1/9/2016 LiterarySources|EvernoteWeb

Literary Sources
Foreign Accounts
Greek Accounts
1. Alexander left detailed historical and geographical accounts of his invasion. This helps us in
understanding the geography of the age and also clearly build Indian chronology. They also tell
us in detail about the social conditions like sati, sale of girlsby poor parents.
2. Justin tells us about the accession of CGM when he overran Indus. The literature also frequently
mentions the autonomous towns in NW indicating the continuation of the gana sanghas.
3. Herodotus works have some useful information about India but it also has many myths. Similarly
much of Tisius' work is just full of myths.
4. Being foreigners their works were useful because they gave importance to some aspects of
Indian life which Indians used to overlook. But their writings obviously suffer from their lack of
knowledge and understanding about India. Often what they had seen with their own eyes is
believable but rest of it is just trash.
5. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea tells us about various Indian ports (like Naur, Tondi, Muchiri,
Nelsida), the imports & exports, other cities and the economic life in general and thus is very
useful under the Satvahnas and the Sangam chiefs.

Megasthenes
(a) Politics
1. He tells us that PP's administration was divided into 6 committees of 5 members each looking
after registration of births and deaths; registration of foreigners; regulating weights and
measures; sanitation; collection of tolls; and collection of excise.
2. He tells us that Pandyas were ruled by a woman.

(b)Military
1. He tells us that CGM's army was administered by 6 committees of 5 members each looking after
infantry; cavalry; chariots; elephants; navy; and transport.
2. He indicates soldiers as one of the 7 'castes' which indicates their importance in the society and
the presence of a large standing army.

(c)Economy
1. On taxation, he tells us that for tax assessment, land was measured as in Egypt and the state
officials also monitored the irrigation channels for the use of water.
2. He talks about trade with Pandyas in South from where pearls were imported.

(d)Culture
1. He talksabout a magnificent palace of CGM in PP remains of which have been found in Kumrahar
(Patna). It was an 80 pillared palace but not as magnificent as described by Megasthenes.

(e)Society
1. He talks about existence of 7 castes in India - Philosophers, Peasants, Shepherds, Councillors,
Warriors, Supervisors, Artisans and craftsmen.
2. He says slavery was absent from India. But probably he couldn't distinguish between the slaves
and the shudras.
3. He talks about female bodyguards of CGM and female accountants in state service.

Roman Accounts
Natural History (by Pliny)
1. It tells us about the strength of CGM's army (600K infantry, 30K cavalry, 9K elephants).
2. On Satvahnas ittells us about theirarmy (100K infantry, 2K cavalry and 1K elephants) and about
30 walled towns in their kingdom.

https://www.evernote.com/Home.action#n=8b886c059f874caa97f0e76aa8dcc6eb&b=7219d38b665a4fff923212b05d6c5d05&ses=4&sh=1&sds=5& 1/10
1/9/2016 LiterarySources|EvernoteWeb

3. On the Indo-Roman trade, he complains that Rome was being drained of her wealth due to the
trade. He also tells us about the ships in the Sangam age where he says Indian ships were 75
tonnes.
4. It tells us about the flora and fauna, the minerals, geography etc. of India.

Arab Accounts
Sulaiman (~850 AD)
1. He describes the powerful army of the Pala rulers and calls his army the biggest.

Al-Masudi (915 AD)

1. He testifies the great power and prestige of the Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their empire.
He said the king's army had 4 divisions, one fighting north vs Multan, one west with Muslims, one
east with Palas and one S with Rashtrakutas. But Pratiharas had no access to sea => the had lost
Gujarat to Rashtrakutas.

Chinese Accounts
1. EventhoughworksofFaHein,HuenTsangandIpSingthrowmuchlightonlifeintheirtimes,theysuffer
fromthedrawbackthatthewriterswereallbuddhistmonks.Thustheynotonlyfailtotakeanunbiased
viewbutalsofailtowriteaboutsecularaspectsoflife.
2. FaHeintellsusthatuntouchableshadtosoundaclapperinthestreetsofthetownsothatpeoplewere
warnedoftheirpresenceandthatifanuntouchablecameincloserange,thecastepersonwouldhaveto
perform a ritual. Huen Tsang states that butchers, fishermen, theatrical performers, executioners and
scavengers were forced to live outside the city and their houses were marked so that they could be
avoided.

