Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Generation, storage, collection and transportation of municipal solid

waste A case study in the city of Kathmandu, capital of Nepal
R. Alam , M.A.I. Chowdhury, G.M.J. Hasan, B. Karanjit, L.R. Shrestha
Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Sylhet 3114, Bangladesh

Accepted 22 December 2006

Available online 23 May 2007

Abstract

Solid waste management (SWM) services have consistently failed to keep up with the vast amount of solid waste produced in urban
areas. There is not currently an eYcient system in place for the management, storage, collection, and transportation of solid waste. Kath-
mandu City, an important urban center of South Asia, is no exception. In Kathmandu Metropolitan City, solid waste generation is pre-
dicted to be 1091 m3/d (245 tons/day) and 1155 m3/d (260 tons/day) for the years 2005 and 2006, respectively. The majority (89%) of
households in Kathmandu Metropolitan City are willing to segregate the organic and non-organic portions of their waste. Overall collec-
tion eYciency was 94% in 2003. An increase in waste collection occurred due to private sector involvement, the shutdown of the second
transfer station near the airport due to local protest, a lack of funding to maintain trucks/equipment, a huge increase in plastic waste, and
the willingness of people to separate their waste into separate bins. Despite a substantial increase in total expenditure, no additional
investments were made to the existing development plan to introduce a modern disposal system due to insuYcient funding. Due to the
lack of a proper lining, raw solid waste from the existing dumping site comes in contact with river water directly, causing severe river con-
tamination and deteriorating the quality of the water.
2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction resources near uncontrolled dumping sites (Mayer, 1992).

Municipal solid waste is a serious environmental hazard.
Social problems in the urban areas of developed and devel-
oping countries were considered one of the major global
concerns in the colloquium of Mayors held at the United
Nations in August 1994. To combat this problem, develop-
ing countries spend 2040% of their municipal revenues
employing 36 workers per 1000 members of the popula-
tion on solid waste management. However, they are still
unable to handle more than half of the solid waste pro-
duced daily (UNCHS, 1994). Many cities and towns in
developing countries face serious environmental degrada-
tion and health risks due to local residents throwing out
and keeping domestic refuse on streets and in public areas.
The lack of adequate collection of waste from roadsides
and dustbins causes severe contamination of water
Recently, Kathmandu has faced great challenges in solid
waste management including not only the collection, trans-
fer, and Wnal disposal of waste, but also a lack of public
awareness of the solid waste system, haphazard urbaniza-
tion, the introduction of environmentally unfriendly mate-
rials, and changing consumer consumption patterns.
Generation, Storage, Collection, and Transportation of
Municipal Solid Waste in the City of Kathmandu was con-
ducted as a research study. The main objective of the study
is to review existing SWM practices, measure solid waste
generation by composition, Wnd the relation between solid
waste generation and population growth, and assess the
collection, transportation, and transfer system of solid
waste in Kathmandu Metropolitan City.
2. Methodology

*
Corresponding author. The study was carried out in Kathmandu Metropolitan
E-mail address: rakib_env@yahoo.com (R. Alam). City and included visits to diVerent government, private,

0956-053X/$ - see front matter 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2006.12.024
 R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097 1089

and NGO waste management organizations in the city. The Year Vs Population
study also included a detailed investigation and survey of 1800
1600
several collection points, the transfer station on the pre-
1400
mises of Kathmandu Municipal Corporation, and the Wnal

Population (x 10 )
3
1200
disposal site at Balkhu, located on the banks of Bagmati 1000
River. A detailed survey and investigation were performed 800
to assess the current situation of KMCs solid waste collec- 600
tion system. Data relevant to this study was collected from y = 2E-47e0.057x
400
R2 = 0.9777
several diVerent sources such as Kathmandu Municipal 200

Corporation (KMC), private organizations, and consul- 0

1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012
tants. For information relating to present waste collection Time (Year)
practices, current issues, and constraints, staV and execu-
Fig. 1. Population growth of Kathmandu city (Karanjit and Shrestha,
tives of the Solid Waste Management Department of KMC
2005).
were interviewed between 2004 and 2005 and asked to Wll
out surveys. The non-governmental organizations involved Population Vs Waste Generation
in the SWM of the city, especially in collection, were also 1600

Waste Generation (X 10 tons/year)

interviewed in depth. Scavengers, drivers, and waste collec- 1400
tors were interviewed at their respective workplaces. 1200

