Telecommunication Technologies and

Networks

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the

Summer Training
at

BSNL: Advance Level Telecommunication

Training Centre
by

Shubham Bansal
07516412814
Batch:2014-18

Electronics and Communication Engineering

University School of Information and
Communication Engineering

Guru Gobind Singh

Indraprastha
University

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

47
It is my esteemed pleasure to present the training report. I had a golden opportunity of

getting industrial training at Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. (Govt. Of India Ent.)Ghaziabad

. I express my deep gratitude to Mr. RAKESH CHANDERA(S.D.E) and Mrs.

VASUDHA SHARMA(TTA) ,who gave me the chance to understand the working of

OCB-283 Exchange. The other employees also deserve thanks for helping me in

completion of my report. It indeed was an enriching experience to study the digital

communication through OCB exchange. This acknowledgement will hardly be

sufficient in expressing our deep sense of gratitude to our respected professors and

individuals in the preparation of this object. Last but not least we are highly grateful to

our parents for helping us round the clock and for their encouragement and love.

47
 PREFACE

Organizations are made up of people and function through people. Without people,
organizations cannot exist. The resources of men, money, material, machinery, and
mechanism are connected, coordinated and utilized through people. Engineers need to
concentrate more on mechanism and the way in which things have been made. The
need of training arises for doing things yourself, understanding its way.

Practical exposure for doing things makes a person conversant to the technicalities
involved in any job. In view of such benefits, imparting of vocational training has
been made an integral part of any academic structure.

In B.S.N.L., training is given to Engineering Aspirants to secure future in the dynamic

world of telecommunications. Today telecommunication industry is one of the very
fastest growing industries in the world.

In this order I have taken 28 days BSNL training. In my report I try to introduce
Leased line concepts, WIMAX, Wi-Fi, optical fiber concepts and overview of
Intranet.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER CONTENTS PAGE NO.

NO.
Cover Page 1

Acknowledgement 2

Preface 3

Chapter-1 Introduction to BSNL 6-7

1.1 How BSNL Came to Telecom Network 6
1.2 Institutional Framework 6
1.3 BSNL Contribution to DOT 7
Chapter-2 Working of Basic Telecom network 8-10
2.1 Call Setup 8
2.2 Electronic Exchange 9
2.3 Carrier Room 9
2.3.1 CLLS 9
2.3.2 MLLN 9
2.4 Main Distribution Frame 9
2.4.1 Functions of MDF 10
2.5 Power Plant 10
Chapter-3 Leased Lines 11-12
3.1 Introduction 11
3.2 Drawbacks of LL 11
3.3 MLLN 11
3.3.1 MLLN Features 11
3.3.2 MLLN Advantages 12
3.3.3 Applications of MLLN 12
Chapter-4 Intranet 13-15
4.1 Introduction 13
4.2 Features of Intranet 13
4.3 Why Intranet for an Organization? 13
4.4 Application of Intranet 14
4.5 Overview of Intranet 14
4.6 Intranet Application in a Circle 14
Chapter-5 Corporate Network 16-17
5.1 Introduction 16
5.2 Why do Organization have CN? 17
5.3 Features of CN Security 17
Chapter-6 WI-FI 18-22
6.1 WI-FI Network 18
6.2 Working of WI-FI Network 18
6.3 Benefits of WI-FI 19
6.4 Wi-Fi Network Configuration 19
6.5 Limitations of WI-FI 22
Chapter-7 WIMAX 23-28

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 7.1 Wireless Broadband Services 23
7.2 Salient Features of WIMAX 23
7.3 Evolution of Broadband Services 23
7.4 WIMAX Network Architecture 26
Chapter-8 PCM Principles 29-32
8.1 Introduction 29
8.2 Multiplexing Techniques 29
8.3 Pulse Code Modulation 31
8.4 Signaling in Telecommunication 32
Chapter-9 GSM 33-34
9.1 Features of GSM 33
9.2 GSM Subsystem 33
9.2.1 Radio Subsystem 33
9.2.2 Network and Switching 34
Subsystem
9.2.3 Function of MSC 34
9.3 34
Chapter-10 GPRS 35
Chapter -11 CDMA 36-38
11.1 Access Network 36
11.1.1 WILL 36
11.2 Spread Spectrum Principle 37
Chapter-12 Fibre Optic Transmission Medium 39-40
12.1 Introduction 39
12.2 Architecture of Fibre 39
12.3 Classification 40
12.4 Advantages of Fibre Optics 40
Chapter-13 DWDM 41-45
13.1 Introduction 41
13.2 Development of DWDM Technology 42
13.3 Verities of WDM 43
13.4 DWDM System Components 44
13.5 Benefits of DWDM 45
Conclusion 46
Bibliography and References 47

47
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION TO BSNL

India is the fourth largest telecom market in Asia after China, Japan and South Korea.
The Indian telecom network is the eighth largest in the world.

TYPE: COMMUNICATION SERVICE PROVIDER

COUNTRY: INDIA
AVAILABLITY: NATIONAL EXCEPT DELHI & MUMBAI
OWNER: THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
WEBSITE: www.bsnl.co.in

1.1 HOW BSNL CAME IN TELECOM MARKET:

The initial phase of telecom reforms began in 1984 with the creation of Center for
Department of Telematics (C-DOT) for developing indigenous technologies and
private manufacturing of customer premise equipment. Soon after, the Mahanagar
Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL) and Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited (VSNL) were
set up in 1986.The Telecom Commission was established in 1989. A crucial aspect of
the institutional reform of the Indian telecom sector was setting up of an independent
regulatory body in 1997 the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI), to
assure investors that the sector would be regulated in a balanced and fair manner. In
2000, DoT corporatized its services wing and created Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited.

1.2 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK:

It is defined as the system of formal laws, regulations, and procedures, and informal
conventions, customs, and norms, that broaden, mold, and restrain socio-economic
activity and behavior. The country has been divided into units called Circles, Metro
Districts, Secondary Switching Areas (SSA), Long Distance Charging Area (LDCA)
and Short Distance Charging Area (SDCA).

In India, DoT is the nodal agency for taking care of telecom sector on behalf of
government.
Its basic functions are:

Policy Formulation
Review of performance
Licensing

47
 Wireless spectrum management
Administrative monitoring of PSUs
Research & Development
Standardization/Validation of Equipment

1.3 BSNL CONTRIBUTION TO DEVELOPMENT OF TELECOM:

Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited was formed in year 2000 and took over the service
providers role from DOT. BSNLs roadmap for providing customer with access to the
latest telecommunications services without losing sight of universal service access has
been by way of utilizing optimally the existing infrastructure and accelerating
advances in technological component by innovative absorption.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF BSNL:

BSNL has a customer base of over 9 crore and is the fourth largest integrated
telecom operator in the country.

BSNL is the market leader in Broadband, landline and national transmission

network.

