THE TEACHER AND CHILD LABOUR

T. VIJAYENDRA

Publishing Collective

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Sangatya Sahitya Bhandar Sahitya Chayana

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1
The Teacher and Child Labour
Author: T. Vijayendra
Year: 2009
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 CONTENTS

1. Understanding Child Labour

2. The Teacher and Child Labour
3. Pedagogy of the Poor
4. How to Improve Handwriting
5. Beginning in the Middle
6. Flat-Bed Duplicator A Tool for Democratic Print Media
7. Books on Education
8. Vanka

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 FOREWORD

These articles were developed during my interaction with M V Foundation,

Secunderabad, and the government school teachers of Ranga Reddy district, Andhra
Pradesh during the nineteen nineties. The only exception, 'Understanding Child Labour',
was published in 1980. They have been put together in this booklet form at the request of
M. V. Foundation for use in their teacher training programme. I will be happy if it serves
the purpose.
Each was written on different dates separated by years, hence is complete in itself.
However, in book form, they endanger some repetition. I have not changed this, for I felt,
many readers may wish to use them in their individual form during training programmes.
The earlier version was published in Telugu many years ago and used extensively by M.
V. Foundation in their training programmes. Now there appears to be a demand for an
English edition. For one, M. V. Foundation has reached outside Andhra Pradesh both
within the country and abroad. Secondly, several programmes all over the world seem to
have adopted a similar approach.
For the English edition, I have updated the article, Understanding Child labour. I have
also expanded the article Books on Education. The original article Flat Bed Duplicator-
A Tool for Democratic Print Media by Usha Rao, in its edited essence form, is a new
addition. In the end I have included a short story by Anton Chekhov. The story very
beautifully and effectively describes the situation of a bonded child worker in nineteenth
century Russia. I felt that a great author like Chekhov should be introduced to new
readers.
In addition to M. V. Foundation and the government school teachers, I have received
considerable help in formulating these ideas from Usha Rao, particularly in the articles,
'Pedagogy of the Poor' and 'Beginning in the Middle'. She is the co-author of the article
Books on Education. Needless to say, I alone am responsible for all shortcomings and
errors.
The English edition has benefited from comments by Usha Sriram. The only purpose of
publishing a book is that, it be read. To this end, I have received much help from Nyla
Coelho in making the book readable. Suresh at Manchi Pustakam has taken total
responsibility for the design and publication of the book. Subbayya at Charita
Impressions has done the printing job with his usual promptness and eye for quality.
While working on the English edition, I have been staying at an organic farm collective
in the Western Ghats. I would like to express my gratitude to the members of the
collective.
The book is being published jointly by several groups that have been involved in
activities of this nature. For a large geographical area like India, with a thinly spread
readership that can ill afford to pay prices of commercial publishing houses, this has
proved a practical solution.
June 5, 2009 T. Vijayendra

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 UNDERSTANDING CHILD LABOUR

This article1 was first published in 1980. In the present one, old data has been replaced
with recent figures. The reasons for persistence and increase in the extent of the problem
appear to be: a) a greater awareness of the problem and therefore better access to data
and b) the political economy of capitalism in India has not changed significantly and
hence, the problem persists in spite of government and non government efforts.
Understanding child labour is wrought with several impediments: working children have
no voice; they are employed in the unorganised sector of the economy - which rarely
have trade unions; society is sensitised to the existence of child labour only in the event
of an atrocity - when it becomes worthy of news! Again, since it occurs in the informal
sector, child labour remains invisible.
The invisibility itself occurs in many ways:
One is the physical invisibility. They work in family units of production so one doesn't
see them. If they work as wage labourers - where often, the factory is situated in dingy
slums or in basements of buildings - they are rendered invisible from the eye of the public
and the law.
The other aspect of invisibility is that society does not want to see them. Childhood is so
glorified and put in such velvety cushions in the minds of the liberal thinkers that they
just want to wish away child labour by abolishing them in the letter of the law.
Finally, while in the writings of Marx, poignant pictures of employment of children are
available, latter day Marxists and trade unionists have paid scant attention to the problem.
So, what is left is a certain amount of Government and non government statistical data
and some very good accounts of work done by many voluntary organizations - both in
exposing the problem and in attempting to solve it. The small attempts at analyzing the
situation that are made suffer from the common inference of Marxist studies on labour -
a) that it is a legacy of the feudal past and as capitalism advances child labour will
automatically be abolished, (b) existence of child labour is due to the general exploitative
character of capitalism which exploits labour in every possible form.
The main problem with both the above approaches is that it does not give any direction
for action. So nothing can be done! This in turn limits theoretical attempts to understand
the situation. It merely ends up condemning it - very much in tune with liberal bleeding
hearts!
What follows is a preliminary and sketchy attempt to articulate the status of child labour,
raise questions rather than provide satisfactory answers.
The Extent of the Problem
Child labour is essentially a Third World phenomenon with India, Bangladesh and Africa
accounting for most of the child labourers in the world. For India, it is impossible to
ascertain its real extent because of the areas of employment, the method of collecting

1
Published in HOW, New Delhi, October, 1980

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official statistics and its organisation, and the general attitude towards the issue itself. All
the same, the picture that emerges is both startling and grim.
In 1971, of a total of 230 million children (0 - 14 years), 10.7 million were recorded as
workers. Towards the end of the same decade (1978-79) the estimated figure stood at
16.5 million.
Many organizations have been engaging with this issue albeit varied approaches.
Campaign Against Child Labour (CACL) quotes data from different sources in ranges
from 20 million to 111 million! Probably, a realistic estimate is be to peg it at half the
population of out of school children between the ages of 5-14 totaling to about 80 million
!* Based on the number of non-school going children and families living in destitution,
CACL estimates that there are 70 to 80 million child labourers in India.**
Interpolation of census figures by the National Labour Institute indicate - out of 203
million children between the ages of 5 - 14, 116 million are in school, 12.6 million are in
full-time employment, and the status of 74 million is unknown. Most if not all of the 87
million children not in school work in the house, on family farms, alongside their parents
as paid agricultural labourers, as domestic servants or are otherwise employed.***
India has the distinction of using a larger child labour force than any other country and
accounts for nearly one third of the worlds total.
Table: Distribution of child labour (ages 5-14) in different sectors of the economy

1979 2006

% %
1. Cultivators/ Agricultural Labour 78.7 54
2. hunting, plantation and orchard work 8.2
3. Construction 15.5
4. Manufacturing and processing jobs 6.0 5
5. Household and other industries 6.0 18
6. Trade, commerce, transport etc. 1.1 8
What is the nature of work these children do? An overwhelming majority of them are
unpaid family workers living in rural areas. Historically it has vestiges of the past, where
all members of the group contributed their labour to the survival and sustenance of the
group as a whole. In such a situation, the work assigned to children was a central aspect
of their socialisation and training. The economic activity was not separate from their
other relationships with kin, community and neighbourhood.
However, today, a very small section of rural families are dependent on self-cultivation.
Nearly half the rural population is comprised of agricultural labourers. Here work by
children is in the nature of supplementing family income as adult wages are insufficient.
In case of bonded labourers, their children become part of the bondage and put in work
without getting anything more than a meal. In central Indias tribal belts one may find
them hunting rats (for the cooking pot), collecting minor forest produce, firewood etc.

