Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Diamond Lattices
Of the 18 atoms shown in the figure, only 8 belong to the volume ao3.
Because the 8 corner atoms are each shared by 8 cubes, they contribute a
total of 1 atom; the 6 face atoms are each shared by 2 cubes and thus
contribute 3 atoms, and there are 4 atoms inside the cube.
The atomic density is therefore 8/ao3, which corresponds to 17.7, 5.00, and
4.43 X 1022 cm-3, respectively.
(After W. Shockley: Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J., 1950.)
lattice constant
= 5.431
In0.57Ga0.43As0.95P0.05
In0.7Ga0.3As0.66P0.34
In0.14Ga0.86As
0.55 0.45
P
GaP(N)
SiC(Al)
InGaN
GaAs
GaSb
GaAs
InP
GaAs1-yPy
x = 0.43 In1-xGaxAs1-yPy
AlxGa1-xAs
In0.49AlxGa0.51-xP
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Green
Orange
Red
Violet
Yellow
Blue
I n f r ar e d (um)
Quantization Concept Periodic Table of the Elements
Group**
Period 1 18
IA VIIIA
plank constant 1A 8A
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 2
1 H IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
1.008 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB
------- VIII -------
IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 1B 2B 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
Core electrons ------- 8 -------
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.47 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 190.2 195.1 197.0 200.5 204.4 207.2 209.0 (210) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114 116 118
IV Compounds
SiC, SiGe
1s
Core electrons
K 2s
L 2p
1s22s22p2 or [He]2s22p2
The shell model of the atom in which the electrons are confined
Valence electrons
to live within certain shells and in sub shells within shells.
Energy Band Formation (I) Energy Band Formation (I)
Energy Bandgap Pauli Exclusion Principle Conceptual development of the energy band model.
where no states exist
N isolated Si-atoms Crystalline Si N -atoms Etop
Mostly
Electron energy
empty
Electron energy
Electron energy
4N allowed-states
p (Conduction Band) Ec
s n=3
No states
Eg
6N p-states total Ev
4N allowed-states Mostly
2N s-states total filled
(Valance Band)
(4N electrons total) Ebottom
Only 2 electrons, of spin 1/2, can
occupy the same energy state at
the same point in space. Electron energy p 4N empty states
As atoms are brought closer towards
one another and begin to bond s
Strongly bonded materials: small together, their energy levels must 2N+2N filled states
interatomic distances. split into bands of discrete levels
Thus, the strongly bonded materials can so closely spaced in energy, they
have larger energy bandgaps than do can be considered a continuum of Decreasing atom spacing
weakly bonded materials. isolated Si lattice
allowed energy.
Si atoms spacing
Energy Band Formation (IV) Energy Band
Broadening of allowed energy levels into allowed energy bands Energy band diagrams.
separated by forbidden-energy gaps as more atoms influence each
electron in a solid.
0
1s 1s
ATOM SOLID
A simplified two dimensional The energy band diagram of
In a metal the various energy bands overlap to give a single band of energies view of a region of the Si electrons in the Si crystal at
that is only partially full of electrons. crystal showing covalent absolute zero of temperature.
There are states with energies up to the vacuum level where the electron is free.
bonds.
Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators
Range of conductivities exhibited by various materials. Electrons within an infinite potential energy well of spatial width L,
its energy is quantized.
Insulators Semiconductors Conductors
( h k n2 ) n
Many ceramics En = kn = n = 1,2,3...
2me L
Alumina Superconductors n=3
h k n : electron momentum E3
Diamond Inorganic Glasses 2
Mica Metals Energy increases x x
Polypropylene parabolically with the infinite square potential
Degenerately
PVDF Soda silica glass wavevector kn. E2
n=2
doped Si Alloys
PET Borosilicate Pure SnO2
Intrinsic Si m
Amorphous Te Graphite NiCrAg E1 n=1
SiO2 Intrinsic GaAs
As2Se3 -a/2 0 +a/2 -a/2 0 +a/2
V(x) V=0 Energy state Wavefunction Probability density
x
-a/2 0 +a/2
10-18 10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 100 103 106 109 1012
This description can be used to the behavior of electron in a Metal
Conductivity (m)-1 within which their average potential energy is V(x) 0 inside, and very
large outside.
