1.

WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge is the most important factor determining the standard of living more than land, than tools,
than labour. Todays most technologically advanced economies are truly knowledge-based. Technology
and knowledge are now the key factors of production. Knowledge is the basic form of capital. Economic
growth is driven by the accumulation of knowledge.

There are different kind of knowledge that can usefully be distinguished. Know-what or knowledge
about facts, is nowadays diminishing in relevance. Know-why is knowledge about the natural world,
society, and the human mind. Know-who refers to the world of social relations and is knowledge of who
knows what and who can do what. Know-where and know-when are becoming increasingly important in
a flexible and dynamic economy. Know-how refers to skills, the ability to do things on a practical level.

2. SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
Science is a vast subject. Different scientific knowledge can be divided into to parts according to the
nature of the origin of that particular knowledge: Laboratory proven scientific knowledge. Isaac Newton
discovered the gravitational force and worked on to find out the nature of that force, he derived the
three famous laws of force. When it comes to different forms of scientific knowledge, it means in how
many forms the scientific knowledge can be described or imbibed. What people read in science
textbooks is the result of the valiant effort of the scientists who spent whole life at laboratories to invent
or derive something new or unknown.

ARGUMENT
The word argument has different meanings in different contexts. Sometimes argument refers to just the
premises, sometimes it refers to the premises plus the conclusion they are supposed to get you to
believe. Once you find the arguments, you must then evaluate them. To evaluate argument first thing
you need to notice is what type of argument it is inductive or deductive.

EUTHANASIA
may be voluntary, non voluntary and involuntary. When terminally ill patient consented to end his or
her life, it is called voluntary euthanasia. Non voluntary euthanasia occurs when the suffering person
never consented nor requested to end a life. Involuntary euthanasia is conducted when it is against the
will of the patient

3. SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATIONS AND SCIENTIFIC THEORIES

There are some types of scientific explanations lets discuss some of them:

Motivational explanation. When a motivational explanation is offered, no appeal is made to a general

law about the way human beings behave but, rather, to a dispositional statement about an individual.
Functional explanations. A common type of functional explanation may state merely that a certain
institution plays an indispensable role in a society. Such a statement provides us with nothing more
than a necessary condition and, hence, lacks an explanation.

Causal explanation. It has been maintained at least since Aristotle that to explain an event is to give
its causes. According to this approach, we may try to explicate the uses of the term causal law.

Statistical explanation. Statistical explanations are explanations containing lawlike statements based
on observation of statistical regularities and/or on the statistical theory of probability.

PARADIGM

Paradigm is a set of assumptions, concepts, values, and practices that constitutes a way of
viewing reality for the community that shares them, especially in an intellectual discipline.

4. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS
The scientific revolution based on philosophy of empiricism and a faith in progress that defined Europe
in the 16th and 17th centuries, it grew gradually. The most famous example of a revolution in scientific
thought is the Copernican Revolution. Copernicus proposed a cosmology in which the Sun was at the
center and the Earth was one of the planets revolving around it. A paradigm shift later became possible
when Galileo said, that we always observe objects coming to a halt simply because some friction is
always occurring. Johannes Kepler was the first person to abandon the tools of the Ptolemaic paradigm.
He started to explore the possibility that the planet mars might have an elliptical orbit rather than a
circular one. Later, Newton solidified an unified the paradigm shift that Galileo an Kepler had initiated.

5. HISTORY AND PROGRESS

Dooyeweerd tried to answer some questions in his theory of history and progress. He rejected several
extant views of progress, which often inform popular assumptions and views, as follows: Progress does
not mean that human beings today are superior to earlier ones. Progress does not mean that
our civilisation today should be seen as superior to earlier ones. The role of progress was to free
us, especially from the constraints made upon us by Nature. Progress not only frees us from
constraints of Nature but also those of inconvenience, and is somehow 'natural' that happens to us
and cannot be resisted. Dooyeweerd made a detailed proposal about the norm of progress: the norm
comprises a triad of norms: of differentiation, individualization and integration.

Differentiation. A 'primitive' community is ruled by force, maintained by gender, a strong clique

or family. But when an individual gains the freedom to put a novel idea into practice, progress is
made.
Individualization happens when the community freely allows individuals to apply their talents,
provided they are progressive.
Integration occurs when a community adopts this novelty, such as those for science, arts,
commerce, religion etc.
 6. THE LAWS OF PROGRESS
Differentiation. A 'primitive' community is ruled by force, maintained by gender, a strong clique or
family. But when an individual gains the freedom to put a novel idea into practice, progress is made.
Individualization happens when the community freely allows individuals to apply their talents, provided
they are progressive. Integration occurs when a community adopts this novelty, such as those for
science, arts, commerce, religion etc. Plato and Aristotle hold a cyclical view of human affairs. They
allow that certain developments occur spontaneously, but also see disaster and decline as inevitable. In
the Laws, Plato proposes that human society begins with the family, then moves through intermediate
forms, and finally arrives at the city-state. Not only is man a political animal as a matter of fact, it is also
true that human excellence is only possible within a city-state with a good constitution.

7. TYPES OF EVOLUTION AND EVOLUTIONARY PARADIGMS

Evolution is not a force but a process. Not a cause but a law. There are four types of evolution emerge:
physical, biological, social, and cultural. There is a hierarchy of principles in the evolutionary world view:
change, order, direction, progress, and perfectibility. Change-means change in the economic, political,
societal, and cultural structures. Directionality implies that evolution is a cumulative process, whereby a
succession of small changes can bring about great transformations. Progress and perfectibility-progress
is an essential characteristic of evolution. Progress is not identical with evolution, but is linked to it.

GLOBAL POLITICAL SYSTEM

Global political system is a complex system, and therefore it evolves. Complex systems may be either
orderly, or chaotic. Ordered systems have no flexibility or capacity for change; chaotic systems are
disordered and unpredictable. Complexity has been defined as the ability to make transitions, that is to
evolve. Global politics is a constantly changing system.

EVOLUTION AND REVOLUTION

These two words, Evolution and Revolution, closely resemble one another, The word Evolution is
synonymous with gradual and continuous development in morals and ideas, while Revolution implies
changes more or less sudden in their action, and entailing some sort of catastrophe. If the word
evolution is willingly accepted by the very persons who look upon revolutionists with horror, it is
because they do not fully realize what the term implies, for they would not have the thing at any
price.

8. TECHNOLOGICAL INOVATIONS
Technological innovations, like interdependence, offer solution to some problems but cause others. Like
any irrepressible force, the new technology can bring us undreamed benefits but also inflict irreparable
damage. It can create new ways of preventing disease but also new ways of destroying others in war.
Discoveries in microelectronics, information processing, transportation, energy, agriculture,
communications, medicine, and biotechnology profoundly affect our lives and shape our future.