6
Even among families that own some land, quite often, the work of the child is in lieu of
an adult who most likely will have gone to the city seeking employment to make up for
subsistence. Thus, in most cases, children replace adult labourers and their work is not
about socialisation and training, but that of providing essential supplements to family
earnings. This, in a situation where in impoverishment extends to a large section of the
populace. Also the humiliating circumstances in which children of agricultural labourers
have to contribute to the family income are a far cry from the socializing and training
activity of the past.
And yet, these children, who manage to survive the death knell of children's diarrhea and
other forms of infant diseases in the age group of 0-5, live in a far healthier physical
environment than the city child workers engaged in manufacture. But all manufacture is
not carried on in cities. The match factories of Sivakasi, carpet weaving in Kashmir and
bidi making spread allover the country is largely a rural enterprise. Quite often, these
units replicate urban ghettos. Long hours of work in confined and unhygienic places are
typical of the situation. The authoritative attitude sometimes resulting in 'atrocities'
(branding by hot iron) keeps children in a permanent state of terror.
The more city based workers - brass workers in Moradabad, assistants at garages and
machine shops - typically in Howrah - are somewhat different. Here children are
relatively less coerced, but working conditions are tougher, making them ill and old
faster. In most cases, in manufacture, the child is typically an assistant or an apprentice.
Sometimes the physical attributes - deft fingers in carpet weaving, small size for
navigating through 90 centimeters wide trenches in the mines in Assam, make child
labour 'indispensable' i.e. indispensable at the level of technology and profits desired by
employers.
Finally, there are the large number of hotel boys, domestic help, petty vendors etc.
engaged in back breaking work for long hours for what amounts to just subsistence wage.
The distinguishing characteristic is that, here, they do not learn any productive skills but
are just menial workers working for extremely low wages.
Why Does Child Labour Exist?
Extensive legislation exists in the country for abolishing child labour and for child
welfare. Still the prevalence of child labour is wide spread and is increasing. In what
areas do employers find it profitable to employ child labour and disobey laws? And why
do children agree to work?
Child labour typically exists in the unorganised sector. It is necessary to understand that
the unorganised sector is not a carry over of the past nor is it a transitory phenomenon.
Neither the agrarian situation, nor the family units of production in weaving or brassware
work are 'feudal' or 'semi-feudal'. Capital takes over existing modes of production,
extracts profits by making labourers work harder for longer hours at minimum wages -
wages that are not sufficient to support a family. It thus forces women and children into
the workforce in a manner that was not known earlier. While industrial employment in
India is typically male, it does not give the worker a family wage. Hence his links with
his village persist in a variety of ways. He quite often leaves his family behind, and the
rural end of the household does not survive on his remittance alone. As a consequence, at
the rural end, his family and children are pressed to work for survival.

7
On the other hand; development in agriculture- the growth of a rich peasant class has led
to increased marginalisation as well as a growing proletariat within the rural population.
However, this section is not being absorbed in the industrial sector, but manifests in cities
in slums and in the informal sector. Capitalism in its Third World avatar has not
produced linear economic growth and dissolution of all feudal forms of servitude. What
seems to have happened is that a very small sector of the economy is under the organised
sector. The rest of the economy is transformed into the informal sector, in a manner
which means increasing poverty and misery for the population.
The percentage of people living below poverty level has risen from some 30% in early
1950s to more than 50% today, bearing testimony to this phenomenon. Today, many
investigators believe this figure to be above 70 % for rural areas.
So, when capital finds such cheap labour available abundantly, why would it invest more
in new technology? It sees children as a docile work force working at cheap rates without
union problems, producing same or greater profits. And there are more from where they
come!
There is a small organised formal sector, where child labour is abolished. However the
'formalisation' of an industry, i.e. new technology, regular employment, provident funds,
union, and abolishing of child labour, is a complex process. It does not merely occur
because capital discovers a new technology and finds it more profitable and then finds
that paying family wages is more profitable in the long run as it creates trained
manpower. Such a theory of capital and of the state (in its role as legislator) is one sided.
It is the struggle of workers for their right to form a union, an eight hour working day,
democratic rights, family wages etc. that significantly contributes to the formalisation of
a sector of industry. In that sector, child labour too gets abolished. The history of
formalisation of textile industry in India bears witness to this process.
But, under conditions of monopoly and imperialism such a process is slow and takes
place marginally in areas of technology that are passed on to Third World countries
which have become obsolete or obsolescent. However, the exploitation of the Third
World globally and the processes set in within the Third World countries generate mass
impoverishment. Greater numbers of people come under the sway of capital at lower
level of wages. This mass poverty in turn has a pulling down effect on the wage structure
of even the organised sector. Large sections of them do not get family wage either. It is
these complex factors that force almost the entire Indian working class, differentiated and
varied as it is, to send its women, children and the aged to work under dehumanising
conditions.
This tenuous existence of the Indian poor is not without its strength. The rural-urban links
and the economic support that children and women give to the adult male population not
only allows surviving with some human dignity but also provides crucial support in their
struggles. Striking workers derive strength from their rural links of subsistence
agriculture maintained by women and children. Famine stricken rural poor often finds
crucial support in their city kith and kin. The Calcutta slums have provided protection to
radical activists from attacks by the state police. Working children have played a crucial
role in the Chinese revolution and more recently, in the struggle against white regime in
South Africa, children have been in the forefront.

8
The Role of the Law
If such pressing economic compulsion exists for child labour then why are laws
abolishing or limiting child labour passed at all? Is it simply a hoax to fool the poor and
assuage the feeling of sentimental educated women legislators? Such a view would be
simplistic and assume the State to be simply a handmaiden of capital.
As has been noted in the case of formalisation of the textile industry, the democratic
struggle of the workers too plays a significant role in making the State act. In the case of
child labour, however, it is more complex. The abolishing of child labour in law gives
sanctity to the concept of patriarchal family and marriage. It is important to retain and
strengthen the ideology of the patriarchal family because it is at the root of property and
the State even though the family may be breaking under capitalism. It is the patriarchal
family which ultimately is responsible for women and children becoming docile. It
should be remembered that a large number of these child workers are girl children who
are most inhumanly exploited. They grow into disciplined and exploited adult workers of
capital. Parents of these children themselves believe in the ideology of the patriarchal
family - acting as an ally to the abuse of children and women by capital. The struggle
against capital is a sham unless it is an inclusive struggle against the authoritarian
patriarchal family system. For then, it will not only release creative energies of more than
half the existing labouring people in the struggle, but will also be the most crucial
element in creating a just and egalitarian society tomorrow.

*http://www.globalmarch.org/worstformsreport/world/india.html
**CACL, "An Alternative Report on the Status of Child Labour in India", submission to
the UN CRC, September-October 1999
***US Dept of State, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 1999, 25 February
2000

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 THE TEACHER AND CHILD LABOUR