BSNL is also the only operator covering over 5 lakh village with telecom
connectivity.

Area of operation of BSNL is all India except Delhi & Mumbai.

47
 CHAPTER-2

WORKING OF BASIC TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORK

This section includes brief introduction of how a call is processed when we dial a call
from basic telephone to another basic telephone or from basic to mobile or vice versa.

2.1 CALL SETUP:

When a subscriber calls to another subscriber first its request goes to the nearest
switching centre that is PSTN (Public Switching Telecommunication Network).
Then it processes the caller and subscribers number if it exists in the same BSC
then call setup is completed.
If subscriber is not in the same BSC (Base Switching Centre) then call transfer to
MSC (Main Switching Centre) then it transfers the call to prior BSC then call
setup is completed.
If Caller calls to a mobile subscriber then call transfer is done by MTSO now call
transfer is done on BTSs (Base Transceiver Station) and call setup is completed.

FIG 2.1 HOW LINE REACHES FROM SUBSCRIBER TO EXCHANGE

(REF- 1)

FUNCTION OF EXCHANGE:

47
 Exchange of information with subscriber lines with other exchange. This is done
by two type of signaling:
1. Inchannel signaling
2. Common channel signaling
Processing of signaling information and controlling the operation of signaling
network.
Charging and billing.

2.2 ELECTRONIC EXCHANGE:

All control functions by series of instructions are stored in memory.

Memories are modifiable and control program can always be rewritten. For each
call processing step decision is taken according to class of service.

2.3 CARRIER ROOM:

Leased line connectivity is provided in carrier room. This room has two parts:
1. Conventional leased line system
2. MLLN

2.3.1 CONVENTIONAL LEASED LINE SYSTEM:

It consists of modems and routers that are provided by the company requesting for
that network.
Connectivity of different ATM, banks etc. is provided by BSNL here.
For this, we have 4 modems (2 in Exchange, 1 at sender and 1 at receiver)
Modems are used for short distances i.e. trans and receive part are received here
and local lead connection is given to the subscriber.
Local lead faults can be handled here but the trans and receive faults can be
handled by the department meant for it.
Accept 64Kbps or 2 Mbps.
For long distance communication we have MUXS and data is sent through optical
fibers. MUXS are present at both the ends.

2.3.2 MANAGED LEASED LINE NETWORK:

No open wiring.
Route can be changed by the computer software
In Agra Gate Exchange, we have 3 VMUX of type II.

2.4 MDF(MAIN DISTRIBUTION FRAME):

M.D.F. is a media between switching network and subscribers line. It is a termination
point within the local telephone exchange where exchange equipment and
terminations of local loops are connected by jumper wires.

47
 FIG 2.2 MDF
(REF- 4)

2.4.1 FUNCTIONS OF MDF:

All cable copper wires supplying services through user telephone lines are
terminated and distributed through MDF.
The most common kind of large MDF is a long steel rack accessible from both
sides. Each jumper is a twisted wire.
It consists of local connection and broadband connection frames for the main
Exchange area.
The MDF usually holds central office protective devices including heat coils and
functions as a test point between a line and the office.
It provides testing of calls.
It checks whether fault is indoor or external.
All lines terminate individually.

2.5 POWER PLANT:

It provides -48V to the switch rooms and 48V to the connections.

Batteries are artificially discharged once in a year for their maintenance.
Cooling is provided through fans & AC.
There is earth region too for protection.

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 CHAPTER-3

LEASED LINES

3.1 INTRODUCTION:

A leased line (dedicated line) is a permanent fiber optic or telephone connection

between two points set up by a telecommunications carrier. They can be used for
telephone, data, or Internet services. Businesses use a leased line to connect to
geographically distant offices because it guarantees bandwidth for network traffic. For
example, a bank may use a leased line in order to easily transfer financial information
from one office to another. Customers generally pay a flat monthly rate for the service
depending on the distance between the two points. Leased lines do not have telephone
numbers. The information sent through the leased line travels along dedicated secure
channels, eliminating the congestion that occurs in shared networks.

3.2 DRAWBACKS OF TRADITIONAL LEASED LINE CIRCUITS:

1. Limited range of services - Only Plain Leased Line Service, Data cards
support only up to 64 kbps, no support for N x 64 Kbps.
2. From Operator point of view in case of Leased Line Circuit different boxes
from different vendors so difficult to manage & control.
3. No Centralized Monitoring or alarm or performance monitoring.

The solution to this is MLLN.

3.3 MLLN ( MANAGED LEASED LINE NETWORK ):

The MLLN service is specially designed mainly for having effective control and
monitoring on the leased line so that the down time is minimized and the circuit
efficiency is increased. This mainly deals with data circuits ranging from 64 Kbps to
2048 Kbps.

3.3.1 MLLN FEATURES:

1. MLLN is an integrated, fully managed, multi service digital network platform

through which service provider can offer a wide range of service at an optimal
cost to business subscriber.

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2. Using NMS, MLLN can provide high speed Leased Line with improved QoS,
high availability & reliability.
3. Except for connecting the local lead to the MODEM all operations &
maintenance is carried out through ROT (Remote Operating Terminal).
4. NMS supports service provisioning, Network optimization, planning & service
monitering.
5. System offers end to end circuit creation and modification, circuit loop testing &
fault isolation, automatic rerouting of traffic in case of trunk failure, software
programmability of NTU etc.
6. Banking, Financial institution, Stock market, paper industry, broadcasting &
Internet service Provider are the main customers for MLLN.

3.3.2 MLLN ADVANTAGES:

1. 24 hrs Performance Monitoring of the circuit.
2. Circuit fault reports generated proactively.
3. On Demand the Bandwidth can be increased.
4. Low lead time for new circuit provisioning.
5. Protection against the failure of the circuit through recovery Management
process either automatic or manually.
6. Long drive on single copper pair.( for 64 kbps 7 kms & for 2mbps 3.5 kms)
7. Centrally managed from ROT connected to the NMS.

3.3.5 APPLICATION OF MLLN:

1. Corporate high speed internet access through Broadband.
2. LAN interconnection.
3. Hotline connectivity for voice.
4. Point to point connection for data circuit.
5. Point to multipoint connection.

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 CHAPTER-4

INTRANET

4.1 INTRANET:
Smaller private version of Internet. It uses Internet protocols to create
enterprise-wide network which may consists of interconnected LANs.
It may or may not include connection to Internet.
Intranet is an internal information system based on Internet technology and web
protocols for implementation within a corporate organization.
This implementation is performed in such a way as to transparently deliver the
immense informational resources of an organization to each individuals desktop
with minimal cost, time and effort.
The Intranet defines your organization and displays it for everyone to see.

4.2 FEATURES OF INTRANET:

1. It is scalable.
2. It is Interchangeable.
3. It is platform independent
4. It is Hardware independent.
5. It is vendor independent.