2
The data was analyzed using a variety of tools and meth- 1000
ods. Data collected from the interviews, investigation, sur- 800
veys, and Weld work was processed, reviewed, and edited. 600 y = 1.212x - 29
R2 = 0.9757
The quantitative data was tabulated and relevant statistical 400

tools and computer software were employed for analyzing 200

and interpreting the results. Personal judgments, expert 0

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
comments, and the results from the interviews and public Population (X 10 )
3

survey were used as a basis for the analysis and interpreta-

tion of the qualitative data. Because of the lack of uniform
data in some cases, several generalizations had to be made
during the data analysis process.
3. Results and data analysis
The results from the quantitative data analysis are given
in the tables and graphs at the end of the paper. Several
photographs displaying waste collection conditions are also
shown.
3.1. Waste generation
Since population growth greatly contributes to an
increase in solid waste production in both industrialized
and developing countries, the population growth rate of
Kathmandu Metropolitan City was Wrst determined. Table
1 shows the population of Kathmandu and the waste gener-
ated for several years between 1986 and 2003. A graphical
representation of the results of Table 1 (Figs. 1 and 2)
shows an exponential rise in population with year and the
direct proportionality of waste generation with total popu-
lation.
Fig. 2. Waste generations with respect to population (Karanjit and Shres-
tha, 2005).
For the purposes of estimating waste generation, the
population for the years 2005 and 2006 was obtained from
the best-Wtted curve of the last known yearly population
marked in Fig. 1. Taking per capita waste generation to be
1 103 m3/d and using population estimates of 839255
and 888255 for the years 2005 and 2006, respectively, the
predicted waste generation in Kathmandu Metropolitan
City is 1091 m3/d (245 tons/day) for 2005 and 1155 m3/d
(260 tons/day) for 2006 as shown in Table 2 (source: Kath-
mandu Valley mapping Project, JICA, 2004).
A strong correlation between waste generation and pop-
ulation has been found through comparison as shown in
Fig. 2.
3.2. Waste composition
One signiWcant aspect of solid waste in Kathmandu
from a management point of view is the large volume of
organic materials in the solid waste stream. Kathmandus
waste is mainly organic in nature. Paper and plastic are the

Table 1
Population and waste generated for diVerent years
Year 1986 1989 1990 1991 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Population (103) 280.7 338.331 322.9 427.045 594.07 629.714 671.846 707.547 738.173
Waste generated (ton/year) (102) 300.58 346.57 748.16 775.26 779.37 800.72 827.82
Source: KMC (2004), CBS (2001) and SWMB and GTZ1,2 (1985).
1090 R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097

Table 2 Total/ Organic/ Plastic Vs Year

Waste generation estimates for Kathmandu Metropolitan City 1600

Total/ Organic/ Plastic (x 102

Year 2005 2006 1400

a 1200
Estimated population 839255 888255
Average daily domestic waste 1 103 1 103 1000 Expon.

tons/y)
generation (m3/person)b (Total)
800 Expon.
Estimated total domestic waste 839.255 888.255
(Organic)
generation (in m3/d) 600
Expon.
Street waste generation (in m3/d)c 83.93 88.83 400 (Plastic)
Commercial waste generation (in m3/d)c 83.93 88.83
200
Waste from institutions neighboring cities 83.93 88.83
and VDCs (in m3/d)c 0
Estimated total daily waste generation (in m3/d) 1091 1155 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012
Time (year)
Loose density (density at source) (ton/m3)b 0.225 0.225
Estimated total daily waste generation (in tons) 245 260 Fig. 3. Trends of total, organic and plastic waste (Karanjit and Shrestha,
Notes: 2005).
a
Prediction from the best-Wtted curve of the previous yearly population.
b
Source: Kathmandu valley mapping project, JICA (2004).
c
Assumed 10% of domestic waste generation as per KMC. Paper/ Metal Vs. Year
160

