.

SUBMMITED BY:-
Pankaj Verma.
ECE, 2004.
Roll No. 223.
Uni. 42704023.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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  PREFACE

 COMPANY PROFILE

 SUMMARY

 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
 Multiple access technologies.
 E1 Interface.

 CDMA wireless system

 Wireless system communication.
 Introduction to BTS, BSC, MSC.

 MSC
 Functional Overview.
 Hardware Description.
 Project detail
 CCS7

Like all the other studies, Industrial training has its own importance. It is the most
important part of the curriculum for an Engineering student. This work is the result of the
interaction of a number of minds that directly or indirectly have contributed in the
making of this training a success.

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It is important to acknowledge all those people who have had a major influence on the
conception and fruition of this report. To the best of my ability I shall attempt to do so. I
would like to thank Mr. Ravinder Sagar (Additional Manager) for their technical and
moral support & their much-needed guidance despite of their heavy commitments
elsewhere. I would like to thanks Mr. Kapil Kalra (Sr. Engg.), for providing me a great
knowledge about their fields.

Furthermore, I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the special group of

network engineers that I work with & who challenge me everyday on the engineering &
operational details of large & complex network.

1. COMPANY PROFILE
1.1Communication business of TATA

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 Cellular Fixed Line

National Long
CUSTOMER Limited Mobility
Distance

INTERFACE
VSAT
International

Long Distance

Broadband Internet
Services

Fig 1.1.

Tata Teleservices is part of the Rs.54, 000/- crore (US$11.2 billion) Tata Group that has
over 90 companies, over 2, 10,000 employees and more than 2.16 million shareholders.
With an investment of over Rs.9, 000 crore (US$ 2 billion) in Telecom, the Group has a
formidable presence across the telecom value chain. The Tata Group plans an additional
investment of around Rs.9, 000/- crore (US$ 2 billion) in this sector in the next twoyears.

Tata Teleservices spearheads the Group's presence in the telecom sector. Incorporated in
1996, Tata Teleservices was the first to launch Mobile services in India in the Andhra
Pradesh circle.
The company offers services under the brand name 'Tata Indicom' in twenty key Indian
circles of Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Gujarat, Karnataka,Maharashtra, Mumbai,
Tamil Nadu and Chennai comprising 70% of the telecom revenue potential of the
country.

Starting with the major acquisition of Hughes Telecom (India) Limited [now renamed
Tata Teleservices (Maharashtra) Limited] in December 2002, the company has swung
into expansion mode. The company has recently acquired a Universal Access Service
License (UASL) for 12 new circles. The new circles are Bihar, Haryana, Himachal
Pradesh, Kerala, Kolkata, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh
(East), Uttar Pradesh (West) and West Bengal. The investment in the company as of
March 2004 totals Rs.5, 995 crore (US$ 120 million).Having pioneered the CDMA 3G1x
technology platform in India, Tata Teleservices has established a robust and reliable
telecom infrastructure that ensures quality in its services. It has partnered with Motorola,
Ericsson, Lucent and ECI Telecom for the deployment of a reliable, technologically
advanced network.
The company, which heralded convergence technologies in the Indian telecom sector, is
today the market leader in the fixed wireless telephony market with a customer base of
over 1 million.

Tata Teleservices bouquet of telephony services includes Mobile services, Smart

Wireless Services, Public Booth Telephony, and Wireline services. Other services
include value added services like voice portal, roaming, post-paid Internet services, 3-
way conferencing, CUG, Wi-Fi Internet services and data services.
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Today, the company serves over 2 million customers in over 290 towns. With an
ambitious rollout plan both within existing circles and across new circles, Tata
Teleservices will offer world-class technology and user-friendly services to over 1000
cities in 20 circles by March 2005.

The Tata Group operates business in seven key industry sectors. The chart below
illustrates how, in percentage terms, Tata companies in each of these sectors contribute to
the overall makeup of the group

Fig 1.2

Tata Leadership in Diverse Industries

 The world's largest integrated tea operation-Tata Tea

 Asia’s largest software exporter-TCS
 The world’ sixth largest manufacturer of watches -Titan
 India’s largest private sector steel producer-Tata Steel
 Largest 5-star chain of luxury hotels in India-Indian Hotels
 India’s largest manufacturer of soda ash-Tata Chemical

1.2.HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

1680: Newton first suggested concept of spectrum.

1831: Faraday demonstrated that light, electricity, magnetism are related.

1844: The first commercial telegraph circuits were coming into use.

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1876: Alexander Graham Bell patented his telephone, a device for Carrying actual voices
over wires.

1888: Heinrich hertz, German physicists, gives lab demo of existence Of

electromagnetism at radio frequencies.

1895: Guglielmo Marconi demonstrates a wireless radio telegraph Over a 3 km path.

1902: Marconi’s successful trans-Atlantic demonstration.

1906: Lee De Forest invents triode vacuum tube.

1914: Radio became very valuable military tool in World War-1.

1920: Radio used as commercial broadcasting.

1940s: First application of Radar in World War-2.

1961: Transistor developed & then portable radio in existence.

1961: IMTS - Improved Mobile Telephone Service.

1970s: Integrated circuit progress - MSI, LSI, VLSI.

1979: AMPS cellular demo, commercial deployment.

1987: The FCC (Federal Comm. Commission) allocated 10 MHz of Expanded

spectrum.

1990s: Additional technologies were developed for cellular.

TDMA (IS-54, 55, 56, IS-136)(also, GSM in Europe/Worldwide) CDMA (IS-95)

1.3. Analog Wireless Technologies

AMPS: Advanced Mobile Phone System. Developed primarily by Bell labs to replace
low capacityIMTS.
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 Frequency band is 800 MHZ.
Signaling at 10Kb/s on FSK.
Analog FM for speech transmission.

TACS: Total Access Communications Systems (TACS, JTACS, ETACS)

Adapted from US AMPS standard for use in the UK in 1985.
Frequency band is 900 MHZ.
Signaling at 10Kb/s on FSK.
Speech transmission by FM.

NMT: Nordic Mobile Telephone System (NMT450, NMT900)

Developed late 1970’s/early 1980s by PTTs of Sweden, Norway, Denmark
& finland.
Commercial service in 1981.
Originally in 450 MHz. bands, later adapted to 900 MHz.
Speech transmission by FM with deviation of 5 kHz.
Channel spacing 25 kHz. NMT-450 and 12.5 kHz. For
NMT-900.
Signalling at 1200 b/s using audio FSK.

C-450: Also known as Netz-C Developed by Siemens for German PTT, Duetsche
Bonderpost.
Frequency band is 450 MHz. with 20 kHz. Channel spacing.
Speech transmission by FM modulation, deviation 4 kHz.
Continuous Signalling at 5.28 kb/s by direct FSK.

1.4.Digital Wireless Technologies

GSM: Grouped Speciale Mobile or Global System for Mobile Communication.

Developed by ETSI as Pan-European digital standards.
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 Frequency band, 900 MHz in Europe & throughout world,1800 MHz.
Used for PCS in Europe, 1900 MHz.
Used for PCS in USA.
GMSK modulation with ~240 kb/s symbol rate.
TDMA system with 8 time slots per carriers.

D-AMPS: North American Digital AMPS

Developed by CTIA, US carriers/mfrs. to provide early Digital.
Standard compatible with existing AMPS system.
Frequency band, 800 MHz. in North American market 1900 MHz.
Used by PCS operators for IS-136.
π/4 DQPSK modulaton & signaling at 10 kb/s.

Japan PDC: The Japanese Personal Digital Cellular System

Developed to replace competing Japanese analog systems
Two Bands: 900 MHz. for coverage, 1500 MHz. for PCS
π/4 DQPSK Modulation, 42 kb/s transmission

CT-2, DECT: Two European lower-tier PCS systems

CT-2 in 800 MHz. bands, DECT in 1880 MHz.
GFSK modulation.
High bit rates allow full 32K.

1.5. COMMUNICATION OVERVIEW

Communication refers to sending, receiving & processing of information by electric

means. The science of comm. involving long distances is called telecommunication. Any
communication system serves to communicate a message or information. The
information sending is possible by particular modulation, propagation, antennas. The use
of satellites & fiber optics has made comm. more widespread.

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 Examples of comm. are: line telephony & telegraphy, radio telephony & telegraphy,
radio broadcasting, point-to-point & mobile comm., radar, television broadcasting, radio
telemetry, radio aids to aircraft landing etc.

