Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Objectives
Characteristics of Water
Hardness of water
Estimation hardness in Water
Alkalinity of water
Estimation of alkalinity of water
Water : An Engineering material
As a transporter of energy: in steam
raising plant (boiler), cooling
systems and heating circuits
(Coolant).
As an integral part of a process: in
brewing and soft drinks
manufacture, chemicals production
and the food industry
As a generator of power:
Hydroelectric power
Uses of Water
Consumptive Uses
Domestic
Agriculture
Industry
Power generation: Hydroelectric power
Non-consumptive uses: Recreation...
Sources of water
Anions
Cl,SO4,
NO3,
HCO3,F,
NO2
Characteristics of water
Colourless
Odourless
Tasteless
Universal solvent
High specific heat capacity: It absorbs large amount of
heat energy before it begins to get hot and it releases this
energy when cool down. So it regulates earths climate and
body temp of organism
The solid form of water, ice, is less dense than its liquid form.
Hardness: Soap consuming capacity of water. It prevents
lather formation with soap.
Alkalinity: Buffering capacity of water
pH: Pure water is neutral but rain water is acidic due to
dissolved oxides of C, S and N
Dissolved Oxygen: Important for aquatic life
Chloride content: Over 250ppm impart peculiar taste.
Classification of Water
1) Hard Water
Water which does not produce lather with soap solution,
but produces white precipitate is called hard water.
This is mainly due to the presence of calcium and
magnesium salts.
2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 (C17H35COO)2Ca + 2NaCl
2) Soft Water
Water, which produces lather readily with soap solution is
called Soft water.
This is due to the absence of calcium and magnesium salts
Hardness of water
Soap consuming capacity of water
Dissolved mineral salts result in hardness of water
It prevents lathering of soap due to the presence salts of
calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+) ions and other
metals(Fe,Zn, Cu,Al) and other dissolved compounds such as
bicarbonates, sulfates,chlorides and silicates.
Calcium usually enters the water as either calcium carbonate
(CaCO3), in the form of limestone and chalk, or calcium
sulfate (CaSO4), in the form of other mineral deposits.
The predominant source of magnesium is dolomite
(CaMg(CO3)2).
Ground water contains more mineral salts than surface water
and its hardness is higher than surface water
Types of Hardness
Hard water is categorized by the ions found in the water.
They areTemporary' and Permanent' hard water.
1)Temporary Hardness or Carbonate Hardness (CH) or
Alkaline Hardness
This is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium,
magnesium, Iron and other metals.
It can be removed by
boiling the water
adding lime to the water
The bicarbonates are converted into insoluble carbonates and
hydroxides, which can be removed by filtering.
Ca (HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + 2 CO2
Mg (HCO3)2 Mg(OH)2 + 2CO2
contd----
2) Permanent hardness or Non-carbonate
Hardness (NCH) or Non-alkaline Hardness:
Permanent hardness is hardness (mineral content) that
cannot be removed by boiling.
It is usually caused by the presence of
calcium,magnesium, iron and other metal sulfates
and/or chlorides in the water, which become more soluble
as the temperature rises.
Despite the name, permanent hardness can be either
removed or controlled by the addition of chemicals
(Internal Treatment) and by large-scale softening with
zeolite and ion exchange resins (External Conditioning).
Expression of Hardness
Hardness is expressed in terms of CaCO3 Equivalents because
It is most insoluble salt obtained in water treatment
Its molecular weight is 100
The equivalent of calcium carbonate =
Mass of Hardness producing substance x Equivalent wt
of CaCO3
---------------------------------------------------------------
Equivalent wt of hardness producing substance
ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS BY EDTA:
Ca and Mg ions form complex with the chelating agent,
EDTA.
EBT forms a Meta stable complex with the metal ions,
which is wine red in colour. On treating the EBT complex
with EDTA, a more stable metal EDTA complex is formed
setting the EBT free. This reaction proceeds with a colour
change of wine red to steel blue.
Unit of hardness
1) Miilgrams per litre(mg/L) : No of mg of calcium carbonate
equivalent hardness per litre
2) Parts per million ( ppm): no of parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
present per106 parts of water
3)Clark degrees (Clark)/English degrees (E)
No of part of calcium carbonate in one Imperial gallon(70,000 parts)
of water
4) French degrees (Fr) No of part of calcium carbonate in 105 parts of
water.