3.1 Energy Band Diagram 3.1 Energy Band Diagram
E-k diagram, Bloch function. within the Crystal! E-k diagram, Bloch function.
PE(r)
0
a a
PE of the electron, V(x), inside the k ( x ) = U k ( x ) e i k x
crystal is periodic with a period a.
Periodic Wave function
x
x=0 a 2a 3a x=L Bloch Wavefunction
Surface Crystal Surface
There are many Bloch wavefunction solutions to the one-dimensional crystal each
Moving through Lattice.mov identified with a particular k value, say kn which act as a kind of quantum number.
The electron potential energy [PE, V(x)], inside the crystal is periodic with the
same periodicity as that of the crystal, a.
Each k (x) solution corresponds to a particular kn and
Far away outside the crystal, by choice, V = 0 (the electron is free and PE = 0).
represents a state with an energy Ek.
E-k diagram of a direct bandgap semiconductor The energy is plotted as a function of the wave number, k,
along the main crystallographic directions in the crystal.
E-k diagram The Energy Band
E Diagram
k Si Ge GaAs
CB
Conduction
Empty e-
Band (CB) e- k
E E
c c
E h h
g
E E
Valence v v
Band (VB) h+ Occupied h+
k
VB
k
/a /a
The E-k curve consists of many discrete points with each point corresponding to a
possible state, wavefunction k (x), that is allowed to exist in the crystal. The bottom axis describe different directions of the crystal.
The points are so close that we normally draw the E-k relationship as a continuous
curve. In the energy range Ev to Ec there are no points [no k (x) solutions].
3.1 Energy Band Diagram 3.1 Energy Band
E-k diagram
A simplified energy band diagram with the highest almost-filled
band and the lowest almost-empty band.
E E E
CB
Indirect Bandgap, Eg
Ec CB vacuum level
Direct Bandgap Eg Photon CB Ec Ec
Ev Er
kcb Phonon
Ev Ev : electron affinity
VB
VB kvb VB
k k k k k k
GaAs Si Si with a recombination center
conduction band edge
In GaAs the minimum of In Si, the minimum of the CB is Recombination of an electron
the CB is directly above displaced from the maximum of and a hole in Si involves a
the maximum of the VB. the VB. recombination center.
direct bandgap indirect bandgap semiconductor valence band edge
semiconductor.
Generation of Electrons and Holes Electrons: Electrons in the conduction band that are free to move throughout the crystal.
Holes: Missing electrons normally found in the valence band
(or empty states in the valence band that would normally be filled).
Electron energy, E
Ec+
CB
Ec
h > Eg Free e
Eg h hole
e
Hole h+
Ev
VB
0
E
E
dv dv
F = q E = m0 F = q E = m n
dt dt
It allow us to conceive of electron and holes as quasi-classical particles Ge and GaAs have lighter electrons than Si which results in faster devices
and to employ classical particle relationships in semiconductor crystals or
in most device analysis.
Si Ge GaAs
In most instances
The electron can be thought of as a particle.
The electronic motion can be modeled using Newtonian
mechanics.
` d 2E
2 = constant : near band edge
dk
Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons
Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons
Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons
V(x), PE (x)
V(x)
n-type Impurity Doping of Si Energy Band Diagram in an
x
Applied Field
Electron Energy
Electron Energy PE (x) = eV
E
CB
As+ Ec Ec
e ~0.05 eV E EF Energy band diagram of an n-type
d As+ As+ As+ As+
E c eV semiconductor connected to a
Ev
E F eV voltage supply of V volts.
E v eV
Ev x
Distance into
A
The whole energy diagram tilts
crystal because the electron now has an
6
As atom sites every 10 Si atoms
B
electrostatic potential energy as
The four valence electrons of As allow Energy band diagram for an n-type Si doped n-Type Semiconductor well.
it to bond just like Si but the 5th with 1 ppm As. There are donor energy levels
electron is left orbiting the As site. just below Ec around As+ sites.
The energy required to release to free
fifth- electron into the CB is very Current flowing
small. V
Concept of a Acceptor Adding extra Holes Hole Movement
All regions
of
material
are neutrally
charged
Another valence electron can fill the empty state located next to The positively charged hole can move throughout the crystal.
the Acceptor leaving behind a positively charged hole. (Really it is the valance electrons jumping from atom to atom that creates the hole motion)
Hole Movement Hole Movement
The positively charged hole can move throughout the crystal. The positively charged hole can move throughout the crystal.