4.3 WHY INTRANET FOR AN ORGANIZATION:

Quick access to voice, video, data and other resources needed by users.
Variety of valuable Intranet applications improves communication and
productivity across all areas of an enterprise.
A 21st Century Telephone.
An ISO Tool.
A Target Marketing Tool.
A Decision Making Tool.
A Complete Communication Tool.

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 FIG 4.1 INTRANET NETWORK (REF- 5)

4.4 APPLICATIONS OF INTRANET:

Publishing Corporate documents.

Access into searchable directories.
Excellent Mailing Facilities.
Proper Sharing of Information.
Developing Groupware Applications.

4.5 TECHNICAL OVERVIEW OF THE INTRANET TECHNOLOGY

Intranet runs on open TCP/IP network, enable companies to employ the same type of
servers and browser used for World Wide Web for internal applications distributed
over the corporate LAN.
A typical Intranet implementation involves a high end machine called a server which
can be accessed by individual PCs commonly referred to as clients, through the
network.
The Intranet site setup can be quite inexpensive, especially if your users are already
connected by LAN.

4.6 INTRANET APPLICATIONS IN A CIRCLE:

Every circle must have an intranet server which should have the following:
All posting/transfer/relieving orders issued within circle to be hosted on the
intranet.
All letters circulars/letters issued from different sections of the circle office to be
hosted on the server for immediate access by SSAs. Each section in circle office

47
 Administration, Operations, Marketing, Finance, Planning, Computers etc can
have web pages hosted on the server.
A database can be maintained for MIS reports and all other reports to be sent
periodically by SSAs to circle office. The database can have front end forms
designed in ASP or PHP for the SSAs to input the data. Separate programs can be
developed to consolidate the data fed by SSAs.
All data prepared and /or distributed during SSA heads meetings can be hosted
on the Intranet.
The implementation of the above will reduce the usage of paper and also reduce
the usage of FAX.

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 CHAPTER-5

CORPORATE NETWORK

5.1 INTRODUCTION:

A corporate network (CN) is a closed and private computer network that affords
secure communications between geographically dispersed LANs of an enterprise.

Traditional networks An ideal network

Informal Formal
Socially oriented Business oriented
Had geographical boundaries International infrastructure &
exposure
Were expertise specific Comprehensive expertise
No access to corporate Access to substantial corporate
resources resources
Not self sufficient self sufficient
Not self sustainable Self sustainable
No corporate governance Governed by strict values and
policies principles

TABLE 5.1 DIFFERERCES BETWEEN TRADITIONAL AND IDEAL

NETWORKS (REF- 2)

The requirement in a Corporate Network is same as ideal network.

5.2 WHY DO BUISNESSES HAVE CORPORATE NETWORK?

A business implements a corporate network to share applications and data between

different computing devices and users in different locations. Unless the application is
web based or database driven, this usually means copying files back and forth
between a network drive and a local computer, where a desktop application is used to
read and/or edit the files.
The increasing need to access corporate data from anywhere has led to changes in the
nature of applications, in current model of corporate network.

A typical corporate network has the following characteristics:

Many LAN segments.
More than one network protocol (IP or IPX).
OSPF-configured areas, if it uses IP.
Dial-up connectivity for users connecting from home or while traveling.
Connectivity to external networks.
Demand-dial connections to branch offices.

47
 Dedicated circuits to branch offices.
A corporate network typically uses different types of network media. The
different office segments can be on 10-MB Ethernet or Token Ring networks,
but the backbone network used for connecting the different networks and
hosting servers is usually made up of 100-MB Ethernet . Connectivity to
external networks (the Internet) is over leased lines. Connectivity to branch
offices is either over dial-up line or dedicated media (leased lines).

FIG 5.1 CORPORATE NETWORK (REF- 5)

5.3 FEATURES OF CORPORATE NETWORK SECURITY:

Complete bullet-proof protection of the remote computers you have on your
network.
Executable patches can be easily uploaded to all your remote computers and
executed remotely.
Easy and intuitive configuration without lots of complicated configuration files.
Everything is configured through the stand-alone GUI interface from any
location where TCP/IP connection to your corporate network can be established.
You do not need to physically visit your workstations when you need to change
security settings or install patches.
The remote client service application is bullet-proof. Your users will not be able
to disable, uninstall or delete it.
All traffic between the server and the clients is encrypted. All local files are
encrypted as well.
The server service application and the remote client service application work as
NT services under Windows NT/2000/XP and higher therefore they will keep
working in the logoff mode.

47
 CHAPTER-6

WI-FI (WIRELESS FIDELITY)

6.1 WI-FI NETWORK:

A Wi-Fi network provides the features and benefits of traditional LAN technologies
such as Ethernet and Token Ring without the limitations of wires or cables. It provides
the final few meters of connectivity between a wired network and the mobile user.
WIFI is a wireless LAN Technology to deliver wireless broad band speeds up to 54
Mbps to Laptops, PCs, PDAs, dual mode Wi-Fi enabled phones etc.

6.2 WORKING OF WI-FI NETWORK:

In a typical Wi-Fi configuration, a transmitter/receiver (transceiver) device, called the

Access Point (AP), connects to the wired network from a fixed location using
standard cabling. A wireless Access Point combines router and bridging functions, it
bridges network traffic, usually from Ethernet to the airwaves, where it routes to
computers with wireless adapters. The AP can reside at any node of the wired network
and acts as a gateway for wireless data to be routed onto the wired network. It
supports only 10 to 30 mobile devices per Access Point (AP) depending on the
network traffic. Like a cellular system, the Wi-Fi is capable of roaming from the AP
and re-connecting to the network through another AP. Like a cellular phone system,
the wireless LAN is capable of roaming from the AP and re-connecting to the network
through other APs residing at other points on the wired network. This can allow the
wired LAN to be extended to cover a much larger area than the existing coverage by
the use of multiple APs such as in a campus environment. It may be used as a
standalone network anywhere to link multiple computers together without having to
build or extend a wired network.

47
 FIG 6.1WI-FI NETWORK (REF- 5)

End users access the Wi-Fi network through Wi-Fi adapters, which are implemented
as cards in desktop computers, or integrated within hand-held computers. Wi-Fi
wireless LAN adapters provide an interface between the client Network Operating
System (NOS) and the airwaves via an antenna.

