Solutions

homogeneous mixture of 2 or more substances dispersed as molecules, atoms or ions

Components of a solution:
A. Solute substance being dissolved present in lesser quantity
B. Solvent dissolving medium and usually of greater amount

Solution Process:
Solutions form when one substance disperses uniformly throughout another.
When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, the molecules or ions that make up the solute
separate from one another as they become surrounded by molecules of the solvent. A
molecular substance when dissolved in water will mingle with the water molecules and
occupy spaces that open up between the water molecules. For ionic substances to
dissolve in water, the cations and anions of the solute separate from one another and the
ions will be surrounded by water molecules.
- The attractive interaction of solvent molecules with solute is called solvation.
- When the solvent is water, the interaction is called hydration.

Attractions which must be overcome for a solute to dissolve in a solvent

1. Solute solute attraction
2. Solvent solvent attraction
Driving force for solution formation: solute solvent attraction

Classifications of solutions
A. Based on the physical state of the solvent
Classification Solute Solvent Example
1. Gaseous Solutions Gas Gas Air
Liquid Gas Water vapor in Air
Solid Gas Naphthalene sublime in air
2. Liquid Solutions Gas Liquid Carbonated Drinks
Liquid Liquid Wine, Vinegar
Solid Liquid Salt in Water
3. Solid Solutions Gas Solid Hydrogen in palladium
Liquid Solid Dental Amalgam (Hg in Ag)
Solid Solid Sterling Silver (Cu in Ag),
Bronze (Cu & Sn), Brass (Cu
& Zn)
B. Based on solubility
Solubility maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved in a given volume
of a solvent at a specified temperature (common units grams per 100g solvent)
Solute Solubility g per 100 g Solvent Quality Solubility Description
Less than 0.1 Insoluble
0.1-1.0 Slightly Insoluble
1.0-10 Soluble
 Greater than 10 Very Soluble
1. Saturated Solution contains the maximum amount of solute that can be
dissolved under conditions at which the solution exists. A saturated solution
containing excess undissolved solute is in an equilibrium situation where the
rate of dissolution of undissolved solute is equal to the rate of crystallization of
dissolved solute.
2. Unsaturated solution contains less solute than the maximum amount possible
3. Supersaturated solution contains more than the maximum amount possible
that could normally be dissolved in the given amount of solvent at a specific
temperature.
Factors Affecting Solubility of Solute
1. Nature of Solute and Solvent Like Dissolves Like
2. Temperature Solubility of solids in liquids increases as the temperature of the
liquids increases. The solubility of gases in liquids decreases with an increase
of temperature.
3. Pressure the solubility of a gas is directly proportional with the pressure of
the gas at constant temperature (Henrys law). Pressure has very little effect
on the solubility of liquids and solids.
Factors affecting the rate of dissolution
1. Particle size/ surface exposed
2. Agitation / Stirring
3. Heating
Solubility of liquids in liquids
1. Miscible substances dissolve in each other at any amount
2. Partially miscible substances have limited solubility in each other
3. Immiscible do not dissolve in each other

C. Based on the Amount of solute dissolved

1. Dilute Solutions a solution where small amount of solute is present in solution
relative to the amount that can be dissolved in the solvent.
2. Concentrated Solution contains a relatively large amount pf solute relative to
the amount that can dissolve
 Concentrations of Solutions amount of dissolved substances present in a
specified amount of solvent or solution.
Some Methods of expressing concentrations:

Dilutions of Solutions
Dilution addition of solvent to a solution in order to lower the concentration
solution
Amount of the dissolved solute before dilution = amount of dissolved solute after dilution
But: amount of dissolved solute = concentration x volume of solution
So: C1V1 = C2V2
Titration very careful addition (from a burette) of a measured volume of a
concentration (titrant) into a solution containing the substance being
analyzed (analyte)
o Equivalence point point in the titration where enough titrant has been
added to react exactly with the analyte
o Endpoint point where the indicator actually changes color
o Standardization titrating a primary standard with a solution of unknown
concentration
Equivalents of acid = Equivalents of acid
Milliequivalents of acid = Milliequivalents of base
Meq = N (meq/mL) x V (mL)
= (wt solute x f x 1000)/MW solute
So: V x N (acid) = V x N (base)
(wt x f x 1000)/MW of acid = V x N (base)
Rates of Chemical Reactions
Chemical Kinetics study of how fast reactions take place
Rate of a Chemical reaction a measure of how fast a chemical reaction proceeds,
this can be determined or measured by the rate at which reactants disappear or
rate at which products are formed (decrease in concentration of reactants or
increase of concentration of products)

- Rates can be written in terms of the appearance of products or the disappearance

of reactants; the stoichiometry of the reaction dictates the relationship between
rates of appearance and disappearance

A. Collision Theory
1. Species making up the reactant must collide with each other in order for a
reaction to occur.
2. The collision must occur with enough energy to break the bonds in the
reactants so that new bonds can form thus forming the product.
3. The collision must take place in the right geometric orientation.
o Activation Energy minimum amount of energy that reactant particles must
possess in order to react

B. Factors Affecting Reaction rate

1. Temperature an increase in the temperature of a reaction always causes the
reactant particles to move more rapidly. Therefore, heating the reactants allows
more frequent collisions. More frequent collisions will lead to sufficient energy
for the reaction to start
2. Concentration when concentration increases, the frequency of collisions is
increased and the reaction speeds up.
3. Nature of reactants rate of a reaction depends on the particular reactants and
complexity of the bonds that have to be broken and formed in order for the
reaction to proceed. Reactions in which there are only slight rearrangement of
atoms are rapid. Reactions in which there are many covalent bonds to be
broken takes place slowly.
4. Surface area the larger the surface area of a reactant the greater the number
of particles that are exposed for reaction
5. Catalysts a substance which increases rate of reaction but is itself unchanged
after the reaction.
Ionic And Acid-Base Equilibria
Ionic Theory
1. Substances when dissolved in certain solvents usually water produce ions
which are positive and negatively charged.
2. Positive and negatively charged ions produced have equal numbers thus
solution produced is always neutral.
3. Substances that are completely ionized are called strong electrolytes.
4. Substances that are partially ionized are called weak electrolytes.
5. The partially dissociated ions will exist in equilibrium with the undissociated
substance in the solution.
6. The greater the dilution, the higher the degree of ionization.

Ionization process by which a molecular compound forms ions it dissolves

Dissociation process by which an ionic compound upon dissolution breaks apart
into its constituent ions
Electrolyte substance that dissolves in water to yield a solution that conducts
electricity
Non electrolyte substance that dissolves in water to yield a solution that does not
conduct electricity
Acid and Base Theories
Theories Acids Base
Arrhenius theory Causes an increase in Causes an increase in
concentration of the the concentration of the
solvent cation hydronium solvent anion hydroxide
Bronsted-Lowry Theory Proton donor Proton acceptor
Lewis Theory Electron pair acceptor Electron Pair donor
pH and pOH
- pouvoir hydrogen/power of hydrogen, measure of the acidity of a solution
The molar concentration of H+1 (aq) in an aqueous solution is usually very small. For
convenience, we therefore usually express [H+] in terms of pH, which is the negative
logarithm in base 10 of [H+]:

At 25 C the pH of a neutral solution is 7.00, whereas the pH of an acidic solution

is below 7.00, and the pH of a basic solution is above 7.00.
We use the convention that the negative logarithm of a quantity is labeled p
(quantity). Thus we can express the concentration of OH- as pOH:

Likewise, pKw = -log Kw

By taking the negative logarithm of both sides of the equilibrium-constant
expression for water, Kw = [H+] [OH-] we obtain:
-log[H+] + (-log[OH-]) = -log Kw

from which we obtain the useful expression