(Really it is the valance electrons jumping from atom to atom that creates the hole motion) (Really it is the valance electrons jumping from atom to atom that creates the hole motion)
Region
around the Region
acceptor around the
has hole has
one extra one less
electron electron
and thus is and thus is
negatively positively
charged. charged.
Electron energy
B atom sites every 106 Si atoms
CB
Ec x Distance
into crystal Ec
Ec Ec
EFn
h+ EFi
B EFp
B B B B
Ea Ev Ev Ev
h+
~0.05 eV
VB
Ev
VB
Valence Band
Valence Band
Impurity Doping Energy Band
Position of energy levels within the bandgap of Si for Energy band diagrams.
common dopants.
Density of States
The number of valence band in Valence Band
gv ( E ) dE states/cm3 lying in the energy
range between E and E + dE
(if E Ev).
Probability of Occupation (Fermi Function) Concept Probability of Occupation (Fermi Function) Concept
Now that we know the number of available states at each energy, then
how do the electrons occupy these states?
We need to know how the electrons are distributed in energy.
Again, Quantum Mechanics tells us that the electrons follow the Fer
mi-distribution function. The Fermi function f (E) is a probability
distribution function that tells one the ratio of
1 Ef Fermi energy (average energy in the crystal)
f (E) = k Boltzmann constant (k=8.61710-5eV/K)
filled to total allowed states at a given energy
( EE f ) / kT
1+ e T Temperature in Kelvin (K) E
f(E) is the probability that a state at energy E is occupied.
1-f(E) is the probability that a state at energy E is unoccupied.
Fermi-Dirac Distribution
Fermi Function
Probability that an available state at energy E is occupied:
1
f ( E) =
1 + e( E EF ) / kT
EF is called the Fermi energy or the Fermi level
TYU
Determine the probability that an allowed ene
rgy state is empty of electron if the state is be
low the fermi level by (i) kT (ii) 3KT (iii)
6 KT
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?
Example 2.2
The probability that a state is filled at the conduction band edge (Ec) is
precisely equal to the probability that a state is empty at the valence band
edge (Ev).
Where is the Fermi energy locate?
Solution
The Fermi function, f(E), specifies the probability of electron occupying
states at a given energy E.
The probability that a state is empty (not filled) at a given energy E is equal
to 1- f(E).
f ( EC ) = 1 f ( EV )
1
f (EC ) = 1 f ( EV ) = 1
1
=
1
1 + e ( EC E F ) / kT 1 + e ( EV E F ) / kT 1 + e ( E F EV ) / kT
EC EF EV E F EC + EV
= EF =
kT kT 2
How do electrons and holes populate the bands? How do electrons and holes populate the bands?
0 Otherwise
Developing the Mathematical Model
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?
for Electrons and Holes concentrations
Ev Ev pE(E)
The Density of Hole is:
Area = p
For holes
VB
Probability the state is empty
0
g(E) fE) nE(E) or pE(E)
Energy band Density of states Fermi-Dirac g(E) X f(E)
diagram probability Energy density of electrons in
function the CB
Number of states per cm-3 in energy range dE
TYU
Calculate the thermal equilibrium electron concen
tration in Si at T=300K for the case when the F
ermi level is 0.25eV below the conduction band
.
EC
0.25eV
EF
EV
Hole Concentration (no)
TYU
Calculate thermal equilibrium hole concentrati
on in Si at T=300k for the case when the Fermi
level is 0.20eV above the valance band energy
Ev.
EC
EF
0.20eV
EV
Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors Developing the Mathematical Model
for Electrons and Holes
Nondegenerate Case
( E f EC ) kT
n = NCe
(EV E f ) kT
p = NV e
Semiconductor Statistics
The intrinsic carrier concentration
ni = N C NV e ( EC EV ) kT = N C NV e
2 E g kT
When n = ni, Ef = Ei (the intrinsic energy), then
ni = N C e ( E i EC ) kT or N C = ni e ( EC E i ) kT E g 2 kT
and ni = N C NV e
ni = NV e ( EV Ei ) kT or N = n e ( E i EV ) kT
V i
TYU
Determine the intrinsic carrier concentration in
GaAs (a) at T=200k and (b) T=400K
2
nopo = ni 2
nopo = ni
It is one of the fundamental principles of semiconductors
in thermal equilibrium
TYU
if N D N A and N D ni
ni2
n ND and p
ND Find the hole concentration at 300K, if the
electron concentration is no=1 x 1015 cm-3,
which carrier is majority carrier and which
carrier is minority carrier?