In India, half the children in the age group of 6 to 14 do not go to school. Does this in
any way affect the school and the teacher? An attempt to understand this is being made
in the following essay developed while working with the Teachers Union. M. V.
Foundation in mid nineties was working with the teachers union in Ranga Reddy district
to get their help in enrolling children who had dropped out or never went to school. It
underlines the role of a teacher in abolishing child labour and has been used in training
for government school teachers. Although one will find the data dated, the argument
remains relevant for a significant percentage of children are even today engaged as child
labour.
In Andhra Pradesh, each district is divided into Mandal Panchayats. Shankarpally mandal
of Ranga Reddy district comprises of 36 villages and hamlets. In these villages the total
number of children in the age group of 5 to 14 years is 10,310. Of these, 7493 go to
school and 2817 are out of school. That is, some 30% of the children are out of school.
The situation here is a little better than the rest of the district due to efforts made by a
voluntary organisation to send children to school.
Of the 2817 non school going children, 1964 are in the age group of 9-14 years. Among
them 1251 are girls and 148 of the 713 boys are bonded labourers. However, all children
are doing some work connected with agriculture or at home. In a general sense, one can
say that some 30% are potential or actual child workers and about 20% can definitely be
called child workers.
How do these children affect the village school and the village school teacher? Often a
teacher feels responsible only towards children who are admitted to school. So why
should s/he worry about children who are not even admitted to school?
The existence of child workers in significant numbers gives it legitimacy. It also provides
a potential market for new child workers. So no one feels uneasy about it. If a child is not
going to school, s/he can work in the farm or at home or become a cowherd or agriculture
labour. In Shankarpally area, typically girl children pick flowers round the year for the
market in Hyderabad and boys work as cowherds.
At school, it means, if a child is not doing well in studies or fails s/he has got a place in
the work force as child labour! The market beckons the child all the time. It acts as
pullout pressure. Often it begins as seasonal work (dropout) for the poor child who is not
doing well in studies. Then s/he fails - leading to permanently dropping out.
This also leads to lessening of pressure on the school, the teacher and the child to do well
in studies. It is alright if the absenteeism is big. It is alright if the children do not study
and the teachers do not teach. It is alright if the high school results for the Mandal as a
whole is below 20%!
This lowers the standard of the village school on the whole. If 80% fail, then the best
student may get only 40% or 50% marks. School loses its relevance.
With this the prestige of the school and that of the teacher falls. With the prestige goes
the motivation and the moral force of the teacher. A vicious circle emerges. Low

10
performance results in lowering the prestige and morale of the teachers leading further to
the lowering performance of the school.
In such a situation, no one pays any attention to the teachers and the school's problems.
The teachers' union mostly concerns itself with issues of salary and job security. Other
glaring matters of a teacher's situation such as teacher student ratio, unfilled vacancies,
lack of school rooms, the poor condition of buildings, a lack of blackboards and school
furniture and so on, are ignored. Things like a decent school library, science laboratory
and sports facilities hardly ever get a mention among the demands. No one has any
motivation to demand better schools, to enlist community support, charities etc. to
improve the school at the local level. All such energies come from far off green pastures
of urban middle class sensitivities, enlightened government secretaries and international
funding agencies.
The initiatives must come from the community and the teacher for any significant
success. The teacher and the school must gain back their prestige. For this, the teacher
and the school must perform. No pressure on children to be pushed out of the school
should be permitted. There should be no option of becoming a child worker. This alone
can reverse the direction of the pressure. Then children and the community will make a
demand on the school. This will translate into a demand for more schools, more teachers,
more school rooms, better rooms with blackboard and furniture, playground and sport
facilities, library and laboratory.
For this to happen, some initiative must also come from outside the school. It should be
ensured that no one employs children. In this, the educated youth in the village can play a
vital role. They can persuade parents to send their children to school. Various labour laws
such as - the abolition of bonded labour law can be enforced. In short, there should be no
pullout pressure on the child. Abolition of child labour and universalisation of elementary
education is the key to breaking this vicious circle.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Published in Frontier, Kolkata, December 23, 1995

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 PEDAGOGY OF THE POOR

This paper was presented at a workshop for organisations in India working towards
abolishing child labour. As a rule, purists and great educationists like Tolstoy, Tagore
and Montessori believed in running their own model school. Some believe in demanding
from the welfare state equal rights. While every one agrees that discrimination against
the poor exists in the school system they do not agree on a solution to this problem. This
essay tries to resolve the issue by suggesting a pedagogy that explicitly addresses the
situation of the poor
The poor are poor because they are oppressed and exploited. The poor are also poor
because they are poor. The poor struggle to survive and to liberate themselves from
oppression and exploitation. In both the efforts, education plays a vital role. By and large,
the poor have to depend on the State for education. However, education provided by the
State is structured by the forces which exploit and oppress the poor and keep them poor.
Therefore, to evolve a strategy for the poor, we have to first understand the strategy of
State.
The Project of the State
The strategy of the State in education can be understood in terms of: (1) Schooling. (2)
Certification and (3) Learning.
(1) In schooling, the modus operandi adopted by the State sends a message that only
those who have education through school have any knowledge and skill. So those who do
not go to school or fail in school are ignorant and useless people. Thus the State
undermines the skill and knowledge base that people gain from life and work. They make
first generation educated children ashamed of their parents and their background. By not
providing resources for education of all children, the State keeps more than half of them
out of school. This sends a message that they are not good enough for school.
(2) The objective of certification in schools is to underscore the divide between the rich
and the poor. Here the State fails poor children. Examinations are not used as a method of
assessing children - providing them an opportunity and challenge to prove themselves,
but primarily to throw them out of the education process.
At a higher level, the policies of reservation are used to further undermine the poor.
Reservation is not seen as an achievement of the poor in their struggle - a policy of
positive discrimination to correct an historical imbalance. It is seen as a concession, an
act of mercy towards the undeserving disadvantaged. The people who achieve something
in their life through reservation policy are seen as second grade people who do not
deserve what they have achieved. They are often insulted and humiliated.
(3) In teaching and learning, the State's objective is to create a model of a 'good'
person as that belonging to urban economically sound classes. The content of
education material provided by the State is full of direct and indirect messages
that tell the poor that their life, knowledge, skills, language, beliefs etc, are not
good enough. The education material provided thus makes schooling an alien
endeavour, discouraging them from attending school. If and when they do attend,

12
 it tends to fail them. And finally, those who do pass and succeed are made to feel
ashamed of their background.
Pedagogy of the Oppressed
All that has been said above has been said by a large number of educationists, notably by
Ivan Illich, Paulo Freire, The children of the school of Barbiana and, in India, by Dr.
Krishna Kumar and others.
In the present set up of society, a genuinely good education is not possible for anyone -
neither for the rich nor for the poor. Only a genuinely free, democratic society that treats
all its citizens equally - free from gender, class, caste and ethnic biases can provide such
an education.
Meanwhile, several strategies are available to counter this situation. They range from
model experimental schools to projects that try to enroll all children in school and create
a lobby in the state education process for correcting the situation.
Model Schools
The work of model schools is extremely important. By concentrating on a few children
these schools have given us practical examples of what good education can be and should
be. There have been hundreds of such schools in the last 150 years all over the world.
The most famous ones are those that were run by Tolstoy, Steiner and Montessori.
In India, Tagore, Gijubhai Badheka and several basic schools run by Gandhians stand
out. More recently, David Horsburghs school Neel Bagh, schools run by the
Krishnamurthy Foundation and a large number of experimental schools run all over the
country are good examples.
However, while they can inspire, groom and create present and future educationists, they
cannot be models for mass of the children. For them, all children are the same. They do
not take into account caste, class, gender, ethnicity, and poverty etc. - a reality of the real
world.
The Project of the Poor
The project of the poor in the field of education cannot be defined in terms of learning
alone. It has to encompass all three aspects of the education process, that is - schooling,
certification and learning. The three aspects have to be integrated so as to maximise their
gains in the larger project of survival and liberation.
Thus schooling implies for the poor- schooling for all children. Its objectives:
(1) To liberate themselves from a situation of child labour. This in turn helps to generate
more employment for adults and increase their wages.
(2) To open a path for themselves for freedom from caste bondages. The collective of the
school where different caste children come together opens this path. Later, when they
succeed in passing examinations, it opens to them paths for employment other than their
caste trade/employment.
Thus it combines the twin objectives of survival and liberation.

