we are i n s earch for i t s ,

ultimate grounds .

The suppo s ition that the solution Of problem s or the a she s ,

o f intuition into ne w truth s which s ometime s follo w period s ,

Of the relative or s e emingly compl e te ce s sation of co n s ciou s

activities of rea s oni n g are due to u n con s ciou s but mental pro
,

ce s s e s is quite u n n ece ss ary The fact of ex perience i s this

.

E ven i n ou r mo s t exalted con s ciou s u se of ou r ratiocinative

power s the new truth that come s to u s i s not wholly
, it is
n o t a s a rule chie y
, ,
the re s ult of ou r con s ciou s rea s o n i n g .

A rgume n t , i n general , i s valuable chiey a s a mean s of s etting

 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND 3 93

fO
r th the truth , rather than a s a mean s Of i ts d i s cove ry L et .

the thinker on any form Of a complicated problem con s ider

h o w i t s s olution i s really g ot by the mind In the full tide of
.

con s ciou s di s cour s e with him s elf it i s not a s carried alo n g o n

,

the s urface of thi s tide that he reache s the de s ire d object .

The rather i s the trut h shot up fro m the hidden depth s belo w
i nto thi s tide ; it appear s presente d f o r s eizure to consciou s
ne ss a s the gift of the uncon s cious I n s i milar fa shio n are
.

the happy h it s of inventor s the rare achievement s of art the

, ,

plans of political and military ge n iu s be stowe d u p on the mind

rather than co n s ciou sly wr oug ht ou t by it N or can on e fail .

to notice a s s ignicant the connection o f all s uch e x pe ri

en ce with t h e condition s and nature of t a ct of in s t inct , ,

an d e s peci a lly of the a sto n i s hin g performance s of s om n a m bu

li s t s clai rvoyant s hypnotic s ubj ect s a n d per s ons o f hype r
, , ,

aesthetic se n s ibilities and s usceptibilitie s o f variou s kind s .

I ndeed , it is ou r growing convictio n a s s tudent s Of p sycho ,

logical s cie nce that a ll the s e phenome n a ( which are ordina

,

rily con s idered most inex plicable becau s e mo s t rare ) will

nally be ex plained a s only further exten s ion s a n d unu s ual
combination s of th e most familiar p sychological principl e s .

If then credit i s to be gi ven a s it we re to the uncon s ci ous

, , , ,

a ctiviti e s o f o u r o w n mi nd s f o r tho s e re s ult s in co n s ciou s ne s s

which follow s tate s of relative o r ab s olute uncon s ciou sne s s s uch ,

credit mu s t be exte n ded quite indenitely For the cr e dit Of .

much Of ou r mo s t brilliant and impre s s iv e activity i n con

s c i ou sn e s s u n d oubtedly belong s not to con s ciou s n e s s ; it bel o n g s

to s omewhat o r t o s ome On e Of who s e doings we a s con s ciou s ,

Ego s are not imm e diat e ly co n s ciou s A nd the s ame thi n g i s

, .

true not of man alo n e but ( a n d eve n with a relatively great

, ,

abu n dance ) al s o of the lower a n imal s ; it i s true of tho s e

animal s which we i n ou r ignora n ce Of thei r r e al p sycho s e s
,

and of th e s ource s of thei r p sycho phy s ical activity con s ider

-
,

amo n g the lowe s t It i s true of bee s of ants and of beetle s

.
, , ,

and even as the study of the p sychic life of micr o

 3 94 OR I G I N AND P E RMAN E N C E OF M I ND

organi s ms i s pointing ou t Of many o f tho s e tiny spe cks of ,

protopl a s m that biology previou s to the more careful u s e Of,

the high e r pow e r s Of the micro s cope talked of as u n di ff e r ,

e n t i a te d

matter of life " N ay , it i s true of no t a f e w of the
plant s a s w e ll .

A gai n the n are we brought face to face with the dependence

, ,

o f a l l the s elf con s ciou s and the con s ciou s life Of the hu man
.
-

mi n d upon the activitie s of that Of which it i s n ot it s elf imme

d i a t e ly con s ciou s Thi s dependence i s complete ; it i s not
.

limited to rare occa s ion s , or to con s ciou s activities that have

a dramati c e ffect upon the ca s ual and thoughtles s ob se rve r .

I t i s a dependence which accompanies and i nterp e netrate s ,

and is nec e s s ary to ex pl a i n th e entire life of co n s ciou s ne s s

, .

It i s equally neces s ary t o ex plain all psycho s es and all form s

o f motion that give indication of originati n g i n a menta l

grou n d Shall w e therefore , declare that the po s tulate Of

.
,

A b s olute M i n d worki n g at the ba s is of human mental life

,

a s Of all p sychical life mu st be accepte d a s a helpful or

, ,

nece ss ary po s tulate for de s cr i ptive and ex planatory p sychol

,

og y ? We beli e ve thi s to be true l Ve be l i e v e t ha t t he t ru e

.

i n te rp r e ta t i on o f t hose f a cts on w h i c h t he a lle

g e d la w f
o a com

l e te s c ho h s i l p a r a lle l i sm r e li e s, r e qu i r e s t h a t m on i sti c
p p y p y ca -

m e ta p hy s i cs w hi ch p ostu la tes th e i mm a n e n ce of A bsolu te " Wi n d

in a ll
n i t e r ea li ty ; a n d of A bsolu te Wi ll a s the g r ou n d a n d
s ou r c e of a l l t hos e so c a l l e d ca u s a l c on n e cti on s w hi ch
-
s c ho
p y
p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e a n d e v er
y f or m of s ci en ce both a ssu m e s a n d
, ,

d i s c ove r s But i n s imply rai s i n g thi s que s tion we have taken

.

o u r app e al before the s upr e me court Of ge n eral philo s ophy .

It i s n o w evide n t that it i s not the extraordi n ary n e e d of

a n y hypoth e s i s Of s ubl imi n al o r unco n s ciou s mental pro

c e s se s i n ord e r to expl a in k n own con s ciou s activitie s which

, ,

c a n j ustify us i n m a i n tai n i n g the p e rma n ency o f mi n d when

ever n o co n s cious activitie s are taki n g place It i s s i mply .

the v a gue but p e r s i s tent worki n g o f that popular form of

metaphy s ic a l imp ul s e which make s men i m a gine that e very .
 I G I N AND P E R M AN E N C E
OR OF M I ND 3 95

being mu s t permanently abide between a n y two time s when ,

a s i t i s s aid it ,
manife s t s its elf Suppo s e , however that
.
,

any particular b e i n g never again manife s t s it s elf at all ;

suppo s e that we have to deal with a ca s e of the ce ss ation of
con s ciou s s tate s to be followed by n o resumption of s uch
state s a s actually unite with tho s e pre v iou s i nto the co n ti n u
o u s life hi s tory o f a s oul why then o f course it mu s t be
-
, , , ,

admitted that thi s particular soul no longe r exi st s But .

s uch a n ad mi s s i on i s equivalent to admitting everythi n g for

which ou r attempt to apply a critical metaphy s ic s to the

phenomena of co n s ciou s ne ss h a s b e e n co n tendi n g .

To s u m up the entire argum e nt to s peak Of uncon s cious

,

p sycho s e s o r mental s tat e s a s belongi ng to the mind i s to u se

word s that are quite u ni n telligible The state s Of con s ciou s
.

ne s s a s they are known require for their explanation no s u ch

, ,

hypothesis Th e attempt to form a m e ta ph ys i ca l concepti o n of

.

mi n d which doe s not include consciou s ne ss a s the on e charac

t er i sti c that di s tinguishe s min d from not mind mu s t alw a ys
-

remain a vain attempt Only a s an empty pote n tiality of a

.

re n e wal o f the s tream Of con s ciou sne s s d oe s the popular meta

phy s ic s bel ieve in th e permanen cy Of mind whil e u ncon s ciou s .

But what i n reality d oe s account fo r all tho se performances

i n ou r con s ci ou sn ess which give token Of a m e ntality of wh i ch
w e a r e n ot con sci ou s thi s i s a que s tion for g e n e r a l phi
,

l o s o ph y to co n side r .Ou r mind s howe ve r wh e n co n s id e r ed

, ,

i n the mo s t thoroughly re ective wa y d o undoubt e dly i n di

,

cate a grou n d for them s el ve s in s om e Othe r tha n them s e l ve s ,

con s idered simply a s subj ects Of consciou s and s elf con s ciou s -

states .
 C H APTE R XII

P L AC E M AN S M I ND N ATURE

OF IN

HERE i s no doubt that the interest which men hav e

taken i n s peculation s a s to the real e xi s tence and
n ature of the min d i n dre am life swooni n g and other con
-
, ,

d i t i o n s Of co n s ciou s ne s s h a s been largely d ue to the bearin g

,

of the s e s peculation s upon the doctrine Of i mmortality Th e .

same thing is al s o true Of the discu ss ion of certain p roblem s

i nvolved in the titl e s reality , identity and unity a s applie d
, ,

to the mind It w a s the suppo s ed demo n stration Of the i m

.

mortality Of mind from its s o called nature a s this latter ,

conception was constru cted by a crude combi nation o f the

principl e s of reality identity and u nity which Kant subj ected
, , ,

to critici s m u n de r the form of the P aralogi s m s o f P ure

Re a s on.

B oth the allege d demon stration and i ts critical
refutation were however al ike remote from the li n e s laid
, ,

down by a tr u ly s cienti c s tudy of actual m e ntal life The .

clai m of both to an a p r i or i characte r i s seen to be unj u s tiabl e

in the light of s cienti c empirical p sychology .