SanskritLiterature
ReligiousLiterature
1. Brahmanicalsourcesdisapproveofganasanghassincetheydidn'tperformtheritualsnorsubscribedto
brahmanical rhetoric or observe the rules of varna. This disapproval is extended to towns in general
thoughbuddhistandjainsourcespraiseboth.
2. The Sanskrit Buddhist literature of Mahayana tells us about the economic life and various occupations
flourishinginthepostMauryanage.
3. ManuwasthefamoussmritiinpostMauryanage,Yajnavalkya,Brihaspati,NaradandKatyanayanawere
famousinGuptaageandMedhatithiinpostGuptaage.

Purana/EpicLiterature

1. The myth about Prithu, the first ruler, clearing the forests and introducing cultivation and cattle herding
reflectstheearlysettlementsandexpansionofAryans.Thedichotomybetweenthekingdom/settlement
andtheforestsalsoreflectsthetensionbetweensettlementsandforestinhabitants.
2. ThestoryoffloodhasaconnectionwithHebrewlegendwhichcouldhavemigratedontoMesopotamia
andthenHarappa.
3. When the Puranas were finally compiled and revised, there were 2 lineages solar and lunar and all
dynastiestriedtoclaimdescentfromoneofthese.
4. Epicliteratureisnothistorybutawayoflookingathistoryreflectsthenormsofthegenerationlooking
atthehistory.

VedicLiteratureasaReflection
RacialDebateAryansvsDasas/Dasyus/Panis
1. Earlieritwasheldthattheyweredifferentraces.ThehymninRigVedaaboutthearyanvarnaandthe
dasa varna is taken as a supporting evidence (varna means skin color). But more likely the color was
usedasasymbolicclassifiertoexpressthedifferences.

https://www.evernote.com/Home.action#n=8b886c059f874caa97f0e76aa8dcc6eb&b=7219d38b665a4fff923212b05d6c5d05&ses=4&sh=1&sds=5& 2/10
1/9/2016 LiterarySources|EvernoteWeb

2. Thisissupportedbyalowernumberofreferencestothedifferenceinskincolorandhighernumberof
referencestothedifferenceinlanguage,ritualsetc.
3. Thepanisweresaidtobecattleliftersandhencedisliked(alongwithdifferentlanguageandreligion)and
notbecauseofany(hypothetical)racialconsiderations.
4. InAvesta,dasaanddasyureferto'otherpeople'.Itwasonlylaterthatthetermdasacametobeused
for someone subordinate or enslaved. The later decline indicates a transition to agricultural economy
sinceinapastoraleconomyslavesaredifficulttokeep.
5. Thereferenceindicating'flatnose'meansnomouthorpersonspeakingdifferentlanguage.

InteractionBetweenAryansandtheInhabitants
1. The inhabitants were settled communities while Aryans were pastoral nomads. Interaction hostile as
well as mutually beneficial is natural. Thus some dasa chiefs are referred to as enemies and raiding
their cattle was a justified occupation in Rig Veda. Some chiefs were won over as they have been
mentioned as patrons of vedic rituals. Some had trade relations and also that agriculturalists allow
pastoralcattletograzeintheirfieldsaftertheharvestwhileitalsoprovidesmanure.
2. This interaction can also be seen in terms of the exchange of words. Thus we have many dravidian
elementscreepingintoVedicsanskritandspeciallyintothelatervedas.

SecularLiterature
MahabhashyabyPatanjali

1. TellsusabouttheSungaperiod.

Mudrarakshasha(byVishakhadutta)
1. IttellsusaboutthecontemporarylifeofthetimeCGMcametopower.