TYU
: The concentration of majority carrier
electron is no=1 x 1015 cm-3 at 300K. D
etermine the concentration of phosphorus th
at are to be added and determine the concentr
ation minority carriers holes.
Energy band diagram
Partial Ionization, showing negative
Energy band diagram
Intrinsic Energy showing positive
charges
charges
and Parameter Rel
ationships.
If excess charge existed within the semiconductor, random motion NA = Concentration of ionized acceptors = ~ NA
of charge would imply net (AC) current flow.
ND+ = Concentration of ionized Donors = ~ ND
Not possible!
( p N )+ (N )
Thus, all charges within the semiconductor must cancel.
[( p + N ) = (N + n )]
+
+ A d n =0
d a
q [( p N ) + (N n )]
A
+
d =0
Immobile + charge
Mobile + charge
Mobile - charge
Immobile - charge
Electron concentration versus temperature for n-type
Semiconductor.
Nd >> ni
Ec EF = kT ln( Nc / Nd )
Note: If we have a compensated semiconductor , then the Nd term
in the above equation is simply replaced by Nd-Na.
position of Fermi Energy level
position of Fermi level as a function of carrier concentration
(EV E f ) kT
po = N V e
EF Ev = kT ln( Nv / po)
Na >> ni
EF Ev = kT ln( Nv / Na )
Note: If we have a compensated semiconductor , then the Na term
in the above equation is simply replaced by Na-Nd.
Where is Ei ?
TYU
Extrinsic Material:
Note: The Fermi-level is pictured here for 2 separate cases: acceptor and donor doped.
position of Fermi Energy level
Extrinsic Material:
(E f E fi ) kT (E fi E f ) kT
no = ni e po = ni e
n p
E f E fi = kT ln = kT ln
n
i ni
N N
E f E fi = kT ln D E f E fi = kT ln A
ni ni
TYU 3.8
Calculate the position of the Fermi level in n-
type Si at T=300K with respect to the intrinsi
c Fermi energy level. The doping concentrati
on are Nd=2 x 1017 cm-3 and Na=3 x 1016 cm-3
.
Mobile Charge Carriers in
Smiconductor devices
EV
E
E
Drift
Drift
Conduction process in an n-type semiconductor
Jdrf = vd
J p drf = q p vd
Jp = e pp E and Jn Drift
= e n n E
Drift
Given current density J ( I = J x Area ) flowing in a semiconductor block
with face area A under the influence of electric field E, is volume
density, the component of J due to drift of carriers is:
[cm2/Vsec] is the mobility of the semiconductor and measures the
J drf = vd
ease with which carriers can move through the crystal.
and J n drf = e n vd The drift velocity increases with increasing applied electric field.:
J p drf = e p vd
Hole Drift Current Density Electron Drift Current Density Jdrf = J p + Jn Drift
= q ( p p + n n) E
Drift
q
n, p = [ cm 2
V sec]
m n* , p
Drift velocity vs. Electric field in Si. Drift velocity vs. Electric field
Designing devices to work at
the peak results in faster
operation
1/2mvth2=3/2kT=3/2(0.0259)
=0.03885eV
q
n, p = [ cm 2
V sec]
m n* , p
Ohms law is valid only in the low-field region where drift velocity is independent
of the applied electric field strength.
Saturation velocity is approximately equal to the thermal velocity (107 cm/s).
Drift Negative differential mobility
Drift velocity vs. Electric field in Si and GaAs. Electron distributions under various conditions of electric
fields for a two-valley semiconductor.
q
n, p = [ cm 2
V se
m n* , p m*n=0.067mo
m*n=0.55mo
Figure 3.24.
Mean Free Path
l = vth mp
Average distance traveled between collisions
EX 4.2
Using figure 4.3 determine electron and hole nobilities.