13
Certification
Purists often say that one goes to school to learn and not just to pass examinations. But in
the real project of education it is passing the examination that crucially determines
whether the project of the exploiting classes is succeeding or the project of the people is
succeeding.
The privileged have all sorts of advantages in passing an examination. The entire context
of the examination is class oriented in terms of language, images, and contents.
The poor have to resort to all sorts of methods to cope with this situation. Often they take
recourse to simply copying and cheating. It should be noted that even the privileged often
take recourse to this.
However, rote learning (popularly known as by-hearting in Andhra Pradesh!) from
guides and guess papers is the most common method. Very often, poor children have to
work extra hard just to pass the examination.
There is a lot of scope for using a judicious mix of practical vision and principles of
pedagogy from the great masters. We can call this the pedagogy of the poor. Below are
some ideas that have been tried out in M. V. Foundation camps with great success.
Pedagogy of the Poor
(1) All examinations are written examinations. Hence to pass examinations, writing
practice is the most important exercise. Writing also helps in memorising better. Copying
answers from good guide books coupled with some understanding of the subject goes a
long way in helping students pass examinations.
(2) In writing, the quality of handwriting can make the difference between passing and
failing. Richard B. Gregg, a Gandhian economist, who wrote a very practical book on
education, spelled out the principles of good handwriting. It has been used very
successfully in M. V. Foundation camps.
(3) Modern language teaching methods say that the first book a child should use should
be her/his own book. This has been said in the context of children's drawings and their
own captions. In M. V. Foundation camps, this was transformed into producing books of
children's own songs and teaching them reading with the help of these books.
(4) In mathematics teaching, the logical sequencing of topics is absolutely crucial. And
within the topic, practice exercises are to be arranged as per small incremental rise in
difficulty of solving. The Education Planning Group of Delhi has done excellent work in
this area and the same has been used in M. V. Foundation camps. More recently, some of
the innovative methods of P. K. Srinivasan have also been used.
(5) Libraries provide a source of self learning and entertainment. In education, the library
is the most democratic institution. Here knowledge is available on tap and not from top!
In camps, the library is the most popular place. It is kept open at all hours so children can
read at any time. A careful selection with the assistance of many knowledgeable persons
has allowed them to have a good collection at a fairly low cost.
These are just some of the examples of pedagogy used. Here the word pedagogy is used
in its narrow technical sense of the term.

14
There is a larger sense in which pedagogy has been used. In M. V. Foundation camps, it
refers to the commitment to teaching and learning and creating a learning situation.
In the camps, children are brought from their villages by education activists. Some of
these activists also become 'teachers' in the camp. Now the activist feels that it is his/ her
responsibility that these children are successfully enrolled in schools. In the entire
process of convincing the parents, taking care of children who are homesick in the
beginning, s/he becomes attached to the children. Or rather, children with their natural
affection transform an ordinary youth into a responsible person. Also, once the children
are settled down, they become very deeply committed to learning because they know that
it is their one chance of getting out of the drudgery of child labour.
The camp itself, with ready food, electricity, play, dance and music provides a learning
situation in which a lot of self and mutual learning occurs.
The camp also creates a platform for teacher training. It is often asked - how do ordinary
youth succeed in becoming good teachers and achieve such results? The answer is, the
camp itself provides a self learning situation for children as well as for youth activists.
First, the requirement of a good teacher is that the teacher should love children and vice
versa. Second, the teacher should provide the space for self and mutual learning by the
children. Both occur in the camp situation. One can say children train teachers.
Both requirements are of course supplemented by providing teachers with reading
materials such as Divaswapna, Letter to a Teacher, Tottochan. Many other works of
Gijubhai are available in Telugu. Myron Weiner's lecture, Myth & Reality about Child
Labour by CACL have been very helpful. Dr. Krishna Kumar's books have been
translated into Telugu and Myron Weiner's larger work is also available in Telugu.
Conclusion
Pedagogy of the poor has to be conceived as a part of a larger project of the poor for
survival and liberation. This also has to be conceived in contradistinction with the project
of the oppressing classes in the field of education in terms of schooling, certification and
learning. Abstract ideals of education and learning where class, caste, gender and
ethnicity are not considered alone cannot meet the situation. Nor will simple enrollment
and cheating in examination do the trick. A judicious mix of learning from the great
masters of education and practical wisdom can help the poor. The M. V. Foundation
camps provide one such example.
Published in Frontier, Kolkata, August 9, 1998

15
 HOW TO IMPROVE HANDWRITING

Form is an usher to content - Mao Tse Tung

This essay was developed to train teachers in the summer camps run by M. V.
Foundation.
In the school system, the poor face a lot of difficulties. Their schools have poor resources
in terms of well trained teachers, library space and the number of teachers. In such
circumstances, the poor can adopt a number of valid strategies which can give them some
advantage in passing examinations.
All our examinations are written examinations. So presenting oneself in the written form
is an important skill. The written form has some advantages and some disadvantages. The
fact that you cannot use your voice, facial expressions and body language makes the
demand on the written form more severe.
On the other hand, name (usually there is just a number), caste, dress, colour, gender do
not come into the picture. Very often, examiners have preconceived notions and biases
about these matters, and it affects their judgment. These considerations generally do not
work in favour of the poor. Thus, on the whole for the poor - in the present situation - the
advantages of a written examination are more than the disadvantages. So in education,
the poor must concentrate on writing regularly. Even if they have to copy answers from
guidebooks, it is better than just reading them.
In the final analysis of course, real understanding of the subject is very important.
However handwriting is of no less consequence. It provides the first impression. Very
often, an examiner on seeing a beautifully written answer paper straight away decides
that the student ought to get good marks or at least pass!
Handwriting
In improving handwriting we have to understand two things: the first - what is the
purpose of writing, and second - what is good handwriting.
Writing can have many purposes. It helps us to think, clarify thoughts and communicate
thoughts to others. It is the last purpose we are interested in. Our handwriting should be
such that others can read it easily. It should be legible.
So what is good handwriting? It is that which serves this purpose best, that is - it is very
easy to read, clear and legible.
Many children, when unsure of the spelling, deliberately write in unclear scribbles. Their,
a, e and i can all look similar. However, an examiner is not fooled, and so, unclear
handwriting never serves any purpose.
For legibility, the best example is the printed book. There are six elements to its high
legibility.
1. The printed page has margins at the top, bottom, left and right. These are at fixed
spaces in a book.

