Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-1

January 1999

Index

Description Page
System Design Basic Principles ......................................................................................................................... A-2
Modern Electric Power Technologies ......................................................................................A-2
Goals of System Design ............................................................................................................A-3
A
Voltage Classifications ............................................................................................................. A-4
Types of Systems...................................................................................................................... A-5
1. Simple Radial....................................................................................................................A-5
2. Loop Primary System - Radial Secondary System........................................................A-6
3. Primary Selective System - Secondary Radial System .................................................A-7
4. Two Source Primary - Secondary Selective System .....................................................A-8
5. Simple Spot Network Systems .......................................................................................A-9
6. Medium-Voltage Distribution System Design..............................................................A-10

Systems Analysis Systems Analysis.................................................................................................................... A-12

Short Circuit Currents - General ............................................................................................ A-13
Fault Current Wave Form Relationships ............................................................................... A-14
Fault Current Calculations...................................................................................................... A-15
Fault Current Calculations for Specific Equipment .............................................................. A-16
1. Medium-Voltage VCP-W Metal-Clad Switchgear.........................................................A-16
2. Medium-Voltage Fuses ..................................................................................................A-21
3. Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breakers.............................................................................A-22
4. Molded Case Breakers ...................................................................................................A-22
Short Circuit Calculations - Short Cut Method ..................................................................... A-23
How To Calculate Short Circuit Currents at Ends of Conductors ....................................... A-26
1. Method 1 (Adding Zs) ....................................................................................................A-26
2. Chart Approximate Method...........................................................................................A-27
Determine X and R From Transformer Loss Data................................................................ A-30
Voltage Drop ........................................................................................................................... A-31

Capacitors Capacitor Switching Device Selections................................................................................. A-35

1. Medium-Voltage Capacitor Switching ..........................................................................A-35
2. Low-Voltage Capacitor Switching .................................................................................A-35
Motor Power Factor Correction ............................................................................................. A-36

Protection/Coordination Overcurrent Protection and Coordination ............................................................................ A-37

Grounding/Ground Fault Protection Grounding ............................................................................................................................... A-40

1. Equipment Grounding ...................................................................................................A-40
2. System Grounding .........................................................................................................A-40
3. Medium-Voltage System - Grounding..........................................................................A-40
4. Low-Voltage System - Grounding.................................................................................A-42
Ground Fault Protection ......................................................................................................... A-43
Lightning and Surge Protection............................................................................................. A-45
Grounding Electrodes............................................................................................................. A-46

Power Quality Terms, Technical Overview.................................................................................................... A-47

Harmonics and Nonlinear Loads ........................................................................................... A-48

Other Design Considerations Secondary Voltages................................................................................................................ A-50

Energy Conservation .............................................................................................................. A-52
Building Control Systems ...................................................................................................... A-53
Cogeneration........................................................................................................................... A-53
Emergency Power................................................................................................................... A-53
Peak Shaving........................................................................................................................... A-54
Computer Power ..................................................................................................................... A-55
Sound Levels........................................................................................................................... A-56
Codes and Standards ............................................................................................................. A-57

Reference Data Motor Protective Device Data ................................................................................................ A-58

Secondary Short Circuit Capacity of Typical Power Transformers .................................... A-59
Transformer Full Load Amperes and Impedances............................................................... A-60
Transformer Losses ................................................................................................................ A-61
Power Equipment Losses....................................................................................................... A-62
NEMA Enclosure Definitions.................................................................................................. A-63
Cable R, X, Z Data ................................................................................................................... A-64
Conductor Ampacities ............................................................................................................ A-65
Conduit Fill .............................................................................................................................. A-66
Formulas.................................................................................................................................. A-67
Seismic Requirements............................................................................................................ A-68