In the early 1970s, digital transmission systems began to appear,utilizing a method

known as Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), first proposed by STC in 1937. PCM allowed
analog waveforms, such as the human voice, to be represented in binary form, and using
this method it was possible to represent a standard 4 kHz analog telephone signal as a 64
kbit/s digital bit stream. Engineers saw the potential to produce more cost effective
transmission systems by combining several PCM channels and transmitting them down
the same copper twisted pair as had previously been occupied by a single analog signal.

As demand for voice telephony increased, and levels of traffic in the network grew ever
higher, it became clear that the standard 2 Mbit/s signal was not sufficient to cope with
the traffic loads occurring in the trunk network. In order to avoid having to use
excessively large numbers of 2 Mbit/s links, it was decided to create a further level of
multiplexing. The standard adopted in Europe involved the combination of four 2 Mbit/s
channels to produce a single 8 Mbit/s channel. This level of multiplexing differed slightly
from the previous in that the incoming signals were combined one bit at a time instead of
one byte at a time i.e. bit interleaving was used as opposed to byte interleaving. As the
need arose, further levels of multiplexing were added to the standard at 34 Mbit/s, 140
Mbit/s, and 565 Mbit/s to produce a full hierarchy of bit rates.

1.6.INTRODUCTION

6.1 CELLULAR GROWTH

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The term cellular usually refers to wireless service that uses the 850 MHz block of
frequencies. The term mobile refers to any wireless telephone. The terms mobile user and
cellular user are synonymous.

The cellular telephone industry has enjoyed phenomenal growth since its inception in
1983. In just one more example of the impossibility of projecting the adoption of new
technologies, a widely accepted 1985 prediction held that the total number of cellular
subscribers might reach as many as 900,000 by the year 2000. In fact, by the end of 1994
there were well over 20 million subscribers in the United States alone, & approximately
50 million worldwide. Recent annual subscriber growth rates have been as high as 40%,
and it is believed that this growth rate could continue through the rest of the 1990s.
International wireless communications markets are expanding at an even greater rate.
In order to meet increasing demand for service, new digital cellular telephone systems
have been introduced during the first half of the 1990s. As today's cellular operators
move to adopt these new technologies in their systems, they demand:Increased capacity
within their existing spectrum allocation and easy deployment of any technology it takes
to get them that capacity increase.Higher capacities and lower system design costs (plus
lower infrastructure costs) which will lead to a lower cost per subscriber.
A lower cost per subscriber, combined with new subscriber features, which will help the
operators to increase their market penetration.

An increased market penetration, which will lead to an increase in number of

subscribers and a system, which offers support for that increased capacity.
High quality calls must be maintained during the change to or migration to any new
digital technology.

Wireless service providers must squeeze more and more capacity from the frequency
spectrum that is allocated by national communications regulators. The basic analog
technology is Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). The standard for the first
practical FDMA system in this country was the Advanced Mobile Phone Service
(AMPS).

With FDMA technology, additional capacity is gained by splitting cells and the use of
various techniques to manage frequency interference. In many cases, the analog air-
interface technology has reached its limit. When the limit is reached, service providers
cannot add more cells for system capacity without sacrificing call quality.

Wireless service providers that use analog air-interface technologies are not alone in the
need to address capacity concerns. Additional spectrum capacity is made available for
new Personal Communications Services (PCS) in the 2 GHz radio spectrum. PCS
requires advanced digital technology to integrate Intelligent Network Services with
wireless systems. In both cellular and PCS markets, data applications are becoming
increasingly important, which further strain system capacity. New services must
implement the most efficient technology available so that they may gain the maximum
return on their investment and not be limited by capacity.

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 2. .JOBS ASSIGNED

2.1 REPORTS

The various reports made by me on daily basis includes:-

Traffic Report
Paging Reports
MOU Report
NLD REPORT

Daily report contains the following parameters:-

Route Name
Carrying Capacity
Route Description
Traffic in erlangs.
Total VLR subscribers.
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 I/C Traffic
O/G Traffic
Total Traffic
I/C Attempts
I/C Seizures
I/C ASR
O/G Attempts
O/G Seizures
O/G ASR
Utilization
Route ASR
Busy Hour

Paging Report contains following parameters:-

1. NOF FIRST PAGE ATTEMTS TO LOC A

2. NOF PAGE RESPONS TO FIRST PAGE
3. NOF PAGE RESPONS TO REPEAT PAGE

MOU report contains:-

I/C MOU,
O/G MOU
TOTAL MOU

NLD report contain:-

I/C Traffic
O/G Traffic
Total Traffic
I/C Attempts
I/C Seizures
I/C ASR
O/G Attempts
O/G Seizures
O/G ASR
Utilization

Others than these reports weekly and Monthly i.e. Trai congestion report, Network
review report etc. are also made by me.

Main details of the Daily Report

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 SWITCH
SWITCH SWITCH Active Peak
Atte/Su capacity
Busiest Hour VLR capacity VLR BHCA Hour
b interms of
CAPACITY in BHCA Subscriber ERLANG
ERLANGS

19 460000 1000000 206571 308155 1.49 18391 6006.61

Peak Hour
Total Daily Paging
ERLANG Traffic Per Total Call Daily CPU
Call MOU / Success
SWITCH Subscriber Answers MOU Load
Attempts Sub rate
UTILISATION

419961
32.66 29.08 3443816 1269034 20.3 87.21 34.46
6

Fig7.1

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 Fig 7.2 Sample daily Report

I/C MOU 2413453

O/G MOU 1786163

TOTAL MOU 4199616

Fig 7.3 Daily MOU Report

82.47 80.92
89.45 86.69
91.66 90.42
91.61 90.10
90.78 89.21
90.27 88.66
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 90.90 89.28
90.58 88.91
89.76 88.06
88.71 87.00
87.82 86.11
87.57 85.93
87.09 85.43
87.19 85.45
17-
Punjab Dec-07 18:00 144130 122359 22308 2770 86.82 84.89
17-
Punjab Dec-07 19:00 127136 107049 20756 2365 86.06 84.20
17-
Punjab Dec-07 20:00 99411 82750 16909 1413 84.66 83.24
17-
Punjab Dec-07 21:00 70961 58076 13069 900 83.11 81.84
17-
Punjab Dec-07 22:00 47882 37295 10738 502 78.94 77.89
17-
Punjab Dec-07 23:00 28473 20008 8588 252 71.16 70.27

ALARM MONITORING

In the MSC and BSC various alarms are occurred when the site undergoes some faults
like due to CCITT7 signaling link failure fault or due to some breakage fault in the
connecting cables or due to some software error. These alarms are analyzed by analyzing

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the alarm log file, in which alarms are defined according to their class and category. For
example,

***ALARM 936 A2/APT “TAJAL1MB0503/00"U 061010 0227

CCITT7 SIGNALLING LINK FAILURE

LS SPID SLC ST
2-388 DELSTP1 3 C7ST2C-44

***ALARM CEASING 909 A2/APT "TAJAL1MB0503/00"U 061010 0227

CCITT7 SIGNALLING LINK FAILURE

LS SPID SLC ST
2-388 DELSTP1 2 C7ST2C-4

In the above example the alarm is came on DELHISTP1 at 0027(i.e.12:27a.m.) in the

class is A2 and the category is APT due to signaling link failure fault, and which is
ceased at 0027a.m.

Like this, we have total three classes and five categories, which are shown below in an
ALARM DISPLAY BOARD:

APZ APT POW EXT OBS

A1 01

A2 02

A3

A1 (RED) - CRITICAL ALARM (Needs Immediate Attention)

A2 (YELLOW) - MAJOR ALARM (Needs Attention)

A3 (GREEN) - MINOR ALARM

7.3REHOMING OF SITES

In the Jalandhar switch numbers of sites rehomed from Mohali BSC to Jalandhar BSC.
The sites were rehomed in parts.68 sites rehomed in CBSC1,44 sites rehomed in CBSC2.
As the subscriber base increased in Jalandhar MSC a new CBSC 65 sites were rehomed
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in CBSC3. Now there are 177 sites in Jalandhar MSC. Sites may be of single carrier or
double carrier.

The rehoming of all sites done in night so as the customer services does not affect. On the
rehoming night sites which were in Mohali BSC releaved and connected in Jalandhar
BSC. For rehoming of a site punching was done on BSC DDF to make the connectivity
of that particular site to Jalandhar BSC. The punching was done with jumper wire.

2.2.MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNOLOGIES

2.2..1 FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS FDMA

(example: AMPS)

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 Fig 8.1

Each user occupies a private frequency, protected from interference through physical
separation from other users on the same frequency. FDMA is a first generation wireless
system. FDMA separate same frequency users into cells physically far apart to achieve
required C/I values.