6.3 BENEFITS OF WI-FI:

Wi-Fi offers the following productivity, conveniences, and cost advantages over
traditional wired networks:
Mobility: Wi-Fi systems can provide LAN users with access to real-time
information anywhere in their organization.
Installation Speed and Simplicity: Installing a Wi-Fi system can be fast and easy
and can eliminate the need to pull cable through walls and ceilings.
Installation Flexibility: Wireless technology allows the network to go where
wire cannot go.
Reduced Cost-of-Ownership: While the initial investment required for Wi-Fi
hardware can be higher than the cost of wired LAN hardware, overall
installation expenses and life-cycle costs can be significantly lower.
Scalability: Wi-Fi systems can be configured in a variety of topologies to meet
the needs of specific applications and installations. Configurations are easily
changed and range from peer-to-peer networks suitable for a small number of
users to full infrastructure networks of thousands of users that allows roaming
over a broad area.
It offers much high speed up to 54 Mbps which is very much greater than other
wireless access technologies like CORDECT, GSM and CDMA.

6.4 Wi-Fi Network Configuration:

A Wireless Peer-To-Peer Network: This mode is also known as ADHOC mode. Wi-
Fi networks can be simple or complex. At its most basic, two PCs equipped with
wireless adapter cards can set up an independent network whenever they are within
range of one another. This is called a peer-to-peer network. It requires no
administration or pre-configuration. In this case, each client would only have access
to the resources of the other client and not to a central server as shown in Figure-4.

47
 Figure-4: A Wi-Fi Peer-To-Peer Network.

Client and Access Point:

This is known as INFRASTUCTURE mode and is normally employed. However,

wireless gateway can be configured to enable peer to peer communication in this
mode as well.

In this mode, one Access Point is connected to the wired network and each client
would have access to server resources as well as to other clients. The specific number
client depends on the number and nature of the transmissions involved. Many real-
world applications exist where a single Access Point services from 15 to 50 client
devices as shown in Figure-5.

Figure-5: A Server and Clint Wi-Fi Network.

Multiple Access Points and Roaming:

Access points can be connected to each other through UTP cable or they can be
connected to each other over radio through wireless bridging. There is an option to
connect access points in a mesh architecture where in event of a fault in an access
point the network heals itself and connectivity is ensured through other access point.
This changeover takes place dynamically.

Access Points have a finite range, of the order of 500 feet indoor and 1000 feet
outdoors. In a very large facility such as a warehouse, or on a college campus, it will
probably be necessary to install more than one Access Point. Access Point positioning
is done by a site survey. The goal is to blanket the coverage area with overlapping

47
coverage cells so that clients might range throughout the area without ever losing
network contact. The ability of clients to move seamlessly among a cluster of Access
Points is called roaming. Access Points hand the client off from one to another in a
way that is invisible to the client, ensuring unbroken connectivity as shown in Fig-6.

Figure-6: Multiple Access Points and Roaming.

Use of an Extension Point: To solve particular problems of topology, the network

designer some times uses Extension Points (EPs) to augment the network of Access
Points (APs). Extension Points look and function like Access Points, but they are not
tethered to the wired network as are APs. EPs function just as their name implies: they
extend the range of the network by relaying signals from a client to an AP or another
EP. EPs may be strung together in order to pass along messaging from an AP to far-
flung clients as shown in Figure-7.

Figure -7: Wi-Fi network with Extension Point (EP).

The Use of Directional Antennae: One last item of wireless LAN equipment to
consider is the directional antenna. Lets suppose you had a Wi-Fi network in your
building-A and wanted to extend it to a leased building-B, one mile away. One

47
solution might be to install a directional antenna on each building, each antenna
targeting the other.
The antenna on A is connected to your wired network via an Access Point. The
antenna on B is similarly connected to an Access Point in that building, which
enables Wi-Fi network connectivity in that facility as shown in Figure-8.

Figure-8: A Wi-Fi network using Directional Antennae.

6.5 LIMITATIONS OF WI-FI:

Coverage: A single Access Point can cover, at best, a radius of only about 60
meters. For 10 square kms area roughly 650 Access Points are required, where
as CDMA 2000 1xEV-DO requires just 09 sites.

Roaming: It lacks roaming between different networks hence wide spread

coverage by one service provider is not possible, which is the key to success of
wireless technology.

Backhaul: Backhaul directly affects data rate service. Wi-Fi real world data rates
are at least half of the their theoretical peak rates due to factors such as signal
strength, interference and radio overhead .Backhaul reduces the remaining
throughput further.

Interference: Wi-Fi uses unlicensed spectrum, which mean no regulator recourse

against interference. The most popular type of Wi-Fi, 802.11b uses.

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 CHAPTER-7

WIMAX

7.1 WIRELESS BROADBAND SERVICES:

There are two fundamentally different types of broadband wireless services. The first
type attempts to provide a set of services similar to that of the traditional fixed-line
broadband but using wireless as the medium of transmission. This type, called fixed
wireless broadband, can be thought of as a competitive alternative to DSL or cable
modem. The second type of broadband wireless, called mobile broadband, offers the
additional functionality of portability, nomadicity and mobility.

WI-MAX is an acronym that stands for World-wide Interoperability for Microwave

Access and this technology is designed to accommodate both fixed and mobile
broadband applications.

7.2 SALIENT FEATURES OF WIMAX:

OFDM-based physical layer.

Very high peak data rates.

Scalable bandwidth and data rate support.

Adaptive modulation and coding (AMC).

Link-layer retransmissions.

Support for TDD and FDD OFDMA.

Flexible and dynamic per user resource allocation.

Support for advanced antenna techniques.

Quality-of-service support.

Robust security.

Support for mobility.

IP-based architecture.

7.3 EVOLUTION OF BROADBAND WIRELESS:

47
1. NARROWBAND WIRELESS LOCAL-LOOP SYSTEMS: The first application
for which a wireless alternative was developed and deployed was voice telephony.
These systems, called wireless local-loop (WLL). WLL systems based on the digital-
enhanced cordless telephony (DECT) and code division multiple access (CDMA)
standards continue to be deployed in these markets. During the same time, several
small start-up companies focused solely on providing Internet-access services using
wireless, antennas to be installed at the customer premises. These early systems
typically offered speeds up to a few hundred kilobits per second. Later evolutions of
license-exempt systems were able to provide higher speeds.

2. FIRST-GENERATION BROADBAND SYSTEMS: As DSL and cable modems

began to be deployed, wireless systems had to evolve to support much higher speeds
to be competitive. Very high speed systems, called local multipoint distribution
systems (LMDS), supporting up to several hundreds of megabits per second, were
developed.
In the late 1990s, one of the more important deployments of wireless broadband
happened in the so-called multi channel multipoint distribution services (MMDS)
band at 2.5GHz. The MMDS band was historically used to provide wireless cable
broadcast video services, especially in rural areas where cable TV services were not
available. The first generations of these fixed broadband wireless solutions were
deployed using the same towers that served wireless cable subscribers. These towers
were typically several hundred feet tall and enabled LOS coverage to distances up to
35 miles, using high-power transmitter.
The advent of satellite TV ruined the wireless cable business, and operators were
looking for alternative ways to use this spectrum. A few operators began to offer one-
way wireless Internet-access service, using telephone line as the return path.