M ore particularly the conceptions which Kant and tho s e

, ,

who s e argument for the immortality Of the human mi n d h e

critici s e d attache d to the term s reality identity unity
, , , ,

and perman e n ce ( o r ki n dred term s ) when applied to the,

s ubj e ct Of the phenome n a of con s ciou s ne s s ari s e largely from ,

mi s l e ading gur e s o f s peech The s e term s i n the meanings

.
,

which both parties to the controver sy gave to them are not ,

really applicable eithe r to the Ego regarded a s s elf kno wn o r -

t o the s o called
-
tran s cendental Ego the Self conside red
,
-
 P LA C E OF MAN S M I ND I N NA T UR E

397

as thing ln it self -
The Kantian criticism if it could be
-
.
,

l ooked at merely a s an a rg u m en tu m a d homi n em would be ,

more conclu s ive But it cann ot be s o regard e d f or th e ve ry

.

point o n whi ch the refutation turns ( n amely the paral e ,

gi s m or alleged illu s ory s ub s titution Of th e me n tal r e pr e

,

s cutation o f a l ogical s ubject of thought for the k nown real

s ubject i n which th a t k n owledge i nhere s etc ) i s it s el f , .

i ncapable Of being thought ou t in con s i s t e ncy with our actual

experi e nce We m a y declare , then that the Old theological l
.
,

d ogmati s m h ad built u p an argument for the i mmortality Of

the s oul which if it had been valid a s an argument would
, ,

have reached conclu s ion s posse ssing no practical msth e t i ca l , ,

o r ethical value ; and with e qual con dence that the eriti
, i ,

c i s m which i s nowad ay s s aid foreve r to have refuted this

dogmati s m only d e s troyed what wa s of n o value by a proce s s ,

o f rea s oni n g a s inapplicable to the s ubject i n hand and a s ,

unintelligible in i ts u se of term s a s w a s the refuted dogma ,

t ism. The whole s ubject o f immortality therefore r e q u i r es v ,

an entirely n e w p sychological and metaphy s ical treatment .

The sO called argu ments f or the immortality of the human

-

soul really con si s t of a variety of con s ideration s which

tend to rende r rea s onable the faith o r hope that it i s s o , , .

The more important and deci s ive among the s e co n s ide rations
concern the nature of the World G rou nd the plan which the
sy s t e m of things and mi nds is s erving
( wheth e r thi s plan is
-
,
i
ethical o r n ot a n d what i ts nal purpo s e i s i f any s uch pur
, ,

po s e ther e b e ) and the rel ations which the s oul s u s tain s t o g

,

the W orld G round Or i ts pla ce i n the pl a n ful sy s tem of

-
,

things and mind s Such con s ideratio n s of cour s e lie beyond

.
, ,

the comparatively n arro w s phere Of ou r pre s ent phil o s ophical

i nquiry A n d yet the voice of psychology a n d of the philo s
.

Oph y of mind i s by no means i n signicant here Inde e d i n .

,

ou r udgment all inquiry into the re a s onable n e s s o f t h e belief

j ,

i n i mmortality should take its s tart from the p sychol o gical

point of vie w To this point of vie w it should al s o be brought
.
 39 8 P LA C E OF MAN S M I ND I N NA T UR E

back j u s t so Often at a n y r a te ,a s the di s cu ssi on te nd s to

,

wa n der i n to the regio n s Of unintelligibl e spec u lation Equally .

true i s it that by the deathle s sn e s s of mind s omethin g must

b e mea n t which a c c or ds w i t h ou r previou s critical di s cu s s ion
V

Of the reality identit y u n ity a n d permanence Of mind TO

. , , .

s peak more plainly , it i s folly to talk of the mi n d co n tinuing

i n being when we have cea s ed to attach to o u r word s any con

l cepti on s de n ing the nature of the bei n g continued o r the ,

( nature Of i t s alleged co n tinuance W e s hall n ow briey pas s

.

i n review the re s ult s Of the metaphy s ical treatment of men

tal life , so far a s th ey have an immediate bearing u pon the
doctrine Of i ts continuance aft e r death .

The immortality of mi nd ca n not be proved from i ts nature

A
regarded as that Of a real s elf identical a n d unitary bei n g ;-

n or is i ts pe rmanence as known to it s el f Of an order to allow

, ,
v
N
the s ure inference of its continued and pe rmane n t exi sten ce
after death A s to what i s the real nature of mind the
.
,

s ci ence of p sychology empirically pursued and extended by

cautiou s and legitimate reective thinki ng a ff ord s however , ,

a sure mean s of j udgment Thi s by no mean s enable s u s to

.

a f rm a n on p oss e m or i of the s o u l Of man If then by the .

,

natural i mmortality of the mind it i s me ant to claim t hat
i t s e xi stence m a y be known to be Of such a characte r a s to be
i ncapable of cea sing to be it i s folly to a s s ert the d octrine of
,

n atural i mmor t ality in the name either of the s ci ence Of p sy

ch ol ogy o r Of the philosophy of mind For it h a s been a bun.

d a n tly s hown that the reality the identity o r s elf s ame n e ss

,
-
,

and the u nity of mind cannot be maintai n ed eve n in thi s bo dily

life without s elf con s ciou s ne ss , recognitive me mory and r e e c
-
,

tive thinking It h a s als o been shown that the conti nued exi e
.

tence or permanency of mind regarded as bridging over the ,

gaps i n thi s constitutive experience i s a metaphy s ical h ypoth e ,

s i s which i s warrantable an d i ntelligible only if self con s ciou s -

ne ss recognitive memory and reecti ve thinki n g actually

, ,

e xi s t again on th e other s ide o f each gap A n d nally , no .

 P LA C E OF MAN S M I N D I N NA T UR E

3 99

an s we r can be give n to the q ue s tion I n what that h a s a n y ,

value o r meani n g doe s the e xi s tence of the mi n d co n s i s t if ,

once th e s e actual acti vitie s i n con s ciou sn e ss h ave c e a s e d ?

"
T o l i ve on f or e v e r a s mer e u n c on s ci ou s m i n d stu w ou ld be
-
no

w h i t be tter th a n , a n d not d i er en t f r om , on ce f or a ll
p e r i s hi ng

as mi nd .

But s e lf con s ciou s nes s may s i n k down to zero an d even

-
,

consciou s ne s s a s still e xi s tent i n the lowest form s of d ream

,

life o r i n half animal m aundering s may di p

-
b e low the ,

thre shold a s p sychology i s wont to s a The co n tinuity
, y .

u n imp a ired fore ve r of the r e al self s ame a n d unitary being Of ,

-

mind a s belonging to i ts n ature cannot therefore be deduced

, ,

from what we know by experience of i t s behavio r a s the s u b

jcet of con s ciou s states A s far a s clear knowl e dge goe s it
.
,

appear s rathe r to be the habit of the mind to lay a s ide betime s

all manife s tation s of i ts being ; and when th ey are i n fact laid
a side there i s nothing o f any worth to which ou r faith o r
,

hope can attach it s elf , except the pro spect of thei r re s umptio n
again in the future .

On the othe r hand the conception o f such reality and unity

,

a s that which we ind ubitably k now to belong to the very nature

Of th e hu man mind rai s e s it in the scale Of being i n c o m pa r

ably above all e xi st e nce s which lack the s e characteri stic s .

The kn own realit y identity and unity of every s oul i s indeed

, ,

a price l e s s po ss e ss i on It is al s o a po s se s s ion which places

.

i ts o w n dignity , i n its o w n e s timate far a bove th a t which ,

c a n be a s signed to thing s M oreove r s uch form s Of mental

.
,

activity are them s elve s among tho s e which seem mo s t i n c o m

parable with any of the manifol d activitie s Of thing s They .

appear , even from the poi n t o f vie w ta ke n by expl anatory psy

c h ol ogy a s mo s t di s ti n cti ve o f the s uperior natu re of mind
, ,

unaccou ntable pre emine n tly by virtue of any connection of

,
-
,

mind with things It i s thi s indubitab l e self k nown n atu re of

.
-

the mi n d a s revealed to it se lf in the actual exerci s e of its

s O called higher faculties which gives it the appearance of a
-
 4 00 P LA C E OF MAN S M I ND I N NA T UR E

certain i n d ep en d en ce o f ex i stence Strictly s peaking indeed

.
, ,

l n o su ch condition a s an i ndependent

or totally u nrelated
e xi s tence can be maintained by any form of bei n g whether ,

phy s ical or p sychical A ll those element s of material reality

.

which the met a phy s ic s Of phy s ic s a s sume s a s original and i n

dependent Of change and on which it makes d e pendent every
,

kin d of comple x being and every kind and degree of change

( that is
,
all the ex i s tence and tran s formation s and t r a n s a c

ti ons of t hi n g s ) a r e them s elve s depende nt upon each other for

,

their being and f o r all thei r characteri s tic mode s of behavior .

The e xi s tence which we call the M ind i s never known

e ven wh e n O bs erve d i n i ts most exalted s tates and i n th e
e xerci se of i ts mo s t highly s piritual activitie s a s relea s ed
wholly from bodily conditions On the contrary the exi s t .
,

ence and fu nctio n in g of the brain appears s till a s the indi s

pen s able precondition or concomitant of the exi s tence and
activity Of the mind eve n i n these its mo s t highly spiritual
form s of activity M oreover th e stream of consciousness rarely
.
,

o r n ever runs quite clear of coloring by the material of s e n

sation ex perie n ce thrown i nto it a s i t were from the pe ri

-
, ,

h e r al organ s of s ense from the thoracic and abdominal

p ,

cavitie s and probably al s o fro m the lower gangli a of the

,

brain A t the s ame time i n all form s of knowle dge and e s pe

.
,

c i a l ly i n self kn owledg e
-
with i ts equipment of realized aes
,

thetical a n d ethical s entiment s and of s elf con s ciou s choice s ,

-

the mind manifest s and kn ows it s el f a s manife s ti ng an exi s t

e n ce i n s o m e s ort i ndependent of the bodily organi s m With .

no mere gu re of speech we are compelled to s ay every ,

mi n d thu s tr a n scen ds completely n ot only the power s of the

,

cerebral mechani s m by spri nging into another order of phe

n om e n a , but als o the very exi stence , as it were of that ,

mechani s m by pa s s ing into regions Of space time cau s al ity , , ,

an d i deality of variou s kind s , where the terms that apply to

the exi s tence and activity of the ce rebral centres have a bso
l u tely no meaning whateve r .
 P LA C E OF MAN S M I ND I N NA T UR E

4 01

Fo r e xample the human mind anticipate s the future and

,

predict s on a ba s i s of experience i n the pas t the occurre n ce s

, ,

which wi ll be but are not now I nto thi s future which i s .

,

it s elf the product Of i t s own i magining and thinking i t pro ,

n continued and yet ch aracteri s tically altered e x

j e c t s i ts o w
i s te n ce , a s well a s the conti nued s imilar e xi s tence of thing s .