Ratio of carrier to interface is approximately 14 to 17 db FDMA is used for standard

analog cellular. Each user is assigned a discrete slice of the RF spectrum. FDMA permits
only one user per channel since it allows the user to use the channel 100% of the time.

Modulation used in AMPS (Advanced Mobile Telephone Services) & N-AMPS is

Analog FM.

Service Type of AMPS is voice only & of N-AMPS is voice, SMS.

Bandwidth in AMPS is 30 kHz & in N-AMPS is 10 kHz.

Users/Carrier in AMPS is 1 & in N-AMPS is 1.

2.1.2 TDMA Time Division Multiple Access

(example: GSM)

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 Fig 8.2

Each user occupies a specific frequency but only during an as signed time slot. The
frequency is used by other users during other time slots. TDMA separate same frequency
users into cells physically far apart to achieve required C/I values. C/I ratio is approx. 7 to
9 db.

TDMA is that users are still assigned a discrete slice of RF spectrum, but multiple users
now share that RF carrier on a time slot basis. The carriers are now further sub-divided
into some number of time slots per carrier. A user is assigned a particular time slot in a
carrier and can only send or receive information at those times. Information flow is not
continuous for any user, but rather is sent and received in "bursts." The bursts are
reassembled at the

Modulation used in GSM is DMSK.

Service Type of GSM is voice, SMS, Cell Bcst, frq. hop’g

Bandwidth in AMPS is 200 kHz.

Users/Carrier in AMPS is 8.

2.1.3 CDMA (CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS)

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Each user occupies a signal on a particular frequency simultaneously with many other
users, but is uniquely distinguishable by correlation with a special code used only by this
user. CDMA users occupy the same frequency at the same time. CDMA systems allow
all users in all cells/sectors to use the same frequency. Thus, each nearby user is a source
of interfering energy against all other users, and a user’s raw C/I is actually negative C/I
ratio is approx. -10 to -17 db.

CDMA is a scheme by which multiple users are assigned radio resources using DS-SS
techniques. Although all users are transmitting in the same RF band, individual users are
separated from each other via the use of orthogonal codes.
Modulation used in CDMA is QPSK.

Service Type of is voice, SMS, Data + more.

Bandwidth in CDMA is 1250 kHz.

Users/Carrier in CDMA is 22.

9. GSM Vs CDMA

Global System for Mobile communications (GSM):

TDMA is used as the access technology for Global System for Mobile communications
(GSM). However, GSM implements TDMA in a somewhat different and incompatible
way from IS-136. GSM operates in the 900-MHz and 1800-MHz bands in Europe and
Asia, and in the 1900-MHz (sometimes referred to as 1.9GHz) band in the United States.
It is used in digital cellular and PCS-based systems.
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 GSM is the international standard in Europe,
Australia and much of Asia and Africa. In covered areas, cell-phone users can buy one
phone that will work anywhere where the standard is supported. To connect to the
specific service providers in these different countries, GSM users simply switch
subscriber identification module (SIM) cards. SIM cards are small removable disks that
slip in and out of GSM cell phones. They store all the connection data and identification
numbers you need to access a particular wireless service provider.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

CDMA takes an entirely different approach from TDMA. CDMA, after digitizing data,
spreads it out over the entire available bandwidth. Multiple calls are overlaid on each
other on the channel, with each assigned a unique sequence code. CDMA is a form of
spread spectrum, which simply means that data is sent in small pieces over a number of
the discrete frequencies available for use at any time in the specified range.
All of the users transmit in the same
wide-band chunk of spectrum. Each user's signal is spread over the entire bandwidth by a
unique spreading code. At the receiver, that same unique code is used to recover the
signal. Because CDMA systems need to put an accurate time-stamp on each piece of a
signal, it references the GPS system for this information. Between eight and 10 separate
calls can be carried in the same channel space as one analog AMPS call. CDMA
technology is the basis for Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) and operates in both the 800-MHz
and 1900-MHz frequency bands.

MEAS UREMENT CDM A GSM

Cellular bandwidth 12.5MHz 12.5MHz

Radio channel 1.25MHz 30kHz

bandwidth

Calls per channel 36-38 3

Calls per cell sector 360-380 57

GSM – Advantages

Uses a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card:

Provides mobility
Allows full functionality and features specific to contract
International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)
Can easily be changed from phone to phone
No reprogramming necessary

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Services automatically included:
No reprogramming necessary
Emergency Response System (like 911)
Circuit-switched data
Packet-switched data
Voice
Short message services
Facsimile using ITU Group-3 fax service

CDMA – Advantages
Increased cellular communications security
Simultaneous conversations
Increased efficiency (in terms of telephone traffic, or Erlang capacity)
Smaller phonesLow average power requirements Less interference to other electronic
devices
Reduced potential health risks
Small cell-to-cell operation overhead
Reduced number of cell sites required
Simplifies selection of sites by users
Reduced deployment and operation cost
Improved voice quality
Reduced handoff failures (soft handoffs)
Provides reliable transport for data traffic

GSM – Disadvantages
Not currently supported in entire U.S.
Voice, not data transmission
Roaming between different frequencies requires multi-band phones
z - GSM 900
1800 MHz - DCS 1800
1900 MHz - PCS 1900

CDMA – Disadvantages

New, proprietary nature: not all flaws are known.

Network not as mature
No international roaming
Hardware for cell sites and stations is very expensive and complex

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 3.1. Wireless System Communication

A user of a cellular system communicates with the base station to place a call. The call
can be data or voice, and the base station routes the call to either a terrestrial network to
the termination point or to another user of the same cellular network. Normally, for voice
calls, the base station either directly or indirectly routes the call to a public switched
telephony network (PSTN).

Each user of a cellular system is also sometimes called a subscriber.The communications

link from the base station to the subscriber is referred to as the downlink or forward link,
while the link from the subscriber to the base station is referred to as the uplink or
reverse link.

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Cellular subscribers can be stationary or mobile. If the subscriber is mobile, then the
cellular network must be able to handle the situation whereas mobile subscriber (also
known as a mobile station) moves from one cell to another. This event is known as
handoff or handover. If the mobile station can engage in simultaneous communication
with multiple base stations, then it is said to be in soft handoff.

In order to ensure that a call is not dropped when a handoff occurs, information about the
mobile station is usually known to the base stations involved in the handoff. Due to this
and for other reasons, some comm. exists in the network that connects base stations
together in a cellular system. This network is known as the backbone network or simply
the backhaul.

The backbone network consists of several entities between the PSTN and the base station.
The base station usually interfaces with a base station controller (BSC), which networks
a cluster of base stations to ensure that call admission and handover can function in a
coordinated manner among base stations within a geographical region. A cluster is a
group of cells that use the complete set of available telephony channels in a cellular
network.

One or more BSC's are usually connected to a mobile switching center (MSC), which
interfaces directly with the PSTN. The MSC contains information about the cellular
subscriber that can be used to route other information to that user during the call.
Moreover, a home location registers (HLR) may be co- located with the MSC; this entity
contains user-specific information used primarily for authentication of the subscriber
during call initialization.

The intercomm. between the mobile station, base station, BSC and MSC is shown in
Figure
.

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 Fig 3.1
A cellular network is comprised of many cells in a particular geographical arrangement.
Oftentimes, a base station will use a different frequency (or frequencies) for
communication than the base stations in neighboring cells. This gives rise to the
frequency reuse factor, which is minimum number of frequencies needed for a given
cellular network to ensure that interference within the same frequency (i.e. co-channel
interference) is below a tolerable level. For analysis' sake, cells are often represented as
hexagonal in shape to describe an ideal cellular network. This type of representation often
results in a frequency reuse factor of 7, as that is the minimum number of frequencies
needed to ensure that no neighboring base stations have to occupy the same frequency.
3.2 E1 Interface
The E1 interface provides a 2048 kbit/s access rate. It can support up to 32 user channels,
each of 64 kbit/s access rate, though mostly only 30 are used a dedicated user channels.
The 64 kbit/s channels are usually used for delivering PCM encoded phone calls, but of
course can carry pure data. An E1 line connects two points in one of which the
information is multiplexed and in the second demultiplexed.
In order to provide a reliable and accurate service the E1 interface support several
mechanisms for synchronization, error correction and detection, management and
performance messages and signaling. These mechanisms and their way of operation will
be explained in the following sections. The E1 interface supports 3 different kinds of bit
structures: Frame, Multiframe, and Unframed. The mode of operation dictates how the
bits are structured and as consequent the way it will be interpreted.