16
2. The lines are straight and parallel and distance between them fixed.
3. Each letter is written separately or 'printed'.
4. The distance between letters and words are fixed.
5. The inking is uniform.
6. The letters are beautifully formed and retain the same shape and size no matter how
many times repeated.
Of the six elements of good handwriting four are about organising space and only two are
about actual writing, i.e. about inking and about forming your letters nicely. Thus, the
major part of improving legibility is to organise the spaces on the page correctly. Even if
the handwriting is bad, legibility can be increased to make it almost 100% legible by
organising spaces correctly.
Of course there is a need to put in efforts to improve inking and letter shapes. The first is
relatively simple. Nowadays with ball pens and good quality pens it is not much of a
problem. For improving shape of letters, handwriting needs to be analysed. First, ensure
the relative size of alphabets i.e. the height, width are correct and uniform. Then study the
individual letter. Find out which alphabets look bad. Ask friends/peers to identify and
improve upon them. Then concentrate on them one letter at a time. In a few days the
handwriting will improve dramatically.
Rough & Fair Work
Many people first write a "rough" work version and then copy it out to a fair version.
Often in their 'rough' work they write in a hurry, in poor handwriting, short hand, do not
follow any of the principles of good handwriting. Thus, their rough work looks bad,
illegible; sometimes even to the author.
It pays to have neat work everywhere, including in 'rough' work. This is a good habit. If
the rough work is neat, one can make corrections on it neatly and there may not be any
need to copy it out again. One can 'cut' & paste that is, cut a paragraph and paste it on a
fair copy without needing to copy out the whole work.
In mathematics rough work, students often make mistakes because the work is not done
neatly. On the other hand, some examiners check the rough work also and if the work is
neat and method correct, near full marks are awarded even if the final answer is incorrect.
Exercises for Good Handwriting: Tips to Students
Exercise 1
Write using a ball pen.
Choose your paper or notebook with care. It should be ruled. A comfortable spacing of
lines is about 8 mm or 1/3 of an inch. Draw margins. The left and top margin should be
25mm or one inch. The right and bottom margins should be 16 mm or 2/3 of an inch.
Though not fixed, they should be same on all pages.

17
Exercise 2
Copy a page from any book or newspaper on to the page marked with margins. Check for
improvement in legibility. Give it marks on a scale of 1-10. You may ask your teacher, a
friend or peer to grade it. Repeat 5 times.
Exercise 3
Copy another page. This time, write each letter separately. Grade it. Repeat 5 times.
Exercise 4
Copy one page. Print each letter separately. Keep the distance between words as one
letter width. Try to write each letter with uniform height and width. Repeat 5 times.
Exercise 5
By now your handwriting will have improved a great deal. Now it is time to examine
which letter you write badly. Seek help to identify these letters. Choose one letter to
improve. Copy it 100 times.
Copy a page from a book keeping this letter in mind. Repeat 5 times.
Exercise 6
Repeat exercise 5 with the next poor letter. Go on till you have finished with all letters.
Now compare your original paper and grade yourself finally. Congratulate yourself!

18
 BEGINNING IN THE MIDDLE

Begin in the middle and go on till you reach the beginning. Chinese Proverb

This paper was presented at a conference of NGOs working for elimination of child
labour. It argues for the importance of middle school or Universalisation of Elementary
Education as against mere Universalisation of Primary Education.
All know the Indian Constitution guides states to provide free and compulsory education
up to the age of 14. However, when implementing this policy, the emphasis is always on
providing schooling up to the age of 11 only or what is generally known as
Universalisation of Primary Education (UPE). This has been the practical goal of almost
all state Governments and of international agencies such as UNICEF. The argument has
been that, first things come first and one cannot extend schooling upto age 14 unless UPE
has been achieved.
The argument put forth here is that: both in theory and practice this will limit education to
the primary level, that too, of a very poor quality. Further, hundred percent capacity
building for middle school level education is a must to achieve UPE and abolish child
labour.
Children have been known to start working as early as the age of three. A significant
number of girl children start work from the age of six or seven. However, the great
majority of child workers belong to the age group of 11-14. So, even if schooling upto the
primary level is available to all children, majority of working children continue to work
because there is no middle school for them.
The capacity of the Indian school system at various levels is roughly as follows:
Installed capacity for primary school - 50%
Installed capacity for middle school - 25%
Installed capacity for High School - 10%
The percentage of children passing out of high school is 50%. These of course are
average figures and a great deal of variation exists given - regional, urban, rural, gender,
social grouping considerations. What it infers is that, 75% of children in the age group of
11 + have no option but to become a child worker.
Given this, talking about abolishing child labour is meaningless. The situation is even
worse if one looks at primary school education in this context. The fact that there is no
middle school available for 75% of the children has a tendency to lower the pass
percentage of the primary school. In fact it will tend to equalise seats available in the
middle school. This of course will not happen only at class V level, but will be seen down
line. That is why there is such a high dropout rate at class II and class III levels.
This makes primary school itself a token affair, particularly in rural and poor
communities. The total enrolment drive at class I is also meaningless as everyone knows
that by class II and III most of them will drop out. The fact of the matter is: both

19
enrolments and dropouts are on paper only. As elicited in the earlier article, 'The Teacher
and Child Labour', this lowers the quality of the primary school and the standing of the
primary school teacher in the community.
For any school education to be possible, schooling for 11-14 year olds or at middle
school is an absolute must and not something that may or may not follow primary school.
In fact, it is entirely possible to conceive of significant self-learning taking place at home
and in the community up to the age of 11. But it may be rather difficult for scholastic
learning to occur without the assistance and support of a formal institution like school,
library, or other learning facilities beyond age 11 or 12.
Starting school at an early age is relatively new in the history of education. Till the 19th
century most schooling began after the age of 9, 10 or 11. In India, children went to a
Gurukul around this age for a period of 7 years. Sixteen years of schooling is a
phenomenon of the 20th century. The firming of this phenomenon is in a round about
way also linked to the emergence of nuclear families in urban areas. Here the requirement
of jobs and government jobs at that, in the colonial context, gave rise to early schooling.
Presently the system has little to do with the requirement of learning by children. For
example, children learn language and communication skills mainly in the community.
Even practical arithmetic is learnt in shop transactions. However, the emergence of
primary schools became a role model and demand for early school became a universal
demand. In fact the camps run by M. V. Foundation illustrate this very well. Here 9, 10,
11 year olds pick up the primary school curriculum requirements within a matter of
months. This is possible because these children have been developing their learning
abilities outside schools.
The M. V. Foundation camps also underline the fact that if formal school is not made
available to children beyond this age group, they will end up as working children with
little scope of improving their knowledge base. A formal middle school is a must whether
one goes from a formal primary school channel or from a primary school level skill base
learnt in an informal setting.
The absence of middle school is mainly a question of resources. A middle school requires
a building with several rooms, trained teachers with proper salaries etc. The state is
reluctant to allocate resources for children of the poor unless there is pressure from the
people as demonstrated by Kerala.
Therefore, the advocacy programme for elimination of child labour through education
must include universalisation of elementary education (UEE) instead of universalisation
of primary education (UPE). Without this there is a danger that the programme with all
good intentions, may not succeed.

20
 FLAT BED DUPLICATOR A TOOL FOR DEMOCRATIC PRINT MEDIA

This essay describes the experience of the author Ms. Usha Rao, in the use of low cost
print media. She herself has moved on to organic farming and Philip Byrne, who
manufactured these machines, has moved to England.

My first experience with the Flat-Bed Duplicator (FBD)

It started as an interesting new thing to try out. I like to learn new things and I like to use
my hands and see whether it comes out well. With great excitement and sense of
achievement I watched the first print of the illustrated nonsense rhyme, come out
clear and dark of the home-made low cost FBD.
Post creation, many things happened. Philip Byrne worked on an improved convenient
design and produced them in numbers. I helped several groups to learn its operation, to
put it to use, in many different situations. All in all, it proved to be extremely useful.
The Flat-Bed Duplicator
Basically is a substitute for the cyclostyling machine. Operationally it is like screen-
printing minus all the chemical processes. Instead, an ordinary stencil is used.
The principle on which the FBD works is very simple. So also is the construction of the
duplicator.
The basic structure consists of a wooden frame 8 x 15 on the inside. The
wooden pieces are 3/4 wide and thick.
Screen cloth is fitted to the frame.
The frame is then hinged (from the outside) to a flat board slightly bigger than the
frame. The frame moves up and down on the hinge like the lid of a box. When at
rest, the cloth surface faces the board.
There is an arrangement to fix the stencil below the screen cloth. When inked, this
sticks to the cloth.
The paper is stacked below on the board.
A squeegee or roller is used to press out prints.
Duplicating ink from the tube is squeezed onto the screen cloth. When pressed
with a squeegee, it spreads over the length of the cloth, goes through the porous
cloth and through the cuts in the stencil, makes home in the paper below to give
us our print. The frame is lifted to remove the print and feed the next sheet of
paper.