Arthasastra
1. Itconsistsof15books5oninternaladministration,8onexternalrelationsand2miscellaneous.Itranks
arthasuperiortodharmaandkamaasthelatter2followfromtheformer.
2. The entire discussion of statecraft is from the point if view of a wouldberuler and is theoretical and
normative.
3. ThereisaviewthatitwascomposedinMauryantimes.Thisisbackedby2versesithetextsreferring
toKautilyaandNandas.Laterworksinhistoryalsoacknowledgethisview.Theoutlineofanelaborate
administrativesetupandgenerouscashsalariestoofficialsindicatethattheauthorhadalargeempirein
mind.
4. But there is also a view that it was not composed in Mauryan times. The presence of Kautilya's name
couldmean'theviewsasheldbyKautilya'.ThereisnoreferencetoKautilyainPatanjali'sMahabhashya.
But Mahabhashya was a grammar book referring to CGM's court only for examples. There is no
referenceofKautilyainMegasthenes.Buthisoriginalworkisgoneandweonlyhavebitsandpiecesin
references.Thearecontradictionsbetweenthetwobooks.ButArthasastrawasonlyatheoreticalbook.

(a)Politics
1. Itdefinestheconceptofstateassaptangrajyaorhaving7limbs.King,bureaucracy,treasury,territory,
army,foreignrelationsandjustice.
2. It emphasizes that a king's duty is to safeguard the varna based social order and uses the
termdharmapravartakforhim.
3. Itassertsthatthekingmusthavesupremepower.

(b)Economy
1. Ittellsusthatthestatehadextensivecontrolovereconomy.
2. Therewere27adhyakshas(superintendents)toregulateeconomicactivities.
3. Thestatehadmonopolyovermultiplesectorsincludingliquor,pasturelandsandmanufactureofarms.

https://www.evernote.com/Home.action#n=8b886c059f874caa97f0e76aa8dcc6eb&b=7219d38b665a4fff923212b05d6c5d05&ses=4&sh=1&sds=5& 3/10
1/9/2016 LiterarySources|EvernoteWeb

4. Adetailedlistoftaxesisgivencoveringalmostalleconomicactivities.
5. Theimportanceofpropertaxassessmentisemphasizedupontaxcollectionandstorage.

(c)Society
1. Itbansrenunciationofworldlylifewithoutprovidingfordependents.
2. Ittalksabout9typeofslaves.
3. On shudras, it tells us that shudras were allowed to enlist in the army, work in agriculture and own
property.
4. The sacrosanct concept of marriage was broken in the book. It allows for divorce under certain
conditions.

PostMauryanPeriod

1. TheJunagarhinscriptionofrudradaman(asaka)isinsanskrit(infactfirstinscriptionentirelyinsanskrit)
while that of Asoka is in prakrit. This conveys the spirit of the historical change where sanskrit was
increasingly dominating the elite circles and association with it was considered prestigious. The
inscriptionalsoisanearlyexampleofwhatwastobecomeprashastioreulogy.
2. ManyinscriptionsalsotalkaboutinvestmentsmadebythekingswithparticularguildsliketheSakanasik
inscriptiontalksaboutthekinginvestingintheguildsofweavers,pottersetc.Clearlytheseoccupations
would have been socially acceptable (although claimed otherwise by the brahmanical literature)
otherwise the king and the upper classes wouldn't have invested in them. This indicates that the
brahmanicalliteraturewasmoreofanormativeversionaccordingtotheperspectiveofafewbrahmans
ratherthanadescriptiveversionofhowthesocietyfunctioned.

LiteratureinPostMauryanPeriod

1. Sanskritkavya style developed under royal patronage. The Junagarh inscription is the first example of
longSanskritkavyastyleinscription.AshvaghoshawasafamousSanskritkavyapoetandhelivedinthe
courtofKushanas.HecomposedSarioutraprakaran(astoryofconversionbyBuddha),Buddhacharita(a
biography of Buddha) and Saundaranandawhich are fine specimens of Sanskrit kavya. Another writer
BhasawroteSvapnavasavdattamwhichwasbasedoncourtactivities.UnlikeAshvaghoshawhoseplays
weremeantforalargeraudience,Bhasa'sworkwasmeantforcourtaudienceonly.
2. The growth of Mahayana led to the composition of Buddhist Avadanas literature. This genre included
works like Mahavastu and Divyavadana and was written in hybrid Sanskrit. Even the philosopher
NagarjunachosetowriteinSanskritusingitinBuddhistphilosophy.ThisshowsascendencyofSanskrit
asthelanguageofelite.