3.3 The Frame Structure

As a consequence of the TDM methodology, each of the E1’s channels is practically

carried in one time slot of the 32 time slots the E1’s bandwidth is divided to. The
concatenation of 32 consecutive time slots is named an E1 frame. The E1 frame length is

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256 bits (32 TS * 8 bit each TS). The Frame rate is 8 kHz. The time slots in each frame
are numbered 0 to 31:

TS0 is dedicated for synchronization, alarms and messages (future use),

Unless configured differently.

2. TS16 is usually used for signaling, but can carry data as well.

3. TS1-TS15 and TS17-TS31 are used for carrying user data.

The structure of an E1 frame is demonstrated below:

Figure3.2: E1 Frame Structure

3.4 PCM Communication Systems

The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy has two primary communication systems as its
foundation. These are the T1 system based on 1544Kbit/s that is recommended by ANSI
& the E1 system based on 2048Kbit/s that is recommended by ITU-T.

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The E1 and the T1 interfaces are two different, independent standardized TDM
technologies. These technologies enable transmission of several (multiplexed) voice/data
channels simultaneously on the same transmission Facility.

Common E1 and T1
Characteristics
Sampling frequency 8kHz

Number of samples per telephone 8000 per second

signal
Length of PCM frame 1/b=1/8000 s

Number of bits in each code world 8

Telephone channel bit rate b * d = 8000/s * 8bit = 64Kbit/s

S.NO. Differing T1
E1
Characteristics
1 Encoding/Decoding A-law mew-law

2 Number of timeslots per PCM 32 24

frame
3 Number of bits per PCM frame 8 * 32 = 256 bits 8 * 24 +1 =
193 bits
4 Bit rate of time division 64 * 32 = 2048 bit/s 64 * 24
multiplexed signal =1544
Kbit/s

Table:3.1& 3.2

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 3.5.CDMA – Spread Spectrum

Fig 3.3

IS-95 uses a multiple access spectrum spreading technique called Direct Sequence (DS)
CDMA. Each user is assigned a binary, Direct Sequence code during a call. The DS code
is a signal generated by linear modulation with wideband Pseudorandom Noise (PN)
sequences.

As a result, DS CDMA uses much wider signals than those used in other technologies.
There is no time division, and all users use the entire carrier, all of the time. Multiple
accesses mean that multiple, simultaneous users can be supported. In other words, a large
number of users share a common pool of radio channels and any user can gain access to
any channel.

CDMA is a "spread spectrum" technology, which means that it spreads the information
contained in a particular signal of interest over a much greater bandwidth than the
original signal. A CDMA call starts with a standard rate of 9600 bits per second (9.6
kilobits per second). This is then spread to a transmitted rate of about 1.23 Megabits per
second.

CDMA uses unique spreading codes to spread the baseband data before transmission.
The signal is transmitted in a channel, which is below noise level. The receiver then uses
a correlator to despread the wanted signal, which is passed through a narrow band pass
filter. Unwanted signals will not be despread and will not pass through the filter. Codes
take the form of a carefully designed one/zero sequence produced at a much higher rate
than that of the baseband data. The rate of a spreading code is referred to as chip rate
rather than bit rate.

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 Fig 3.4

As shown above all the users are differentiated by different colors.

The codes of all the users lie on the same bandwidth i.e. 1.25MHz.
In CDMA each user coded with a unique code. After this multiple
Users are combined to transmit the signal to form spread spectrum.
In CDMA the signal power of a particular users are converted into the Particular band of
1.25MHz.
After this the combined spread spectrum of all the users is transmitted and at the receiver
and these spectrum is automatically converted into its original signal.

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3.6 Spread Spectrum Principles

Fig 3.5

The principle of spread sprectrum is that power of the signal is get converted into the
bandwidth of 1.25MHz.

As shown above the power of the user is 30 KHz

But CDMA does not consider the power, CDMA give the priority to the bandwidth. So as
we are using hammer here to make the bandwidth of 1.25MHz we generally use the
convolution to do conversion.

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 Fig 3.6

Code used in CDMA

CDMA uses two important types of codes to channelize users. Walsh codes channelize
users on the forward link (BTS to mobile).
Pseudorandom Noise (PN) codes channelize users on the reverse link (mobile to BTS).

Walsh codes

Walsh codes provide a means to uniquely identify each user on the forward link. Walsh
codes have a unique mathematical property--they are "orthogonal." In other words,
Walsh codes are unique enough that the voice data can only be recovered by a receiver
applying the same Walsh code. All other signals are discarded as background noise.

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Basics of IS-95.s Most Famous and Popular Channelization Sequences: The Walsh
Codes

64 “Magic” Sequences, each 64 chips long

Each Walsh Code is precisely Orthogonal with respect to all other
Walsh Codes and their opposites too!
It’s simple to generate the codes, or
They’re small enough to use from ROM

PN codes
Pseudorandom Noise (PN) codes uniquely identify users on the reverse link.
A PN code is one that appears to be random, but isn't. The PN codes used in CDMA yield
about 4.4 trillion combinations of code. This is a key reason why CDMA is so secure.

3.7 STRUCTURE OF CDMA WIRELESS SYSTEM

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 Fig 3.7

3.7.1BTS ( Base Transceiver Station ):

1) Provide the radio connection between mobile users (subscribers) & the
Switch (Mobile Switching Center).
2) The function of the BTS is to create the network interface with the CBSC for the
transmission and reception of traffic and control information and to report the results of
alarms and self -diagnostic routines for system fault management.
3) One wireless system in a large metropolitan area may require hundreds of
base stations to deliver unbroken coverage & provide sufficient capacity to
handle all potential users.

Fig 3.8 Motorola BTS

3.7.2 BSC ( Base Station Controller ):

1) BSC interfaces the switch (MSC) and the base stations.

2). BSC primary function is call maintenance.

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3) BSC controls the base stations and implements the handoff of calls from one base
station to another as users drive across the system.

4) A group of base stations are connected to a particular BSC which

manages the radio resources for them.
5) The mobile stations normally send a report of their received signal
strength to BSC every 480 ms.

6) Base stations have taken over many tasks that were previously
handled by BSCs.
7) Base Station Controller manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs
8) BSC interfaces with PCF (Packet Control Function) for packet data call.
9) BSC Gathers calls from many BTSs and passes them to MSC.

Fig 3.9 Motorola CBSC

3.7.3 MSC ( Main Switching Center )

1) The device that makes the actual physical connection is called switch.
2) Each call involves joining a circuit leading to one customer (usually on the radio side
of system) & a circuit leading to another person(usually out in the PSTN)

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 3) The switch is also responsible for storing billing records, interpreting dialed
phone numbers, routing calls & implementing all calling features.
4) Primary functions:

• Call Processing

• HLR-VLR access

• Intersystem call delivery (IS-41C)

• Billing Data Capture

• Calling Features & Services

Fig 3.10 Motorola PCSC

3.7.4 HLR ( The Home Location Register):

• The HLR is the official database of all customers on a wireless system.
• It can be part of the switch, or held in a server at a central location where
multiple switches can interragate it.

• The main information stored there concerns the location of each

mobile station in order to be able to route calls to the mobile subscribers
managed by each HLR.

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• The HLR also maintains the services associated with each MS. One HLR
can serve several MSCs.
• Information held in HLR are :
o Current account status / validity.
o Phones technical parameters.
o Whether phone is presently turned on & if so identity of
switch which presently serving.

3.7.5 VMS ( Voice Mail System )

• When a subscriber receives an incoming call but its phone is turned off
or already on a call, then a voice mail system can store a message. The
subscriber is alerted the next time they turn on their phone.
• Commercial voice mail systems offer scalable capacity up into many
hundreds of hours of random-access private storage.

3.7.6 PSTN ( Public Switched Telephone Network )

The PSTN is made up of local networks, the exchange area network, the long-
haul network that interconnect telephones & other communication devices on a
worldwide basis.

3.7.8 OMC ( Operations & Maintenance Centre )

• The operations and maintenance system provides the capability to

manage the CDMA network remotely.
• The OMC assists the network operator in maintaining satisfactory
operation of the CDMA network. Hardware redundancy and intelligent error
detection mechanisms help prevent network down-time.
• The OMC is responsible for controlling and maintaining the MSC, BSC and
BTS.