21
FBD at M. V. Foundation
M. V. Foundation is committed to elimination of child labour, and believes the
best way to do it is by ensuring all children are in school. Come summer and they
are busy conducting residential camps for girls and boys who otherwise work at
home, graze cattle, work as agricultural labourers etc. In 3 4 months these
children in the age group of 6 to 15 are helped to join mainstream schools from
class 2 to class 6 depending on the scholastic competence accomplished.
All these children are first generation learners and there are many things about
studying and schooling that are alien to them and their families. M. V.
Foundations camps have succeeded in bringing them into school. One of the
methods has been the use of childrens own language with content drawn from
their lives - for the initial two months - then gradually moving onto standard
prescribed texts.
A great amount of learning material - stories, songs, riddles, and anecdotes - all
articulated by these children are printed and used as education material. To print
these in relatively small numbers for immediate use, the flat-bed duplicator was
used. A topic discussed in class on a particular day was available on the following
in print as worksheets, as reading material, as part of the childs own growing
textbook - a collective creation of the entire class. This helped tremendously in
creating a live, interactive teaching-learning environment. Even children given to
roaming free and wild felt at home with a hitherto alien activity of disciplined
application.

Cyclostyling Machine vs. Flat-Bed Duplicator

What does this duplicator have to recommend for itself as against the cyclostyling
machine?
1. Investment: A very basic and functional duplicator of this kind can be self made
at a very low cost
2. Print Order: I have managed to print 200 copies off a stencil. After which, the
stencil developed wrinkles. A commercial shop in Harda has used it to print 1000
copies off a single stencil (hats off to them!). That speaks of the range and scope
for developing the skill.
3. Working together: The best part I like about using this duplicator is that it
provides a very nice opportunity to chat with a friend. It takes two to print with
the FBD easily. At a pinch, one can do it alone

22
 4. User control: Better alignment adjustments are possible with FBD. There is less
scope for making that kind of a shift in the cyclostyling machine.
5. Designing according to need: There is scope for making variations in the design
and improving the design. Philip has tried a few. As more people use it and work
on it the designs will get better.
A Dream
Once, while working with an NGO, I had a dream that every community worker,
working with 5 villages, should have a duplicator and print a newsletter for the five
villages in the local language with the involvement of local people.
Most NGOs bring out their newsletter in English. It is sad that the experiences they
gain by interacting with people are written in another language and made inaccessible
to them.
The flat-bed duplicator has great potential in making printing democratic.
You may write to me if you need help in learning to use the flat-bed duplicator.

Post Script
This article was written in the mid nineties. Technologically, computers and
photocopiers are common place today. However, its relevance may reestablish as
application of low cost appropriate technologies could become a necessity in the
near future.
-T. Vijayendra.
Reference
Low-Cost Printing for Development, Vol. 2., By Jonathan Zeitlyn, Published by
Cendit, C1 Soami Nagar, New Delhi 110 017

23
 BOOKS ON EDUCATION

(co-author - Usha Rao)

These lists of books were developed during the post 1977 enthusiasm. Today, on the
internet, several such lists are available. Unfortunately, they are not selectively
annotated - leaving a new education enthusiast bewildered. This article is a product of
cooperation of several enthusiasts who have known, used and promoted these classics on
education for years.
After the Second World War, the 1960s saw a new kind of upheaval. Among other
events, it included the Vietnam War protests in the USA, student movements all over the
world, the Sino-Soviet debate, Cultural Revolution in China and the Naxalite movement
in India. In its wake came a vigorous critique of the educational system (along with issues
of race, gender and health). Books like 'Danger School', 'How Children Fail', and Letter
to a Teacher' were published during this time. There was a search for alternatives in
education. People sought to know about earlier educational experiments and efforts like
that of Tolstoy and Montessori. In India Tagore's and Gandhi's experiments were studied
with increased interest. There was concern that, though constitutions were egalitarian and
guaranteed educational opportunities for all, the Black children in America or workers'
children in Italy, like the SC/ ST children in India were dropping out or failing in large
numbers. Education system served to maintain and reproduce the classes.
In India, innovative educational efforts burgeoned in the 1970s - significantly in Madhya
Pradesh and Rajasthan and also in other parts of the country, and more recently in Bihar.
Educational journals like 'Naya Shikshak' and Palash' brought to the fore and made
accessible much of the progressive thinking in education. Krishna Kumars Raj, Samaj
aur Shiksha' was written during this period. Many books on education were read,
reviewed, discussed during this period. Over time, some 25 of the most discussed books
(see Appendix) were selected. Because of this process, many of these books were
available in Hindi either in the form of books or journals. A group of individuals have
been persistently promoting the spread of these books and educational ideas. Many of the
books are available and being read in English - particularly in the South.
In Andhra Pradesh too, because of the level of political activity and an awareness of these
issues, many of the books have been translated and published in Telugu. Many others are
in the process of being translated and published by various interested publishers. In fact,
some very good books like, 'Letter to a Teacher', 'Danger School', 'Preparation for
Understanding' and Tagore's 'Shiksha' have been out of print for quite some time. They
need to be printed urgently. Some good books like 'How Children Fail', Tolstoy's 'On
Education' need to be translated. Likewise, some original works in Telugu are very good
e.g. Namini's Ischoolu Pillakaayala Katha.
Select Book List
The list is in three groups: Politics of Education; Child Centered Education; Vision of
Education. Evidently the contents of these books will not strictly follow these divisions.
Tolstoy for example was a visionary, deeply aware of the politics of education and

24
contributed significantly to child centered education. In fact he has been called the father
of child centered education. All the same, the broad division is indicative of content.

In each section there is an attempt to order the list in terms of easy access to the reader.
Thus in the section Politics of Education the first book Letter to a Teacher is actually
written by eight Italian poor children who failed and later studied in a school for
dropouts. The first paragraph of the book announces the angry and eloquent tone of the
remainder of the text:

Dear Miss,

You dont remember me or my name. You have failed so many of us. On the other hand,
I have often had thoughts about you, and the other teachers, and about the institution
which you call school and about the kids that you fail. You fail us right out into the
fields and factories and there you forget us.