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design
A-2
System Design
Basic Principles
A The best distribution system is one that will
cost effectively and safely supply adequate
electric service to both present and future
probable loads—this section is included to
aid in selecting, designing, and installing
such a system.
The function of the electric power distribution
system in a building or installation site is to
receive power at one or more supply points
and deliver it to the individual lamps, motors,
and all other electrically operated devices.
The importance of the distribution system to
the function of a building makes it almost
imperative that the best system be designed
and installed.
In order to design the best distribution sys-
tem, the system design engineer must have
information concerning the loads and a
knowledge of the various types of distribu-
tion systems that are applicable. The various
categories of buildings have many specific
problems, but certain basic principles are
common to all. Such principles, if followed,
will provide a soundly executed design.
The basic principles or factors requiring
consideration during design of the power
distribution system include:
● Functions of structure, present and future
● Life and flexibility of structure
● Locations of service entrance and distri-
bution equipment, locations and charac-
teristics of loads, locations of unit
substations
● Demand and diversity factors of loads
● Sources of power
● Continuity and quality of power available
and required.
● Energy efficiency and management
● Distribution and utilization voltages
● Bus and/or cable feeders
● Switchgear and distribution equipment
● Power and lighting panelboards and
motor control centers
● Types of lighting fixtures
● Installation methods
● Degree of power equipment monitoring
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
Modern Electric
Power Technologies
Several new factors to consider in modern
power distribution systems result from two
relatively recent changes. The first recent
change is the beginnings of utility deregula-
tion. The traditional dependence on the utility
for problem analysis; energy conservation
measurements and techniques; and a simpli-
fied cost structure for electricity will change
to some degree in the next decade. The sec-
ond change is less obvious to the designer
yet will have an impact on the types of equip-
ment and systems being designed. It is the
diminishing quantity of qualified building
electrical operators; maintenance depart-
ments; and facility engineers.
Modern electric power technologies may be
of use to the designer and building owner in
addressing these new challenges. The advent
of microprocessor devices (smart devices)
into power distribution equipment has
expanded facility owners’ options and capa-
bilities, allowing for automated communica-
tion of vital power system information (both
energy data and system operation informa-
tion) and electrical equipment control.
These technologies may be grouped as:
● Power monitoring
● Building management systems interfaces
● Lighting control
● Automated energy management
Various sections of this guide cover the appli-
cation and selection of such systems and
components that may be incorporated into
the power equipment being designed.
CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
Goals of System Design
When considering the design of an electrical
distribution system for a given customer and
facility, the electrical engineer must consider
alternate design approaches which best fit
the following overall goals:
1. Safety – The number one goal is to design
a power system which will not present any
electrical hazard to the people who utilize the
facility, and/or the utilization equipment fed
from the electrical system. It is also important
to design a system which is inherently safe
for the people who are responsible for electri-
cal equipment maintenance and upkeep.
The National Electric Code (N.E.C.) as well as
local electrical codes provide minimum stan-
dards and requirements in the area of wiring
design and protection, wiring methods and
materials as well as equipment for general
use with the overall goal of providing safe
electrical distribution systems and equipment.
The N.E.C. also covers minimum require-
ments for special occupancies including
hazardous locations and special use type
facilities such as health care facilities, places
of assembly, theaters, etc. and the equipment
and systems located in these facilities. Spe-
cial equipment and special conditions such
as emergency systems, standby systems and
communication systems are also covered in
the code.
It is the responsibility of the design engineer
to be familiar with the code requirements as
well as the customer's facility, process, and
operating procedures; to design a system
which protects personnel from electrical live
conductors and utilizes adequate circuit pro-
tective devices which will selectively isolate
overloaded or faulted circuits or equipment
as quickly as possible.
2. Minimum Initial Investment – The owner’s
overall budget for first cost purchase and in-
stallation of the electrical distribution system
and electrical utilization equipment will be a
key factor in determining which of various
alternate system designs are to be selected.
When trying to minimize initial investment
for electrical equipment, consideration
should be given to the cost of installation,
floor space requirements and possible extra
cooling requirements as well as the initial
purchase price.
3. Maximum Service Continuity – The degree
of service continuity and reliability needed
will vary depending on the type and use of
the facility as well as the loads or processes
being supplied by the electrical distribution
system. For example, for a smaller commer-
cial office building a power outage of consid-
erable time, say several hours, may be