3. SECOND - GENERATION BROADBAND SYSTEMS: Second-generation

broadband wireless systems were able to overcome the LOS issue and to provide
more capacity. This was done through the use of a cellular architecture and
implementation of advanced-signal processing techniques to improve the link and
system performance under multi path conditions. Many solved the NLOS problem by
using such techniques as orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM), code
division multiple access (CDMA), and multi antenna processing.

4. WIMAX AND OTHER BROADBAND WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES:

WIMAX is not the only solution for delivering broadband wireless services. WiMAX
occupies a somewhat middle ground between Wi-Fi and 3G technologies when
compared in the key dimensions of data rate, coverage, QoS, mobility, and price.

47
 Table Comparison of WiMAX with Other Broadband Wireless Technologies

Parameter Fixed WiMAX Mobile WiMAX HSPA 1x EV-DO Wi-Fi

Rev A
Standards IEEE 802.16- IEEE 802.16e-2005 3GPP Release 6 3GPP2 IEEE 802.11a/g/n
2004

Parameter Fixed WiMAX Mobile WiMAX HSPA 1x EV-DO Wi-Fi

Rev A
9.4Mbps in 46Mbps with 3:1 DL- 14.4Mbps 3.1Mbps; 54 Mbpsshared
3.5MHz with to-UL ratio TDD; using all 15 Rev. using 802.11a/g;
Peak down
3:1 DL-to-UL 32Mbps with 1:1 codes; B will support more than
link data
ratio TDD; 7.2Mbps with 10 4.9Mbps 100Mbps peak
rate
6.1Mbps with codes layer 2 throughput
1:1 using 802.11n
Peak uplink 3.3Mbps in 7Mbps in 10MHz 1.4Mbps 1.8Mbps
data rate 3.5MHz using using 3:1 DL-to-UL initially;
3:1 DL-to-UL ratio; 4Mbps using 5.8Mbps later
ratio; 6.5Mbps 1:1
with 1:1
Bandwidth 3.5MHz and 3.5MHz, 7MHz, 5MHz 1.25MHz 20MHz for
7MHz in 5MHz, 10MHz, and 802.11a/g;
3.5GHz band; 8.75MHz initially 20/40MHz for
10MHz in 802.11n
5.8GHz band
Modulation QPSK, 16 QPSK, 16 QAM, 64 QPSK, 16 QAM QPSK, BPSK, QPSK, 16
QAM, 64 QAM QAM 8 PSK, 16 QAM, 64 QAM
QAM
Multiplexin TDM TDM/OFDMA TDM/CDMA TDM/CDMA CSMA
g
Duplexing TDD, FDD TDD initially FDD FDD TDD
Frequency 3.5GHz and 2.3GHz, 2.5GHz, and 800 / 900 / 1,800 800/900/1,80 2.4GHz, 5GHz
5.8GHz 3.5GHz initially / 1,900/ 2,100 0/1,900MHz
initially MHz
Coverage 35 miles < 2 miles 13 miles 13 miles < 100 ft indoors; <

47
(typical) 1000 ft outdoors
Mobility Not applicable Mid High High Low

A broad industry consortium, the WiMAX Forum has begun certifying

broadband wireless products for interoperability and compliance with a standard.
WiMAX is based on wireless metropolitan area networking (WMAN) standards
developed by the IEEE 802.16 group and adopted by both IEEE and the ETSI
HIPERMAN group.

7.4 WIMAX NETWORK ARCHITECTURE:

The overall network may be logically divided into three parts:

1. Mobile Stations (MS) used by the end user to access the network.
2. The access service network (ASN), which comprises one or more base stations
and one or more ASN gateways that form the radio access network at the edge.
3. Connectivity service network (CSN), which provides IP connectivity and all the
IP core network functions.
4.

47
 FIG 7.1 WIMAX NETWORK ARCHITECTURE (REF- 3)

BASE STATION (BS): The BS is responsible for providing the air interface to the
MSS. Additional functions that may be part of the BS are micro mobility management
functions, such as handoff triggering and tunnel establishment, radio resource
management, QoS policy enforcement, traffic classification, DHCP (Dynamic Host
Control Protocol) proxy, key management, session management, and multicast group
management.

ACCESS SERVICE NETWORK GATEWAY (ASN-GW): The ASN gateway

typically acts as a layer 2 traffic aggregation points within an ASN. Additional
functions that may be part of the ASN gateway include intra-ASN location
management and paging, radio resource management and admission control, caching
of subscriber profiles and encryption keys, AAA client functionality, establishment
and management of mobility tunnel with base stations, QoS and policy enforcement,
and foreign agent functionality for mobile IP, and routing to the selected CSN.

CONNECTIVITY SERVICE NETWORK (CSN): The CSN provides connectivity

to the Internet, ASP, other public networks, and corporate networks. The CSN is
owned by the NSP and includes AAA servers that support authentication for the
devices, users, and specific services. The CSN also provides per user policy
management of QoS and security. The CSN is also responsible for IP address
management, support for roaming between different NSPs, location management
between ASNs, and mobility and roaming between ASNs, subscriber billing and inter
operator settlement, inter-CSN tunneling to support roaming between different NSPs.

REFERENCE POINTS: The WiMAX NWG defines a reference point as a

conceptual link that connects two groups of functions that reside in different
functional entities of the ASN, CSN or MS. Reference points may not be a physical
interface except when the functional entities on either side of it are implemented on
different physical devices.

Reference point End points Description

R1 MS and CSN Implements the air interface (IEEE
802.16e) specifications.
R2 MS and CSN For authentication, authorization, IP host
configuration management and mobility
management, only a logical interface

47
 between MS and CSN
R3 ASN and CSN Supports AAA, policy enforcement,and
mobility mgmt. capabilities
R4 ASN and ASN A set of protocols originating/terminating
in various entities within the ASN. In
Release I , R4 is the only interoperable
interface between different ASNs or
heterogenous ASNs.
R5 CSN and CSN A set of protocols for interworking
between home and visited network.
R6 BS and ASN-GW A set of control and bearer plane
protocols for communication between BS
and ASN-GW. It may serve as a conduit
for exchange of different MAC states
information between neighboring BSs.
R7 ASN-GW-DP An optional set of control plane protocols
and ASN-GW- for co-ordination between two group of
EP functions identified in R6.
R8 BS and BS A set of control plane message flows and
bearer plane data flows between BSs to
ensure fast and seamless handover.

