Magnetotelluric - What You Need To Know

MAGNETOTELLURICS: WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW
Ted Asch, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO
Abstract
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Investigation and development of ground water resources are a continuing and increasingly
important issue for local and national governments. As the depths to fresh water resources increase,
geophysical techniques that are most sensitive to depth ranges from 10 m to 800 m, such as controlled-
source audio magnetotellurics (CSAMT), e.g., Geometrics STRATAGEM system, have become
increasingly useful. Magnetotellurics (MT) and Audio-Magnetotellurics (AMT) have been successfully
utilized to delineate fresh and saline water, lithology, and subsurface geologic structures that impact
ground water flow. However, it has become apparent that while more and more practitioners are using
MT/CSAMT, sometimes successfully and sometimes not, their training and knowledge of the basic
magnetotelluric technique has not kept pace with their use. The purpose of this talk is to present a primer
on how to set up a field survey (TM vs. TE modes) and what to look for when recording AMT data.
Discussion focuses on what constitutes good signals, bad signals, effects from lightning, and cultural
noise effects (usually power lines and actively pumping water wells and pipe lines), and how to mitigate
these effects. MT and AMT are examples of geophysical techniques that can be used to help map
subsurface geology and effectively support hydrogeologic investigations. However, magnetotelluric
surveying, as with most geophysical methods, works best when it is integrated into a comprehensive
geophysical investigation.
Introduction
Geophysical exploration involves remotely determining the structure and composition of the
subsurface. This may involve delineation of an irregular contact between unconsolidated sediments and
bedrock in the presence of a varying depth to the water table. Determination of the depth to the water
table may be a problem in itself. Varying lithologies, as well as the nature and presence of sand and clay
lenses and large cobbles and boulders, may make the geophysical interpretation an issue. In some cases
geophysical practitioners assume that the bedrock contact resembles the surface topography when in fact
it may not look anything like the ground surface. Then there is the question of the nature and character
of the bedrock. Are there other contacts within the bedrock? Are there apparent or real differences in
permeability? Are there zones of lithological and structural weakness with variable engineering
properties? Is the water table in or above the apparent contact with the bedrock? Are there monitoring
wells that can provide some ground truth to previous and planned geophysical measurements? Typically,
the problem is to delineate desired targets (e.g., buried drums and underground storage tanks) within
what could be a complex geophysical environment.
One family of geophysical techniques that have proven to be very useful is magnetotellurics.
Traditional magnetotellurics involves the measurement of natural variations in electric and magnetic
fields on the surface of the earth due to the interaction of the solar wind, the magnetosphere, the
ionosphere, and the earth itself. Amperes Law (equation 1) indicates that a spatially varying magnetic
field will produce a time-varying electric field, and Faradays Law (equation 2) indicates that a spatially
varying electric field will produce a time-varying magnetic field. The ratio of the electric field to the
magnetic field can then be related to the electrical resistivity of the subsurface as a function of frequency
(or period), and from this frequency-dependent quantity is derived the apparent resistivity. This is the
basis of magnetotellurics.
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Amperes Law xB E (1)
Faradays Law xE B / t (2)
Figure 1 depicts the expected magnetotelluric signal levels from natural fields. Note the low
signal levels between 1000 Hz and 10,000 Hz. This band of frequencies is known as the dead band
because signal levels are near the noise level of most instruments. In order to supplement the signal
levels in the dead band, high-frequency transmitters like that used in the STRATAGEM system by
Geometrics have been developed. The STRATAGEM transmitter supplements signal levels between
960 Hz and 96 kHz.
Figure 1. Spectral amplitude of natural magnetotelluric fields. Note the very low signal levels between
1000 Hz and 10000 Hz. The noise thresholds labeled BF4 and BF6 are the expected instrument noise
levels as a function of frequency for Electromagnetic Instruments (EMI, 2002) BF4 and BF6 magnetic
induction coils, which are commonly used in MT and CSAMT surveys.
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An important parameter used in planning and designing magnetotelluric surveys is the skin
depth. This is the depth at which the magnetic field energy dissipating in the homogeneous ground has
decreased to a level of 1/e (~2.72) of the initial field. The skin depth, , defined in equation 3, is in units
of meters and is related to the ratio of the resistivity, , of the ground to a given frequency, f (equation
2). That is,