LiteratureinGuptaPeriod

(a)CulturalReflections

1. Malvikagnimitra:TalksaboutPushyamitraSunga'sAshvamedhayajna,hisfightwithVidharbhaandIndo
Greeks.
2. Kumar Sambhav: Reflects the growing Siva bhakti currents of the age. Kalidasa was himself a Siva
worshipperandthisworkshowsmanyaspectsoftheSivabhakti.
3. Kamasutratellsusthatpaintingartformwasstudiedinasystematicway.
4. Theornatestyleofwritingdevelopedinthisperiod.

(b)SocialReflections

1. Sudrak's Mrichkatikam is a break from other literature in the sense that it deals with the lives of
commoners. Its protagonist is a poor brahman. Different characters from different regions speak
in their regional dialect here which tells us about the society. It tells us about the different social

https://www.evernote.com/Home.action#n=8b886c059f874caa97f0e76aa8dcc6eb&b=7219d38b665a4fff923212b05d6c5d05&ses=4&sh=1&sds=5& 4/10
1/9/2016 LiterarySources|EvernoteWeb

classes present at that time.

2. Kamasutra tells us about the life of an urbanite who is well fed and well kept.

Literature(PrimarilySmritiLiterature)inEarlyMedievalAge
(a)Political

1. Theoryofkingship:Contemporarysmritiliteraturegiveunlimitedpowertothekingbutyetplacehimin
theboundsofreligiousandconventionalnorms.MedhatithiSmrititellsusthatthekinggetshistaxesin
return for providing security to the tax payers. Moreover if he doesn't protect the poor, weak and
brahmanshewillnotachieveheavens.Hegoesontosaythatthekinghastoprotecteventhosewho
don'tpaytaxesbutifhedoesn'tfulfillhisdutiesdespitegettingtaxesheisliabletofacepublicdiscontent.
Vishwarup'ssmritigoesonestepfurtherandsaysthatitislegitimateforpublictoremoveanexploitative
king.Butatthesametimethereareothersmritisaswellwhichtalkofdivinerights/originsofking.

(b)Social

1. On brahmans: Medhatithi frees brahmans from corporal punishment and fines but limits this to only
'learned' brahmans. Matsyapuran frees them from capital punishment but advocates their exile and
branding.Vishwarupsmritihoweversaysthereisnoharmingivingcapitalpunishmenttoanexploitative
brahman.Theliteratureofthisagebeginstomakedistinctionsevenamongbrahmansparticularlybased
ontheirregion.Theyholdbrahmansinsouth,OdishaandAPinlowlight.
2. Onkshatriyas:Laydowntheusualdutiesforkshatriyasandrajputs.
3. Onvaishyas:Laydowntheusualdutiesforvaishyas.
4. Onkayasthas:Ridiculethem.
5. Onslaves:Theliteraturefurthertellsusthattheslaveswereusedmainlyfordirtyhouseholdworkonly
thoughthe(buddhist)literaturealsomentionstheiremploymentforagriculturalworkinsomecases.The
templesandmathas,however,usedtoemploytheslavesinagricultureinabigway.Theliteratureofthis
agealsodoesn'tgiveusanyinformationaboutthepropertyrightsoftheslavesandtheirfreedom(not
evenbyworkingveryhardandpleasingthemaster)soitcanbeinferredthattheconditionofslaveshad
definitelyworsenedfromthepreviousperiod.Themasterhadfullrightoverthelifeoftheslave,hecould
beathim,treathiminanywayhepleasedandwasnotliableeveniftheslavediedduetotortureandill
treatment.
6. Onshudras:ParasharandLaghuVyasasmritisforbidanytouchorfoodtouchedbyshudra.Medhatithi
advocates servitude of shudras but still allows them personal freedom. He says some shudras used to
studygrammar.Naradsmritievenadvocatesshudrastotakeuparmsinemergencyanddefend.Butall
theseareexceptionsonly.
7. On untouchables: Many new classes and tribes were added to untouchables and new disabilities
imposed.
8. On marriage: Medhatithi allows anulom (higher caste male and lower caste female) marriages as
exceptions and says the caste of the offspring will be that of mother in such a marriage. Narad smriti
bansintercastemarriages.Incestisprohibited.
9. On remarriage of women: Medhatithi completely prohibits remarriage of women while narad, parashar
smritisallowremarriageincaseofdeath,abandonment,missinghusband.Theyalsoallowniyoga.
10. On feudal society: We find increasing references in the literature of this age to samantas, their
classification, different types of homes for different samantas etc. Thus the literature shows the
increasingfeudalpenetrationintheage.