acceptable, whereas in a larger commercial
building or industrial plant only a few min-
utes may be acceptable. In other facilities
CAT.71.01.T.E
Power Distribution System Design
System Design
such as hospitals, many critical loads permit
a maximum of 10 seconds outage and certain
loads, such as real time computers, cannot
tolerate a loss of power for even a few cycles.
Typically service continuity and reliability can
be increased by: A) supplying multiple utility
power sources or services; B) supplying mul-
tiple connection paths to the loads served;
C) providing alternate customer-owned pow-
er sources such as generators or batteries
supplying uninterruptable power supplies;
D) selecting highest quality electrical equip-
ment and conductors; and E) using the best
installation methods.
4. Maximum Flexibility and Expandability –
In many industrial manufacturing plants,
electrical utilization loads are periodically re-
located or changed requiring changes in the
electrical distribution system. Consideration
of the layout and design of the electrical dis-
tribution system to accommodate these
changes must be considered. For example,
providing many smaller transformers or
loadcenters associated with a given area or
specific groups of machinery may lend more
flexibility for future changes than one large
transformer; the use of plug-in busways to
feed selected equipment in lieu of conduit
and wire may facilitate future revised equip-
ment layouts.
In addition, consideration must be given to
future building expansion, and/or increased
load requirements due to added utilization
equipment when designing the electrical dis-
tribution system. In many cases considering
transformers with increased capacity or fan
cooling to serve unexpected loads as well as
including spare additional protective devices
and/or provision for future addition of these
devices may be desirable. Also to be consid-
ered is increasing appropriate circuit capaci-
ties or quantities for future growth.
5. Maximum Electrical Efficiency (Minimum
Operating Costs) – Electrical efficiency can
generally be maximized by designing sys-
tems that minimize the losses in conductors,
transformers and utilization equipment. Prop-
er voltage level selection plays a key factor in
this area and will be discussed later. Selecting
equipment, such as transformers, with lower
operating losses, generally means higher first
cost and increased floor space requirements;
thus, there is a balance to be considered be-
tween the owner’s utility energy change for
the losses in the transformer or other equip-
ment versus the owner’s first cost budget and
cost of money.
6. Minimum Maintenance Cost – Usually the
simpler the electrical system design and the
simpler the electrical equipment, the less the
associated maintenance costs and operator
errors. As electrical systems and equipment
become more complicated to provide greater
service continuity or flexibility, the mainte-
nance costs and chance for operator error
A-3
increases. The systems should be designed
with an alternate power circuit to take electri-
cal equipment (requiring periodic mainte-
nance) out of service without dropping
A
essential loads. Use of draw-out type protec-
tive devices such as breakers and combina-
tion starters can also minimize maintenance
cost and out-of-service time.
7. Maximum Power Quality – The power in-
put requirements of all utilization equipment
has to be considered including the acceptable
operating range of the equipment and the
electrical distribution system has to be de-
signed to meet these needs. For example,
what is the required input voltage, current,
power factor requirement? Consideration to
whether the loads are affected by harmonics
(multiples of the basic 60 cycle per second
sine wave) or generate harmonics must be
taken into account as well as transient volt-
age phenomena.
The above goals are interrelated and in some
ways contradictory. As more redundancy is
added to the electrical system design along
with the best quality equipment to maximize
service continuity, flexibility and expandabil-
ity, and power quality, the more initial invest-
ment and maintenance are increased. Thus,
the designer must weigh each factor based
on the type of facility, the loads to be served,
the owner’s past experience and criteria.
Summary
It is to be expected that the engineer will never
have complete load information available
when the system is designed. The engineer will
have to expand the information made available
to him on the basis of experience with similar
problems. Of course, it is desirable that the
engineer has as much definite information as
possible concerning the function, require-
ments, and characteristics of the utilization
devices. The engineer should know whether
certain loads function separately or together as
a unit, the magnitude of the demand of the
loads viewed separately and as units, the rated
voltage and frequency of the devices, their
physical location with respect to each other
and with respect to the source and the proba-
bility and possibility of the relocation of load
devices and addition of loads in the future.
Coupled with this information, a knowledge of
the major types of electric power distribution
systems equips the engineers to arrive at the
best system design for the particular building.
It is beyond the scope of this book to present a
detailed discussion of loads that might be found
in each of several types of buildings. Assuming
that the design engineer has assembled the
necessary load data, the following pages dis-
cuss some of the various types of electrical dis-
tribution systems being utilized today. A
discussion of short circuit calculations, coordi-
nation, voltage selection, voltage drop, ground
fault protection, motor protection, and other
specific equipment protection is presented.
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-4 January 1999