503 (3)
f
For instance, if the resistivity of the ground, , is known to be approximately 100 -m, then the
depth of exploration, , at a measurement frequency, f, of 100 Hz will be approximately 500 m. This
parameter can be very useful in determining the required range of frequencies that must be acquired and
the necessary site spacing in order to probe to the required depth of investigation and beyond.
Magnetotelluric Survey
In a magnetotelluric survey, station locations should be selected to help constrain the desired
geologic/hydrostratigraphic interpretation and to avoid, where possible, electrical noise from power lines
and vehicles. Magnetotelluric electric field data are usually collected with copper-copper sulphate or
lead-lead chloride electrodes that have porous ceramic or wood plugs at their base that allow ionic
transfer between the ground and the electrode. Magnetic fields are measured using mu-metal-cored
induction coils such as EMIs BF-4 coil (low frequencies: from 0.0002 Hz to 200 Hz) and BF-6 coil
(high frequencies: from 10 Hz up to 100 kHz). The horizontal electric field lines are usually arranged
into either an L-shaped array or a crossed array that is used consistently throughout the survey. Dipole
lengths are typically on the order of 30100 m.
The typical orientation of an MT survey profile is usually perpendicular to the assumed geologic
strike. This arrangement then determines which magnetotelluric mode is being measured. In the
transverse electric (TE) mode (fig. 2) the electric field is polarized parallel to the geologic strike
direction, whereas in the transverse magnetic (TM) mode the magnetic field is polarized parallel to the
strike direction. The transverse infers which component (electric or magnetic) is parallel to the strike
direction and therefore perpendicular (transverse) to the survey profile direction.
If the prism in figure 2 is very thin (less than one station spacing thick) and is more conductive
relative to the background (2 < 1), then the TE mode will be more sensitive to the conductance of the
prism, whereas the TM mode will be slightly sensitive to the geometry of the conductive prism. On the
other hand, if the prism is relativity electrically resistive (2 > 1), then the TE mode will be insensitive
to the narrow prism, and the TM mode alone will be more sensitive to its presence. Therefore,
consideration of the expected structure and geologic strike is imperative when designing a
magnetotelluric survey.
Until recently, typical magnetotelluric surveys did not measure the commonly low-amplitude
vertical magnetic field. However, with the advent of 24-bit high-frequency systems, vertical magnetic
fields can be accurately and precisely measured. When measurements of the vertical magnetic field are
included, the survey is considered to be a true MT survey because all components are acquired. The
benefit of measuring the vertical magnetic field is that this component is sensitive to subsurface
structures. The ratios of the vertical magnetic field to the horizontal components of the magnetic field
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are called induction vectors (equation 4). Induction vectors will point towards a conductor crossing
the survey profile or away from a resistor crossing the profile.
Iy = Hz / Hy
(4)
Ix = Hz / Hx
Figure 2. Schematic illustrating the definitions of the magnetotelluric TE and TM modes. The survey
profile is in the y-direction, which is arranged to be perpendicular to the assumed geologic strike
direction (prism with resistivity 2).
E
Figure 3. Schematic illustrating the definitions of the magnetotelluric induction vectors. If the cylinder
is conductive, the induction vectors will point towards the conductor.
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The schematic L-array layout for a MT survey is presented in figure 4. Ex and Hx components
are parallel, as are Ey and Hy components. The common electrode is located at the corner of the L. It
is important that the induction coils are no closer than 3 m to each other and the measuring system to
avoid the effects of mutual inductance. It is also important that they are level and buried at least 10 cm
or preferably deeper. Burial of the induction coils is a precaution against noise caused by mechanical
movement due to wind. The electric field lines should also be buried to prevent movement by the wind
or, at a minimum, kept flat on the ground.
Figure 4. Schematic image showing magnetotelluric instrumentation layout.
CSAMT transmitters, an example of which is shown in figure 5, should be located not closer
than 250 m (depending on the acquisition frequency range and skin depth) to the survey profile and not
farther than 450 m from the farthest measuring points for which that transmitter location will be utilized.
This means that up to 750 m of profile can be surveyed using one transmitter located in the center of the
750 m segment and 250 m perpendicular from it. Station spacing along a continuous profile may be as
close as 10 m for maximum spatial resolution but will, more likely, be spaced further apart in order to
save time. The spacing will be dependent on the project data quality objectives (and on skin depth
considerations).
Magnetotelluric Data
Magnetotelluric data are usually recorded as individual components as a function of time. These
time-series measurements are later transformed into the frequency domain and processed to determine a
2-D impedance tensor at each site. Time-series data sets should be selected for optimal signal-to-noise
characteristics prior to the cross-power calculations. Time-series data can usually be field processed
using software provided by the acquisition equipment manufacturer prior to the cross-power
calculations. The data presented in figures 621 are displayed using ACQ24, EMIs MT data analysis
program. Spectral cross-power files can be created with programs such as that developed by Gary Egbert
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(1997), which is an excellent multiple-station, remote-reference magnetotelluric data-processing
algorithm.
Figure 5. CSAMT transmitter set up.
Remote referencing techniques in magnetotellurics were initially developed by Gamble and