(c)Economic

1. KavyaMimansatellsusthattimberindustrywasthemainindustryinRashtrakutakingdom.Thenpepper
wasalsoexported.
https://www.evernote.com/Home.action#n=8b886c059f874caa97f0e76aa8dcc6eb&b=7219d38b665a4fff923212b05d6c5d05&ses=4&sh=1&sds=5& 5/10
1/9/2016 LiterarySources|EvernoteWeb

2. Also because of the changing political and economic circumstances, we find ample evidences in the
smriti literature allowing brahmans to adopt alternative occupations. Thus Parashar calls agriculture a
normal occupation of brahman provided he himself didn't cultivate (this also tells us about the land
relations of the age). The literature talks in great details about the land grants made to brahmans and
prescribe various forms of concessions which should accompany such grants like tying the factors of
productionlikelaborandoxandploughwiththegrant.
3. MedhatithitellsusthatSIndiawasfamousforitspearls.
4. AgnipuranamentionsswordmakingindustryinSopara.
5. Literature was written on agriculture (krishiparashar), sculpture (shilpashastras), architecture
(vastushastras),veterinarysciences(horseandelephant)reflectingeconomicpriorities.

RegionalLiterature

PrakritLiterature

NBPWPhase

1. EarliestJainaliteraturewasKalpasutra,SutrakritangaandAcharangasutra.

PostMauryanAge
1. It got a boost under the Satvahna kings as their official language was Prakrit. One Satvahna king Hala
composedGathaSattaSai.Itcontains700verseswritteninPrakrit.

PaliLiterature
NBPWphase(Tripitaka)
1. TheytellusoftraderoutesfromMathuratoTaxila,andfromMathuratoUjjainandGujaratcoast.
2. They tell us about the punch marked coins and also about their widespread use in transactions and
inpayingwages.
3. Theytellusaboutthevillagelifethethreetypeofvillages,thedominanceofcommunity,thepresence
ofagricultureslavesandhiredlabor.
4. Theyalsotellusaboutthetraditionofoppressivekingsandtheirpurohitsbeingexpelledbypeople.But
suchoccasionswererareandkingwasmorepowerfulthaneverbefore.
5. ThesetextshavebeenwritteninurbansettingsconfirmingthetargetaudienceofBuddhism.Thesetexts
reflectmorecloselythelifeintherepublics.Theiraccountoftheoriginofstateisclosertothetheoryof
social contract (by Rousseau) while the brahmanical literature is closer to the kingdoms and calls for
divineoriginoftheking(anddeniesanysocialcontract).

TamilLiterature
1. TamiltextTolkkapiyamdealswithgrammarandpoeticsandTirukkalwithphilosophy.
2. Then there are epics Silappadikaran and Manimekalai. Silappadikaran was written by a Jaina scholar
andisalovestoryofadignitarypreferringacourtesanoverhiswife.Manimekalaiistheadventurestory
ofhisdaughter.TheseepicsthrowlightonthesocioeconomiclifeoftheSangamage.

