*NOTE: YUNG IBANG FORMULA, NDI KO SINAMA JAN KASI FREQUENCY MODULATION frequency of the carrier is

HASSLE MAGTYPE NG FORMULA. AYT? :D directly varied by the modulating signal

ANGLE MODULATION PHASE MODULATION phase of the carrier is directly varied

by the modulating signal
Advantages:
Note: When frequency of a signal is varied, its phase is also
Noise reduction varied. When phase of a signal is varied, its frequency is also
Improved system fidelity varied
More efficient use of power
*DIRECT FM is INDIRECT PM
Disadvantages:
*INDIRECT FM is DIRECT PM
Requires wider bandwidth
Utilizing more complex circuit in both the DIRECT FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM) varying the
transmitters and the receivers frequency of a constant-amplitude carrier directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a
1931- Angle modulation was first introduced as an alternative rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal
to AM
DIRECT PHASE MODULATION (PM) varying the phase of a
MAJOR E.H. ARMSTRONG - Developed the superheterodyne constant-amplitude carrier directly proportional to the
receiver amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate equal to the
frequency of the modulating signal
1936- first successful FM radio system
*POSITIVE modulating signal produces INCREASE in
July 1939 first regularly scheduled broadcasting of FM
frequency
signals began in Alpine, New Jersey
*NEGATIVE modulating signal produces DECREASE in
APPLICATIONS:
frequency
Commercial radio broadcasting
PHASE DEVIATION () relative angular displacement
Television sound transmission (shift) of the carrier phase in radians in respect to the
Two-way mobile radio reference phase
Cellular radio
Microwave and satellite communications systems FREQUENCY DEVIATION (f) relative displacement of the
carrier frequency in hertz in respect to its unmodulated wave
ANGLE MODULATION results whenever the phase angle ()
of the sinusoidal wave is varied with respect to time. UNMODULATED CARRIER FREQUENCY Carrier rests
frequency
The modulating signal can be expressed as:
INSTANTANEOUS PHASE DEVIATION instantaneous change
v (t)=V sin( t) in the phase of the carrier at a given instant of time and
m m m
indicates how much the phase of the carrier is changing with
where:
respect to its reference phase
= 2f = modulating signal radian frequency
m m The instantaneous phase deviation of an angle modulated
(angular velocity) V = modulating signal peak wave ((t)) can be expressed as:
m
amplitude (volts) (t) = F(v (t))
m
f = modulating signal frequency (hertz) INSTANTANEOUS PHASE precise phase of the carrier at a
m
given instant of Time
An angle modulated wave can be expressed as:
m(t) =V cos( t + (t)) Instantaneous phase = ct + (t) (radians)
c c
=V cos(2f t + (t)) = 2fct + (t) (radians)
c c
INSTANTANEOUS FREQUENCY DEVIATION instantaneous
change in the frequency of the carrier and is defined as the
first time derivative of the instantaneous phase deviation
Instantaneous frequency deviation = (t) (radians per
second)
INSTANTANEOUS FREQUENCY precise frequency of the
carrier at a given instant of time; first time derivative of
instantaneous phase
DEVIATION SENSITIVITY output versus input transfer
function for the modulators which gives the relationship
between what output parameter changes in respect to
specified changes in the input signal
For FM, changes would occur in the output
frequency in respect to changes in the amplitude of
the input voltage
For PM, changed would occur in the output phase of
the output frequency in respect to changes in the
amplitude of the input voltage
PHASE MODULATION angle modulation in which the
instantaneous phase deviation is proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal and the instantaneous
frequency deviation is proportional to the slope or first
derivative of the modulating signal
FREQUENCY MODULATION angle modulation in which the
instantaneous frequency deviation is proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal and the instantaneous
phase deviation is proportional to the integral of the
modulating signal
For a modulating signal v (t), the phase and frequency
m
modulation are:
Phase modulation = instantaneous phase deviation
Phase modulation = (t) = K v (t)
m
Frequency modulation = instantaneous frequency deviation
Frequency modulation = (t) = K v (t)
1 m
Where:
K = deviation sensitivity of phase modulator (constant in
radians per volt)
= phase deviation per volt of modulating signal (It is a
measure of how much sensitive is a phase modulator
in deviating the phase in proportion to the
modulating signal voltage)
K = deviation sensitivity of frequency modulator
1
(constant in radians per volt- second or hertz per
volt)
= frequency deviation per volt of modulating signal
(It is a measure of how much sensitive is a
frequency modulator in deviating the frequency in
proportion to the modulating signal voltage)
v (t) = modulating signal
m
MODULATION INDEX (m) peak phase deviation on radians
For FM, m is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal and inversely proportional to the
frequency of the modulating signal
m = (KV )/ (unitless)
F m m
For PM, m is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal
m = KV (radians)
P m
The relationship of the modulation index for phase
modulation to the modulated signal can be
expressed as:
m(t) = Vccos[ct + mP cos (mt)]
FREQUENCY DEVIATION change in frequency that
occurs in the carrier when it is acted on by a modulating