But the exi s tence Of the brain and Of its particular form s of ,
V
nerve commotion i s never othe r than a purely here and now
-
,
- -

exi stence This phy s ical exi stence is therefore tran s c e nded
.
, ,

i n an ab s olute way by every s uch activity of the mind M ore .

ove r all knowledge a s s u ch e nforce s the s ame conviction as

, , ,

to a potential independency o f the mind i nferred upon the ,

ba s i s of ou r actual experie n ce with mental activitie s i n the

way of tran s cendi n g the S phere of the correlated bei n g and
activitie s Of the brain For all k n owledge i s of the univ e r s al
. .

l n knowing the mind move s in the S phere of s o called law

,
-
,

Of ge nera and s pecie s Of relations common to many ,

indi vidual s of the categories , of the true for all s pace s and
,

all times and circumstance s But the e xistence Of the brain .

i s neve r other than concrete and indivi dual ; i t s being i s at

every in s tan t preci s ely s uch and no other S O many count ,

le s s atom s Of oxygen hydrogen carbon nitrogen pho s phoru s

, , , , ,

and the like combined in preci s ely such proportion s ; i t s char

,

acter i s inde e d neve r twice the s ame ; it neve r partake s o f

, ,

th e u n c h anging but only con s i s t s in and Of the cea s e l e s s u x

,

o f m a te rial s brought by the blood s upply and excreted i n the -

urin e the faece s and i n other way s

, , .

While th e n the material co n dition s o f a l l mental li fe con

, ,

tai the corr ction and rebuke of the t r a n s ce n de n ta l i s ts

n e v

high o wn d eclamation about the s upremacy and i n de pe n d

-

ency of the s oul yet that same declamation i s in s ome s ort

,

ju s tie d a s repre s enta t i ve o f truth s which scienti c psy

c h ol ogy i s quite too pro n e to overlook becau s e for s ooth , , ,

th e y do not l e nd them s elve s readily to i ts attempts at a strictly

s cienti c treatment The s e truth s are truth s , howe ve r ; they
.

26
4 02 P LA C E OF MAN S M I ND I N N A T U RE

are truth s of fact that are realized in the experience of e v ery

fully d eveloped human soul TO s a y that they demon strate
.

the s oul s power to exi st after the bodily s ub s trate h a s been

r e moved i s to af rm of the m more than they can s u s tai n .

But to deny that they s ugge s t the po ssibility or even per ,

hap s we may s ay the probability Of thi s continued e xi stence

i s to deny t o the m more than there i s need .

When n ow the que s tion a s to the i mmortality of min d i s

, ,

take n to the ph en omena with which phy s iol ogical p sych ology
an d p sycho phy s ic s more e s pecially deal we may most s ati s
-
,

f a ct or i ly expre ss the re s ults of i nqui ry by af rmi n g a n on

l i qu et . H ere u ndoubtedly it i s that the denier s of the doc
, ,

trine of immortality are stronge s t in their appeal to the fact s .

For the fact s s how beyond di s pute that the s oul m a y lo s e all
the being which it can cl aim to have on account of the failure
,

Of i t s material conditi ons a s the se conditi on s are s upplied by

the exi stence and sati sfactory worki n g of the cerebral o rgan
i sm. For the f a ct appears to be that u nde r certai n material
condition s the mind cea s e s from all that in which i t s only
known a n d i n telligible being actu ally con si s t s .

But then there are other fact s of the s ame general orde r
, ,

wh iOh mu s t al s o be taken into the full a n d n al accou n t .

The s e are i n fact s uch a s have j u s t been referred to a s i n di

cating a sort of i n dependen cy Of bodily co n ditio n s f or the
mind I t i s al s o a fact of which we have repe a ted exp e rience
.

that after brief period s of ce s s ation e ither from all form s Of

,
'

activity o r el s e ( more e s peci ally ) from th e s o called higher -

forms of i t s activity the mi n d re s ume s i ts being with re n e wed

,

vigor and ful ne s s Of power There are al s o man y s trange

.

fact s s uch a s are occa s io n ally Ob se rved i n the ca s e of the

,

dying or are reported by tho s e wh o have been in conditi on s

,

of e xtreme ec s ta sy , of cl airvoyance of apparent syn cope or

,

death that cannot wholly be se t on e s id e The s e s ugge s t

,
.

po ssibilitie s of no little i ntere s t and importa ce e ve n if a s

n
,

mu st be admitt e d they do n o t demon strate the co n clu s io n s

 P LA C E OF MAN S M I ND I N NA T UR E

4 03

d e s ir e d Th e re are al s o all those fact s which sh ow that the

.

,
mi n d co n s ta n tly react s upon the bodily organi s m as though to ,

give proof i n a n d through it that although the two a re s ome

how j u s t now companio n s i n a l iving d e velopment they might ,

po ss ibly part company without either of the two for that rea s on ,

alo n e c e a s i n g wholly to be
,
Trembli n g of the limb s a n d
.

quive ri n g of the abdomen increa s ed s u s ceptibility of th e areas

,

Of the s kin to cold di sturbance s Of the cerebral circul ation

, ,

fall o r ri s e i n the bodily temperature of a few degree s s low ,

i n g o r quickening o f pul s e etc all the s e ph y sical cha n ge s

,
.
,

produce I mporta n t change s i n the mental s tat e s B ut p e r .

,

con t r a , if the s oul ch ooses to grieve or to give way to de pr es ,

s ion or to ennui or to chagri n the body i s compelled to ,

undergo a s erie s Of corre spo n ding chang e s .

L et it be called then a drawn battl e when the defenders

,

,

a n d the d e nier s of the doctrine Of immortality enter the arena

o f phy s iological p s ychol ogy and ght fai rly an d honorably to

gethe r there for th e life or death of the human soul A nd s o .

we may return from the di s cu ss ion Of the que s tion on ground s

Of the s cie n ce and metaphy s ic s Of mind with a fa i n t but rea
s onabl e con dence i n the po ss ibility of i ts af rmative an s wer

a s o u r n e t re s ult .But a s w a s s een at the cl o s e o f the la s t

chapter ou r view as to the pe rma n ence O f mind
,
e s pecially -

as to i ts permanence afte r the death Of the body d e pe n d s

u pon the place which the mi nd mu s t be thought to hold i n

th e sy s t e m Of nature M ore de n it e ly i n othe r word s o u r

.
, ,

reliance mu s t be upon philo s ophical co n ceptio n s Of th e B e ing

o f the World ( th e n ature o f the
World G rou n d ) a n d o f

-

the relatio n s which the bei n g Of the human mi n d s u s tai n s to

s uch U niver s al Being i n o rde r to rai s e thi s fai n t co n d e nce
,

i n the po ss ibility o f the immo rtality o f mind t o the conditi on

of a r m rational faith o r hope
, Bu t the s e conception s can \
.

be formed and defended only by philo s ophy at l a rge a n d \ ,

e s pecially by ethical philo s ophy and the philo s ophy of religion

It i s only i n cultivating these elds that on e i s able s o far a s l
.

,
 4 04 P LA C E OF MAN S M I ND I N NA T UR E

s u ch a thing is pos s ible at all , to nd by reective thinking

the place of ma n s mind in that s y stem of being s which con
s t i tu te the world , and to di s cu ss the probability of the con

t i n u a n c e of mind afte r the death of the body .

When con s tructing the title of this chapter The P lace of

M an s M ind i n N ature ) it w a s by no mean s intended to i n

d i ca te that s o large a theme woul d be at all comprehen s ively

di s cu s sed To conduct such a di s cu s sion to any worthy e x

.

tent several other science s be s ide s p sychology must be drawn

upon ; and a s h a s ju s t been repeatedly s aid s uch a di s cus
, ,

sion i nvol ve s branche s of philo s ophical discipline much wide r

than tho s e which it i s intended to cultivate here A mong .

the s ciences involve d are e s pecially all tho s e that enter i nto
anthropology , i n the widest exte n sion of the term A mon g .

the branche s of philo s ophy invol ved ethic s and the philo s ophy
,

Of religion h ave been mentioned again and again In cl o s ing .

ou r much narro wer ta s k , however , we are prompted to i ndicate

,

ione direction which sub sequent re s earche s i f it becomes possi

ble to undertak e them will be compelled to follo w
,
,

The view whi ch h a s thu s far be en ad vocated of the being of

th e mind of the b ody and of the relation s bet ween the two
, ,

will doubtl e ss be rejected s omewhat co n temptuou sly by ma n y ,

as an Ol d fa shioned and Ob s olete D uali s m If by duali s m

-

.

h e meant a di s s e nt fro m all t h e s e form s Of theory whi ch

a s s ert the s ub s tantial i dentity Of body and mi n d i n e ither one
o f th e t w o exi s tence s ( i n eith e r body or mind ) o r in s om e ,

third s omewh at which i s neither of the s e two but o f which ,

both t he s e are to be regarded a s a s pe ct s o r fac e s etc ,
.
,

the n we d o not i n the l e a s t s hrink from bei n g accu s e d Of

a dvocating a duali s tic theory For it h a s be e n s hown b e
.

yo n d que s tion that each of the s e form s Of S O called M o n i s m , -

from which o u r duali s m di ss ent s i s quit e i nadequ ate to meet

,

the dema n d s eith e r of s cienti c e xplanation for admitted fact s

or Of clear and con s i s tent reecti ve thi n king I n other word s
.
,
 TH E P LA C E OF MAN S M I ND I N NA T UR E

4 05

Mate rial i s m , Spirituali s m , and M oni s m of the pattern in which

that doctrine i s af rmed by H Off di n g Ra i n and many others ,
, ,

are all alike both un s cienti c and u nphilosophical .

E s pecially i s that tenet which arrogates to it s el f the title of

moni s m i n an exclu s ive way and which not infrequently

,
/
a s s ume s to be the o n ly s peculative view that can appeal with
condence to modern p s ychological science quite de cient i n ,

both the s e two important regards It is neither s cienti c nor

.

ph ilo s ophical The all e ged s cienti c ba s i s for such a s pecula

.

tive tenet i n th e e mpirical l a w of p sycho phy s ical parallel -

i s m will not bear careful examination Where it i s clear i n

.

m e aning this l a w i s altogether too meagre to meet the real

,

fact s Of the ca s e ; and when the e ff ort i s made to enlarge the

l a w s o a s to provide u nder it f o r all the fact s it become s ,

hopele ssly confu s ed in meaning M oreove r the metaph y s ical

.
,

argument and conclu s ion s ba s ed upon the alleged e mpiric a l

l a w end i n the u n intelli gible o r i n the ab s urd .