3.8 HOW CDMA WORKS

Generating a CDMA signal

There are five steps in generating a CDMA signal.

analog to digital conversion
vocoding
encoding and interleaving
channelizing the signals
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conversion of the digital signal to a Radio Frequency (RF) signal

Spreading and signal generation

Fig 3.11
The first step of CDMA signal generation is analog to digital conversion, sometimes
called A/D conversion. CDMA uses a technique called Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) to
accomplish A/D conversion.

Voice Compression
The second step of CDMA signal generation is voice compression. CDMA uses a device
called a vocoder to accomplish voice compression.
The term "vocoder" is a contraction of the words "voice" and "code."
Vocoders are located at the BSC and in the phone

How compression works

People pause between syllables and words when they talk. CDMA takes advantage of
these pauses in speech activity by using a variable rate vocoder.

Variable Rate Vocoder

A CDMA vocoder varies compression of the voice signal into one of four data rates
based on the rate of the user's speech activity. The four rates are: Full, 1/2, 1/4 and 1/8.
The vocoder uses its full rate when a person is talking very fast. It uses the 1/8 rate when
the person is silent or nearly so.

Encoding and interleaving

Encoders and interleavers are built into the BTS and the phones. The purpose of the
encoding and interleaving is to build redundancy into the signal so that information lost
in transmission can be recovered

How encoding works

The type of encoding done at this stage is called "convolution encoding." A simplified
encoding scheme is shown here.

ECE 37 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

 Fig 3.12

A digital message consists of four bits (A, B, C, D) of vocoded data. Each bit is repeated
three times. These encoded bits are called symbols.
The decoder at the receiver uses a majority logic rule. Thus, if an error occurs, the
redundancy can help recover the lost information.

Burst errors

A burst error is a type of error in received digital telephone signals. Burst errors occur in
clumps of adjacent symbols. These errors are caused by fading and interference. (When
more than one bit got damaged). Encoding and interleaving reduce the effects of burst
errors

How interleaving works

Interleaving is a simple but powerful method of reducing the effects of burst errors and
recovering lost bits.

Fig 3.13

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In the example shown here the symbols from each group are interleaved (or scrambled) in
a pattern that the receiver knows.
De-interleaving at the receiver unscrambles the bits, spreading any burst errors that occur
during transmission

Channelizing

The encoded voice data is further encoded to separate it from other encoded voice data.
The encoded symbols are then spread over the entire bandwidth of the CDMA channel.
This process is called channelization. The receiver knows the code and uses it to recover
the voice data

Fig 3.14

AFTER THAT THE CDMA SIGNAL IS TRANSMITTED

Digital to analog conversion

After the CDMA signal is transmitted, the receiver must reverse the signal generation
process to recover the voice, as follows:

Conversion of RF signal to digital signal

Dispreading the signal
Deinterleaving and decoding
Voice decompression
digital to analog conversion

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Despreading and Voice recovery

Fig 3.15

3.9 Channels used in CDMA

A channel is a stream of data designated for a specific use or person. This channel may
be voice data or overhead control data.

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 CDMA FORWARD AND REVERSE CHANNELS

Fig 3.16 & 3.17

Forward link channels (from BTS to subscriber):

A channel is a stream of data designated for a specific use or person. This channel may
be voice data or overhead control data. Channels are separated by codes. The forward
link uses four types of channels to transmit voice and control data to the mobile. The
types of forward link channels are:
Pilot
ECE 41 R.I.E.T, Phagwara
Sync
Paging
Traffic

Forward link channels include one pilot channel, one synchronization channel, up to
seven paging channels and number of forward traffic channels.

Reverse link channels (from subscriber to BTS)

Reverse link channel includes:
1. Access channel
2. Traffic channel

Fig 3.17
Forward link channels:
Pilot channel
Pilot CDMA signal is transmitted by a base station provides a reference for all mobile
stations. The BTS constantly transmits the pilot channel. The mobile uses the pilot signal
to acquire the system. It then uses the pilot signal to monitor and adjust the power needed
in order to transmit back to the BTS.
Pilot signals contain no messages. CDMA provides soft handoff. The call is handled by
both base stations on a make before break basis.

Fig 3.18

Sync channel

The BTS constantly transmits over the sync channel so the mobile can synchronize with
the BTS. It provides the mobile with the system time and the identification number of
the cell site. The mobile ignores the sync channel after it is synchronized.

ECE 42 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

 Fig 3.19
Sync channel operates at a fixed bit rate of 1200 bps. It is used for the mobile to get the
timing and long code references from the base station. And it is not scrambled.

Paging channel

CDMA uses up to seven paging channels. The paging channel transmits overhead
information such as commands and pages to the mobile.
The paging channel also sends commands and traffic channel assignment during call set-
up. The mobile ignores the paging channel after a traffic channel is established.
Paging channels use the same pilot PN sequence offsets as the pilot channel . the paging
channel is used for sending control information to mobiles , which are not assigned to a
traffic channel ; that is , to mobiles which are not engaged in a call.
Paging channel operates at a speed of 9600 or 4800 bps

Fig 3.20
Forward link traffic channel

CDMA uses between fifty-five and sixty-one forward traffic channels to send both voice
and overhead control data during a call. Once the call is completed, the mobile tunes back
in to the paging channel for commands and pages. The arrangement is more or less
similar to the reverse channel. And these are the basic things about the CDMA forward
link channels 7.

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Reverse link channels:

Access channel
The mobile uses the access channel when not assigned to a traffic channel. The mobile
uses the access channel to:
Register with the network
Originate calls Respond to pages and commands from the base station
Transmit overhead messages to the base station. Wideband CDMA that forms the basis of
UMTS (Universal mobile telephone systems) 3G networks, Developed originally by
Qualcomm, CDMA is characterized by high capacity and small cell radius. Developed
originally by Qualcomm and enhanced by Ericsson. To initiate a call, a telephone
subscriber lifts the handset. This action, off hook, is a signal to the exchange the
subscriber wants to make a phone call. A roaming mobile subscriber may move freely
within the CDMA network. For the mobile subscriber to receive a call, the network
needs to know the actual location of the mobile subscriber.

Reverse link traffic channel

Fig 3.21

3.10 MODULATION IN CDMA WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

MODULATION: Modulation is required for conveying information. In transmission, the

information modulates the carrier i.e. is superimposed on a high frequency sine wave.
The carrier can be of audio, radio or optical frequency.
Signal characteristics:

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 = time-varying radio signal.
= natural frequency of signal.
= phase of signal.

RF signal characteristics which can be varied for information transmission: amplitude,

frequency & phase.

AMPLITUDE MODULATION: was first method used to transmit voice over radio.
AM broadcasting in 540 – 1600 KHz. AM is used for visual portion of TV signals (sound
portion is carried by FM). AM requires a very high C/I (30 to 40 db).

FREQUENCY MODULATION: is used in broadcasting and sound portion of TV &

also in all land mobile. FM broadcasting in 30 KHz to wide channel. FM requires C/I (17
to 18 db).

PHASE MODULATION: (PM) is a type of angle modulation, a “sister” of FM. PM

requires C/I (17 to 18 db).

DIGITAL MODULATION: Digital modulation is used in all wireless communication

systems. In digital systems, each demodulation and demodulation produces a clean
output signal free of past noise and distortion.The purpose of digital modulation is to
convert information bearing discrete-time symbol sequence into a continuous-time
Waveform (perhaps impressed on a carrier). Digital bit streams are ideally suited to
many flexible multiplexing schemes.

Theory of Digital Modulation: Sampling

Voice and other analog signals first must be sampled (converted to digital form) for
digital modulation and transmission.
The sampling theorem gives the criteria necessary for successful sampling, digital
modulation, and demodulation.
If the signal contains no frequency higher than fM Hz, it is comletely described by
specifying its samples taken at instants of time spaced 1/2 fM s.
The signal can be completely recovered from its samples taken at the rate of 2 fM
samples per second or higher.

MODULATION BY DIGITAL INPUTS:

If we quantize the inputs, restricting them to digital values, the following simple
visualizations result.
For example, let this digital waveform modulate a signal. No more continuous analog
variations, now we’re “shifting” between discrete levels. We call this “shift keying”.

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 Fig 3.22

AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING:

ASK example: digital microwave. ASK demonstrates poor performance, as it is heavily

affected by noise and interference.

FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING:

FSK example: control messages in AMPS cellular; TDMA cellular. Bandwidth

occupancy of FSK is dependant on the spacing of the two symbols. A frequency spacing
of 0.5 times the symbol period is typically used. FSK can be expanded to an M-ary
scheme, employing multiple frequencies as different states.