others (1979). Remote referencing is a noise reduction technique based on the concept that some
recorded noise is local to each station location. When two spatially separated stations are compared,
sample by sample, each with its own individual noise characteristics, the local noise can be numerically
reduced resulting in better signal-to-noise data at each station. In remote reference data acquisition,
widely separated systems are time-synced to begin acquisition at exactly the same instant. Time-syncing
is easily accomplished with commercially-available global positioning systems (GPS). Station spacing
can be determined using low-resolution Garmin-type devices (50 m or more between remote referenced
stations) or, if highly accurate positioning is required, then a Leica-type system should be used.
The rest of this section presents examples of magnetotelluric data with emphasis on what is
considered to be good data, noisy data, and data contaminated by near-field lightning sources (actually
good signal unless the lightning is too close), and cultural sources such as power lines and pumping
wells. These data are intended to provide examples that MT and CSAMT practitioners can use as guides
during data acquisition and analysis. The time-series data presented in figures 621 are presented in the
following order: Hx, Ex, Hy, Ey, and Hz. Hx, Hy, and Hz are the measured magnetic field components,
and Ex and Ey are the measured electric field components. There is an expected normal relationship
between the different components that is based on Amperes and Faradays laws (equations 1 and 2).
This relationship requires that the Ex and Hy components should be similar in nature but opposite in
sign. Likewise, Ey and Hx should be similar in nature and similar in sign. The data presented in figure 6
are examples of good data that illustrate this expected relationship. If the expected relationships are not
evident, the MT practitioner must determine the reason and either mitigate it or, at the least, minimize it.
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Figure 6. Example of higher frequency MT signals. Typical MT signals show Ex and Hy opposite in
sign and Ey and Hx similar in sign. This data segment would be included in the spectral calculations.
The data in figures 710 are typical MT/AMT signals. The similar and opposite relationships
between the different components is evident. Note the noise spike in the Ey data in figure 8. This would
be removed via the remote reference calculation.
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Figure 7. Examples of MT signals. Typical MT signals show Ex and Hy opposite in sign and Ey and
Hx similar in sign. The Hz signal has a little more noise than that shown in figure 6. This data segment
would be included in the spectral calculations.
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Figure 8. Example of lower frequency MT signals. Typical MT signals show Ex and Hy opposite in
sign and Ey and Hx similar in sign. Note Ey noise spike. This data segment would be included in the
spectral calculations unless system acquisition coherency rejection criteria had already removed it. The
Ey noise spike would be removed via remote station reference data.
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Figure 9. Another example of lower frequency MT signals. Typical MT signals show Ex and Hy
opposite in sign and Ey and Hx similar in sign. This data segment would be included in the spectral
calculations.
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Figure 10. Typical lightning strike MT signals show high magnitude Ex and Hy opposite in sign and
Ey and Hx similar in sign. This lightning strike is not so close as to saturate the system but is close
enough to supply strong high-frequency signal. This data segment would be included in the spectral
calculations.
The data shown in figure 10 illustrate what happens when a lightning strike is close to the MT
station location but is not so close as to saturate the acquisition electronics. Note that Ex and Hy are
opposite in nature and that Ey and Hx are similar.
The data presented in figure 11 illustrate when the lighting strike is too close to the MT station
location. In this case Ex and Hy have the same sign instead of being opposite in sign.
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Figure 11. Typical bad lightning strike. MT signals have high magnitude Ex and Hy with signals in
same direction instead of being opposite in sign. Ey and Hx are still similar in sign. This lightning strike
is too close and has saturated the acquisition system electronics. This data segment should be edited out
and not used in the spectral calculations.
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Figure 12. Example of high-frequency MT signals with some slight 60 Hz contamination. Typical MT
signals show Ex and Hy opposite in sign and Ey and Hx similar in sign. This data segment would be
included in the spectral calculations.
The quality of the MT data presented in figure 12 are still of good quality, but 60 Hz
contamination is apparent as an overriding signal on the natural field signals. Compare this data to those
presented in figures 67. More moderate and severe contamination of data by 60 Hz power lines is
presented in figures 14, 15, and 16.
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Figure 13. Example of polarized MT signals. Shown are typically good, strong lightning-strike MT