EX 4.2
Using figure 4.3 determine electron and hole mobilities in (a) Si for Nd=1017 cm-3,
Na=5 x 1016 cm-3 and (b) GaAs for Na=Nd=1017cm-3
Ex 4.2
Mobility versus temperature
Mobility versus temperature
Ohms Law
E
300 K J = E =
[A cm ] 2 Ohms Law
[1 ohm cm ] Conductivity
[ohm cm ] Resistivity
Adding the Electron and Hole Drift Currents (at low electric fields)
Jdrf = J p + Jn Drift
= e( p p + n n ) E Drift Current
Drift
= e( p p + n n ) Conductivity
=
1
[
= 1 e( n n + p p ) ] Resistivity
But since n and p change very little and n and p change several
orders of magnitude:
Diffusion
Diffusion
Particles diffuse from regions of higher concentration Nature attempts to reduce concentration gradients to zero.
to regions of lower concentration region, due to Example: a bad odor in a room, a drop of ink in a cup of water.
random thermal motion.
In semiconductors, this flow of carriers from one region of higher
concentration to lower concentration results in a Diffusion Current.
Jp Diffusion
Jn Diffusion
Diffuse Diffuse
x x
Total Current
Ficks law
Diffusion as the flux, F, (of particles in our case) is proportional to
J = JN + JP
the gradient in concentration.
+ qD
: Concentration
F = D dn
D : Diffusion Coefficient JN = JN,drift + JN,diff = qnn N
dx
For electrons and holes, the diffusion current density
qD
( Flux of particles times q )
dp
JP = JP,drift + JP,diff = qpp P
Jp = q D pp dx
Diffusion
Jn Diffusion
= q Dnn
TYU
Total Current = Drift Current + Diffusion Current
dp
Jp=0.270 A/cm2 J P,diff = eDP
Dp=12 cm2/sec
Find the hole concentration at x=50um dx
Graded impurity distribution
Thermal Energy
or Gno=Gpo
Light
Band-to-band generation
Band-to-Band or direct (directly across the band) generation.
Does not have to be a direct bandgap material.
Mechanism that results in ni.
Basis for light absorption devices such as semiconductor
photodetectors, solar cells, etc
Recombination Mechanism Excess carrier Recombination and Generation
Band-to-Band Recombination
n = n + n0 and p = p + p0
or
Rno=Rpo Low-Level-Injection implies
multiple phonons
(single quantum of lattice
vibration - equivalent to
p << n0 , n n0 in a n-type material
saying thermal energy)
n << p0 , p p0 in a p-type material
Carrier Lifetime
t po
p (t ) = p0 e n(t ) = n0 e t no
Light Pulses
Rs
+
Semiconductor
VA I RL VL
_
Oscilloscope
Material Response to Non-Equilibrium
Relaxation Concept
Consider a case when the hole concentration in an n-type sample is
not in equilibrium, i.e., np ni2
p p (t )
R' n = =
t po
po is the minority carrier lifetime
The minority carrier lifetime is the average time a minority carrier can
survive in a large ensemble of majority carriers.
If p is negative Generation or an increase in carriers with time.
If p is positive Recombination or a decrease in carriers with time.
Either way the system tries to reach equilibrium
The rate of relaxation depends on how far away from equilibrium we are.
n n
=
t Thermal R G
n
n is the minority carrier lifetime
Indirect recombination-
generation processes at
thermal equilibrium.
Recombination Mechanism Generation and Recombination process
Effects of recombination
Generation Mechanism
centers on solar cell
performance
Recombination-Generation (R-G) Center Generation
b
Auger Recombination
Auger pronounced O-jay
Requires 3 particles.
p-n Junction
Two steps:
1 1st carrier and 2nd carrier of same type collide instantly annihilating
the electron hole pair (1st and 3rd carrier). The energy lost in the
annihilation process is given to the 2nd carrier.
2 2nd carrier gives off a series of phonons until its energy returns to
equilibrium energy (E~=Ec) This process is known as thermalization.
p-n Junction
p-n Junction
But when the device has no external applied forces, no current can
flow. Thus, the Fermi-level must be flat!
We can then fill in the junction region of the band diagram as:
EC EC
EF
Ei Ei
EF
EV EV
But when the device has no external applied forces, no current can Built-in-potential
flow. Thus, the Fermi-level must be flat!