Paper/Metal (x 10 tons/y)
140
120

2
other two important constituents of the municipal solid 100 Expon.
(Paper)
80
waste stream. The rest of the waste contains glass, rubber, 60
leather, inert materials (dirt, bricks, stones, etc.), wood, 40 Expon.
(Metal)
cloth, and other materials. Quantitative Wgures of the solid 20
0
waste composition of Kathmandu Metropolitan City dur- 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012
ing the years 1988, 1991, 1995, 2000, 2001, and 2003 are Time (Year)
shown in Table 3 (KMC, 2004). In general, organic waste Fig. 4. Trends of paper and metal waste (Karanjit and Shrestha, 2005).
accounts for 6070% of all solid waste and the percentage
of this waste which is biodegradable is remarkably high.
The oYcial Wgures of KMC for the year 2001 indicate
that almost 69.84% (by weight) of the waste generated in form between the two practices. Eighty-four percent of
Kathmandu Metropolitan City is organic, followed by households store waste in a commingled form while the rest
plastic (9.17%) and paper (8.5%). From Figs. 3 and 4 it is segregate the waste and store the organic portion separately
evident that the percentage contribution of most waste con- from other waste. However, the majority (89%) of house-
stituents will remain close to those of present years; how- holds in Kathmandu Metropolitan City have expressed a
ever, there will be a dramatic change in plastic waste willingness to segregate the organic portion of their waste
production from 9110 tons/year in 2003 to 21 400 tons/year from the others and store them separately. Recently, a sepa-
in 2006 due to the increased use of plastic products. rate unit called the Community Mobilization Unit (CMU)
working for KMC has started providing, at an economical
3.3. Waste storage rate, 100 l storage bins called community bins for domes-
tic waste storage. This type of bin was designed in such a
Interviews with solid waste management organizations way that it has the dual function of both storage and com-
indicate that two types of waste storage practices exist in posting. The CMU says that among diVerent bins tested, a
the City, commingled waste storage and segregated waste 100 l perforated hexagonal plastic bin was found to be the
storage. Commingled waste storage is the more prevalent most suitable for a family size of 57 persons. Owing to the

Table 3
Waste composition quantity for diVerent years
Year Waste composition (102 tons/y)
Waste generated Organic Paper Glass Rubber/leather Metal Wood Plastic Cloths Others
1988 259.8 150.2 16.1 4.2 1.0 1.0 1.3 5.2 5.2 76.2
1991 317.0 189.9 21.6 10.1 2.5 1.6 8.2 12.0 71
1995 413.8 216.0 24.8 14.9 9.5 19.9 18.2 22.3 33.5 54.6
2000 775.3 523.3 64.3 12.4 1.9 6.6 4.7 88.4 27.9 45.7
2001 779.4 544.3 66.2 19.5 5.1 7.2 5.7 71.5 23.5 36.3
2003 827.8 562.9 66.2 16.6 91.1 91.1
Source: KMC (2004).
 R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097 1091

bins three month storage capacity, many people are Table 5

attracted to it. To encourage the use of such a type of bin, Waste generation and collection of waste by KMC
the CMU also charges reasonable prices for the composted Year 2000 2001 2002 2003
waste that is collected from these bins. Through the use of Waste generation (in m3/d) 944 949 975 1008
the bins, KMC also faces fewer problems during storage at Waste collected by KMC (in m3/d) 558 521 652 696
transfer stations. % of waste collected by KMC 59 55 67 69
Source: KMC (2004).
3.4. Waste collection

Primary, secondary, and direct collection systems are

available for collecting waste from households in Kath-
mandu Metropolitan City. Primary collection refers to indi-
vidual households placing raw solid waste into their
personal refuse bins. Secondary collection refers to the col-
lection of solid waste from refuse bins or other primary
sites and its transport to the transfer station, dumping site,
or landWll. Direct collection is deWned to be the collection of
raw solid waste from households by the collection vehicles
of solid waste management organizations and its subse-
quent transport to the Wnal disposal site. The organizations
involved in the collection of waste generated in the City use
various types of equipment for waste collection activities.
Table 4 summarizes the diVerent equipment involved in the
collection process. Fig. 5(a). Door-to-door collected waste (Karanjit and Shrestha, 2005).

3.5. Waste collection by KMC

Kathmandu Municipal Corporation collects the major-

ity of the waste of Kathmandu City. Wards of Kathmandu
Metropolitan City are responsible for waste collection
within their own jurisdiction. Waste generation in Kath-
mandu City and waste collection by KMC is shown in
Table 5. Three modes of waste collection exist in Kath-
mandu Metropolitan City: roadside collection, door to
door collection, and communal container collection. Door
to door collection workers use plastic bags and open con-
tainers are used for communal waste collection as shown in
Figs. 5(a) and 5(b). Also, the block collection system and
curbside collection by garbage trucks are practiced by Fig. 5(b). A Container for communal waste collection (Karanjit and
KMC to collect waste as shown in Figs. 6(a) and 6(b). Shrestha, 2005).