On the contrary , the spe culative treatment o f the fact s

and l aw s pre s ented for ou r consideration by the s cience of
p sychol o gy h a s led to a re s ult which may be s ummarize d
i n s omewhat the foll owing way That bein g wh ich we call
m
.

q; a ndT vihg
'

the H uman M ind real izes it s elf a s

tm ou r s e Of devel opment Its origin s o far a s
.
,

s cience can trace it or i magination and thought frame the

concepti on of it lie s i n the r s t Obscure acts o f con s ciou s ne s s

,

that probably ari s e e arly in the life Of the embryo These .

act s increa s e in complexity and s ignicance as they are s u c

ce ss i v ely repea te d i n the s o called s tream of consciou s ne ss
- .

A s re s pects their content the l ate r ones a re d ependent upon

,

the earlier ; and as re s pects i nten s ity , time rate and duration-
,

quality and combination of s en s ation el e ments they are a l l

-
,

dependent on the action of exte rnal stimul i upon the periphery

of the nervou s sy s tem .

But fro m the earli e st discernible periods an activity of d i s

cri minating consciousne ss which gi ve s token of the dawni n g
4 06 P L AC E OF MAN S M I ND I N NA T U RE

of intellect , and the con s ciou s ne s s of a s elf activity that is -

the peculiar p sychical element for which the word s conation

and will are re s e rved are to be detected By i ts o wn s e lf .

realizi n g activity di s crimi n ating and in the form o f gro w ,

i n g vol untary attention directing and even creati n g the co n tent

and ow of the strea m Of con s ciou s ne s s i t become s a S e lf
to it s elf It set s it s elf as s ubject of its o wn experience s ove r
.

again s t tho s e expe rience s and attributes them i n all thei r

, ,

d iver s ity Of i nten s ity q uality and comple x conte n t to itself ;

, ,

and it s e t s it s elf i n a most marked and emphatic man

,

n er ,
over again s t and i n Opposition to all the thi n gs of i ts
e xperie n ce whether perceived i magi ned , or thought Thus
, ,
.

progre ss ively doe s it actively con stitute and under s tand it s elf
a s a real self s ame and u n itary being i n the meani n g
,
-
, ,

which the s e word s have to the actual l ife of s el f consciou s ne ss -

of recog n itive memory , and Of re ective thinking It recog .

n i z e s its own depen dence o n the bodily s tate s that i s the , ,

nece ss ary co n nection of i ts s elf con s ciously experienced bodily

-

pai n s and plea s ure s a n d i n deed of i ts more purely spiritual

,

state s with the perceived or i nferred conditi on of the bodily

,

a rea s A t the s ame time it al s o believe s that i n s ome s ort

.

the s e bodily m ember s are dependent upon its d e s ire s idea s , ,

and volition s for thei r perceive d or inferred change s A n d .

n othi n g that the mo s t s ubtle and extend e d i nv e s tig a tion s of

s cie n ce can brin g forward to S ho w in the lea s t i m pair s the ,

e s sential truthfulnes s of both the s e forms of the popular

pe rs ua sion .

Thus do p sychol ogical s cience an d the metaphy s i c s of ps y

c h ol ogy reach t msi on to quote a declaratio n which
w
w e h ave el s ewhere empha s ized
that the devel opment Of
mind can o n ly be regarded a s the progre ss ive ma n ife s tation i n
con s ciou s ne s s of the life of a real being which although tak ,

i n g i t s s t a rt a nd directi on from the action Of the phy s ical

el eme n t s of the body , proceed s to unfold power s that are su i

e n er i s according to law s of its o wn
g ,
.
 P LA C E OF MAN S M I ND I N NA T UR E

4 07

On the othe r hand the scientic s tudy Of b odily develop

,

ment tak e s u s in a totally di fferent direction namely ou t , ,

into the gene ral el d Of s o called n ature wit h its variety of

-
,

l iving phy s ical form s The s ame atoms cons titute i ts mo s t

.

preciou s a n d highly organize d sub stance s ( f or example the ,

protagon o f the cerebral centre s) a s tho s e which are fou n d i n

other a n imal ti s s ue s nay , eve n in the surrounding a i r in
, ,

the water the s oil and the plant s

, ,
I n deed the s e atoms .
,

actu a lly come from s uch s ource s and retur n s ome Of them

very s peedily within a f e w minute s o r hour s

,
whence they
came The chemi s try of the cerebral ti s s ue s and thei r m ol e c
.
,

ular phy s ic s their thermic el e ctrical , and mag n etic change s

, , ,

S O far as we k now a n yt h ing about the s e ob s cure matter s al s o ,

co n nect o u r bod ie s with the re s t of nature a s falli n g u n de r

i ts law s. We hav e ab s olutely no right to a ss ert any n e w kind
Of exi s tence f o r t h e body on account Of the temporary rela

tion s i n which s ome part s of it e s pecially s tand to the phe

, ,

h omena o f consciousnes s It al way s i s a s a real thing pre

.
, ,

c i s e ly what it w a s at the beginning and before the begi n n i n g, ,

o f its bei n g a s o u r body ; it i s part and parcel o f nature s

phy sic al s tu ff

I ts reality identit y and unity are m e rely
.
, ,

formal not on e of the s e word s applies to it i n any r e s pect as

they all apply to the being of the mi nd .

Y et again the connecti on s o cal le d between the devel

,
-

Opm e n t of the u ni qu e be i ng o f the m i nd a n d the d e vel

Opm e n t of that temporary and con s tantly changi n g c omple x

Of phy s i cal elem e nt s wh ich we cal l the body i s u n ,

doubtedly mo s t i n ti mate and pecul iar Or rathe r s i nce .

to u s e the S i ngul ar numbe r of thi s word connecti on o r

,

Of any othe r avai l able word i s fraught wi th the mo s t m i s

,

l e ad i ng an d m i s chi e vou s con s eque nce s a n i nden i te vari

ety of pecul i ar and clo s e relati on s o r co n n e cti on s e xi st s , ,

between the body and the mi nd The s e cannot be d im i n .

i sh e d or the i r actual concrete e xi s tence de s troyed by a n y

manner of vai n attempt s to summari ze them i n a s i ngle
 4 08 P LA C E OF MAN S M I ND I N NA T URE

te rm Or to foi st i n over them rather than duly to general i ze

,

from the m any on e supre me l aw They are what they are ; .

an d the busi n e ss Of p sych o phy s i cal sci en c e i s t o accept a n d

-

s o far a s po s si ble to expl ai n the m But t hu s f a r the p r og .

r e ss of s ci en c e h a s bee n i n the d i r e c ti on f
o d i s cl osi ng a
g r e a te r
a n d e ve r
g r e a ter a n d m or e be wil d e r i ng com
p lex i ty f
o r e la t i on s ,

r a t he r t ha n i n t he r e d u cti on f
o a lr e a dy kw no n r e la ti on s to
t er m s f a f ew s i mp le f or m u l a s
o The truth of thi s state .

ment need s no d efence before those who have any gen

n i ne acqu ai ntance w i th the work go i ng on i n p s ychol ogi cal

l aboratori es o r w ith the al ready va s t and constantly i n c r e a s

,

i ng l i terature wh i ch these re s earche s produce .

For example the phenomena of attenti on an d t h e rel at i on s

,

of th i s psychi cal acti vity t o the c ond iti o n s of the mu s cul ar

s ystem and of the e nd organs Of sense mi ght wel l previ ou s

-
,

t o detai le d e x am i nati on h ave been suppo s e d t o b e a s impl e

,

a ffai r S O t oo the Engl i sh A s s oci ati onal School , a s r epr e

.
, ,

s ente d by the M i l ls , m ade a b rave S how of reduc i ng al l

mental phen ome na unde r the s o call ed l aws of the a ssoc i a -

ti on Of i deas ; and th e only questi on wh i ch at on e ti me
seemed to them worth d ebati n g w a s a s to whethe r al l the s e
l aw s coul d n ot be summ ari zed i n on e Bu t i t i s now .

k nown that n ot a sch ool ch i ld react s with atte nti on an d

-

d i s cri mi n ati ng con s ci ousness to the s i mplest form Of sti m u

l ati on w ithout furn i sh i ng thereby a p sych o phy s i cal problem -

so i nn itely comple x that ou r pre s ent re s ource s for the mere

d i s enta n gl i ng Of i ts el eme nts a re s peed i ly exhau s ted Start .

i ng ou t from the phy s i cal s i de we s eem t o s ee that he ight

,
,

and wei ght an d age and s e x and paren tage a n d cl i m ati c con
di t i on s (thermi c , el ectri cal , the am ou nt Of m oi s ture i n the
atmo s phere , etc and po s sibly m ore obscure tel l uri c i n u
.

e n c es of an u naccou ntabl e k i nd and the amount and qual ity ,

I
Of the la s t n i ght s s l eep , a n d the quant i ty and k i nd of food

taken f or the preced i ng meal and nu mberle s s -other pr e con ,

d i t i on s , determ ine s o seemi ngly si mpl e a result But sta rt .

 P LA C E OF MAN S M I ND I N NA T UR E

4 09

ing from the p s ychi cal s i de the c ompl e x ity Of the connected ,

factors i s not l e ss great A nd among them the re i s al way s .

t o be reck on e d w ith as u ni que and qui te i n calculabl e , that

,

pecul i ar s elf acti vi ty of the consci ou s subject whose very

-

e ss enti al charact e ri s ti c i s that a s su ch i t appe ar s i n con , ,

s c i ou s n e s s un relate d to and i ndependent of the bodi ly

cond i ti ons , although i t undoubtedly vari e s i n i nten s ity i n a
compl i cated depend e nce upon the m .