PHASE SHIFT KEYING:

PSK examples: TDMA cellular, GSM & PCS-1900. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
demonstrates better performance than ASK and FSK .
PSK can be expanded to a M-ary scheme, employing multiple phases and
Amplitudes as different states.

MODULATION – QPSK( Quadrature Phase Shift Keying )

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 Fig 3.23

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying is effectively two independent BPSK systems (I and Q),
and therefore exhibits the same performance but twice the bandwidth efficiency.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying can be filtered using raised cosine filters to achieve
excellent out of band suppression.
Large envelope variations occur during phase transitions, thus requiring linear
amplification.

TYPES OF QPSK:

Fig 3.24

Conventional QPSK has transitions through zero (i.e. 180o phase transition). Highly
linear amplifier required.
Offset QPSK, the transitions on the I and Q channels are staggered. Phase transitions are
therefore limited to 90o.
π/4-QPSK the set of constellation points are toggled each symbol, so transitions through
zero cannot occur. This scheme produces the lowest envelope variations.

3.10 Call processing stages

The reverse traffic channel is only used when there is a call. The reverse traffic channel
transmits voice and control data to the BTS.
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There are four stages or modes in CDMA call processing:

Initialization mode
Idle mode
Access mode
Traffic mode

Fig 3.25

Initialization mode

During initialization, the mobile: acquires the system via the Pilot code channel
synchronizes with the system via the Sync code channel

Idle mode

The mobile is not involved in a call during idle mode, but it must stay in communication
with the base station.
The mobile and the base station communicate over the access and paging
code channels. The mobile obtains overhead information via the paging code channel.

Access mode

The mobile accesses the network via the Access code channel during call origination.
The Access channel and Paging channel carry the required call set-up communication
between the mobile phone and the BTS until a traffic channel is established.

Traffic mode

During a land to mobile (LTM) call:

The mobile receives a page on the paging channel. The mobile responds on the access
channel. The traffic channel is established and maintained throughout the call.

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 During a mobile to land call (MTL) :

The call is placed using the Access channel. The base station responds on the paging
channel. The traffic channel is established and maintained throughout the call.

Handoff

Handoff is the process by which a mobile station maintains communications with the
Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO), when traveling from the coverage area of
one base station to that of another Handover occurs when a call has to be passed from one
cell to another as the user moves between cells. In a traditional "hard" handover, the
connection to the current cell is broken, and then the connection to the new cell is made.
This is known as a "break-before-make" handover. Since all cells in CDMA use the same
frequency, it is possible to make the connection to the new cell before leaving the current
cell. This is known as a "make-before-break" or "soft" handover. Soft handovers require
less power, which reduces interference and increases capacity. Mobile can be connected
to more that two BTS the handover. This is sometimes called "softer" handover.

Types of Handover(s)

Handover occurs when a call has to be passed from one cell to another as the user moves
between cells. In a traditional "hard" handover, the connection to the current cell is
broken, and then the connection to the new cell is made. This is known as a "break-
before-make" handover. Since all cells in CDMA use the same frequency, it is possible to
make the connection to the new cell before leaving the current cell. This is known as a
"make-before-break" or "soft" handover. Soft handovers require less power, which
reduces interference and increases capacity. Mobile can be connected to more that two
BTS the handover. This is sometimes called "softer" handover.
Before we start discussing the handovers in detail we would like to list all of them for
convenience of the reader

Softer Handover
Soft Handover
Intra-frequency hard handover
Inter-frequency hard handover
SRNS Relocation
Combined Hard handover and SRNS Relocation
Inter-RAT hard handover

Softer Handover

Softer Handover Fig 3.26

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Strictly speaking softer handover is not really a handover. In this case the UE combines
more than one radio link to improve the reception quality.
On the other hand the Node B combines the data from more than one cell to obtain good
quality data from the UE. [1] Specifies the maximum number of Radio Links that a UE
can simultaneously support as 8. In practice this would be limited to 4 as it is very
difficult to make the receiver with 8 fingers.

Generally speaking when RRC connection is established, it would always be established

on one cell. The network initiates Intra-Frequency measurements to check if there are any
other cells the UE can connect simultaneously to improve the quality of the data being
transferred between the RNC and the UE. If a suitable cell is found then Active Set
Update procedure is initiated. Using this Active Set Update message, the network adds or
deletes more than one radio link to the UE. The only requirement is that from the start till
the end of this Active Set Update procedure, one Radio Link should remain common.

Soft Handover

Soft Handover
Fig 3.27

Soft Handover is the same as softer

handover but in this case the cells
belong to more than one node B. In
this case the combining is done in the
RNC. It is possible to simultaneously
have soft and softer handovers

Fig 3.28
A more complicated soft handover would include a cell that belongs to a Node B in
different RNC. In this case an Iur connection is established with the drift RNC (RNC 2)
and the data would be transferred to the Serving RNC (RNC 1) via Iur connection.

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In a typical UMTS system, the UE is in soft/softer handover around 50% of the time. One
of the very important requirements for the soft/softer handover is that the frames from
different cells should be within 50ms of each other or this would not work.
The last thing one needs to remember is that the soft/softer handover is initiated from the
RNC and the core network is not involved in this procedure.
Hard Handover
Hard handover occurs when the radio links for UE change and there are no radio links
that are common before the procedure is initiated and after the procedure is completed.
There are two types of hard handover. First is Intra-frequency hard handover and the
second is Inter-frequency hard handover.
Intra-frequency hard handover will not occur for the FDD system. It would happen in
TDD system. In this case the code spreading/scrambling code for UE will change but the
frequency remains the same.
Inter-frequency hard handover generally occurs when hierarchical cells are present. In
this case the frequency at which the UE is working changes.

This happens when the current cell is congested; etc hard handover procedure can be
initiated by the network or by the UE. Generally it would be initiated by the network
using one of the Radio Bearer Control messages. In case of UE initiated, it would happen
if the UE performs a Cell Update procedure and that Cell Update reaches the RNC on a
different frequency. The Core Network is not involved in this procedure.

SRNS Relocation

SRNS Relocation procedure is not strictly speaking a handover procedure but it can be
used in combination with the handover procedure. A simple SRNS Relocation can be
explained with the help of figures.

Data flow before SRNS Relocation procedure

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Data flow after SRNS RelocaTIon procedure
Fig 3.29

The UE is active on a cell that belongs to a different RNC (than the one on which call
was initiated) and a different MSC/SGSN. This arrangement causes unnecessary
signaling between two RNC's. Hence the relocation procedure is initiated.
In this, the CN negotiated the relocation procedure between the two RNS's. Once the
procedure is completed the connection towards the old domain is released as shown in
Fig
The relocation procedures will generally be used for UE in Packet Switched mode. This
procedure is time consuming and is not really suitable for real time services.

3.11 CELL

In a cellular radio system, the service area is divided into geographical units that are
represented as hexagonal (which are called cells).Each cell size varies depending upon
landscape. Each cell is served by its own radio and control equipment, which are located
at the cell site. Each cell site provides the radio connection between mobile units in its
area and the rest of the network. The cell sites are connected to the Mobile Switching
Center (MSC) by trunks. Other trunks connect the MSC to the public switched telephone
network (PSTN).

CLUSTERS

A cluster is a group of cells. No channels are reused within a cluster

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 FIG 3.30

FREQUENCY REUSE

Frequency reuse is the use of the same RF frequency repeatedly in the same general area
in one cellular system. Each cell site is allocated a set of frequencies, or channels.
Neighboring cells are assigned different frequencies in order to avoid interference. Cell
sites sufficiently far apart can simultaneously use the same frequencies, which allows
reuse of each frequency (channel) for different calls many times in a given service area.

Maximizing the number of times that each channel can be reused in a service area is the
key to efficient cellular system design. The more times a channel can be reused in a given
service area, the more calls the system can handle. Cell sites employ low-power
transmitters for that very reason: cell sites using the same channels can be located closer
together with negligible co-channel (same channel) interference.