Table 4
Organizations involved in the waste collection process
Activity Equipment in use Implementation body
Generator Municipality Private sector
Primary collection By Hand F
Handcart F F
Tricycle F
Direct collection Tricycle F
Tractor F
Open truck F
Secondary collection Tractor F
Open truck F F
Container carrier F
Source: KMC (2004).
1092 R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097
Fig. 6(a). Truck laborer collecting waste from a householder in the block collection system (Karanjit and Shrestha, 2005).
Fig. 6(b). Truck crews collecting waste in the curbside collection system
(Karanjit and Shrestha, 2005).
Table 6
Waste generation and collection in Kathmandu Metropolitan City by the
private sector
Year 2000 2001 2002 2003
3
Waste generation (in m /d) 944 949 975
Waste collected by the private sector (in m3/d) 116 130 244
% of waste collected by the private sector 17 20 27
Source: KMC (2004).
3.6. Waste collected by private sectors
In Kathmandu, solid waste is collected by the private
sector as well. Over the last few decades there has been a
substantial increase in the number of solid waste manage-
ment organizations in addition to the dominant KMC. In
recent years, a general trend of privatization can be recog-
nized in the waste management sector, especially in waste
collection. These organizations primarily include private
limited companies and NGOs. On a smaller scale, commu-
nity based organizations (CBOs) and youth clubs are also
involved in the collection of waste. According to the oYcial
Wgures of KMC, 17% of generated waste was collected by
the Non-Government Solid Waste Management Organiza-
tions (NGSWMOs) in 2000. Comparing this percentage
with that in 2001 (20%), 2002 (27%), and 2003 (27%), a sub-
stantial increase in the amount of waste collected by the
non-governmental sector can be observed as shown in
Table 6 (KMC, 2004).
3.7. Statistics of waste collection in Kathmandu
According to the latest Wgures of KMC for the year
2003, the NGSWMOs collect 25% of the total waste gener-
ated while KMC collects 69%, bringing overall collection
eYciency to 94% (i.e. 6% or around 13.5 tons of the commu-
nity waste generated in the City remains uncollected). The
solid waste collection eYciency of KMC and the private
sector during 2000, 2001, 2002, and 2003 is presented in
Fig. 7. The mode-wise collection eYciency of KMC for
2003 is depicted in Fig. 8.
3.8. Waste transportation
There is no Wxed route map for transportation of col-
1008 lected solid waste to the transfer station or Wnal disposal
252 site. The transport route of the waste depends solely upon
27 the drivers. A Wxed amount of fuel is provided to the drivers
by KMC for a Wxed number of trips. The organizations that
have a formal agreement with KMC are allowed to dispose
of collected waste at the Teku Transfer Station. Organiza-
tions without an agreement take their waste directly to
Balkhu.
Today, many private organizations are involved in the
transportation of waste. The number of trips made per year
by 6 m3 capacity vehicles owned by private organizations
was 2128 in 1999 and had risen to 8473 by 2002, a three fold
increase (Karanjit and Shrestha, 2005). The average num-
ber of trips made by several diVerent types of vehicles in
diVerent years is shown in Table 7.
Several types of motorized and non-motorized transport
vehicles are being used by KMC and other organizations to
collect and transport waste. KMC uses tractors, tippers,
skips, and millers for waste collection. Front loaders, shovel
loaders, and excavators (as shown in Fig. 9) are used at
transfer stations and compactors and dump trucks are used
for bulk transportation. Other waste collection organiza-
 R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097 1093

Year 2000 Year 2001

Waste Waste
collected by collected by
KMC (m3) KMC (m3)
55%
59% Waste Waste
31%
collected by collected by
Private Sector Private Sector
29% (m3) (m3 )
Waste Waste
uncollected uncollected
12% (m3/d) 14% (m3/d )

Year 2002 Year 2003

Waste 6% Waste
collected by collected by
KMC (m3) 69% KMC (m3)
67%
Waste Waste
8% collected by collected by
Private Sector Private
(m3 ) Sector (m3)
Waste Waste
uncollected uncollected
25% 25% (m3/d)
(m3/d )

Fig. 7. Percentage of collected and uncollected waste (Karanjit and Shrestha, 2005).