The book is a powerful critic of the mainstream school system and is written in a straight
forward simple style. In fact, it is a model of how to write and handle statistics! Danger
School is a book with illustrations and is a critic of the school system in North America.
John Holts How Children Fail is a classic of class room politics. Holt is also a
powerful advocate of out of school education. Krishna Kumar is a fine scholar of
education in India and his books have educated all of us about the Indian education scene.
Myron Weiners writings have influenced most child labour eradication endeavours.
They make a powerful case for state run compulsory education system. The second book,
Compulsory Education and Child Labour by Myron Weiner is a lecture and hence
small and easy to read. Facts against Myth, is by Campaign against Child Labour,
which demystifies media created myths about child labour. It is a small pamphlet, very
easy to read.
In the section Child Centered Education the list begins with a fictional but very
charming account of a school - Divaswapna by Gijubhai, the pioneer of Montessori
education in India. It is followed by an equally charming account of a school,
Tottochan by Tetsuko Kuroyangi in Japan. These two books together have sold more
copies than all the books in the list. It was Arvind Gupta who persuaded the National
Book Trust to publish them in English and several Indian language editions. But even
before NBT came into the picture, several editions in several languages were circulating.
Many readers, on reading the book, ordered several copies to distribute to their friends.
A.S Neill's Summerhill School, a co-educational boarding school in Suffolk, England, is
the original alternative 'free' school. Founded in 1921, it continues to be an influential
model for progressive democratic education around the world.
Preparation for Understanding is actually based on a book written by Richard B.
Gregg, a Gandhian economist, who ran a school in Himachal Pradesh. It is a very useful
compendium of teaching tools for small children using material available in the village.
Teacher by Sylvia Ashton Warner is again a classic of language teaching for small
children. The book describes methods in which children decide what they want to learn.
Childs Language and the Teacher by Krishna Kumar brings out the best in
language teaching in the world for an average interested reader. To Children I Give My

25
Heart by V. Sukhomlynsky is a rich Russian book about children and has inspired
many. The three books The Open Classroom by K. Margaret, How to Use the
Blackboard by David Horsburgh and The Blackboard Book by Eleanor Watts
describe experiences of the contemporary Indian alternative school movement, offering a
rich content of practical experiences.

The section on Visions of Education basically deals with works of Tolstoy, Taogre,
Gandhi and the Soviet educationist Anton Makarenko. Unfortunately Tolstoys works
in English are not easily available, although on the net you can get some on Books
Online. So also, all of Tagores writings are not available in English.

Both Tolstoy and Tagore were great authors and contributed to world literature in a big
way. Both also thought that their work in education was the most significant aspect of
their work. Both ran schools and contributed to childrens literature. Gandhi on the other
hand had a moral and economic programme in education. Mulk Raj Anad in his small
book On Education critically examines it and combines it with Taogores approach of
art education. Makarenkos experience was mainly with the so called juvenile
delinquents, but he is a profound thinker and practitioner and has a wonderful
understanding of children. His Book for parents is a very heart warming book.

While almost all authors agree on discrimination against the poor that exists in the school
system they do not agree on a solution. As a rule, the libertarians or anarchists believe in
running their own schools, whereas others believe in demanding from the welfare state
equal rights. This debate runs right through in all the sections above.
In education, the libertarian or anarchist trend has been very influential because the idea
of freedom is at the core of most education thinkers. Tolstoy, John Holt and A. S. Neil
have been articulate about it. A very good review of this trend is available in The
Underground and Education by Mike Smith. This book is not included in the list
because I have bought it several times in the second hand book market but have never
seen it in bookstores. Another book not included in the list is Deschooling Society by
Ivan Illich mainly because the language is very difficult.

Availability
One of the first question people ask is about the availability of these books. I am afraid, at
no time are all available at one go. Most people collect them over time. National Book
Trust has published Divaswapna and Tottochan in many Indian languages and in English.
There are two bookstores which have tried to make many of these books available. They
are: the Other India Bookstore, Mapusa, Goa, www.otherindiabookstore.com and
Earthcare Books, Kolkata, www.earthcarebooks.com. Both supply books by post and take
orders online. Arvind Gupta offers many of these books as free downloads on his
website: www.arvindguptatoys.com
Some organisations involved in education also sell select books on education. They are
Eklavya, Bhopal, Sahitya Chayana, New Delhi, Bal Sahiti, Chandigarh and Shishu Milap,
Baroda.

26
 SELECT LIST OF BOOKS ON EDUCATION

Politics of Education

1. Letter to Teacher by School of Barbiana

2. Danger School by IDAC
3. How Children Fail by John Holt
4. Social Character of Learning by Krishna Kumar
5. Political Agenda of Education by Krishna Kumar
6. The State and the Child in India by Myron Weiner
7. Compulsory Education and Child Labour by Myron Weiner
8. Facts against Myths - Child Labour by M. Kamat

Child Centered Education

9. Divaswapna by Gijubhai
10. Tottochan by T. Kuroyangi
11. Summerhill by A. S. Neil
12. Preparation for Understanding by Keith Warren
13. Teacher by S. A. Warner
14. Childs Language and the Teacher by Krishna Kumar
15. To Children I Give My Heart by V. Sukhomlynsky
16. The Open Classroom by K. Margaret
17. How to Use the Blackboard by David Horsburgh
18. The Blackboard Book by Eleanor Watts

Vision of Education

19. On Popular Education by Leo Tolstoy

20. Tagore - Pioneer in Education by Elmhurst
21. Basic Education by M. K. Gandhi
22. The Story of Nai Talim by Marjorie Sykes
23. On Education by Mulk Raj Anad
24. Road to Life by Anton Makarenko
25. Book for Parents by Anton Makarenko

27
 VANKA
Anton Chekhov

VANKA ZHUKOV, a boy of nine, who had been for three months apprenticed to
Alyashin the shoemaker, was sitting up on Christmas Eve. Waiting till his master and
mistress and their workmen had gone to the midnight service, he took out of his master's
cupboard a bottle of ink and a pen with a rusty nib, and, spreading out a crumpled sheet
of paper in front of him, began writing. Before forming the first letter he several times
looked round fearfully at the door and the windows, stole a glance at the dark icon, on
both sides of which stretched shelves full of lasts, and heaved a broken sigh. The paper
lay on the bench while he knelt before it.

"Dear grandfather, Konstantin Makaritch," he wrote, "I am writing you a letter. I wish
you a happy Christmas, and all blessings from God Almighty. I have neither father nor
mother; you are the only one left for me."

Vanka raised his eyes to the dark icon on which the light of his candle was reflected, and
vividly recalled his grandfather, Konstantin Makaritch, who was night watchman to a
family called Zhivarev. He was a thin but extraordinarily nimble and lively little old man
of sixty-five, with an everlastingly laughing face and drunken eyes. By day he slept in the
servants' kitchen, or made jokes with the cooks; at night, wrapped in an ample sheepskin,
he walked round the grounds and tapped with his little mallet. Old Kashtanka and Eel, so-
called on account of his dark colour and his long body like a weasel's, followed him with
hanging heads. This Eel was exceptionally polite and affectionate, and looked with equal
kindness on strangers and his own masters, but had not a very good reputation. Under his
politeness and meekness was hidden the most Jesuitical cunning. No one knew better
how to creep up on occasion and snap at one's legs, to slip into the store-room, or steal a
hen from a peasant. His hind legs had been nearly pulled off more than once, twice he
had been hanged, every week he was thrashed till he was half dead, but he always
revived.

At this moment grandfather was, no doubt, standing at the gate, screwing up his eyes at
the red windows of the church, stamping with his high felt boots, and joking with the
servants. His little mallet was hanging on his belt. He was clasping his hands, shrugging
with the cold, and, with an aged chuckle, pinching first the housemaid, then the cook.

"How about a pinch of snuff?" he was saying, offering the women his snuff-box.

The women would take a sniff and sneeze. Grandfather would be indescribably delighted,
go off into a merry chuckle, and cry:

"Tear it off, it has frozen on!"

They give the dogs a sniff of snuff too. Kashtanka sneezes, wriggles her head and walks
away offended. Eel does not sneeze, from politeness, but wags his tail. And the weather
is glorious. The air is still, fresh, and transparent. The night is dark, but one can see the

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whole village with its white roofs and coils of smoke coming from the chimneys, the
trees silvered with hoar frost, the snowdrifts. The whole sky spangled with gay twinkling
stars, and the Milky Way is as distinct as though it had been washed and rubbed with
snow for a holiday. . . .