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 Fig 3.31

3.12 CALL SETUP

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 Fig 3.32

The following example describes a call from a fixed network subscriber to a mobile
subscriber in a CDMA network:
The incoming call is passed from the fixed network to the gateway MSC (GMSC) (1).
Then, based on the IMSI numbers of the called party, its HLR is determined (2). The
HLR checks for the existence of the called number. Then the relevant VLR is requested
to provide a telephone location directory number (TLDN) (3). This is transmitted back
to the GMSC (4). Then the connection is switched through to the responsible MSC (5).
Now the VLR is queried for the location range and reachability status of the mobile
subscriber (6). If the MS is marked reachable, a radio call is enabled (7) and executed in
all radio zones assigned to the VLR (8). When the mobile subscriber telephone responds
to the page request from the current radio cell (9), all necessary securityprocedures are
executed (10). If this is successful, theVLR indicates to the MSC (11) & than the call can
be completed (12)

Receiving an Incoming Call

All idle mobiles monitor the paging channel to receive incomingCalls.

When an incoming call appears, the paging channel notifies the mobile in a General Page
Message.

A mobile which has been paged sends a Page Response

Message on the access channel.

The system sets up a traffic channel for the call, then notifies the mobile to use it with a
Channel Assignment Message.

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The mobile and the base station notice each other’s traffic channel signals and confirm
their presence by exchanging knowledgment messages.

The base station and the mobile negotiate what type of call this will
Be -- I.e., 13k voice, etc.

The mobile is told to ring and given a “calling line ID” to display.

When the human user presses the send button, the audio path is completed and the call
proceeds.

Placing an Outgoing Call

The mobile user dials the desired digits, and presses SEND.

Mobile transmits an Origination Message on the access channel.

The system acknowledges receiving the origination by sending a base station

acknowledgement on the paging channel.

The system arranges the resources for the call and starts transmitting on the traffic
channel.

The system notifies the mobile in a Channel Assignment Message on the paging channel.

The mobile arrives on the traffic channel.

The mobile and the base station notice each other’s traffic channel signals and confirm
their presence by exchanging acknowledgment
Messages.

The base station and the mobile negotiate what type of call this will
be -- I.e., 13k voice, etc.
The audio circuit is completed and the mobile caller hears ringing.

HLR & VLR

HLR (The Home Location Register)

ECE 56 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

Contains permanent subscriber data
provisioning information
Service information
Features available to the subscriber
Contains dynamic information
mobile station’s current location
Supports call routing
Queried by the MTX when subscriber information is needed,regardless of the mobile
station’s current location

The HLR is the official database of all customers on a wireless system.

It stores the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI), mobile station TLDN
number (MSTLDN) and current visitor location register (VLR) address.

It can be part of the switch, or held in a server at a central location where multiple
switches can interragate it.
The main information stored there concerns the location of each mobile station in order to
be able to route calls to the mobile subscribers managed by each HLR.
The HLR also maintains the services associated with each MS.
One HLR can serve several MSCs.

Information held in HLR are :

Current account status / validity.
Phones technical parameters.
Whether phone is presently turned on & if so identity of switch which presently serving.

HLR DATA
 STATIC DATA
 Mobile Identification Number (MIN)
 International Mobile Station Identifier (IMSI)
 Directory Number (MDN)
 Electronic Serial Number (ESN)
 Personal Identification Number (PIN)
 Subscriber Features

 DYNAMIC DATA
 Serving MSC Identification
 Temporary Location
 C-number
 Location Area Identification
 Activity Status
 Serving MPC Identification

ECE 57 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

 VLR (Visitor location Register)

The visitor location register (VLR): Contains the current location of the MS and selected
administrative information from the HLR, necessary for call control and provision of the
subscribed services, for each mobile currently located in the geographical area controlled
by the VLR. A VLR is connected to one MSC and is normally integrated into the MSC's
hardware.
Stores a subset of the HLR information pertaining to the mobile stations currently
registered in the VLR’s service area.

How are the HLR and VLR used?

Each mobile network has its own HLRs and VLRs. When a MSC detects a mobile user’s
presence in the area covered by its network, it first checks a database to determine if the
user is in his/her home area or is roaming, i.e., the user is a visitor.

User in Home Area: HLR has the necessary information for initiating, terminating, or
receiving a call.

User is Roaming: VLR contacts the user’s HLR to get the necessary information to set up
a temporary user profile.

The user’s location is recorded in the HLR, and in case the user roaming, it is also
recorded in the VLR.
Suppose that the user wants to make a call:

User in Home Area: MSC contacts the HLR prior to setting up the call.

User is Roaming: MSC contacts the VLR prior to setting up the call.

Suppose that there is a call for the user (call goes to the home MSC):

User in Home Area: Home MSC delivers the call immediately.

User is Roaming: Home MSC contacts the VLR to determine the appropriate switch in
the roaming area to handle the arriving call and then transfers the call to the roaming area
MSC.

ECE 58 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

ECE 59 R.I.E.T, Phagwara
 4.1THE AXE810 SYSTEM

ECE 60 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

 Fig 4.1

AXE is a state-of-the-art communication platform comprising a powerful set of revenue

generating and cost reducing features, cornerstone in the realization of the emerging
multi-service networks. Since, its introduction, AXE has constantly been evolved in order
to meet new demands, both from end users and the operators. One example of the
continued evolution is the introduction of the new switching platform AXE810
The explosive growth of Internet traffic, in both fixed and mobile networks have created
a demand for more capacity. With the introduction of AXE 810, it has strengthens the
market leadership in terms of high delivering high capacity solutions.

 Deployed in
 15,000 exc
 3000+ Mob
MSC HARDWARE

ECE 61
 340 Million R.I.E.T, Phagwara
CENTRAL PROCESSOR (CP) GROUP: GROUP
Fig 4.2
MS
Provides overall program execution and switching control, interfaces with the rest of
CMX3G. Contained in the CP/AP cabinet.

CENTRAL PROCESSOR DISPLAY UNIT (CDU):

Indicates the state of the Central Processors (CP’s)
Normally
CP-A is Executive (EX)
CP-B is standby-Working (WO)

CENTRAL PROCESSOR UNIT MAGAZINE (CPUM)

Performs non-routine complex program control
Performs data handling tasks
Two CPs per CPUM
Provides redundant CPs in one magazine APZ

REGIONAL PROCESSORS (RPS):

ECE 62
APG40
R.I.E.T, Phagwara
 CP

RP RP RP RP RP RP

Fig 4.3

Regional Processors (RPs)

Reduce CP work load
Perform routine simple tasks
Performs highly repetitive tasks
Work in pairs in load-sharing mode
Used for direct control of hardware units
Physically located with, or integrated into, the hardware unit being controlled

ADJUNCT PROCESSOR GROUP

ECE 63 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

 GEM GDM
DL-34
ET155-1
APZ

GS890 ECP5
DL-
3
ETC5
CL890
APG40
RPP
DLE
B RPG3

PDSPL

Fig 4.4

The APG40 is the new high-capacity I/O system for AXE exchanges. It is implemented
on open standard processors and integrated as a subsystem of AXE; the APG40 is the
platform for service-related applications in fixed and mobile telecommunications
network. The APG40 consist of two AP nodes comprising the Adjunct Processor Group,
APG40. Each AP node is a processor with Window NT 4.0 server.

APG40 FEATURES:
FEATURES:

High Availability is achieved through HW and SW redundancy and an automatic fail-

over mechanism.
The Alarm Subsystem provides external and internal fault detection
Remote operation and maintenance
Future proof

ECE 64 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

 AP
A
AP

B(optional)

Fig 4.5

ADJUNCT PROCESSOR (AP) GROUP:

Provides processing for specific applications. Provides for an administrative input and
output functions. Contained in the CP/ AP cabinet.
Provides CP load reduction
Runs multiple applications
Administrative input/output
Alarm display panel control
One AP sub rack is mandatory; a second AP sub rack is optional for additional charging
redundancy.

ADJUNCT PROCESSOR (AP) FUNCTIONS

ECE 65 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

 BILLING

CENTER RP

RP
HUB
RP
Compute AP
r CP RP

Printer RP

ALD

Fig 4.5

ADJUNCT PROCESSOR (AP) FUNCTIONS:

The AP provides various functions that are normally associated with a central processor,
decreasing the workload of the CMX3G CP.

RUNS CHARGING APPLICATION

Formats call Detail Records (CDRs)
Output formatted data to billing centers

PROVIDES STATISTICS FUNCTIONS

Traffic handling
Maintenance
Service measurement

PERFORMS ADMINISTRATIVE INPUT AND OUTPUT

FUNCTION
Provides operator interface to CMX 3G for configuration and alarm Management
Directs alarms to external display and printout

CONTROLS THE ALARM DISPLAY (ALD)

The ALD is an alarm panel that provides visual and audible alerts, based on CMX
alarms.