Year 2003 Table 8

29% Vehicles, numbers and their capacity (SWMRMC and GTZ, 2000)
S. No. Vehicles Capacity m3 Nos.
Collection
Roadside 1 Tractor (Chinese) 1.75 35
Collection 2 Tipper (Eicher) 3.75 16
3 Tipper (Mazda) 4.5 10
Door to Door
21% Collection
4 Compactor (Japanese) 3
5 Skip (Toyota) 4 8
Container 6 Skip (Tata) 4.5 2
50% Collection 7 Skip (Leyland) 6 4
8 Miller (Mercedes) 20 1
9 Miller (Tata) 6 1
Fig. 8. Waste collection in Kathmandu Metropolitan City for the year
2003 (Karanjit and Shrestha, 2005). Transfer station
10 Front loader (JCB) 2
11 Shovel loader (GTZ) 1
tions use handcarts, tricycles, tractors, and open trucks 12 Excavator (GTZ) 1
(Fig. 9). KMC uses 92 garbage vehicles (SWMRMC and Bulk transportation
GTZ, 2000) to collect waste and transport it to the transfer 13 Compactor (Leyland) 14 7
station and Wnally to the landWll for Wnal disposal. Details 14 Dump truck (GTZ) 20 1
Total 92
of Kathmandu Metropolitan Citys garbage Xeet are
described in Table 8. Waste collected by the NGSWMOs Source: KMC (2004).
from individual households and along the roadside is pri-
marily transported using tricycles as well as handcarts and
tractors in some areas. Once these vehicles are full, the col- are fully loaded, the waste is taken to the Teku Transfer
lected waste is directly loaded onto mini trucks or dumped Station or to the Wnal disposal site at Balkhu where it is dis-
in a speciWc location for later loading. Once the mini trucks posed of along the banks of the Bagmati River.

Table 7
Average number of trips/year
Year Tractors Tipper Skip 4 m3 Skip 4.5 m3 Skip 6 m3 Private 6 m3 Miller 20 m3
1999 29105 19900 5367 1255 2347 2128
2000 33392 15634 3603 1286 1315 3141
2001 33022 15672 3428 927 2352 7247
2002 29825 20017 2425 922 1727 8473 645
Source: Karanjit and Shrestha (2005).
1094 R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097

Fig. 9. Vehicles currently in use by SWM (Karanjit and Shrestha, 2005).