Vanka sighed, dipped his pen, and went on writing:

"And yesterday I had a wigging. The master pulled me out into the yard by my hair, and
whacked me with a boot-stretcher because I accidentally fell asleep while I was rocking
their brat in the cradle. And a week ago the mistress told me to clean a herring, and I
began from the tail end, and she took the herring and thrust its head in my face. The
workmen laugh at me and send me to the tavern for vodka, and tell me to steal the
master's cucumbers for them, and the master beats me with anything that comes to hand.
And there is nothing to eat. In the morning they give me bread, for dinner, porridge, and
in the evening, bread again; but as for tea, or soup, the master and mistress gobble it all
up themselves. And I am put to sleep in the passage, and when their wretched brat cries I
get no sleep at all, but have to rock the cradle. Dear grandfather, show the divine mercy;
take me away from here, home to the village. It's more than I can bear. I bow down to
your feet, and will pray to God for you for ever, take me away from here or I shall die."

Vanka's mouth worked, he rubbed his eyes with his black fist, and gave a sob.

"I will powder your snuff for you," he went on. "I will pray for you, and if I do anything
you can thrash me like Sidor's goat. And if you think I've no job, then I will beg the
steward for Christ's sake to let me clean his boots, or I'll go for a shepherd-boy instead of
Fedka. Dear grandfather, it is more than I can bear, it's simply no life at all. I wanted to
run away to the village, but I have no boots, and I am afraid of the frost. When I grow up
big I will take care of you for this, and not let anyone annoy you, and when you die I will
pray for the rest of your soul, just as for my mammy's."

"Moscow is a big town. It's all gentlemen's houses, and there are lots of horses, but there
are no sheep, and the dogs are not spiteful. The lads here don't go out with the star, and
they don't let anyone go into the choir, and once I saw in a shop window fishing-hooks
for sale, fitted ready with the line and for all sorts of fish, awfully good ones, there was
even one hook that would hold a forty-pound sheat-fish. And I have seen shops where
there are guns of all sorts, after the pattern of the master's guns at home, so that I
shouldn't wonder if they are a hundred roubles each ... And in the butchers' shops there
are grouse and woodcocks and fish and hares, but the shop men don't say where they
shoot them."

"Dear grandfather, when they have the Christmas tree at the big house, get me a gilt
walnut, and put it away in the green trunk. Ask the young lady Olga Ignatyevna, say it's
for Vanka."

Vanka gave a tremulous sigh, and again stared at the window. He remembered how his
grandfather always went into the forest to get the Christmas tree for his master's family,

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and took his grandson with him. It was a merry time! Grandfather made a noise in his
throat, the forest crackled with the frost, and looking at them Vanka chortled too. Before
chopping down the Christmas tree, grandfather would smoke a pipe, slowly take a pinch
of snuff, and laugh at frozen Vanka. The young fir trees, covered with hoar frost, stood
motionless, waiting to see which of them was to die. Wherever one looked, a hare flew
like an arrow over the snowdrifts . . . . Grandfather could not refrain from shouting:
"Hold him, hold him . . . hold him! Ah! the bob-tailed devil!"

When he had cut down the Christmas tree, grandfather used to drag it to the big house,
and there set to work to decorate it The young lady, who was Vanka's favourite, Olga
Ignatyevna, was the busiest of all. When Vanka's mother Pelageya was alive, and a
servant in the big house, Olga Ignatyevna used to give him goodies, and having nothing
better to do, taught him to read and write, to count up to a hundred, and even to dance a
quadrille. When Pelageya died, Vanka had been transferred to the servants' kitchen to be
with his grandfather, and from the kitchen to the shoemaker's in Moscow.

"Do come, dear grandfather," Vanka went on with his letter. "For Christ's sake, I beg you,
take me away. Have pity on an unhappy orphan like me; here everyone knocks me about,
and I am fearfully hungry; I can't tell you what misery it is, I am always crying. And the
other day the master hit me on the head with a last, so that I fell down. My life is
wretched, worse than any dog's I send greetings to Alyona, one-eyed Yegorka, and the
coachman, and don't give my concertina to anyone. I remain your grandson, Ivan
Zhukov. Dear grandfather, do come."

Vanka folded the sheet of writing-paper twice, and put it into an envelope he had bought
the day before for a kopeck After thinking a little, he dipped the pen and wrote the
address:

To grandfather in the village.

Then he scratched his head, thought a little, and added: Konstantin Makaritch. Glad that
he had not been prevented from writing, he put on his cap and, without putting on his
little greatcoat, ran out into the street as he was in his shirt

The shop men at the butcher's, whom he had questioned the day before, told him that
letters were put in post-boxes, and from the boxes were carried about all over the earth in
mail carts with drunken drivers and ringing bells. Vanka ran to the nearest post-box, and
thrust the precious letter in the slit

An hour later, lulled by sweet hopes, he was sound asleep He dreamed of the stove.
On the stove was sitting his grandfather, swinging his bare legs, and reading the letter to
the cooks

By the stove was Eel, wagging his tail.

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 EPILOGUE

From Nineteenth century Vanka to Twenty First century India is a long way both in time
and distance. And yet, Vanka touches us, not just because a great author has written a
very heart rending story. The fact is, there are millions of Vankas in todays India.

Child labour today is not like the feudal guild apprentice described in Vanka. In many
ways it is much worse. It persists mainly in Africa and in Asia - except China and Asian
Tigers countries. Though practically abolished in the advanced capitalist and socialist
countries, in smaller numbers it probably exists every where. Also, beside labour, there
are child soldiers and child prostitutes. In all, it still remains a major problem.

Child labour abolition programmes all over the world will not be able to abolish it, but
can certainly make people aware of the problem. The efforts of bringing children back to
school and mainstream will regain their importance when other forces of social change
join hands. This little book is a small contribution to this process.

With the current crisis that capitalism finds itself world over, winds of change again are
raging. A new generation of activists will soon be taking up all these issues, once again,
with new energies. This book is addressed to them and dedicated to them.

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About the author

T. Vijayendra (1943- ) is a B. Tech. (Electronics) from I. I. T. Kharagpur (1966). He has

been engaging with the trade union movements, alternative journalism, libraries,
bookshops and publishing, research, health, education and environment for four decades
now. He lives on an organic farm in the foothill of the Western Gnats, watching birds,
writing occasionally - mainly for activist education in the journal Frontier, from Kolkata.

He has published scores of such articles in Hindi, Bengali and English in various
alternative journals. Has published booklets on occupational health of the workers of
textile industry and coal industry (in Hindi and Urdu), how to run hobby libraries and
bookshops (Hindi and Telugu), The Teacher and Child Labour (Telugu) and The Losers
Shall Inherit the World (English).

About the book

This book contains articles on education and child labour. It is mainly addressed to
activists working for elimination of child labour through universalisation of elementary
education. The book will also be of interest to all those interested in education of the poor
and working people and those involved in alternative education. Originally published in
Telugu, the present English edition has been completely revised.

Apart from the eponymous lead article, the other theoretical articles are, Understanding
Child Labour, Pedagogy of the Poor and Beginning in the Middle (emphasizing the
importance of middle school). The book covers practical subjects like improving
handwriting and the use of the Flat Bed Duplicator. There is an annotated bibliography of
the best books in alternative education. The book ends with a heart rending short story by
Chekhov about an apprentice child worker in nineteenth century Russia.

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