TABLE 7.1 REFERENCE POINTS (REF- 2)

CHAPTER-8
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) PRINCIPLE

8.1 Introduction
A long distance or local telephone conversation between two persons could
be provided by using a pair of open wire lines or underground cable as early as
early as mid of 19th century. However, due to fast industrial development and
increased telephone awareness, demand for trunk and local traffic went on increasing at
a rapid rate. To cater to the increased demand of traffic between two stations or
between two subscribers at the same station we resorted to the use of an increased
number of pairs on either the open wire alignment, or in underground cable. This
could solve the problem for some time only as there is a limit to the number of open

47
wire pairs that can be installed on one alignment due to headway consideration
and maintenance problems. Similarly increasing the number of open wire pairs that
can be installed on one alignment due to headway consideration and
maintenance problems. Similarly increasing the number of pairs to the underground
cable is uneconomical and leads to maintenance problems.

It, therefore, became imperative to think of new technical innovations which

could exploit the available bandwidth of transmission media such as open wire lines or
underground cables to provide more number of circuits on one pair. The technique
used to provide a number of circuits using a single transmission link is called
Multiplexing.

8.2 Multiplexing Techniques

There are basically two types of multiplexing techniques

i. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

ii Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Frequency Division Multiplexing Techniques (FDM)

The FDM technique is the process of translating individual speech circuits

(300-3400 Hz) into pre-assigned frequency slots within the bandwidth of the
transmission medium. The frequency translation is done by amplitude modulation
of the audio frequency with an appropriate carrier frequency. At the output of the
modulator a filter network is connected to select either a lower or an upper side band.
Since the intelligence is carried in either side band, single side band suppressed carrier
mode of AM is used. This results in substantial saving of bandwidth mid also permits
the use of low power amplifiers. Please refer Fig. 1.

FDM techniques usually find their application in analogue transmission systems.

An analogue transmission system is one which is used for transmitting continuously
varying signals.

47
 Fig. 1 FDM Principle

Time Division Multiplexing

Basically, time division multiplexing involves nothing more than sharing

a transmission medium by a number of circuits in time domain by establishing a
sequence of time slots during which individual channels (circuits) can be transmitted.
Thus the entire bandwidth is periodically available to each channel. Normally all time
slots1 are equal in length. Each channel is assigned a time slot with a specific common
repetition period called a frame interval. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Time Division Multiplexing

Each channel is sampled at a specified rate and transmitted for a fixed duration.
All channels are sampled one by, the cycle is repeated again and again. The channels are

47
connected to individual gates which are opened one by one in a fixed sequence. At
the receiving end also similar gates are opened in unison with the gates at the
transmitting end.

The signal received at the receiving end will be in the form of discrete
samples and these are combined to reproduce the original signal. Thus, at a given
instant of time, only one channel is transmitted through the medium, and by sequential
sampling a number of channels can be staggered in time as opposed to transmitting
all the channel at the same time as in EDM systems. This staggering of channels in
time sequence for transmission over a common medium is called Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM).

8.3 Pulse Code Modulation

It was only in 1938; Mr. A.M. Reaves (USA) developed a Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) system to transmit the spoken word in digital form. Since then
digital speech transmission has become an alternative to the analogue systems.

PCM systems use TDM technique to provide a number of circuits on the

same transmission medium viz. open wire or underground cable pair or a channel
provided by carrier, coaxial, microwave or satellite system.

Basic Requirements for PCM System

To develop a PCM signal from several analogue signals, the following

processing steps are required

Filtering

Sampling

Quantization

Encoding

Line Coding

8.4 Signaling In Telecommunications

The term signaling, when used in telephony, refers to the exchange of control
information associated with the establishment of a telephone call on a

47
telecommunications circuit. An example of this control information is the digits dialed
by the caller, the caller's billing number, and other call-related information.
When the signaling is performed on the same circuit that will ultimately carry
the conversation of the call, it is termed Channel Associated Signaling (CAS). This is
the case for earlier analogue trunks, MF and R2 digital trunks, and DSS1/DASS PBX
trunks.
In contrast, SS7 signaling is termed Common Channel Signaling (CCS) in that
the path and facility used by the signaling is separate and distinct from the
telecommunications channels that will ultimately carry the telephone conversation.
With CCS, it becomes possible to exchange signaling without first seizing a facility,
leading to significant savings and performance increases in both signaling and facility
usage.

47
 CHAPTER-9

GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION (GSM)

In wireless communication every region is divided into cells. Cell size is constant for
whole system. GSM is a form of multiplexing, which divides the available
bandwidth among the different channels. Most of the times the multiplexing
used is either TDM (Time division multiplexing) or FDM (Frequency Division
Multiplexing). SM differs from its predecessor technologies in that both
signaling and speech channels are digital, and thus GSM is considered a second
generation (2G) mobile phone system.

FIG 8.1 (REF- 4)

9.1 MAIN FEATURES OF GSM:

Support for voice and data services

Better frequency efficiency, smaller cells and more customers per cell
High audio quality and reliability for wireless, uninterrupted phone calls at higher
speeds (e.g. from cars, trains) i.e. high transmission quality.
Authentication via chip-card and PIN.
Worldwide connectivity.

9.2 GSM SUBSYSTEMS:

RADIO SUBSYSTEM (RSS)

NETWORK AND SWITCHING SUBSYSTEM (NSS)

9.2.1 RADIO SUBSYSTEM:

MOBILE STATION (MS):

A mobile unit is a transmitter as well as receiver too. It has a SIM (Subscriber Identity
Module) which gives a unique identity of a subscriber. Every mobile unit has a unique
IMIE (International Mobile Equipment Identity) number.

47
BASE TRANSCEIVER STATION (BTS):
A base transceiver station or cell site (BTS) is a piece of equipment that facilitates
wireless communication between user equipment (UE) and a network.
It encodes, encrypts, modulates and feeds the RF signal to antenna.
It produces time and frequency synchronization signals.
It does power control and frequency hopping too.

BASE STATION CONTROLLER (BSC):

Its main work is to control several transceivers.
Switching between BTSs
Managing of network resources
Mapping of radio channels

9.2.2 NETWORK AND SWITCHING SUBSYSTEM:

This subsystem does mainly switching, mobility management, interconnection to

other networks, system control.

COMPONENTS:

1. MOBILE SERVICES SWITCHING CENTRE (MSC):

It controls all connections via a separated network to/from a mobile terminal within
the domain of the MSC several BSC can belong to a MSC.

2. DATABASES:

Home Location Register (HLR):

Central master database containing user data, permanent and semi-permanent data of
all subscribers assigned to the HLR (one provider can have several HLRs).

Visitor Location Register (VLR):

Local database for a subset of user data, including data about all user currently in the
domain of the VLR.

9.2.3FUNCTION OF MAIN SWITCHING CENTER (MSC):

Manages communication between GSM and other network (PSTN, Data

Network and GPRS).
Call setup basic switching, call handling.
Location register
Billing for subscriber

9.3 FEATURES OF GSM:

GSM is already used worldwide with over 450 million subscribers.