Most of the waste collected in these small capacity vehi- 3.9. Transfer station
cles cannot be transported over long distances. Thus, the
waste is taken to the transfer station Wrst and then to the At present, KMC only has one transfer station (TS) at
landWll site in compactors. Teku. All waste dumped along the roadside is swept, col-
 R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097
lected, and transferred here in tippers and tractors. The
waste is Wrst sorted out by scavengers and then taken to the
landWll site for Wnal dumping. KMC plans to construct
more transfer stations in the future. The Teku Transfer Sta-
tion covers an area of 150 100 m and receives 150 tons of
waste per day. Currently, two loaders, four guards, and two
administrative oYcers are employed at this location. Apart
from the Teku Transfer Station, another TS has been pro-
posed across from the golf course near the airport. The pro-
posed new TS is planned to be covered in contrast to the
present one that is open to the weather. The current area is
not even fenced. Even though the airport did not oppose
the construction of a new TS, local residents raised objec-
tions and work on the new site has since been suspended.
Currently, there are seven 14 m3 capacity compactors at
work, which make two trips each per day on average. The
collected waste is transferred to the Bagmati River landWll
site where scavengers sort the refuse. Sorted refuse is com-
pacted and then covered with soil. The above section
describes the predominant forms of transportation of
municipal waste in the city. A portion of the waste is never
collected and is transported to a Wnal disposal site where, in
most cases, it is haphazardly and permanently disposed of
in rivers and open spaces. According to the oYcial Wgures
of KMC for the year 2002, 8% (17.6 tons) of the total waste
generated remained uncollected. Similarly, early Wgures for
the year 2003 indicate that around 13% (29.5 tons) of the
waste from the transfer station remains uncollected.
3.10. Vehicle servicing, repair, and maintenance
The Mechanical Section is responsible for the mainte-
nance and repair of all vehicles used by KMC. For primary
collection, eighty diVerent types of vehicles are used. Teku
Transfer Station uses twelve vehicles and the Bagmati
River landWll site uses three units. Currently, twenty-Wve
excavators at the landWll site, one dumper placer used for
primary collection, two roll oV tippers at Teku Transfer
Station, and one crane are out of operation due to the lack
of spare parts and insuYcient funds to purchase them. This
problem has greatly aVected the normal functioning of the
SWM Section. The Section chief reports that it is a normal
phenomenon for vehicles to breakdown at any time. More-
over, the spare parts of German donated vehicles are
expensive and not readily available in the local market.
Similarly, the hydraulic systems of a compactor and
dumper placer donated by the Indian Government are also
out of service. In fact, there is a long list of vehicles requir-
ing immediate repair. At any given moment, ten vehicles sit
at the workshop awaiting repair and maintenance, whereas
the workshop can barely handle six vehicles at a time. The
vehicles are mostly parked outside in the open air.
3.11. Non-government solid waste collection organizations
There are many non-government solid waste collection
organizations in Kathmandu Metropolitan City. These
1095
organizations include private limited companies, non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), and community
based organizations (CBOs). In the past decade, these
organizations have become increasingly important to the
overall waste management of Kathmandu Metropolitan
City. Except for small CBOs and youth clubs, these orga-
nizations provide waste collection services to between
1100 and 4000 households, shops, and institutions. Most
prominent among the solid waste management organiza-
tions are the private limited companies and NGOs. On a
much smaller scale, several CBOs (tol sudhar samiti) and
local youth clubs have also been involved in municipal
solid waste collection in the last Wve years while some
have a longer history. The waste collected can be attrib-
uted to the seventeen NGSWMOs (class A and B) out of
the nineteen most prominent organizations and other
smaller community based organizations. The latter orga-
nizations dispose of collected waste into KMC containers,
which is ultimately counted as waste collected by KMC.
Thus, for the year 2003, the seventeen NGSWMOs col-
lected on average around 1169 tons of waste each (Karan-
jit and Shrestha, 2005).
4. Financial aspects of solid waste collection and
transportation in Kathmandu
4.1. Kathmandu municipal corporation
In the year 2002, the KMC spent 123200000 NRs for the
management of solid waste generated in Kathmandu
Metropolitan City (Table 9). The largest portion of the
money was spent on street sweeping, waste collection, and
waste transportation. The waste collection costs of KMC
were 20% and 25% of total expenditure in the years 2002
and 2004, respectively. The cost of street sweeping and
waste collection increased by 6% and 40% between 2002
and 2004 to handle the increased volume of street refuse
and municipal waste in Kathmandu City. Although total
expenditure increased by 12% in 2004, no additional invest-
ments were made to the transfer station, transportation sys-
tem, or the two current development projects of the solid
waste management system. The introduction of a modern