A nd why i ndeed S houl d i t be expected th at the ca s e a s

, ,

betw e en body and mi nd w oul d b e otherwi s e Ev e n the

natur e Of th e atom s ( each on e ) i s dete rmi n abl e i n thought
o n ly a s a v a s t and i nde n i te comple x of rel ati on s betwee n
e ach k i n d a n d al l the oth e r ki nd s ; a n d f or the s tatement of

thi s compl e x i ty n o on e word or s i ngle formu la i s at al l ade , ,

quate Who the n can hav e a n y re s pect f or the s i mpl i city

.
, ,

( wh i ch i s s i m li c i t
p y i ndeed ) that woul d try t o provi
,
de for t h e

rel ati o n s bet ween s uch a bei ng with i ts h i s tori cal devel op ,

ment a s i s the human s oul and such an i nn ite numbe r of

, ,

atom s of s o many k i nd s a s con s titute the brai n with s ome ,

on e hi gh s ound i n g but largely me ani ngl es s or ab s urd phra s e

-

A S fo r u s we have no more re s pect f or much of the new

,

fa n gled jargon about psycho ph y si cal par a l le l i s m than f or -

the Old fash i oned tal k about tenement or tabern a cl e of
-
,

clay etc The on e i s scarcely more s ci enti c or i n s tructi ve
, .

than the other N or have we any more fe ar for the s neer s of

.

tho s e men of sci e n ce who s e wi she s expre s s themsel ves i n ra s h

conclu s i o n s a s to the undoubted val i d i ty Of thi s s o cal led -

law than for th e d ogmati sm of the theol ogi an s wh o wou ld

,

pi n the faith of men to u n tenabl e vi e w s as t o the s o cal led -

transcendency and s pi ri tual ity of mi nd A l l the word s that .

men have ever empl oye d to expre s s the rel ati on s Of b ody and
m i nd whe n properly l i m i ted an d understood a s nai ve gu r e s
,

of spee ch
1
a s sert some und oubted truth ; but they serve to
,

1 For th e m ea n i g f u h t rm
n o s c e s as o rg an,t wh ppli d t th r l
e c .
, en a e o e e a

t i on s of b dy
o an d mi d nEl m
, see e en ts o f P h y i l gi l P y h l gy
s o o ca pp 6 3 4 f
s c o o , . .
 4 10 P LA C E OF MAN S M I ND I N NA T UR E

convey i t a s a real truth only to those who can thi nk ou t the

m eani ng of the s e gure s Of speech i nto term s of actual con ,

crete experi ence But n o on e term and not all of the

.

term s togeth e r s et s forth the whol e truth For b ody and .

mi nd e x i s t and deve l op i n company with the vary i ng e xpre s

s i on Of an i nde ni te number of changing rel ati on s They .

are not the s ame ; nei ther d o they run wholly paral lel i n
the i r acti viti es and cour s e of development The body b e .

gin s to be a s a part of nature at l arge ; and i t devel ops i n

con s tant dependence i n an i nd eni te vari ety of way s upon
, ,

nature and al so upon the bei ng and devel opment of the m i n d

,

w i th wh i ch i t i s a s we s ay connected The m i nd begi ns

, ,
.

t o be i n d ependence u pon the body but not i n the s ame , ,

sen s e of the word s a s a part Of natu re It not o n ly devel ops

,
.

i n m ost i mmedi ate dependence upon th e b ody and through ,

the body upon nature at l arge but i t al s o take s i n hand i ts ,

o wn devel opment I t sets for itself end s whi ch i t h a s

.
,

chose n ; and i t deter m i ne s withi n l i mi ts the bodi ly cond i

, ,

t i on s an d m ovements to the real i zati on of the s e chosen end s .

Thi s i s n ot mere paral l el ism ; i t i s n ot mere u s e of an

organ by an agent ; i t i s n ot mere i nhab i ti ng of a tene

ment ; i t i s n ot mere be i ng seated a s on a throne A l l .

su ch gures of speech d o not s i mpl i fy d o not enable u s the ,

better to und er s tand ; they mu s t al l them s el ves be u n derstood

by b e i ng i nt e rpreted i nto those actual concrete but relate d , ,

p erformance s of the t w o bei ngs body and mi n d wh i ch

s ci enti c s tudy d i s cover s and a s far a s po s s ible r e duce s to
, ,

gene ral term s .

The s ummi ng u p Of the whole m atter for p sych ologi cal

-

Vs c i e n ce and for th e met a physi cs of m i nd i s then u n doubt , ,

e dly du al i s ti c s o far forth

,
The re are i n fact t wo bei ngs t o
.

be recko n ed wi th It i s vai n to talk as though they were

.
,

i n any i ntell i gibl e meani n g of the word on e The body i s ,

.

not m i nd ; nor does i t produce or by i ts behavi or account for

the bei ng the acti viti es , o r the devel opme nt of m i nd The
,
.
 P LA C E OF MAN S M I N D I N NA T U RE

411

mi nd i s n ot the body ; n or doe s i t creat e or by i t s behavi or

wholly determi ne or accou n t f or the acti viti e s a n d d e ve lop
me n t of the body N othi ng i s gai ned to sci ence o r to ph i
.

l os oph y, but rathe r great confu s i on produced f o r b oth by ,

a dva n ci ng the d octri ne of the i dentity Of the t w o i n s ome

one b e i ng that i s s omeh ow ap a rt from nature at l arge and ,

yet act s a s the ground of both set s of phen omena, w ithout

be ing e ithe r matte r o r mi nd .

But undoubtedly too thi s D ual i s m i s n ot the nal word ,

, ,

n ot the u lti mate s oluti on Of th e probl em of body and mi nd

and nature at l arge i n the i r comple x rel ati on s to e ach other

, .

On the contrary the conclu s i on of the m e taphy s i c s of m i nd

, ,

as thu s far carri ed u pon a ba s i s of s cienti c p sychol ogy s ti ll ,

take s the shape Of a burn i ng que s ti on It i s a que s ti on al l .

the more a a m e be cau s e i t s many thread s h ave been u n r a v

e l l e d from s o many forms of c onfu s e d n e t work and h ave -
,

bee n at l ea s t l oo s ely twi s te d together i nto a common cord .

H ere i s a probl em wh i ch has be en prepare d by the l owe r

court i n order th a t i t may be carri ed to the s u preme cou rt
f or nal adjud i cati on N ature and body and mi n d cannot
.

b e l eft by rati onal m i nd it s el f i n th i s c on di ti on Of s eparate

nes s The ph e n omen a wh i ch w e a s cribe t o each are i n
.

experi ence a l way s i nterrel ated N at u re i s neve r k nown

.

e x cept a s by m i nd i n relati on to it s e lf through the bod i ly

organ i s m B ody i s never k nown e x cept by m i n d a s related
.

to it s el f and to N ature at l arge M i n d i s nev e r s elf kn own

.
-

e xcept a s ex i s ti n g i n rel ati on to body and to nature Some .

un i fyi n g pri nci pl e mu s t be d i s cove red a s real ly e xi stent ,

upo n wh ich can be i mpo s ed the task of acc ountin g t o the

mi nd for thi s compl e x sy s tem of rel ati on s Thi s dual i s m .

Or rath e r multi pl i ci ty Of conne cti on s among th ing s and body

a n d mi nd mu s t u ndoubtedly be di ss ol ved i n s ome ulti mate

moni s ti c sol uti on .

The B e i ng of t he Wor ld of,

whi ch a ll
p a r t i cu la r be i ng s
bu t p a r ts , mu st t he n be tha t i n i t
v
are so c on c ei ved of as ca n
 4 12 P LA C E OF MAN S M I ND I N NA T U RE

j be ou n d
f the On e G r ou n d f
o a l l i n t e r r e la te d ex i ste n ce s a nd

a ct i v i ti e s A n d it i s ou r rm convi cti on f or the rea s o n s for

| .
,

, whi ch we hol d our s elves respon s i bl e i n due ti me to give

an s we r that the nature of ou r mi nd s an d the relati on s they

( ,

cs u s t a i n to th e s e ve ral b od i e s we al s o cal l ou r ow n c a n b e

, under s tood only i f i t be grante d that thi s On e P ri nci pl e i s a n

i Oth e r and an A bsolute M i nd The human m i nd cannot be

.

p roduce d by the body ; ou t of the uncon s ci ou s a n d i rrati onal

i t h e c on s ci ous and rati onal cann ot be expl ai ned . Y et ou r
m i nd cannot b e hel d re s ponsi bl e for the creati on of its own
body o r Of nature at l arge Thi s body i s al s o too much
.

l a temporary loan from nature th at must momently be

,

,
ack nowledged a s a debt to b e paid , for u s s o to u nite i t with

, the m i nd a s to i dentify the t wo i n a thi rd unknown s ome

what But of n ature mi nd an d body al l al i ke i t must be

, .
, , , ,

s ai d : I n H i m wh o i s the on e W orl d G round b oth i t an d we

-

l i ve and move a n d have ou r bei ng

. A t a n y rate , whether
tth i s b e n ot s o i s the questi on wh i ch thi s treati se hand s over

'to the larger and al l i ncl us i ve domai n f P hi l o ophy

-
o s .
 I NDE X

A B SOL U TE M I ND t he co nc e pt i on Of , E GO S lf d M i d See e an n .

rgy pt i f 2 13 f 218 225 f

.
,

25 7 , 284 , 28 6 f 3 17 f 4 12 f ; 3 94 f E ne co n c e on o ,
.
, , .

E pi t m l gy t h t ur l i
. .
,
.
, .
,

r l ti i i
,

e a o n of , to n t e m n d , 3 9 2, 3 9 7 f , . s e f o o , e, o na a sc en ce ,

4 03 f 9 f ; . na t ur e of , 81 f .

r h r Wm iu r
.

A c e ,
.
,
o n c onsc o s n e ss of a ct o s ,

18 0 ( t ) no e
F L O U RN O P , M on m eta phy i s cs an d
i t i li m i d q
.
.
,
A ss o c a on a s ,
na e ua cy of , 75 f .
, p y h l gy
s c o o ,
28 f .

4 08 f .

u
A tom a t sm, t he i p y hi l ca n a tu e r of ,
s
phy i l t dp i t f
c

16 9 f .
H O D G S ON ,
m e ta s ca s an o n o ,

2s
H d i g vi w f p y h l gy
.

B A L z A C , d a m a t c con sc o sn ess of , r i iu o n d e s o s c o o an

m t ph y i M i m i ti
,

e a 18 f ; hi s cs , s on s cr
18 1 f
.

mi t k vi w f
.

B li l
e e f as e e m e n t i n no e d e , 228 f k wl g .
i d 3 19 f ; h i
c se ,
. s s a en e o

B rl i i
.

o dy , e a t o n o f , t o m n d , 208 f , 23 7 f
L o t ze , 3 19 f .

H uxl ey philoso phi ca l t e n e ts of 1 1 f

.

25 3 f 2 7 1 f ; n a t e o f , 25 4 f ur , , .

Hyp n o t i sm d o ubl e con sc i o us n e ss

. .

B ri c h n er , his ma t e a s m , 284 ri li ,
1"

g r l ph
.