SangamLiterature

PoliticalReflections

1. Itisamixofmythsaswellasreflectsrealities.Forinstancetheliteraturesaysthatitwascomposedover
aperiodof9990yearsunderthepatronageof197Pandyakings.Clearlythisistoogoodtobetrue.On
theotherhandmanyofthenamesofthekingsandeventsdescribedintheliteraturecanbereconciled
againsttheinscriptionsandotherarchaeologicalevidence.
2. Theheadofhouseholdswereimportant,butahigherstatuswasgiventothevelirortheclanchiefanda
stillhigherstatuswasaccordedtothebiggerchiefscalledventarwhoweretheCholas,theCherasand
https://www.evernote.com/Home.action#n=8b886c059f874caa97f0e76aa8dcc6eb&b=7219d38b665a4fff923212b05d6c5d05&ses=4&sh=1&sds=5& 6/10
1/9/2016 LiterarySources|EvernoteWeb

thePandyas.
3. Ittellsusaboutthe3majorstatesPandyas,CholasandCherastheirorigin,importantpoliticalevents,
theirpolityetc.ThepoetshavetriedtoderivetheancestryfromMahabharatainordertoincreaseglory
andlegitimacyoftheirrulingmasters.Obviouslyitsfake.Italsotellsusaboutsometruehistoricalevents
likehowafterlosinghiskingdomthefirstCholarulerKarikalawonabattle@Venniagainstanallianceof
11rulersandstagedacomeback.Apartfromthemajorstates,thepoetstellusaboutthevariousminor
principalitieswhousedtosidewithonemajorstateortheotherintimesofwar.
4. Theliteraturetellsusthatsomekingsusedtoperformvedicsacrificesandpraisesthemhighly.Thistells
usoftheattemptofthekingstoincreasetheirlegitimacyviadivineassociationandthevaluesassociated
with a great king. The king was also supposed to be an upholder of the social order, literature, art etc
andimpartialwhileimpartingjusticebecausehewasthehighestcourt.Hewassupposedtoensurethat
brahmanslivedwell.
5. Theliteratureisareflectionofthestrongeconomicandadministrativepowerofthestate(suchalarge
scalepatronagetothepoetswouldn'thavebeenpossibleotherwise).Theliteraturealsotellsusthatthe
state used to actively promote agriculture, industry and commerce. However it also tells us that by the
timeofarulerNalliyakodan(275AD)theeraofkind,liberaldonorkingswasoverwhichindicatesthat
thepowerofstatehaddeclinedbythistime.
6. The sangam literature tells us that the king used to rule mainly with the assistance of his kin (family
members) who were also very powerful. The practice of conjoint rule was also present. This is natural
giventhekinbasednatureofthesangamsociety.Ittellsusaboutthevariousfeudsforgrabbingpower
etc.Thepoetsusedtoputthenamesofnotjustthekingbutmultiplemembersoftheroyalfamilyintheir
workswhichindicatesthekinbasednatureofpolity.
7. Victoryinbattles,cattleraidsandterritorialexpansionwasanotherimportantsourceofroyallegitimacy
andagreatkingwassupposedtocontinuouslytrytoexpandhiskingdom.Theliteraturespeaksbothin
illtermsandinhighterms(dependinguponwhichsidethepoetwason)ofcattleraids.Ittellsusthatthe
battlesovercattleraidsbetweenhilltribesandplaintribeswereverycommonasthehillpeopleusedto
raidplaintribes.

CulturalReflections
1. IntheearlierinscriptionswecanseethattheTamillanguagewasstillindevelopmentphases.Butbythe
Sangamageithadfullydevelopedascanbeseenintheliterature.
2. The literature also uses many sanskrit words. This shows that the process of brahmanisation of the
Sangam society was well underway. We can also get a good idea of the fusion process between the
brahmanandthedravidiansocietiesfromtheliterature.
3. They (specially the early sangam texts like Purnanuru and Narninai) also tell us about the life in
megalithicsocieties.Thustheytellusindetailabouttheurnburial,cistburials,cremationetc.Theearlier
SangamtextstellusthaturnburialwasprevalentamongtheCherakingsaswellasthevellalas.
4. IttellsusaboutthemanytemplespresentinMaduraiinthatage.