disposal system such as landWlling or incineration was not
feasible due to insuYcient funding.
Table 9
Operational cost of KMC for solid waste in the year 2002/2004
Items 2002 2004 % increase in
expenditure
Expenditure Expenditure
SWM
(NRs.) (NRs.)
Street sweeping 85 200 000 90 000 000 6
Collection 25 000 000 35 000 000 40
Transfer Station 3 000 000 3 000 000 0
Transportation 10 000 000 10 000 000 0
Note: $1 D NRs. 78.34 and NRs. 71.35 (in December 2002 and December
2004, respectively).
Source: KMC (2004).
1096 R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097
4.2. Non-government solid waste management organizations
The non-government solid waste organizations collect
service charges from their customers for solid waste related
services. Every organization has its own rate. The service
charges levied by the organizations range from 20 NRs to
500 NRs per month per household. For some prominent
waste generators, such as large hotels, the service charge
can reach up to 20000 NRs per month.
The oYcial Wgures of KMC for 2003 indicate that
NGSWMOs collect around 242 m3 (i.e. 54.45 tons) of waste
per day or 19874 tons per year. The current annual operat-
ing cost of the NGSWMOs is around 1577143 NRs. Thus,
it is safe to assume that the total cost from collection to
Wnal disposal for each ton of waste managed by the non-
governmental sector (excluding the cost of landWll manage-
ment) is 1349 NRs. When the cost of waste managed in
landWlls (i.e. 136 NRs/ton) is added, the operating cost for
complete management of waste by the private sector
amounts to 1406 NRs/ton. A comparison of costs between
KMC and NGSWMOs reveal that the latter are more
eYcient than KMC.
4.3. Environmental aspects of solid waste handling in
Kathmandu
There are potential health and environmental risks from
improper handling in the collection, storage, transporta-
tion, and transfer of solid waste. Also, traYc accidents can
result from spilled toxic waste, causing death and injury to
people in the vicinity. Improper handling of such waste has
resulted in the death of men and animals through contami-
nation of crops and water supplies. Liquid industrial eZu-
ents containing heavy metals are discharged to the drainage
system and contaminate sludge leaving the treatment
plants. These metals are taken up by the plants growing on
land contaminated by the sludge, creating risks to grazing
animals and subsequently to the people who consume them
(Trivedi and Raj, 1997). Solid waste is a source of contami-
nation and pollution to humans, scavenging animals, and
bats. As the organic portion of the solid waste ferments, it
gives oV a foul odor which attracts Xies in addition to caus-
ing air and water pollution (Wadood, 1994).
Waste from operating rooms, pathology and diagnostic
laboratories, and kitchens of clinics and hospitals are
dumped into KMC waste bins. All types of hospital waste
including saline bags, X-ray water, syringes, vials, needles,
empty packets, and bottles are dumped into KMC dustbins.
Syringes, vials, and needles are serious infection hazards to
the waste collectors in Kathmandu City. Non-sterile health-
care waste from hospitals and clinics that is dumped into
KMC bins exposes waste pickers and collectors to disease
and poses a serious risk of toxic contamination. There is a
serious lack of knowledge concerning and interest in safe
waste disposal among most health workers. Adequate
funding is not available for the eVective implementation of
safe disposal procedures for medical waste (Rashid, 1996).
Located on the banks of the Bagmati River, the landWll
is a huge source of environmental contamination because it
is not lined and the leachate is not treated. Due to the lack
of a proper lining, raw solid waste comes in contact with
river water directly, causing severe contamination and dete-
riorating the quality of the river water. The natural color of
the river has changed and turned blackish. Consequently,
Wsh and other aquatic organisms are endangered. A very
serious problem in the transfer area is the generation of
wastewater since no facility has yet been developed to treat
it. During temporary closures of the landWll, the storage
time at the transfer station is lengthened and, as a result,
organic waste begins to decay, causing a foul smell in the
local area. As the transfer station is an open area, plastics
and other light materials are blown away into the com-
pounds in the surrounding neighborhood.
A Weld study revealed that mixed waste kept in uncov-
ered polythene bags, tubs, or containers for several days
causes environmental pollution and is normally a breeding
source for mosquitoes, Xies, and other pests in addition to
spreading airborne disease in the city. The need for street
sweeping and drain cleaning has increased dramatically in
Kathmandu city due to individuals placing and throwing
solid waste in roads, footpaths, and drains, aggravating the
pollution problem signiWcantly. Inadequate and unhygienic
collection of solid waste at open dumps causes foul odors,
hazardous dust, and an increase in the population of Xies,
mosquitoes, and rodents. KMC dustbins usually remain
open, increasing the risk of epidemics from infectious dis-
eases such as hepatitis, typhoid fever, anthrax in animals,
tetanus, gas gangrene, pneumonia, and AIDS. Open bins
allow for the easy transmission and spreading of infectious
pathogens such as Salmonella typhi, Salmonella paratyphi,
Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium tetani, and Clostridium per-