We can then fill in the junction region of the band diagram as: p-Type Material n-Type Material
EC
- qVbi
EC Ei EC
EF EF
Ei EC EV Ei
EF EF
EV Ei EV
EV
Electrostatic Potential
p-Type Material 1
V= ( EC E ref )
q
n-Type Material
VBI Built-in-potential
x
Built-in-potential Built-in-potential
Electric Field
Electrostatic Potential dV
1 E=
V= ( EC E ref ) dx
q
x
VBI Built-in-potential
x
p n
h+
Built-in-potential M M
Electric Field Metallurgical Junction
E (x )
dV Neutral p-region E0 Neutral n-region -Wp 0 -Wn
E= x
dx
Eo
x V (x )
M Vo
Space charge region
Wp Wn
lo g (n ), lo g (p )
p po
Charge Density nno
x
Charge Density P E (x )
ni
dE eV o
= KS 0 pno
dx n po Hole
o Potential Energy PE (x)
x
x = 0
net x
qND
+ M
+ + Electron Potential Energy PE (x)
x eN d
Wp eV o
- x
- -
qNA
Wn
p-n Junction Principles
-e N a
Movement of Electrons and Holes when
p-n Junction
Forming the Junction
dE qNA / D
E = = =
K S 0 dx KS 0 KS 0
in 1-dimension
Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution
Forward-bias condition
Diode under Forward Bias.mov Diode under no Bias.mov Diode under Reverse Bias.mov Reverse-bias condition
1/ 2
Reverse bias condition 2s (Vbi + VR ) Nd 1
xp =
e Na N
a + N d
1/ 2
2s (Vbi + VR ) N a 1
xn =
e Nd Na + Nd
1/ 2
2s (Vbi + VR ) N A + Nd
W = xn + xp =
e NaNd
p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
Hole Drift
Hole Diffusion Current
Current
EV
Hole Drift
Hole Diffusion Current
p vs. E IP
Current
Jn = Jn + Jn = q n nE + q Dnn = 0
Drift Diffusion
Current flow is dominated I = IN + IP
Jp = Jp Drift
+ Jp Diffusion
= q p pE + q D p p = 0 by majority carriers flowing
I
across the junction and
no net current! becoming minority carriers
Reverse Bias (VA < 0) Where does the Reverse Bias Current come from?
Increase of
Electron Drift potential hill Generation near the depletion region edges replenishes the
current source.
Current by VA
Current flow is constant due
to thermally generated
Electron Diffusion Current negligible due
carriers swept out by E fields
to large energy barrier
in the depletion region
-I0
J p = J p ( x )+ J n ( x )
dn
J n = q n nE qD n
: Diode Ideality Factor dx
dp
J p = q p pE qD p
dx
Continuity Equations
J p ( x x )
J p ( x)
x + x
Area, A cm 2 x
n F 1 J Continuity Equation
= = F: Particle Flux
t x q x
J: Current Density
Ways Carrier Concentrations can be Altered Ways Carrier Concentrations can be Altered
n n 1 J Nx J Ny J Nz 1
= JN
+ = + +
t Drift
t Diffusion
q x y z q
p p 1 J J Py J Pz
= 1 JP
+ = Px + +
t Drift
t Diffusion
q x y z q
n n n n n
= + + +
t t t t Thermal R G t such
All other processes n 1 n n
Drift Diffusion as light ... = JN + +
t q t Thermal R G t such
All other processes
p p p p p as light ...
= + + +
t t t t Thermal R G t All other processes p 1 p p
Drift Diffusion such as light ... = JP + +
t q t Thermal R G t such
All other processes
as light ...
Continuity Equations: Special Case known as Continuity Equations: Special Case known as
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
Consider a semi-infinite p-type silicon sample with NA=1015 cm-3 constantly Steady-state carrier injection from one side.
illuminated by light absorbed in a very thin region of the material creating a
steady state excess of 1013 cm-3 minority carriers (x=0).
What is the minority carrier distribution in the region x> 0 ?