164 f .
, 18 6 f ; . ene a e n om e n a o f ,

CA U S A T I ON as a ppli d t b e o od y a nd
277 f .

i ri gi
,

m n d, 212 f .
,
23 2 f .
,
25 8 f o n of

the pt i f 2 18 f 23 0 f ; l w I EN
co n ce hyp t h i f 20 f 3 22 f
on o ,
.
, . a D T I T Y, o es s o ,
.
,

iu
,

f 223 f 229 f 23 4 f
o .
, 347 f .
f 14 8 f ; t h
,
.
co n s c o s n e ss o e,
C ti r l t d t th pt f
, . .
,

on a on , as f t hi g 1 5 0 f
e a e o e c on ce o o n s,
mi d 86 f
.

n , I m m rt li ty f m i d 205 f 3 9 7 f
.
o a o n

C pt i t ur
.

I pir i p y hi l ut m t i m i
, ,

on ce f 93 f on , na e o .
ns a t on , s c ca a o a s n,
C iu r p t it
,

t t 1 7 2 f ; P hil Ju d vi w f 1 73 f
on s c o sn e ss , as es ec s s co n e n o sens e o
f t h S l f 1 01 f 127 f 1 7 4 f
, .
,
.

86 f ; . o e e , , .
, .

f i d t i ty 14 8 f ; ll d
.
,
'

25 0 f
m t ph y i
o en so ca e
J A E Wm
d ubl
.
,
d p y M S, on e a s cs a n s
1 64 f 17 9 f 183 f ; t h
l k wl
.
,
o e, e
f
.
,

t hi l 1 8 3 f ; t hr h l d f 19 1 f
, . .

h l gy 24 f dg c o o ,
on se -
no e e,
tu
e ca , . es o o ,
1 03 f f th E g 163 f na re o e o,
3 30 f 3 9 9 L
. .

.
,

Cr ti i m t h ry f t m i d 3 6 4 f
ea on s , eo o as o n

t ur f p y h l gy 1 f ;
.
, ,

KA N T, on na e o s c o o

d ubl iu p y h l gi l f ll i f 9 9 f
, .

D M
E S S O I R, ax ,
on

o e con sc o s s c o o ca a ac e s o ; on

t hi l iu
, .

175 (
n e ss , t ) no e 183 f im e ca c o n sc o s n es s , ; on

Dr m dr m ti u d ri g f E g
.

m r t l i ty 206 ; p r l gi m f
.

ea s, a a c s n e n o o o a ,
ou a a o s s o

i 178 f
n, . pur r 3 96 f e e as o n ,

D u li m i t u ri t i l f r m 6 f 1 1 f K wl d g t r
.

a s s nc f "M 1 1 5 f 229 fca o .

, no e e , na u e o .
,

ri ti l d d 28 8 f ; d r l t i f t pri ipl f u t i
, , ,

28 5 ; t h e c ca ,
e ne ,
. an e a on o , o nc e o ca sa o n,

d e f e n d e d, 3 5 1 f . 229 f .
4 14 I ND E X
L OT"E, l f f li g o n se -
ee n 24 9 ; na t ur e of R E A L , t h e m e t a ys c s o f , 7 8 f ph i
b dy 25 5 f ri li
, .

th e o , on m a te a sm , Re a s m li sy c o o y o f , 4 9 f p hlg
d u li m
.
, .

29 4 f ; h i . s a s , 3 19 f ; . on t he li
Re a ty , t h e co e a t e o f no rr l k wl dg e e,
origi f m i d 3 6 6 n o n , . 9 7 f , 1 15 co n ce t o n o f , 1 1 9 f
. pi .

MA T E RI A L ISM d e n e d , 28 8 f c ri t i
S CI EN C E ,
m e ta phy i s cs of, 7 f .
, 10 f .
,

21 2 f
i 29 0f ; i t u i t lligibili ty 3 02 f
.
,
.

c s c a,

M ury M d ubl iu
. s n n e ,
.

S lf t ur f t h k wl dg f 9 0 f
e ,
na e o e no e e o .

i divi d u l
, ,
a on o e c on s c o sn ess
9 5 f 1 2 7 f 1 5 5 f 24 8 f
.
, ,

i d r m 1 79
.
,
. n a

i i g f 102 f ; d r m t i u d ri g
, .

n ea s, .

M m ry k wl dg f r m 13 0 f
e o ,
no e e o , .

f
z n

175 f
o

d i t i gui h d f r m
, . a a c s n e n

M t ph y i
e a d f i p y h l gy
s cs , nee o , n s c o o ,
o

t hi g
,

24 5 f
n s,
. as s n s e o

1 f 23 f 23 f 4 2 f 5 7 f
.

Mi d
.
,

pt f 83 f 106 f r li ty f
.
, .
, .

S lip i m 3 3 f 21 1 f
o s s , .
, .

n , co n c e

1 13 f 1 25 f 1 4 7 1 9 7 f ; i d t i ty f
o , .
, . ea o ,
S ul
o p ti f i p y h l gy 5 1
, c on ce on o n s c o o , ,

8 9 f ; i phil ph y 1 1 1 f 28 7 f
,
.
,
.
, ,
. en o

14 8 1 6 2 f ; u i t y
,
n os o .
, .

f 18 9 f 19 4 f
,

Sp r h i pt i f phil phy
.

,
. n o ,
.
, .

r l t i f t b dy
,
e n ce s c once on o oso ,
202 f
,
3 69 f e a on o o o
69 f
.
,
.

rigi f
, ,

208 f 23 7 f 25 3 f 27 1 f ;
.

3 5 6 f 3 5 8 f ; p rm
.

.
,

f 3 66 f ; .
.
,

e
.
,

a n e n ce
.

o
o n o ,
Spi r l ti
n oz a , on f mi d d b dy e a ons o n an o ,

20 f 23 9 f
,

i t pl t ur
.
,
. .

i
Spiri t u li m d d 28 8 f ; ri t i i d
,
s 397 f
a ce n na e, .

M im
on s h l t i d t ri 24 2 f
, a sc o as c oc ne ,
3 05 f 3 8 4 f
a s ,
e ne , . c c se ,

i t t w ki d 28 f ; d d 28 8 f
.

. .
,

it
s

tt i t u d
s a
o

h r t ri d 3 14 f ; i t
n

e c
s,

a ac e
4 .

ze
e ne ,
.

s
Suf i t r c en pri ipl f 224 f e as on , nc e o ,
.
,

22 7 f
rit i i d 3 1 7 f
.
,
.

t t
en e s c c se , .

T HI NG S , h o w d st i i gui h n s ed r f om m i n d,

N E W T ON , a tt it ud e of , to m e ta phy i s cs
Th
24 5 f
om p
.

son , D G on na t ur e of E g o,
6 f
. .
,
.

16 3 f . 201 .

T h ugh t rl r li ty f m i
,

o ,
as e ated to ea o n d,

P H EN OM EN I S M M F l ur o n oy s

cr i t i 14 0 f .

T r du i i th ry x m i
,

l git i m ut
.

c a n sm , th e n e d,
c is m o f, 33 f ; . e ate o com e Of , a eo e a

21 1 f .
3 60 f .

P hil osoph y r l ti
e a on of, to p y h l gy
s c o o
V hi m t ri li m 29 8 f
, ,

I f 15 f 13 f 24 f 41 f 65 f 73 ; OG T, s a e a s .

V lk m h i vi w f p y h l gy
. . . ,
, . , , ,

ur f 6 4 f 7 0 f ; ki d
.

nat o f 28 8 f o an n, s e s o s c o o an d
e o n s
m t ph y i
. .

P r ph ti m iu
.
, , ,

o e f 182 f
s co ns c o s n e ss o .
44 f
e a s c s, .
, ,

P y h l gy r l t i
s c o o f t phil ph y e a on o o oso

pt i f ti
, ,

wi t h ut m t
,

1 f 41 f. 52 f
, 73 ; .
,
.

o e a W A RD ,
Dr .
, o n c o n ce on o ca usa on ,

phy i 6 f 4 2 f 6 0 f t ur
,

s cs , f na e o 21 9 f
W b r l w f i t ig i fi
. . .
, , .
,

52 f e e 26 2 f a o , s s n c a n ce , .

W rl d G r u d S A b lu t M i d
.
,

P y h ph y i l P r ll li m pri ipl
s c o- s ca a a e s nc e o -
o n ee so e n

W u dt ri t i i d by M F l ur y 29 f
.
,

o f 29 f 3 6 f 61 f 24 0 f 3 19 f n c c se . o no ,

h i vi w f p y h l gy
, .
, .
, .
,
.
,
.
,

H Off di g vi w f 3 19 f ; th pri
n

S e o e n s d m e s o s c o o an et a

phy i 4 9 f
,

ri ti i d 3 3 1 f
.

c i pl e c c se , . s cs , .
 TH E P H IL OS O P H IC A L W ORKS

G E O RG E TRUM BULL LADD

Pro f e s s o r of Ph i lo s o p h y i n Ya le U n i v e r s i t y .

P S Y C H O LO G Y : De s c r i p t i v e a nd E x p la n a t o ry .

A T r ea t i s e of t h e P h e n o m e na , La w s , a nd De v e l o p m e n t of Hu m a n
M e n ta l L if e . B y G E ORG E T RUM BUL L L A D D, P r o f e s s o r of Ph i
l os o p h y i n Ya l e U n i v e rs i t y . 8v o,

b k i d ig d
Th e v r h ir gr u d f d rip iv d xpl
oo s es ne to co e t e e nt e o n o e sc t e an e a na

to ry p y h l gy i u m m r y w y r rvi g p ul iv d i u i
s c o o n d h a s a a ,
e se n s ec a t e sc ss o n an t e

phil ph y f m i d f
o so h r v lu m I i r f ull y d p t d h
o n d f or a not e o e . t s ca e a a e to t e nee s o

pupil d t h r whil t x lu iv l y pr p r d f h m
s an ea c e s, e no e c s e e a e or t e .

Th p i f i w t k l d h uh ri
e o nt o l y i f ll h m l
V e a en ea s t e a t o n to a n a na s s o a t e e n ta

pr b
o ce s s e sp i ll y i h d , v rt r ut h d v l pm
es f m ec al n to t e en ea o o t a ce t e e e o e nt o e n ta

lif h f rm i
e ,
t d gr w h
e f o ll d f ul y d h
a t on i m f
an o t o s o ca - e

ac t ,
a n t e a tta n ent o

k wl d g d f h r r
no e e an o c a a c te .