47
 International roaming permits subscribers to use one phone throughout Western
Europe. CDMA will work in Asia, but not France, Germany, the U.K. and other
popular European destinations.
GSM is mature, having started in the mid-80s. This maturity means a more stable
network with robust features. CDMA is still building its network.
The availability of Subscriber Identity Modules, which are smart cards that
provide secure data encryption give GSM m-commerce advantages.

CHAPTER 10

GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE (GPRS)

General packet radio service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data service
available to users of the 2G cellular communication systems, global system for mobile
communications (GSM), as well as in the 3G systems. In 2G systems, GPRS provides
data rates of 56-114 kbps. It provides moderate speed data transfer, by using unused
time division multiple access (TDMA) channels.

Its supported protocols are Internet Protocol (IP), Point to Point Protocol (PPP) and
X.25.

GPRS data transfer is typically charged per megabyte of traffic transferred, while data
communication via traditional circuit switching is billed per minute of connection
time, independent of whether the user actually is using the capacity or is in an idle
state. GPRS is a best effort packet switched service, as opposed to circuit switching,
where a certain Quality of service (QoS) is guaranteed during the connection for non-
mobile users.

GPRS extends the GSM circuit switched data capabilities and makes the following
services possible:

Always on Internet access

Multimedia messaging service (MMS)
Push to talk over cellular (PoC/PTT)
Instant messaging and presence wireless village
Internet applications for smart devices through wireless application protocol
(WAP)
Point to Point (P2P) service: inter-networking with the internet (IP).
Increase message sending speed 30 messages per minute approximately.

47
 CHAPTER- 11

CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)

11.1 Access Network:

Access network, the network between local exchange and subscriber, in the
Telecom Network accounts for a major portion of resources both in terms of capital
and manpower. So far, the subscriber loop has remained in the domain of the copper
cable providing cost effective solution in past. Quick deployments of subscriber loop,
coverage of inaccessible and remote locations coupled with modern technology have
led to the emergence of new Access Technologies. The various technological options
available are as follows:
1. Multi Access Radio Relay
2. Wireless in Local Loop
3. Fiber in the Local Loop

11.1.1 Wireless in Local Loop (WILL)

Fixed Wireless telephony in the subscriber access network also known as Wireless in
Local Loop (WLL) is one of the hottest emerging market segments in global
telecommunications today. WLL is generally used as the last mile solution to
deliver basic phone service expeditiously where none has existed before. Flexibility
and expediency are becoming the key driving factors behind the deployment of
WILL.
WLL shall facilitate cordless telephony for residential as well as commercial
complexes where people are highly mobile. It is also used in remote areas where it is
uneconomical to lay cables and for rapid development of telephone services. The
technology employed shall depend upon various radio access techniques, like FDMA,
TDMA and CDMA.
Different technologies have been developed by the different countries like CT2 from
France, PHS from Japan, DECT from Europe and DAMPS & CDMA from USA. Let
us discuss CDMA technology in WLL application as it has a potential ability to

47
tolerate a fair amount of interference as compared to other conventional radios. This
leads to a considerable advantage from a system point of view.

11.2 Spread Spectrum Principle:

Originally Spread spectrum radio technology was developed for military use to
counter the interference by hostile jamming. The broad spectrum of the transmitted
signal gives rise to Spread Spectrum. A Spread Spectrum signal is generated by
modulating the radio frequency (RF) signal with a code consisting of different pseudo
random binary sequences, which is inherently resistant to noisy signal environment.
A number of Spread spectrum RF signals thus generated share the same frequency
spectrum and thus the entire bandwidth available in the band is used by each of the
users using same frequency at the same time.

Fig-1 CDMA ACCESS A CONCEPT

On the receive side only the signal energy with the selected binary sequence code is
accepted and original information content (data) is recovered. The other users signals,
whose codes do not match contribute only to the noise and are not despread back in
bandwidth (Ref Fig-1) This transmission and reception of signals differentiated by
codes using the same frequency simultaneously by a number of users is known as
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Technique as opposed to conventional
method of Frequency Division Multiple Access and Time Division Multiple Access.
In the above figure, it has been tried to explain that how the base band signal of 9.6
Kbps is spread using a Pseudo-random Noise (PN) source to occupy entire bandwidth
of 1.25 MHz. At the receiving end this signal will have interference from signals of
other users of the same cell, users of different cells and interference from other noise

47
sources. All these signals get combined with the desired signal but using a correct PN
code the original data can be reproduced back. CDMA channel in the trans and
receive direction is a FDD (Frequency Division Duplexing) channel. The salient
features of a typical CDMA system are as follows:
Frequency of operation: 824-849Mhz and 869-894 MHz
Duplexing Method: Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
Access Channel per carrier: Maximum 61 Channels
RF Spacing: 1.25 MHz
Coverage: 5 Km with hand held telephones and approx.
20 Km with fixed units.

47
 CHAPTER- 12

FIBER OPTIC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

12.1 INTRODUCTION:
Optical Fiber is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is
transmitted through a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light, following the
transmission sequence give below :
(1) Information is encoded into Electrical Signals.
(2) Electrical Signals are converted into light Signals.
(3) Light Travels down the Fiber.
(4) A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.
(5) Electrical Signals are decoded into Information.

FIG 11.1 OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION (REF- 1)

12.2 ARCHITECTURE OF FIBER:

The optical fiber has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding. The inner
core is the light carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the difference
refractive index that allows total internal reflection of light through the core. The
index of the cladding is less than 1%, lower than that of the core. Most fibers have an
additional coating around the cladding. This buffer coating is a shock absorber and
has no optical properties affecting the propagation of light within the fiber.

47
 Jacket Jacket

Cladding
Core

Cladding (n2) Cladding

Core (n2) Jacket

Light at less than Angle of Angle of
critical angle is
incidence reflection
absorbed in jacket
Light is propagated by
total internal reflection

Fig. Total Internal Reflection in an optical Fibre

FIG 11.2 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE (REF- 1)

12.3 CLASSIFICATION:
There are three types of fibers:
(I) Multimode Step Index fiber (Step Index fiber)
(II) Multimode graded Index fiber (Graded Index fiber)
(III) Single- Mode Step Index fiber (Single Mode fiber)

(I) STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER: It has a large core, up to 100 microns in

diameter. As a result, some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a
direct route, whereas others zigzag as they bounce off the cladding. This type of fiber
is best suited for transmission over short distances, in an endoscope, for instance.
(II) GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER: It contains a core in which the
refractive index diminishes gradually from the center axis out toward the cladding.
The higher refractive index at the center makes the light rays moving down the axis
advance more slowly than those near the cladding. A digital pulse suffers less
dispersion.
(III) SINGLE-MODE FIBER: It has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the
index of refraction between the core and the cladding changes less than it does for
multimode fibers. Light thus travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse
dispersion. Telephone and cable television networks install millions of kilometers of
this fiber every year.