Light Semiconductor
x
Semi-infinite sample
Light absorbed in a thin skin.
at thermal equilibrium Surface recombination at x = 0. The minority carrier distribution near the surface i
under illumination.
s affected by the surface recombination velocity.
n p ( x = ) = 0 = A( 0) + Be (+ LN ) 0 Uniform
0 distribution
( n p ) 2 ( n p ) ( n p )
B=0 = DN + GL
t x 2
n
Semiconductor
Light absorbed uniformly Light
x
minority carrier diffusion eq. minority carrier diffusion eq.
Since electric fields
0 0
exist in the depletion
( n p ) 2 ( n p ) ( n p ) region, the minority 0
= DN + GL 0 0 carrier diffusion 0
t x 2
n equation does not
apply here.
n p ( t ) = [n p ( t = 0)] e ( t n )
n p ( t ) = 10 7 e ( t 1e 5 )
Equilibrium Non-Equilibrium
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
x=0 x=0
dn dp
Approach:
J n = q n nE + D n J p = q p pE + D p
0 dx
?
0 dx Solve minority carrier diffusion equation in quasineutral regions.
(
d n 0 + n p ) = qD p
d ( p 0 + p n ) Determine minority carrier currents from continuity equation.
= qD n
dx dx Evaluate currents at the depletion region edges.
dn p dp n Add these together and multiply by area to determine the total current
= qD n = qD p
dx dx through the device.
Use translated axes, x t x and -x t x in our solution.
x=0 x=0
Holes on the n-side x=0 x=0 Holes on the n-side
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
x=0 x=0
J = Jn (x=0) +Jp (x=0) = Jn (x=0) +Jn (x=0) = Jn (x=0) +Jp (x=0)
Note: Vref from our previous qualitative analysis equation is the thermal voltage, kT/q
-xp xn
Example Example
A silicon pn junction at T=305K has the following parameters: Given figure is a dimensioned plot of the steady state carrier concentrations inside a
NA = 5x1016 cm-3, ND = 1x1016 cm-3 , Dn = 25 cm2/sec, Dp = 10 cm2/sec, n0 = 5x10-7 sec, pn junction diode maintained at room temperature.
and p0 = 1x10-7 sec, ni305K = 1.5x1010 cm-3,. (a) Is the diode forward or reverse biased? Explain how you arrived at your answer.
The cross-sectional area is A=10-3 cm2, and the forward-bias voltage is Va = 0.625 V. (b) Do low-level injection conditions prevail in the quasineutral regions of diode?
Calculate the Explain how you arrived at your answer.
(a) minority electron diffusion current at the space charge region. (c) Determine the applied voltage, VA.
(b) minority hole diffusion current at the space charge edge.
(c) total current in the pn junction diode. n or p The diode is forward biased.
(log scale) There is pile-up or minority carrier
pp
Solution Ln = Dn n nn excess (np>0 and pn>0 ) at the
Minority electron diffusion current density 1017
edges of the depletion region.
2 2 1015
qDn n p 0 qVa Dn ni qVa
Jn = exp 1 = q exp 1
Ln kT n 0 N A kT
1010 pn
25 (1.5 1010 ) 0.625
2 np 108
= (1.6 10 19 ) exp 1 = 0.154 mA / cm
2
1 10 7 1 1016 0.0259
Total current density= 1.24 mA/cm2 Total current = AxJ=10-3x1.24 =1.24 A
J = J elec + J h ole
T otal current
M ajority carrier diffusion
and drift current
J h ole
J elec M inority carrier diffusion
current
x
W p Wn
(a) Transient increase of excess stored holes in a long-base ideal diode for a
constant current drive applied at time zero with the diode initially unbiased. Note
the constant gradient at x = xn as time increases from (1) through (5), which The total current anywhere in the device is constant.
indicates a constant injected hole current. (Circuit shown in inset.) (b) Diode Just outside the depletion region it is due to the diffusion of minority
voltage VD versus time.
carriers.
Current-Voltage Characteristics
of a Typical Silicon p-n Junction Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Examples
Diode in a circuit
Built-in-Potential
(a) under equilibrium, both diffusion currents are (b) under reverse bias, only a small number of carriers are available to
cancelled by opposing drift currents. diffuse across the junction (once within the junction they drift to the
other side). With increasing reverse bias the reverse current increases
2 K s 0 ( N A + N D )
due to tunneling and carrier multiplication. W = x p + xn = (Vbi (V A ))
q N AND
Width of Depletion Region