Af r w i tr d u ry h p r
te h N t ur
t d h M h d
o n f P y h l
o cto c a te s o n t e a e a n t e et o o s c o

o gy h hr m i d ivi i
,
t e f ll w
t eeTh M t G r l F rm f
a n s ons a re a s o o s : I . e os e ne a o s o

M l Lif
e n ta Th El m f M l Lif
e .
3 Th D v l pm
2 . f e e e nts o e n ta e . . e e e o ent o

M l Li f
e n ta e

C r i t i ca l Est i m a t e s of the W o rk .

I k w no o f no o t h r w rk t h t g i v
e o a e s so g oo d a C l l l iL a
'

l s urv ey of th e wh l o e e d l as t hi s

W NE U iv r i P r f
.

o . B . P . BO ,
Bo s t o n n e s ty .

wri i g f
An y m r b gr ful f T hi b Okwi ll l rg l i r
t n o his 18 a d a tte to e a te or s o a e y nc ea s e o u r e bt

P r f G H P AL E H rv rd U i
.

-
o . . M R, a a n v e rs ny .

h ll k l u
I s a r m m d i g Pr f
ta e p L dd
ea s w b k p h l g m
re i n eco en n o es s o r a
'
s ne oo on sy c o o y to y
c la s s es a s am h r ugh d xh u iv r m ost t o o ub an e a st e t ea t e nt o f th e s ject
"

P r f J H H L C l u b i C ll g
.

o . . YS O P, o m a o e e .

l m h l rl
As a d h r u ghl
ca i i r i
sc o a v igi i gl v l u
y, an t o o y sc e n t c t ea t se co er n n a s n e o m e th e
i r fi l d f ri i v d x l r h l g d ri i r iv l
,

b k
,

e nt e e o d esc pt e an e p a n a to y psyc o o y an vi tte n n a n a tt a c t e sty e , th e oo

ha s i
no t u l i E gl i h
ts eq rm P r f M D N AN V l U i v r i
a n n s or Ge an .

o . G . . U C , a e n e s ty .

I di i t h r A m ri
18 a h l r hi h v r du d
st nct ono to e ca n sc o a s p to a e p o ce it

P r f H N G A NE S m i h C ll g

.

o . . . RD R, t o e e .

I W ill b w ll
t gh i d i bl e h e f -
h l g d W ill m k
ni n d m ir b l
s p e n sa e to t e a c e rs o p s yc o o y, an a e an a a e

te x b k Wi h l
t -
oo uf i l d v d u d r d d r b i d i u i
t c a ss es s c e nt y a a nce to n e s ta n an p o t y ts sc ss o n

P r i d E H C A EN Tuf C ll
.

e
s e nt . P , ts o ege .

I h ll s r mm d
a at m l
o nc e ec o en i ts use bv y c a s s es

P r f J W S EA N U f Wi
.

i o . T R S, i i i v e rS i t) o sc o n s n .
E L E M E N T S O F P H Y S I O L O G I C A L P S Y C H O LOG Y
A T r ea t i s e o f th e Act i v i t i e s a nd Na t u r e of t h e M i n d f rom t h e Ph y s
i ca l and E x pe ri m e n t a l P o i n t of V i e w . B y G E ORG E RU M B U L L T
L A D D, Pr of e s s o r o f P h i l o s o p h y i n Ya l e U n i v e r s i t y . 8 v 0,

T hi r i h th
s is th e mp d r pr
st E gli h r d r
t ea t se t a as a tt e te to e se n t to n s ea e s

a di u isc f h wh l ub j br ugh t d w
ss on o t e h m r o e ti m s I e ct o o n to t e ost e ce n t es . t

i lu d h l t d i v ri
nc es t ed by um r u
a est d x ll s cot illu r i
e d
es, a n n e o s a n e ce en st a t ons an

ta bl esd b y g t h ri g m
an ri l f r m r a d v hu d r d f p r
e n a te a o s co es an e en n e s o se a a te

r i i
t e a t se s ibl m p r na cce ss i bri g b f r h r dri
e to mp
ost e so ns t n s e o e t e ea e n a co a ct

an d y lu i d f r m h t ir ub j
et c o t e en e s ect .

T h w rk h hr pri ip l d ivi i
e o f whi h h
as t r tee i f d
nc a s ons o c t e s co n s s ts o a e

sc rip i f h
t on ru t ur od fu t ti e f h N rv u S y t m
st c e id r d
an nc on s o t e e o s s e co n s e e

s i m pl y u d r h p i f m h i m wi t h u t r f r
n e t e co n ce h ph
t on o m ec an s o e e e n ce to t e eno ena

o f i u
co n sc o Th d p r d
sn e ss rib h v ri u l
. f
e s e co n rr l t i a t e sc es t e a o s c a sse s o co e a on s

whi h xi t b t w
c e th ph ms e f h rv u m h i m d m l
een e eno e na o t e ne o s ec an s an e n ta

ph m eno wi h tt m pt
e na ,
wh t i k w f t h l w whi h m i i
t a n a e to s ta te a s no n o e a s c a n ta n

t h m lv v r h v ri u l
e se es o e Th hir d p r i r d u
t e se a h o l s c a s se s . e t a t nt o ce s , a t t e c o se

o f h t r r h h pr
e se e sea i f u h c lu i
es, t m y b l gi i m t l y
e e se n ta t on o s c co nc s ons a s a e e t a e

g h r d m r p ul iv l y i f rr d
at e e or o r i g h
e s ecu r f h h um
a t e n e e co n ce n n t e na t e o t e an

mi d n .

P r f r L d d d v w rm h k
o es s o a u d r ki g r r i f h w rk
ese r es a t an s fo r n e ta n t h e p e pa a t o n o s uc a o
M md
H wr e i b
i tes a gi i g
t o nce full d l r i igh i
a s a s c e nt is t e nt o n a n n th e es t an c ea es t ns t n to th e

p h meno f mi d d
e na m oh i i d l n r d wi h
an ubl i m u i f h
as a e ta p ys c an eep y c once ne t th e s e q est o n o t e

ur f h iri u l ub J A E
,

na t e o t e sp LL t aT d s s ta n c e .

M S SU Y in h e A ca e my .

W ll wr i e x ll d m
tt e n ,r l r v in e l fr fr m d l
ce e nt ton e a n te pe i n c ea e e n s ty e , ee o nee s
e s t ec h n i c a li
i d wi h d r g rd h d i ff r b w mr ul urm i
, ,

t es , a n t ue e a to t d
e n ec e s sa r v e e nc e et een e e spec a t ion or s s es an

es ta bli h d f s N w Y kT m
e a c ts .
" -
e or i es .

Th i d m i r bl w rks a P r f r L d d d rv h r w l m fr m
a e o by E gli h ubli
o e ss o a es e es a ea ty e co e o th e n s p c

as h r
t e b k f i i x st f ubj
oo o m r d d h f h ugh
su c e nt e k h pl i te n t o s ec t a tt e an e pt o t o t t o ta e t e a ce n

A m ri e d E gl i h l i
ca n a n ur h h b h l d i n s i b h G rm
t e ra t d Fe t b a t as ee n e s n c e 1 8 74 n ot e a ny a n ra n c e v

W d un G t d
sd P h i l gi h P h l g
ru n s z ug e W m er R ys o o sc en s yc o o ie .

est i n st e r ev i e w .

H rud i i d h br d m i d d
is e t on a n wi h h h r d h v l u m
is oa -
n e n es s a r e o n a pa r t ea c ot e ; an is o e W l IIi
p r b bl f
o a y, r m or d rd w r k f r f r
m a n y y ea s h
to c o ubj e, h e th e s ta n a o o e e e nc e o n t e s ect

P r f W LL A J A E
.

N o . I I M M S in Th e a ti o n .

O U T L I NE S OF P H YSI O L O G I C A L PS Y C H O L O G Y .

A T e x t - b oo kof M e n ta l S c i ce f o A ca d e m i e s n d Co l le g e s B y en r a . .

G E ORG E T RU M BU L L L A DD Pr of e o of Ph i los o p h y i Y l , ss r n a e

U n i v e rs i t y . C r o w n 8 v 0,

v lu m i
Th e o e s not a n abri d g m r vi i f h l rg r b
ent or k El m e s on o t e a e oo ,
e en ts

o f P h y i l gi lPyh l
s o o ca s c o o g y whi h i ill b pr f rr d f m ur u d
,
c s st to e e e e or a t e st e n ts ,

b lik i urv y h
u t, e t, s e s t e e nt ir l d h ugh wi h l d il d r f r
e e ,
t o h t e ss e ta s a n e e e n ce s t a t

m igh m b rrt b gi e a a ss e n ne r Bri f r d i u i

s .
f h
e rv u m h i m
e sc ss o n s o t e ne o s ec an s ,

a n d f h o t ur f th t e na e o e mi d rl d
n h b d y will b f u d i h
as e a te to t e o ,
e o n n t e

O u t li whil h r f r l i xi i g b w x i t d rg

nes e t e t ea t m ent o e a t ons e d st n et ee n e c e o a ns a n

m l ph m
e n ta ff r eno e na o e s mu h w m c r i l p i ll y
ne C i u a te a ,
es ec a on o n sc o sne ss ,
a s to i ts co n n e c t o n i wi h t the b d il y rg i
o o a n sm ,
r w rd
e a th e st ud ent w ho m a ste r s

t hi b k
s oo .

u h r i m f ur i h
Th e a m plt y o rr a x b k f h bri f r s to n s a co e te et co e ct te t- oo or t e e e

stu d y f m l ph m o fr m h xp ri m
e n ta l d ph y i l gi l p i f e no e na o t e e e e n ta a n s o o ca o nt o

vi w B h pupil d
e . h r h v b
ot id r d h h b k m b a n tea c e a e een co n s e e ,
t a t t e oo a y e

r d il y l r d d u
ea eaf ull y ugh ne an s cce s s ta t .

I hi k h r Am ri
t n i i dt anh l hi h b E gli h b k
o no to e ca n Sc ence an sc o a rs p t at th e es t n s oo s on

ph i l gi l
ys o o h l g h u l d m fr m Am r i u i v r i
ca p s yc o o y s o co e o an e ca n n e s ty

j M K C A ELL U i v r i f P lv i
.

C TT n e s ty o e n ns y an a

i r du i ud f h i l g l h l g i i b l u l Wi h u i v l
.
. .
,

As an nt o c t o n to th e st y o p ys o o i ca ps yc o o y t s a so te y t o t a r a

H N G S m i h C ll g A RDl N E R , t o e e

u hr i r x b k gu g Th N
. . .

F o r i ts p b l
r p os e t e e s not a e t te te t- o o i n the a n a e . e a t i on .