SocialReflections
1. Itreflectsasocietywhichcelebratesloveandwar.Thegoalofaheroshouldbetoattainglory.Heroic
deathwasgreatlyvalued,memorialstoneswereraisedforthedeadheroesastheirspiritswerebelieved
toinhabitthestones.
2. There are references to social classification based in kutis (clan based descent from early ages).
Brahmanical tradition had not yet established firmly. There were Arashars (kings), Vaishiyars (traders),
Velalars (farmers) and the brahmans. The brahmans held the highest level and they also occupied
important posts like purohit in the royal courts and held great influence. The velalars were the rich
farmersandinfluentialinmilitaryandadministrationaswell.Thehighmilitarycommanderswerecalled

https://www.evernote.com/Home.action#n=8b886c059f874caa97f0e76aa8dcc6eb&b=7219d38b665a4fff923212b05d6c5d05&ses=4&sh=1&sds=5& 7/10
1/9/2016 LiterarySources|EvernoteWeb

Enadi.InterestinglySangamliteraturereferstomanyoccupationsbutdoesn'treferdirectlytoanyvarna
basedordering.
3. Therearereferencestowiderangeofeconomicactivitiespracticedbywomenincludingagriculture,cloth
making,fisheriesetc.Thisindicatestheirbetterpositioninthesociety.Ittellsusthatinabattlebetween
theCherasandtheCholas,bothkingswerekilled.Theirqueenscommittedsati.Thussatiwasprevalent.
Theliteraturetellsusaboutthepracticeofkannagiworshipi.e.worshippingachastewifeandthustells
us how the society thought of a woman role in her life (she was thus supposed to be completely
subservienttoherhusband).
4. In the rural society there used to be an institution of manram to take care of the sociocultural and
religiousactivities.Itusedtotakecareoffestivals,entertainmentvenuesetc.Theselaterdevelopedinto
theinstitutionofsabha.

EconomicReflections

1. The literature tells us that the state used to actively promote agriculture, industry and
commerce.The state had a sound financial position.Another major source of income of the state
was war booty.
2. The literature tells us that agriculture was the mainstay of the economy. But foreign trade too
played a vital role in the economy. It tells us that Puhar was a major international port and due to
brisk international trade it had accumulated a lot of wealth and influence. Other important ports
were Shaliyur / Kottayam / Alagankulam under Pandyas and Bandar under Cheras.

ApproachestoStudyHistory
OrientalistApproach

1. TheadministrativefunctionsofEECrequireditsofficialstobeknowledgeableaboutIndianlanguages,
practices,normsetc.Indianlanguageswerestudiedaswellasdharmashastras(whichwerebelievedto
be Indian code of laws). Hope was that it would provide greater control over the colony and extend
rule.AsiaticSocietyofBengal,WilliamJonesallbelongedtothisschool.
2. werealsobaffledbytheHindureligionwhichwasnotmonotheistic,notfoundedbyasingleprophet,
hadnoreligiousleader/institutionandneitherhadasinglesacredtext.InIndiamultiplereligionswere
practicedandenjoyedroyalpatronageunlikeEurope.Thustheyfeltaneedtofitthisphenomenonwithin
theirmouldofboundedrationality.
3. They showed that Sanskrit had linkages with european languages so that it could be proved it was
derived from european languages only. Efforts were made to link Puranas with Bible but were not
successful.AsonofNoahwassaidtohavemigratedtoIndiaandestablishtheIndianpopulation!
4. Indianthoughtwasconsideredtobemoreinthesphereofspiritualityandmysticismandthusappealed
tothesewhowereapprehensiveofexcessivematerialismbroughtaboutbytheindustrializationoftheir
society. They tried to show that Indians were so concerned with the other world and so less with the
tangibleaspectsofthisworld.AdichotomywasmaintainedthatvalueswerematerialisticwhileIndian
valueswerespiritual.Theyhopedtobringaboutanotherrenaissancein.