5) Milliequivalent per litre(meg/L): No of milli equivalents of hardness
present per litre
1ppm =1mg/L =0.1oF =0.07oCl
Disadvantages of hard water
I) Domestic
wastage of soap
produces soap scum" and 'bathtub ring' that are difficult to
remove
Produces unsightly spots on dishes, glassware and flat ware
Increases the risk of diaper rash, rough, red hands, and skin
irritation and discomfort.
Reduces the taste of ice cubes and boiled foods such as vegetables
Bad effect on our digestive system- forming Ca.oxalate in urinary
track
II: Industrial
Textile: Precipitates of Ca and Mg salts adhere to the fabric. Fe
and Mg salts produce coloured spots on fabrics
Sugar : Cause difficulties in crystallization of sugar due to the
presence of sulphates, nitrates, alkali carbonates, etc.,
Dyeing: Dissolved Ca, Mg, Fe Salts react with costly dye, ppt and
give shades and spots
Paper: Ca and Mg salts react with chemicals which are empolyed
to provide a smooth and glossy finish to paper. Fe salts affect the
colour of the paper
Disadvantages of hard water
Laundry: Wastage of soaps and Fe salts cause coloration of
cloth
Concrete: Chlorides and sulphates affect the hydration of
cement and final strength of hardened concrete
Pharmaceutical: Undesirable pdt
Electrical appliances : Formation of scale that clogs plumbing
and builds up on the inside of water heaters washing
machines, dishwashers, etc., which can increase gas or
electric bills, and may lead to early failure of the heater and
decreases life expectancy
III) In Boiler
Priming and Foaming
Scale and sludge Formation
Corrosion
Caustic Embrittlement
Alkalinity of water
Buffering capacity of water- Ability of water to neutralize
the acid without changing pH due to carbonate-bicarbonate
ions
Soft water has little buffer capacity
Alkalinity is due to presence of
Caustic alkalinity, OH-, CO32-
Temporary hardness HCO3-
Advantages of alkalinity of water:
Minimum quantity, less than 0.2ppm is Essential to absorb the
excess H+ ions and protects water from pH fluctuation
Disadvantages
Causes caustic embrittlement in boiler
High content of alkalinity affects aquatic life
Leads to precipitation of sludge and scales in boiler
Estimation of alkalinity of water
Acid base titration using phenolphthalein and methyl orange as
indicators
OH- + H+ H 2O P
CO3 + H
2- +
HCO3 - M
HCO3- + H+ H2O + CO2
contd----
Disadvantages and prevention of Sludge
formation
They are poor conductor of heat so they tend to waste a portion
of heat generated
If sludge forms along with scale, then former gets entrapped in
the latter and both get deposited as scales
Excessive sludge settles in the regions of poor water circulation
such as pipe-connection, plug-opening thereby causing even
choking of pipes
Prevention
Frequent blow down operation : Partial removal of hard water
through tap at the bottom of the boiler when the extent of boiler
is so high and addition of fresh softened water to boiler after
blow down operation
Softened water
Scale formation
Scale is formed by salts like CaSO4, CaCO3, Mg(OH)2, CaSiO3/
MgSiO3 that have limited solubility but are not totally insoluble in
boiler water
These salts reach the deposit site in a soluble form and precipitate
in the form of hard adherent deposits on the inner walls of the
boiler. They are called scale.