Th u h gv i u i
e a cc o d l r d ig nt f ube d h ill u r ii m
es s a s c c nc t a n c ea es t o th e s j ec t , an t e st a t o ns le e

h i g b d i r d Th B
no t n to M d
e j es e .

e ri ti sh e i ca l ou rna l

im

An r i bu i x r i m l d h i l gi l
p o rt a n t c o n t t m on to th e e pe e n ta an p ys o o ca s tud y o f e n ta l phe
nom G e na . l a sg o w H e r a l d

Pr f r L d d m
o es s o h w rld O u li aP h i l gi l P h l g in r rd
giv g to t e o h is t n es o f ys o o ca s yc o o y , ha s

ea e

um h m r k d i d d d v h Am ri li r ur f h i l gi l h il
,

a m on e nt t a t a s a ec e a a nce in t e e ca n te a t e o p ys o o ca p oso

phy W l b It d rd w r k
il Tm e a s ta n a o .

B o sto n i es

l u id i f
Fo r m d m c f r
ty o m W i hi m d
s ta t e li m i e nt a n co p re h e n s w e n e s s o t ea t ent t n o e ra t e ts Pro
L dd
fe s s o r w b v u ur d O u t l i i i es f C d
'
a s j is , e e lie e, ns pa ss e E d u c a t zo n a l ou r na l o a na a

P RIM E R OF P S Y C H O L O G Y .

B y G E ORG E TRUM BUL L L A DD . Pr of e s s o r of P h i lo s o p h y i n Ya le

Un i v e rs i t y l a m o , 2 2 4 pa g e s , $ l . . o o n e t.

T hi s b k wri is b y hi mi
a n e nt u h r xpr l y f ir l y e ne w oo , t te n t s e ne n t a t o e e ss or

l m r y u d y d w ill b f u d m
e e e n ta hst d f l rg u m b r f ,
a n e o n to ee t t e nee s o a a e n e o

sc h l d ll g oo s a n I i r m rk bl b k i i d ir
co e d i m pli i y
es . t s a e a a e oo n ts e ctne ss a n s c t ,

se rvi g i purp i bri gi g v r y i m p r

n ts d m wh d i f ul
o se ub j n n n a e o ta n t a n so e a t c t s e ct

ea sil y wi hi h r h f l l t n t e ea c o a .

Th m rl y h l r hip f h wr i r i
e a s te i bl h r i h i m r sc o a s o t e te s a s n o t ce a e e e as n s o e

a dv d w rk
a nce H h l u d d i pu i g w l h f i f r m i
o s . e as a so s c ce e e n tt n a ea t o n o a t on

i h f r m h i t b m r r l y i r i g d r iv
n to s u c o t a t e co es a e n te e st n a n a tt a ct e .

C O N T E N TS l T Mi d d A ivi i C m : d A i I I I S
he i n an It s ct t es ll o ns o us n ess a n tt e nt on e n sa t o ns
l V F l i gV M d T u h V I I H ri g
. . .

l Im g d Id V I S m ll T
ee n e n ta a es a n ea s e a s te , a n o c ea n

d S igh V I I I M m y i X Th ugh d L gu g X R i g
. . .

d i m gi
.
,

an t e or an a na t on I o t an an a e ea s o n n

d K wl d g X Em i d D ir Xl W ill d C h r r
. .

im
.

an no e e I ot ons, S e nt e n ts , an es es l a n a a c te

rm d D v l
. .

X T m lll . m e pe a ent a n e e op e nt .

F RO M TH E P RE FA C E .

Whil e
il P ri m r i h b m y im
a do pi g
v id b h ft n th e t t e o f e

t as ee n a to a o ot o

xrm x r m f lki g d w t h r d r i
,

tw o e O f h i
t eh es ne o t e se s t e e t e e o ta n o n o t e ea e n

uh m r k p u pl l y b f r h i m h i w l k f f m ili ri
.

s c a a n ne as to ee n e a sa n t e o e s o n ac o a a ty
wi h t h ub j t T h h r x r m i h f d r y
t e s ec d f d i f ul y d e ot e e t e e s t a t o ness a n o c t ue to
x iv i wi h u d r ppi g h h i l l gu g
.

th e e d cess f
e co n d e nsa t on t o t o n t e u se o te c n ca an a e a n
o f ri l y i i m d
st ct I w rd hi b k i m pl y i m
sc e n t c o es n a o t s oo s a s to
r f h m r bvi u f d pri ipl k w m d r
.
,

na m ra t e s o e o t i e o e o o s a c ts a n nc es no n to o e n sc e n
ti h p y h l g y i pl i
e s d f m ili r E gli h
c o o d i rd rl y b w h ll y n a n an a a n s a n n a n o e ut o

u h i l w y d di i h w y u g f ri
,

n te c A
n ca h a d w s t e e c a t on s o s, a o n en as
ki d ugh ff r h r l f b h u b j f h xp ri m d ju d g
.

n e no to o f i e e se as ot s e ct or t e e e ent a n e o ts
r ul I h v ri d m k m y d
es ts i h i a llig e tf m y y u h fu l e to a e co n e n ce n t e n te e n ce o o t
ri i h m ur f m y u b ki bri d g m
.

c t c t e Th eas e o s c ce s s e oo s no t a n a e ent
h r xi i g w rk
.

f o
y a n ot e e st n o .
I N T RO DU C T I O N TO P H I LO S O P H Y .

A n I n q u i r y a ft e r a Ra t i o n a l S y s t e m of S c i e n t i fi c Pr i n c i p l e s i n t h e i r
Re la t i o n t o U lt i m a t e Rea l i t y By . G E ORG E T RU M B U L L L A DD ,
Pr of e s s o r of P h i lo s o p h y i n Ya l e Un i v e rs i t y . 8vo,

Th e uh r h p o xpr d i h P r f
e o f the d i a rp r d i t o ,
as e esse n t e e a ce a n n co o a te n

th e i l i h t hi b k m y rv
t t e , s t a i r du
t m s f i r d r
oo h a se e to nt o ce so e o ts ea e s to t e

st u d y f phil ph y o o so .

Am g h f w h m i i d d m y b r m i d h y u ng i
on t o se or o t i s n te n e a e s t e n t one t e o n

th e l ry r f a te high r d u i l i i u i
ea s o I i
our h w v r e e ca t o n a nst t t ons t s, o e e ,
not a

te c h i l b k f i ru i
n ca oo u h b i g i h pi ior f h
nst uh r u b ct o n ,
s c e n ,
n t e o n on o t e a t o ,
n e

co mi g u d y f pr bl m whi h i vi r i
n a st o d d i o pi i B e s c n te e ect on an en n o n on ut

th r e h r w h h r i h g r l pur ui f r k wl d g f phil
e a re ot e s o s a e n t e e ne a s t a te a no e e o o

so phi l qu i ca N wh h ugh f ul
e st ons p h m y ri f whi h
. one o a re t o t e s ca e t e s te es o c

li f i l f i m d p d
e tse s ll r i q uir r h b k pp l p i ll y
a e u ,
an to a ea ne st n e s t e oo a ea s es ec a .

Th l e gu g h b a n i m pli d
a e h um as h u g h h qu i
een f s e to t e t o st, t o t e est ons a re o

s u h ur h
c na t w r m d u f m ili r l gu g m i m
e t a t ne ur f
te s a n n a a a n a e so et e s o cc o n e ce s

Sit y y ,
ll i f u d
et ba i lligibl d l rl y
s o dn F i ll y i m y b
to e n te e a n c ea s ta te . na t a e

sa id h h u h r h t at t l f h i m l f ir l y
e a t o l d i h tr m a s notf e t se en t e co n c e a e n t e ea t ent o

th e ubj s H m d ly m k h
ect f i e h h i w vi w o est a es t e co n e ss o n t a t s o n e s, to an

e x p i iv
te n t w ll os t ri i l pp r i h p g
e as d e h publ i hi as c t ca ,
a ea n t e a es, a n to t e c t s

m k a h b k f d ubl v lu d i r
es t e oo o o e a e an n te est .

C O N T E N TS S ur f Phi l : h d P r bl l i f P hil h
Th e o ce o o so p y an i ts o em s Re a t on o os op y to th e Pa r
S P
t i c u la r h l g d P hil h T
c i e n c es ri d h M h d P h i l h
sy c o o y an osop y he S pi t an t e et o of o so p y
D gm i m Sk i i m d C ri i i m T Divi i f Ph il h T Th r f
.

o at s ep t c s an t c s he s ons o osop y he eo y o

K w l dg M h i P h i l h f N ur h f Mi d E hi
,

d P hil
,

no e e e ta p y s cs osop y o at e an o s op y o n t cs

j E st h e ti c s P hil
h y f R l igi T d
osop o e on en enc ies a nd Sc h l oo s in P hil o so p h y

Th e st ud y o f th i b k W ill b d i ip li
s oo e a sc ne i n s h r wd e a nd
p o t ra y e d r r ea s o n n i g a nd o pe n u p

w rl d t h t wi ll d d u i gi v
,

a o o f id ea s a p d j ym
a sco e an en o e nt to th e st d e n t s m nd

We e i t o u r u nq ua l i

l i ed endo r se m e nt Th e "u a r t e r ly R ev i ew
In a ll i t s a s p ec t s we a re s ur P r f L
e o ess o r add

s w k W ill b w
or e e lc o m ed .
"

H e r a ld a nd P r e s by t e r
Th e e nt ir e d i sc u i ss o n is fr h d i d
es ca n a nd a bl e It 15 not on ly an int r duo c tio n , it is l
a so a

ribu hil hy
, , .

c ont t io n to p o sop .
" P o s t -
G r a d u a te Wo o s t e r "u a r t e r ly

A D e sc r i p t iv e T e x t b o o kC a t a l o g u e f o r t h e c u r re n t y e a r c o n -
,

t a i n i n g a l a rg e l i s t o f boo k s i n a l l d e p a rt m e n t s of c o ll e g e s e m i n a ry , ,

a n d u n i v e r s i t y wo r kwi l l b e m a i l e d fr e e o n r e q u e s t ; a l s o a co m p l e t e
,

T e x t b o o kP ric e l i s t f o r t e a che r s a n d C a t a l o g u e o f M i s c e ll a n e o u s
- -

P u b l ic a t io n s .

C o rr e s p o n d e n c e i n v i t e d .

C H A RL E S S C RI B N E R S S O NS ,

i s3
-1
57 Fi f t h A v e n u e , Ne w Yo r k .