signal frequency
CARRIER SWING peak-to-peak frequency shift in Hz
PERCENT MODULATION
% = 100
PHASE MODULATOR circuit in which the carrier is
varied in such a way that its instantaneous phase is
proportional to the modulating signal
REST FREQUENCY unmodulated carrier which is a single
frequency sinusoid
FREQUENCY MODULATOR frequency deviator circuit in
(rad) the carrier is varied in such a way that its
which
instantaneous phase is proportional to the integral of the
modulating signal
(rad/sec)
1. PM MODULATOR = differentiator followed by an
FM modulator
2. PM DEMODULATOR = FM demodulator followed
by an integrator
3. FM MODULATOR = integrator followed by a PM
modulator
4. FM DEMODULATOR = PM demodulator followed
by a differentiator
The modulation index (m) determines the number of side
frequencies.
If modulation index = 0, there are no side frequencies.
The higher the modulation index (m), the more are the
side frequencies that have significant amplitudes.
A side frequency is not considered significant unless it
has an amplitude equal to or greater than 1 % of
unmodulated carrier amplitude (J >= 0.01)
n
The bandwidth of an angle modulated wave is a function
of the modulation index.
The higher the modulation index, the higher is the
bandwidth.
The theoretical bandwidth required to pass all
frequencies in an angle modulated wave is infinite.
However, this is impractical and the bandwidth used in
practice are approximates of the theoretical (infinite)
bandwidth.
The value of J eventually decreases, but not in a simple
manner. It fluctuates as the value of n increases.
When m (modulation index) = 2.4 or 5.4 (or some
other values in Bessel table), J = 0, and there is no
0
component of the modulated wave whose frequency
=f
c.
This is called carrier null.
The values of m where the carrier component
disappears is called
eigenvalues.
BESSEL FUNCTION IDENTITIES used for modulation by a
single frequency sinusoid
Angle modulated waves can be classified into:
Low-Index (narrowband)
Peak phase deviation (modulation index) is
less than 1 radian.
Medium-Index
Peak phase deviation (modulation index is 1
radian to 10 radians.
High-Index
Peak phase deviation (modulation index) is
greater than 10 radians.
Bandwidth used for FM is dependent on its application.
Wideband FM has been defined as that in which
the modulation index normally exceeds unity (1), which
produces more significant side frequencies.
Wideband FM is usually used for entertainment such
as FM radio broadcast.
The modulation index for narrowband FM is near
unity, since the maximum modulating frequency is usually 3
khz, and the maximum frequency deviation is 5 khz.
Narrowband FM is usually used for communications
by police, military, and other similar services
DEVIATION RATIO (DR) worst-case modulation index and is
equal to the maximum PEAK FREQUENCY DEVIATION divided
by the maximum MODULATING SIGNAL FREQUENCY
*worst-case modulation index produces the widest output
frequency spectrum
ADJACENT CHANNEL INTERFERENCE interference produced
when the highest side frequencies from one channel are
allowed to spill over into adjacent channels
FM NOISE TRIANGLE spectral shape of the demodulated
noise
*the noise voltage at the output of a PM demodulator is
constant with frequency
*the noise voltage at the output of an FM demodulator
increases linearly with frequency
* As the noise alters the amplitude of the phase modulated
wave, it also causes phase changes on the PM wave, thereby
creating noise at the output of a PM demodulator.
*For FM receivers, a process called amplitude limiting, which
is limiting the amplitude of the received signal, is usually done
to reduce noise
* For a given range of noise frequencies with the same
amplitudes, the output of a PM demodulator is the same for
all the noise frequencies.
* FM is much more immune to noise than AM.
* FM is significantly more immune to noise than PM.
COMPARISON OF EFFECTS OF NOISE IN AM, FM, PM
For AM:
Effects of noise with different frequencies on an AM
wave are the same.
Only the amplitude of the noise affects the quality of the
demodulated AM
wave.
Changes in noise and modulating signal frequency do
not affect the signal to noise ratio.
Under conditions of very low signal to noise ratio, AM
is superior than PM
and FM.
For PM
PM has all the noise immunity properties of FM except
 the noise triangle. PRE-EMPHASIS (high-pass filter)- emphasizing or boosting of
Effects of noise with different frequencies on a PM amplitude of high frequency modulating signals; done at the
wave are the same. Only the amplitude of the noise FM transmitter; This is done to improve S/N ratio
affects the quality of the demodulated PM wave.
DE-EMPHASIS (low-pass filter)- attenuating or deemphasizing
For FM: high frequency signals after demodulation; done at the FM
Under identical conditions, FM will be 4.75 db better
receiver
than PM for noise.
FM can be made more noise resistant through
break frequency- frequency where preemphasis and
higher frequency deviation, use of limiters , and
deemphasis begins
preemphasis / deemphasis.
Having a maximum frequency deviation of 75 khz and
GENERATION OF FM MODULATION:
75 s preemphasis, FM gives a noise rejection of
at least 24 db better than AM.
The prime requirements of an FM system are:
PHASE MODULATION DUE TO AN INTERFERING SIGNAL
Variable output frequency which is proportional to the
(when Vc>Vn)
instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal

() Modulated signal must have constant peak

amplitude.
FREQUENCY MODULATION DUE TO AN INTERFETING SIGNAL
Frequency deviation must be independent of
frequency of modulating signal.
= (/)

The methods used in generating FM are:

= ()
Direct Method The frequency of oscillation is
directly varied, either through:
= ()
varying the capacitance or inductance of a tank
*the farther the noise frequency is displaced from the carrier circuit
frequency, the larger the frequency deviation
varying the voltage across a varactor diode in an
oscillator, to change the capacitance of the diode. (Varactor
diode capacitance changes as the voltage across it changes.)
*FREQUENCY OF NOISE INTERFERENCE
Varying the reactance of a semiconductor device
= .
such as FET which is used as a load of a tank circuit.
*VOLTAGE SIGNAL-TO-NOISE IMPROVEMENT
Indirect Method FM is generated without varying
the frequency of an oscillator, such as varying the
( )
= 20 phase of a signal. This is sometimes called Armstrong
system. Advantage of this is more stable frequency.
( )

Integrated circuits designed for FM and possibly other
*VOLTAGE SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO DUE TO INTERFERING types of modulation.
TONE
The following are considerations regarding FM generation:

= For Direct FM modulators:

Direct FM modulators based on LC oscillators have

the disadvantage of being not stable enough for
PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS communications or broadcast purposes.

Direct FM modulators use automatic frequency

control (AFC) to stabilize its frequency.
For Indirect FM modulators:
Indirect FM modulators using crystals have better
frequency stability than direct FM modulators.
FM modulators using crystals cannot have medium
or high modulation index as is. Frequency multipliers are used
to achieve higher modulation indices.
ANGLE MODULATION RECEIVERS
Angle modulation receivers are very similar to
conventional amplitude modulation (AM) receivers,
except for the following basic differences:
Generally much higher operating frequencies for FM
Need for limiting and de-emphasis in FM
Totally different methods of demodulation
Different methods of obtaining AGC
An RF amplifier is almost always used in an FM
receiver to reduce the noise figure, and to match the
impedance of the receiver to the antenna.
Local oscillators and mixers take any usual forms
such as Colpitts.
Tracking is not normally much of a problem in FM broadcast
receivers because tuning frequency range is only 1.25:1,
much less than in AM broadcasting.
IF amplifiers do not differ much from those of AM.
FM receivers using the standard 88 to 108 Mhz
broadcast frequency range have an IF which is almost always
10.7 Mhz, with 200 khz bandwidth.
An amplitude limiter must precede the FM
demodulator to reduce noise, except when the FM
demodulator itself has limiter capability.
Amplitude Limiter is a circuit that produces constant
amplitude output for all signals above a prescribed minimum
input level, which is sometimes called: threshold, quieting, or
capture level.
Amplitude Limiter works on the principle of passing
the stronger signal and eliminating the weaker.
FM detectors (demodulator) output voltage is
directly proportional to the frequency deviation.
FM demodulator is a frequency to amplitude
changer.
FM signals can be demodulated by PM receivers, and
vice versa.
Amplitude variations caused by noise on FM or PM
waves can be removed by limiting (clipping) the peaks of the
envelope prior to detection (demodulation).
Signal to noise ratio could be improved in FM or PM
receivers.
DOUBLE CONVERSION SUPERHETERODYNE FM RECEIVER
Preselector, RF amplifier, mixer, local oscillators, IF
amplifiers, and audio amplifier are almost identical to those
used in AM receivers.
FM receivers generally have more IF amplification.
RF amplifiers are sometimes not required, due to the
noise suppression characteristics of FM systems.
Limiter, frequency discriminator, and deemphasis
network replaces the detector of AM receiver.
Limiter limits the amplitude of the IF signal prior to
demodulating the
IF signal to remove the noise in the envelope of the signal.
Discriminator demodulates the IF signal and extracts
the information signal from the IF signal.
De-emphasis network is a low pass filter which
attenuates high frequency signals to compensate for the
emphasis done at the transmitter.
PHASE LOCKED LOOP FM DEMODULATOR
Requires no tuned circuit.
Automatically compensates for changes in carrier
frequency due to instability in transmitter oscillator.
VCO natural frequency is equal to IF center
frequency.
Output voltage (Vout) is proportional to the
frequency deviation at the FM input, and is thus the
demodulated signal.
IF signal amplitude is usually limited prior to feeding
to PLL demodulator for noise reduction.