INTERFACES
Ethernet to the CP Ethernet to the I/O devices

GROUP SWITCH

ECE 66 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

 Fig 4.6

The Group Switch (GS) holds a central position in the AXE and belongs to the APT
portion of the AXE switch practically all telephony hardware is connected to the group
switch. The GS makes the connections from one inlet to an outlet connected to same type
of devices.
It is responsible for the following:
Connection and disconnection of speech and signaling paths through the Group Switch
for both narrowband and wideband connections.
Supervision of the hardware is performed by continuous parity Maintaining a stable clock
frequency which is synchronized to the network.

APZ
GROUP SWITCH SUBSYSTEM

ECE 67 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

 GEM GEM

GEM GEM

GEM GEM

GEM GEM

GEM GEM

(GEM cabinets) Fig 4.7

GROUP SWITCH SUBSYSTEM:

The Group Switch (GS) subsystem (GSS) is housed in Generic Ericsson Magazines
(GEMs).The GEMs are housed in the GEM cabinets.

GENERIC ERICSSON MAGAZINES (GEMS): (GEMS):

Provides a combination of functions, the basic being
Non-blocking switching matrix
Redundant switching planes, plane A and plane B
Capacity to switch 16,384 kbps user ports (in both planes) per GEM

GENERIC ERICSSON MAGAZINE FUNCTIONS:

ECE 68 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

 S

W
Fiber Optic Ethernet
I
Interface Interface
T

C
RP Bus
H
Timing Interface
Generation and I

Distribution N Generic Device

G Magazine
Interface

Support and
Echo M Maintenance
Cancellation
Processing
A

RFIG 4.8
GEM FUNCTIONS : I

SWITCHING X
Provides a matrix for switching payload b/w the PSTN, BSC and service nodes
100% non-blocking
Distributed switching architecture
Switching is divided into two redundant planes, plane A and plane B
Provides a capacity of 16,384 64kbps ports per plane, per GEM
Switching fabric commonly referred to as Group Switch
ECHO CANCELLATION
Provides adaptive echo control, assuring the highest speech quality possible Used where
a delay in the transmission path creates undesired echo Mobile crosstalk control (MCC)
feature provides cancellation of subscriber device generated echo Resources are pooled
for reliability, flexibility and fault tolerance Maximum of 3072 duplex channels in a
GEM fully configured for echo cancellation
FIBRE OPTIC INTERFACE
Provides high-capacity optical interface to the GS (155.52 Mbps)
ANSI and ETSI compatible
1*1 redundancy supported
Voice channels per interface
1953(63*31) for 63 ETSI 2.048 Mbps E1s
2016(84*24) for 84 ANSI/Japanese 1.544 T1/J1s
Maximum of eight, fully utilized, active interfaces supported per GEM

GENERIC DEVICE MAGAZINES (GDMS) INTERFACE

Provides the interface between the GEM and devices housed in GDMs, the previous
generation of hardware magazines

ECE 69 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

Provides a digital link interface to the GDM
Redundant interface hardware and cabling supported

RP BUS INTERFACE
Enables the GEM to interface with the RP bus
Used for communication with CPs

ETHERNET INTERFACE
Used for maintenance communications with the CPs
Available for future expansion purposes
SHELF POWER
Provides input power for the GEM
Load sharing and redundant
SWITCHING MATRIX
The GS matrix is housed in Gems. The maximum configuration of the GS matrix will be
– Three cabinets with a maximum of 4 GEMs each, the third one only half populated.
This provides a total of 10 GEMs, each with a switching capacity of 16,384 64 kbps
ports. This will provide for a maximum switching capacity of 160k 64 kbps ports.

GENERIC DEVICE MAGAZINE APPLICATIONS

GDMs house devices that provide functions that are not provided by GEMs
ETC- EXCHANGE TERMINALCIRCUIT
Provides E1/T1/J1 interfaces
ETC5
Interfaces with an E1 (2.048Mbps) ETSI standard digital span
ETC-T1H
Interfaces with a T1 (1.544Mbps) ANSI standard digital span

M-AST-MODULAR ANNOUNCEMENT SERVICE TERMINAL

Provides announcements and IVR (Interactive Voice Response) services for
subscribers.

The M-AST provides

ANNOUNCEMENT PLAY BACK

Play back of announcements to one or more subscribers. Announcements are encoded at
8-bit PCM rate and can contain any kind of audio information.
Playback of recorded messages is synchronized individually for each channel
DTMF DIGIT DETECTION
DTMF digits are detected and decoded in the M-AST.
DTMF detection operates independent of announcement playback

RPG3-REGIONAL PROCESSOR, GS CONNECTED,VERSION 3

The RPG3 provides Common Channel Signalling (CCS) or etheric signalling.CCS and
etheric connections may be mixed in the same GDM but not on the same RPG3.One
RPG3 GDM can support 64CCS links or 16 etheric links.

THE RPG3
Supports GS connected signalling
SS7/C7 signalling with the PSTN
IOS signalling with the BSC 1120

ECE 70 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

ANSI -41 signalling with the nodes

TTA- TELEPHONE TEST ACCESS

Provides an access point for making test calls
Provides the interface b/w two analog telephone lines and the digital switching network
(via an ETC)
Supports the necessary A/D and D/A functions for two test telephones
The TTA is normally connected to an ETC within the same GDM

PCD-G- PULSE CODE DEVICE-GENERIC

Provides maintenance signalling functions
Connects D/A test equipment to the GS
Used for three-party calls, call waiting, calls hold maintenance monitoring and traffic
observation
Each CCD has 32 devices to the GS
Provides the connection of 64kbps digital and analog signals into the GS One digital
and one analog channel per PCD-G
Supports both A-Law and µ-Law coding

PDSPL-2E- POOLED DIGITAL SIGNALLING PLATFORM, LOADABLE,

VERSION 2E
The PDSPL-2E is a multifunction platform on which a variety of tones and signalling
functions are based. Contains three digital signalling processors (DSPs) performing
various signal processing tasks Each DSP program is down loaded from on-board flash
memory
The only difference b/w the different PDSPL-2E products is the software n the loadable
flash memory housed in the GDM
Two groups of 6 PDSPL-2Es can be housed in one GDM

PDSPL-2E APPLICATIONS
TRANSCEIVER CHECK DEVICE (TCD)
Used to perform trunk line continuity checks, performed to insure transmission quality on
the traffic circuits
Provides 32 devices per TCD

CONFERENCE CALL DEVICE (CCD)

Multi-junction function

CODE ANSWER TONE SENDER (CAT)

Sender for maintenance tones and tone sequencers
Used to send response signals to test calls initiated from distant exchanges
Provide multiple code answer types, as well as maintenance and calibration tones
Provides 32 devices per CAT

TONE RECEIVER UNIT (TRU) (TRU)

Used for automatic testing of trunks
Receiver for code answers
Compares the received tone with expected tone
Provides 32 devices per TRU

ECE 71 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

KEY SET RECEIVER DEVICE, DIGITAL (KRDD)
Used as a DTMF receiver combined with a dial-tone sender
Supports both A-Law and µ-Law coding
Receives and evaluates DTMF tones
Provides 32 devices per KRDD

CODE SENDER, KEY SET, DEVICE (CSK-D)

Used as a DTMF sender
Used for sending DTMF signals
Supports both A-Law and µ-Law coding
Provides 32 devices per CSK-D

CODE SENDER AND RECEIVER (CSR)

Used to send and receive multi frequency (MF) type signalling
R1 (ANSI) & R2 (ETSI) MF signalling supported
Can operate in two modes
In a combined mode (2-way group) as senders and receivers
In a non –combined mode (1-way group) as senders and receivers
ECHO CANCELLERS

Fig 4.9

ECP5 is a compact echo canceller, which is developed in order to assure the highest
speech quality, canceling network echoes and, with a feature MCC (Mobile Cross talk)
eliminating acoustic originating from mobile terminals. Furthermore, features such as NR
(Noise Reduction), NP (network Probe) and FLC (Fixed Level control) are first
introduced with ECP5.

CLOCKS AND SYNCHRONIZATION

ECE 72 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

 Fig 4.10

One of the main functions of clock synchronization in the Group Switch is the exchange
clock system, which distributes clock and synchronization signals to the switch core.
The main components of the exchange clock system are the clock modules, CLMs that
provide the switch with accurate timings. The clock module is now duplicated and
located in the GEM magazine. Inside CLM, there are two clocks for reliability. For the
two CLMs, timing information is distributed to XLMs board in both planes.

APZ

ECE 73 R.I.E.T, Phagwara

.

ECE 74 R.I.E.T, Phagwara