Scales are so hard so that it is difficult to remove them even with
the help of hammer and chisel
They are formed by
CaCO3 deposit by decomposition of Ca. bicarbonate in low
pressure boiler
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O+ CO2
2) Deposition of calcium sulphate as such in the high pressure boiler
8) Mg(OH)2 deposit by hydrolysis of Mg. salts-
MgCl2 +2H2O Mg(OH)2 + HCl
4) Presence of silica: Even present in small quantities it is ppted as
CaSiO3/ MgSiO3. They are very difficult to remove
contd---
Disadvantages of Scale Formation
Wastage of fuel: Scaled are poor thermal conductor. In order
to provide a steady supply of heat to water, excessive or over
heating is done and this causes increase in fuel consumption
Lowering of boiler safety: because of over heating, the boiler
material become softer and weaker and makes boiler unsafe to
bear the pressure of the steam especially at high pressure
Decrease in efficiency: Scales may deposit in the valves and
condenser of the boiler and choke them partially. This result in
decrease in efficiency of the boiler
Danger of Explosion: When thick scale crack down due to
uneven expansion, the water comes suddenly in contact with
over heated iron plates. This causes in formation of large
amount of steam steadily. The sudden high pressure even
cause the explosion of the boiler
contd-----
Removal of Scales
Physical Method: With the help of scraper or
piece of wood or wire brush if they are loosely
adhering
Thermal shocks: Heating the boiler and then
suddenly cool with cold water if the scale is brittle
Chemical method: By dissolving them by adding
chemicals if they are adherent and hard
CaCO3 5-10% HCl
CaSO4 EDTA form complex
Mechanical: By frequent blow down operation
Caustic Embrittlement
Specific form of stress corrosion, results in the irregular inter crystalline
cracking of steel.
Combination of high stress and high caustic concentrations which
eventually led to destructive cracking of the boiler vessel
During softening process by lime-soda addition excess Na2CO3 is usually
added which results in free Na2CO3 in the boiler
In high press boiler, it decomposes to form NaOH which makes the boiler
water caustic
Na2CO3 + H2O 2NaOH + CO2
This alkaline water flows into the minute hair-cracks always present in the
inner side of the boiler by capillary action
When water evaporates the conc of dissolved caustic soda conc increases
progressively
It creates conc cells and iron parts which are under stress such as riveted
seams, bends and joints act as an anode and gets dissolved to form sod.
Ferroate,Na2FeO3
This causes embrittlement of the boiler parts particularly at stressed parts.
(+)
Fe at rivets, bends, joints|DilNaOH||Conc NaOH| (-)Fe at plain (under
stress) surface
Contd------
Caustic Embrittlement
Can be avoided by
Using sod. Phosphate as softening agent
instead of sod. Carbonate
Adding tannin or lignin as these blocks the
hair cracks thereby preventing infiltration of
caustic soda solution
Adding NaSO4 as it also blocks hair-cracks,
thereby preventing infiltration of caustic soda
solutions.
Boiler Corrosion
Decay of boiler material by chemical or
electrochemical attack of its environment
Main corrosive agents are
1)Dissolved Oxygen
2)Dissolved Carbon dioxide
3)Acids from dissolved salts
contd---
1) Dissolved Oxygen
Water contains about8ml/lt of dissolved O2
At high temp it leads to rust formation-Mainly pitting type corrosion
2Fe+ 2H2O +O2 2Fe(OH)2
4Fe(OH)2 +O2 2Fe2O3.2H2O
Removal of dissolved O2
By Chemical means: By adding calculated quantity of Sod.sulphide or
hydrazine or sod. Sulphite which involves addition of chemicals, capable
of combining rapidly with the oxygen in aqueous solution.
2 Na2SO3+ O2 2 Na2SO4
N2H4+ O2 N2+ 2H2O
Na2S + 2O2 Na2SO4
Hydrazine hydrate is ideal because the reaction products are N2 and
water.
Sod. Sulphide and sulphite form sod.sulphate which are liable to
decompose giving SO2
By mechanical deaeration:
Deareater: Spraying water in a perforated plate-fitted tower heated from sides
and connected to vacuum pump
High temp, low press and large surface area reduces the dissolved O2 in water
Mechanical deaeration: Eliminating oxygen
Deaerater and other corrosive gases like CO2, NH3from
water
Gas removal is accomplished by spraying cold
makeup water into a steam environment.
Heaters in the deaerater release dissolved
gases in the incoming water by reducing it to a
fine spray as it cascades over several rows of
trays.
The steam that makes intimate contact with
the water droplets then scrubs the dissolved
gases by its counter-current flow.
The steam heats the water to within 3-5 F of
the steam saturation temperature and it should
remove all but the very last traces of oxygen.
The deaerated water then falls to the storage
space below, where a steam blanket protects it
from recontamination.