fringens, many of which are present in health-care waste.
4.4. Concluding remarks
The main source of waste in Kathmandu is domestic and
its generation is increasing exponentially due to a lack of
public awareness, haphazard urbanization, introduction of
environmentally unfriendly materials, and changing con-
sumer consumption patterns.
Solid waste generation in Kathmandu Metropolitan
City is increasing rapidly and is predicted to be 1091 m3/d
(245 tons/day) and 1155 m3/d (260 tons/day) for 2005 and
2006, respectively. The majority (89%) of the households in
Kathmandu Metropolitan City are willing to segregate
organic and non-organic waste and store them separately.
Most of the streets of Kathmandu city are narrow and
waste collection becomes a problem since vehicles cannot
easily reach such areas. There is also a lack of proper space
to place community bins. However, waste collection is satis-
factory (7090%) compared to the processing of collected
waste. The Solid Waste Management Section is consuming
a large amount of the total budget of KMC. About half of
the budget allocated for this section is used for the waste
 R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097
collection system. Street sweeping is the main form of pri-
mary collection by solid waste management in Kathmandu
Metropolitan City. KMC is not directly involved in door-
to-door household waste collection. Instead, KMC collects
the waste from the bins and containers placed at various
locations in the city where the community dumps its waste.
Roadside collection serves as the main collection system for
solid waste management in Kathmandu Metropolitan City,
contributing about 50% to total collected waste.
KMC has adopted private sector participation (PSP) as
a key strategy for SWM and resource mobilization. Despite
the private sector being limited to waste collection only, its
participation is still very encouraging. Due consideration
should be given to institutional controls and the regulatory
framework in order to set the scene for the proposed
changes in solid waste management policy and to promote
an increase in private/voluntary sector involvement.
Out of sight, out of mind is the most common
response of the public to SWM problems. The need for
increasing awareness and motivating the public for change
through the dissemination of information and through edu-
cation has been realized after a long time. A good amount
of the budget is now allocated for a public participation
and awareness program.
There is no Wxed route map for transportation of col-
lected solid waste to the transfer station or disposal site.
The waste transport route depends solely upon the drivers.
Vehicle repair and maintenance consumes almost 70% of
the total cost (mainly in spare parts) of the KMC Mechani-
cal Section.
In order to promote the eVective participation and
involvement of the community and NGOs in solid waste
management, existing legislation and policies of the Kath-
mandu Municipal Corporation should be modiWed or, if
necessary, new policies should be established.
To improve the collection, transportation, and transfer
of solid waste in Kathmandu City, KMC and NGSWMOs
should work together to amend the existing legislation and
1097
policies on waste management and include provisions that
encourage the participation of private limited companies
and NGOs in all aspects of SWM.
Despite a substantial increase in total expenditure, no
additional investments were made to the existing develop-
ment plan to introduce a modern disposal system due to
insuYcient funding. Due to the lack of a proper lining, raw
solid waste from the existing dumping site comes in contact
with river water directly, causing severe river contamina-
tion and deteriorating the quality of the water.
References
CBS, 2001. Statistical Year Book 2001. Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal.
JICA, 2004. Feasibility study of solid waste management in Kathmandu
city. Japan International Corporation Agency.
Karanjit, B., Shrestha, L.R. 2005. Solid waste management of Kathmandu
metropolitan city. BSc Engineering thesis, Civil and Environmental
Engineering Department, Shah Jalal University of Science and tech-
nology, Sylhet, Bangladesh.
KMC, 2004. Personal communication and diVerent unpublished report of
KMC on solid waste management.
Mayer, W. 1992. Synergetic eVects of municipal solid waste collection,
recycling and disposal. International Reference Center for Waste Dis-
posal (IRCWD), Duebendorf, Switzerland.
Rashid, S., 1996. Medical Waste Disposal in Dhaka City. North South
University, Dhaka.
SWMB and GTZ1, 1985. A Proposal for the Solid Waste Management
Project Volume I, November 1985. Solid Waste Management Resource
Mobilization Center and Deutshe Gessellschaft fuer Technische
Zusammenarbeit.
SWMB, GTZ2, 1988. Project Progress Report (17.7.198714.1.1988) Janu-
ary 1988. Solid Waste Management Resource Mobilization Center and
Deutshe Gessellschaft fuer Technische Zusammenarbeit.
SWMRMC, GTZ, 2000. Equipment Concept 2000 for SWMRMC. Solid
Waste Management Resource Mobilization Center and Deutshe Ges-
sellschaft fuer Technische Zusammenarbeit.
Trivedi, P.R., Raj, G., 1997. Solid Waste Pollution. Akashdeep Publishing
House, Delhi, India. 45 p..
UNCHS, 1994. Bangladesh urban and shelter sector review. Nairobi, Kenya.
Wadood, A., 1994. EVects of urban wastes on environment and its control.
In: Hoq, MoWzul, Lechner, H. (Eds.), Aspects of Solid Waste Manage-
ment Bangladesh Context. German Cultural Institute, Dhaka.