Utilitarian/AnglicistApproach

1. TheywerelargelywhoresidedinbutwroteaboutIndia.PeoplelikeMill,Macaulaywereassociated
with this school. They firmly believed in the superiority of race and culture. They emphasized on the
valuesofrationalthoughtandindividualismwhichweresaidtobeabsentinIndiaandthatIndianculture
wasstagnant.
2. TheydividedthestudyofIndianhistoryintoHinduage,MuslimageandtheagesoastodivideIndians
andperpetuaterule.Theybegantointerprethistoryintermsofcommunallines.
3. They held that Indians were not fit to govern themselves according to modern ideas. They had never

https://www.evernote.com/Home.action#n=8b886c059f874caa97f0e76aa8dcc6eb&b=7219d38b665a4fff923212b05d6c5d05&ses=4&sh=1&sds=5& 8/10
1/9/2016 LiterarySources|EvernoteWeb

known democracy etc. and had always been ruled by despotic kings totally unrepresentative of public
opinion (theory of oriental despotism). India always had self sufficient villages whose surplus was
creamed off by the despotic rulers governing through an autocratic bureaucracy. The peasant was
always kept subjugated and the king would control all means of irrigation and would own all land and
claimdivinestatus.ThustheybelievedthatweredoingafavorbyrulingIndiabymodernmeans.
4. TheyarguedthatonlycanimproveIndiansocietybybringinginlegislationsandpromotingeducation
inIndiatoremovethestagnantfeaturesofIndiansociety.
5. Their approach was that there was nothing praiseworthy in general in Indian culture and even if there
were one or two things which were superior to ancient Greek / Roman culture, they were invariable
derivedfromtheformer.

MarxistApproach
1. He talked about the 'Asiatic mode of production' where despotism and stagnancy were the central
features which nullified any hope for a movement on the lines of Europe. He believed there was no
privatepropertyinAsiawhichmadethebourgeoisieclassabsentandhencenoclassconflict.Thiswas
furtherreinforcedbyabsenceofcitiesasproductionorcommercialcentersandwhatevercitiesexisted
wereadministrativeorpilgrimagecentersonly.

NationalistApproach
1. They came up as a spread of education among Indian middle class. They tried to paint an opposite
picture than that presented by historians. Thus they asserted India had institutions of democracy
(Chola sabhas, Vedic sabha and samitis), republics (clans, chiefdoms) and monarchy (existence of
council of ministers to advise the king). They emphasized on non violence being a product of India
(Asoka)aswellasthepresencegreatconquerors(SG).TheytriedtopaintthefightagainstAlexanderas
a nationalistic fight and emphasized the unity created by the Mauryan empire. They came up with the
conceptofthegoldenage.
2. But they measured cultural achievement only in terms of arts, literature (that too sanskrit) and
philosophy. They too contributed to a communal interpretation of history. They maintained that ancient
Hindu society was essentially a tolerant society and dismissed or ignored the incidents of social
intolerance.Theyalsoignoredtherigiditiesanddisabilitiesimposedbythesocietyonitsownmembers.

OtherApproaches
1. ThereisthelanguagebasedapproachandtheracebasedapproachusuallyinvokedincaseofAryans
andDravidians.
2. There is the hindutva approach which emphasizes that Aryans were original inhabitants of India. They
denyinvasiontheoriesandassertthatAryansandSanskritwerealwaysindigenous.

InscriptionsandWomen

twocategoriesofinscriptionsrelatedtowomen

a.inscriptionsissuedbywomenlikenayanikaofsatavahanas,prabhavatiofvakatakas,diddaofkashmir,inscriptions
issuedbywomendonorswhoaresometimesfoundalongwiththeirhusbandsandsometimessingle(likethosewomen
whodonatedtobuddhistmonastries,rockcutcavetemples,brahmanictemples)

b.satistonesplentyofthem,theygenerallygivedetailsabouttheladylikehername,age,casteetc

whatcanbeinferredfromthese?
https://www.evernote.com/Home.action#n=8b886c059f874caa97f0e76aa8dcc6eb&b=7219d38b665a4fff923212b05d6c5d05&ses=4&sh=1&sds=5& 9/10
1/9/2016 LiterarySources|EvernoteWeb

1.theirpropertyrights

2.theireconomicstatus

3.theirautonomyindecisionmaking,theirpoliticalpower

4.theirsocialconditions

https://www.evernote.com/Home.action#n=8b886c059f874caa97f0e76aa8dcc6eb&b=7219d38b665a4fff923212b05d6c5d05&ses=4&sh=1&sds=5& 10/10