signals and also a more polarized MT signal - Ey-Hx mode stronger than Ex-Hy mode. This data
segment would be included in the spectral calculations.
In figure 13 a lightning strike is indicated in the data near 544 ms (about a quarter of the way
from the left), and good MT signals are indicated at around 900 ms. Note the differences in circled
signal levels between the Ex-Hy pair and the Ey-Hx pair. This would indicate an electric field source
polarized predominantly in the y-direction.
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Figure 14. Example of MT signals with some strong 60 Hz contamination overriding the natural fields.
Typical MT signals show Ex and Hy opposite in sign and Ey and Hx similar in sign. Note that the
circled Hz amplitude is approximately 2 mV. This data segment, while being strongly contaminated,
would still be used in the spectral calculations because the actual 60Hz noise levels are relatively small.
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Figure 15. Example of extreme 60 Hz contamination overriding the natural fields. Note that the circled
Hz amplitude is approximately 1000 mV. No natural MT signals can be discerned in this data because
the noise level is too high. This data segment would be edited out and not used in the spectral
calculations.
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Figure 16. Example of actively pumping well some distance away that is attached to a locally grounded
power line.
The data presented in figure 16 illustrate what is measured in the presence of a grounded power
line that is attached to an actively pumping well that is not extremely close to the MT station. When the
pump turns on, the line power is drawn down. The draw-down on the power line causes a transient
signal source that becomes an issue each time the pump turns on and off. This data segment would be
edited out and not used in the spectral calculations
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Figure 17. Example of active pumping well that is in close proximity to the MT station.
The MT data in figure 17 illustrate what is measured in the presence of an actively pumping well
that is in close proximity to the MT station. The action of the pump turning on, running, and then turning
off is causing severe coherent-data contamination. Remote reference techniques may salvage this
station.
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Figure 18. Example of active pumping that is close but not too close to the MT station. Pumping action
and power line transients are indicated.
The MT data in figure 18 illustrate what is measured in the presence of an actively pumping well
that is close but not too close to the MT station. The action of the pump turning on, running, and then
turning off is causing severe data contamination, as well as creating power-line transients that also
contribute to the contamination. Remote reference techniques may salvage this station. This type of
signal can also be a result of solar magnetic storms or cathodic protection on a pipeline.
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An example of the integration of DC resistivity and AMT data is presented in figures 19 and 20.
Figure 19 presents a 2-D inversion of DC resistivity data acquired over a steeply dipping fault. Figure 20
presents a 2-D inversion of AMT data acquired over the same line. The DC resistivity array probed to an
approximate depth of 90 m, while the AMT investigated depths from around 20 m down to
approximately 800 m. There is good correlation between the two techniques at the depths in which they
overlap.
Figure 19. Example of integrated case study combining DC resistivity and AMT. This is the shallow
DC 2-D inversion result.
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Figure 20. Example of integrated case study combining DC resistivity and AMT. This is the CSAMT
2-D inversion result. Note the correlation with the DC results in figure 19.
Conclusions
The magnetotelluric technique is one of several geophysical techniques that can be used to map
subsurface geology and effectively support hydrogeologic investigations. However, the MT/AMT
practitioner must be careful throughout the whole investigation process from planning and design of the
survey through data acquisition, processing, numerical modeling (not discussed here), and geologic
interpretation. MT works best when it is integrated into a comprehensive multi-technique investigation.
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References
Egbert, G.D., 1997, Robust multiple station magnetotelluric data processing: Geophysics Journal
International, 130, p. 475-496.
EMI, 2002, MT24/LF System Operation and Maintenance Manual, version 1.0: Richmond, Calif.,
ElectroMagnetic Instruments, Inc., 72 p.
Gamble, T.D., Goubau, W.M., and Clarke, J., 1979, Error analysis for remote reference
magnetotellurics: Geophysics, v. 44, no. 5, p. 959-968.
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MAGNETOTELLURICS: WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW

Ted Asch, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO

2). That is,

or, at a minimum, kept flat on the ground.

Figure 4. Schematic image showing magnetotelluric instrumentation layout.

Figure 5. CSAMT transmitter set up.

Remote referencing techniques in magnetotellurics were initially developed by Gamble and

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