12.4 ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTICS:

SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits.
BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity.
DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be refreshed or
strengthened.
RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios, motors or
other nearby cables.
MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.

47
 CHAPTER- 13

Advanced Optical Networks: DWDM

(DENSE WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING)

13.1 Introduction

The revolution in high bandwidth applications and the explosive growth of the
Internet, however, have created capacity demands that exceed traditional TDM limits.
To meet growing demands for bandwidth, a technology called Dense Wavelength
Division Multiplexing (DWDM) has been developed that multiplies the capacity of a
single fiber. DWDM systems being deployed today can increase a single fibers
capacity sixteen fold, to a throughput of 40 Gb/s. The emergence of DWDM is one of
the most recent and important phenomena in the development of fiber optic
transmission technology. Dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM)
revolutionized transmission technology by increasing the capacity signal of embedded
fiber. One of the major issues in the networking industry today is tremendous demand
for more and more bandwidth. Before the introduction of optical networks, the
reduced availability of fibers became a big problem for the network providers.
However, with the development of optical networks and the use of Dense Wavelength
Division Multiplexing (DWDM) technology, a new and probably, a very crucial
milestone is being reached in network evolution. The existing SONET/SDH network
architecture is best suited for voice traffic rather than todays high-speed data traffic.
To upgrade the system to handle this kind of traffic is very expensive and hence the
need for the development of an intelligent all-optical network. Such a network will
bring intelligence and scalability to the optical domain by combining the intelligence
and functional capability of SONET/SDH, the tremendous bandwidth of DWDM and
innovative networking software to spawn a variety of optical transport, switching and
management related products.

In traditional optical fiber networks, information is transmitted through optical fiber

by a single light beam. In a wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) network, the
vast optical bandwidth of a fiber (approximately 30 THz corresponding to the low-

47
loss region in a single-mode optical fiber) is carved up into wavelength channels, each
of which carries a data stream individually. The multiple channels of information
(each having a different carrier wavelength) are transmitted simultaneously over a
single fiber. The reason why this can be done is that optical beams with different
wavelengths propagate without interfering with one another. When the number of
wavelength channels is above 20 in a WDM system, it is generally referred to as
Dense WDM or DWDM.

DWDM technology can be applied to different areas in the telecommunication

networks, which includes the backbone networks, the residential access networks, and
also the Local Area Networks (LANs). Among these three areas, developments in the
DWDM-based backbone network are leading the way, followed by the DWDM-based
LANs. The development on DWDM-based residential access networks seems to be
lagging behind at the current time.

13.2 Development Of DWDM Technology

Early WDM began in the late 1980s using the two widely spaced wavelengths in the
1310 nm and 1550 nm (or 850 nm and 1310 nm) regions, sometimes called wideband
WDM. The early 1990s saw a second generation of WDM, sometimes called
narrowband WDM, in which two to eight channels were used. These channels were
now spaced at an interval of about 400 GHz in the 1550-nm window. By the mid-
1990s, dense WDM (DWDM) systems were emerging with 16 to 40 channels and
spacing from 100 to 200 GHz. By the late 1990s DWDM systems had evolved to the
point where they were capable of 64 to 160 parallel channels, densely packed at 50 or
even 25 GHz intervals.

As fig. 1 shows, the progression of the technology can be seen as an increase in the
number of wavelengths accompanied by a decrease in the spacing of the wavelengths.
Along with increased density of wavelengths, systems also advanced in their
flexibility of configuration, through add-drop functions, and management capabilities.

47
 Figure 1 Evolution of DWDM

13.3 Varieties Of WDM

Early WDM systems transported two or four wavelengths that were widely spaced.
WDM and the follow-on technologies of CWDM and DWDM have evolved well
beyond this early limitation.

WDM

Traditional, passive WDM systems are wide-spread with 2, 4, 8, 12, and 16

channel counts being the normal deployments. This technique usually has a
distance limitation of less than 100 km.

CWDM

Today, coarse WDM (CWDM) typically uses 20-nm spacing (3000 GHz) of up to
18 channels. The CWDM Recommendation ITU-T G.694.2 provides a grid of
wavelengths for target distances up to about 50 km on single mode fibers as
specified in ITU-T Recommendations G.652, G.653 and G.655. The CWDM grid
is made up of 18 wavelengths defined within the range 1270 nm to 1610 nm
spaced by 20 nm.

DWDM

Dense WDM common spacing may be 200, 100, 50, or 25 GHz with channel
count reaching up to 128 or more channels at distances of several thousand
kilometers with amplification and regeneration along such a route.

47
13.4 DWDM System Components

Figure 3 shows an optical network using DWDM techniques that consists of five main
components:

1. Transmitter (transmit transponder):

- Changes electrical bits to optical pulses

- Is frequency specific

- Uses a narrowband laser to generate the optical pulse

2. Multiplexer/ demultiplexer:

- Combines/separates discrete wavelengths

3. Amplifier:

- Pre-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the receive side

- Post-amplifier boosts signal pulses at the transmit side (post amplifier) and
on the receive side (preamplifier)

- In line amplifiers (ILA) are placed at different distances from the source to
provide recovery of the signal before it is degraded by loss.

- EDFA (Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier) is the most popular amplifier.

4. Optical fiber (media):

- Transmission media to carry optical pulses

- Many different kinds of fiber are used

5. Receiver (receive transponder)

- Changes optical pulses back to electrical bits

- Uses wideband laser to provide the optical pulse

Figure 3: DWDM System Components

47
13.5 Benefits of DWDM

Increases bandwidth (speed and distance)

Does not require replacement or upgrade their existing legacy systems

Provides "next generation" technologies to meet growing data needs

Less costly in the long run because increased fiber capacity is automatically
available; don't have to upgrade all the time.

47
 CONCLUSION

Engineering student will have to serve in the public and private sector industries and
workshop based training and teaching in classroom has its own limitation. The lack of
expo sure to real life, material express and functioning of industrial organization is the
measure hindrance in the student employment.

In the open economy era of fast modernization and tough competition, technical
industries should procedure pass out as near to job function as possible.

Practical training is one of the major steps in this direction. I did my training from
BSNL, Ghaziabad(ALTTC) which is one of the best known communication service
provider companies of India. The training helps me in gaining in depth knowledge of
the working of telephone exchange, various technologies of BSNL GSM, GPRS,
WIMAX, Wi-Fi, MLLN and optical fiber transmission.

In the end, I hereby conclude that I have successfully completed my industrial training
on the above topics.

47
 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES
(I) BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Data Communication And Networking- Behrouz A. Foruzan

2. Wireless Communication and Networks-William Stallings
3. Computer Networking Kurose & Ross
4. Material provided by BSNL training center.

(II) REFERENCES:

1. www.wikipedia.com

2. www.bsnl.co.in

3. www.itu.in

4. www.aptsec.org

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