2) Dissolved Carbon Dioxide
CO2 +H2O HCO3(carbonic acid)
It has slow corrosive effect on the boiler material
Generation of CO2: CO2 is released inside the
boiler if the water used for steam generation
contains bicarbonate
Mg(HCO3)2 MgCO3 +H2O + CO2
Removal of CO2
1)By adding calculated amount of NH3
2NH4OH + CO2 ( NH4)CO3 +H2O
2)By mechanical deaeration process along with O2
3) Acids From dissolved salts
sedimentation
1) Removal of
Sedimentation with Coagulation suspended
Impurities
Filtration
Disinfection 2) Removal of
micro organism
Drinking Water
Drinking water treatment plant
Drinking water treatment plant
1. screening 2.Sedimentation
1.Screening
To remove floating materials
like wood pieces , leaves etc
Water passed thro bar
screens to hold back floating
matter
2.sedimentation
In grit chambers & settling
tanks
Gravity pulls the heavy
particles to the bottom of the
tank & the water is sent to
settling tank
2) Sedimentation: Allow water to stand undisturbed in big, deep
tanks. The retention period ranges from 2-6hrs WATER
FROM
COAGULATION
WATER
TOWARDS
SEDIMENTATION
Sludge disposal
Coagulation - Reactions
1) Using Alum [K2 SO4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24 H2O]
Al2(SO4)3 + Ca (HCO3)2 2Al(OH)3 + Ca SO4+ 6CO2
coagulant water >pH 7 ppt
2)Using Sodium Aluminate(NaAlO2)
NaAlO2 + 2H2O Al(OH)3 + NaOH
water <pH 7 gelt . Floc
Water then flows through large dual media rapid sand filters
made up of layers of gravel, sand, and anthracite coal
Sand Filter
5. Disinfection: Removal of micro-organism
Process of destroying/killing any disease causing
bacteria and microbes to make water for safe
The chemicals and sub which are used for
disinfection are called disinfectant
Methods of disinfection
i) Boiling
ii) Using UV light
iii) Ozone
iv) Bleaching powder
v) Chlorination
vi) Chloramines
1) Boiling
Boil water for 10-15 min
Disadvantages
Boiling alter the taste of drinking water
Can kill only existing germ in water at the
time of boiling, does not provide any
protection against future possible
contamination
It is impossible to employ it in municipal
water-works
ii) Using ultraviolet light
Ultraviolet radiation lies between visible light and
X-rays on the electromagnetic spectrum.
UV light = 1000 4000A . UV light has a
shorter wavelength than visible light
Earth's atmosphere prevents most UV radiation from
space from reaching the ground.
UV-(short wave) is entirely screened out by
stratospheric ozone at around 35 km altitude.
It is germicidal at 200 and 280 nm. I t is used to
sterilize glassware used in medicine and biological
research.
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
SOURCE
UV light is emitted as a result of
current flow through the mercury vapor
between the electrodes of the lamp.
The most commonly used UV lamps
(low pressure mercury vapor) produce
the majority of their UV output at
253.7nm, a wavelength which is very
close to the 260 - 265nm wavelengths
which are most effective in killing
microbes.
The germicidal lamp(200-280nm) is
constructed of UV transmitting quartz;
The advantages of UV disinfection
- disinfection without adding chemicals
- no change to the taste and no removal of beneficial
minerals
- minimal maintenance
- immediate treatment without the need for holding
tanks
- ideal compatibility with other technologies for
complete solutions: carbon filtration, water softeners
reverse osmosis
- low power consumption
iii) Using ozone
Advantages
- Does not leave by any residue Kills bacterias &
Removes simultaneously colour, oxidised org
odour and taste substances
-Excess is not harmful
Demerits
- Expensive
- Unstable and can not be stored for
- long time
Ozone steriliser
Raw water
Ozone inlet
Disinfected water
tank
Demerits:
Introduces calcium hardness
Deteriorates on storing
Imparts bad taste /odor if it is added in excess
v) Using chloramines(ClNH2)
It is preferred because
Much more lasting than chlorine alone
Does not produce irritating odor
Imparts good taste
vi) Chlorination
chlorinator
-
- Inactivates the enzymes essential for the
metabolic process of micro-organism and
and kill them (bacteria and germs)
Used at low pH values < 6.5
Zone III
Break point
Chlorine dosage