System Design

Voltage Classifications
A ANSI and IEEE standards define various
voltage classifications for single-phase and
Table A1 – Standard Nominal System
Voltages and Voltage Ranges
three-phase systems. The terminology used
Voltage Class Nominal System Voltage
divides voltage classes into:
3-Wire 4-Wire
● Low voltage Low Voltage 240 208Y/120
480 240/120
● Medium voltage
600 480Y/277
● High voltage Medium Voltage 2400 4160Y/2400
● Extra-high voltage 4160 8320Y/4800
4800 12000Y/6930
● Ultra-high voltage 6900 12470Y/7200
Table A1 presents the nominal system volt- 13800 13200Y/7620
ages for these classifications. 23000 13800Y/7970
34500 20780Y/12000
46000 22860Y/13200
69000 24940Y/14400
34500Y/19920
High Voltage 115000
138000
161000
230000
Extra-High Voltage 345000
500000
765000

Ultra-High Voltage 1100000

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
Types of Systems
In the great majority of cases, power is sup-
plied by the utility to a building at the utiliza-
tion voltage. In practically all of these cases,
the distribution of power within the building
is achieved through the use of a simple radial
distribution system. This system is the first
type described on the following pages.
In those cases where utility service is avail-
able at the building at some voltage higher
than the utilization voltage to be used, the
system design engineer has a choice of a
number of types of systems which the engi-
neer may use. This discussion covers several
major types of distribution systems and prac-
tical modifications of them.
1. Simple Radial
2. Loop-Primary System - Radial Secondary
System
3. Primary Selective System - Secondary
Radial System
4. Two Source Primary - Secondary Selec-
tive System
5. Simple Spot Network
6. Medium-Voltage Distribution System
Design
1. Simple Radial System
The conventional simple-radial system re-
ceives power at the utility supply voltage at a
single substation and steps the voltage down
to the utilization level. In those cases where
the customer receives his supply from the
primary system and owns the primary switch
and transformer along with the secondary
low voltage switchboard or switchgear, the
equipment may take the form of a separate
primary switch, separate transformer, and
separate low voltage switchgear or switch-
board. This equipment may be combined in
the form of an outdoor pad mounted trans-
former with internal primary fused switch
and secondary main breaker feeding an
indoor switchboard.
Another alternative would be a secondary
unit substation where the primary fused
switch, transformer and secondary switch-
gear or switchboard are designed and in-
stalled as a close coupled single assembly.
In those cases where the utility owns the pri-
mary equipment and transformer, the supply
to the customer is at the utilization voltage,
and the service equipment then becomes a
low voltage main distribution switchgear or
switchboard.
Low-voltage feeder circuits run from the
switchgear or switchboard assemblies to
panelboards that are located closer to their
respective loads as shown in Fig. 1.
CAT.71.01.T.E
Power Distribution System Design
System Design
Each feeder is connected to the switchgear or
switchboard bus through a circuit breaker or
other overcurrent protective device. A
relatively small number of circuits are used to
distribute power to the loads from the switch-
gear or switchboard assemblies and panel-
boards.
Since the entire load is served from a single
source, full advantage can be taken of the di-
versity among the loads. This makes it possi-
ble to minimize the installed transformer
capacity. However, the voltage regulation
and efficiency of this system may be poor be-
cause of the low-voltage feeders and single
source. The cost of the low voltage-feeder cir-
cuits and their associated circuit breakers are
high when the feeders are long and the peak
demand is above 1000 kVA.
A fault on the secondary low voltage bus or in
the source transformer will interrupt service
to all loads. Service cannot be restored until
the necessary repairs have been made. A
low-voltage feeder circuit fault will interrupt
service to all loads supplied over that feeder.
A modern and improved form of the conven-
tional simple radial system distributes power
at a primary voltage. The voltage is stepped
down to utilization level in the several load
areas within the building typically through
secondary unit substation transformers. The
transformers are usually connected to their
associated load bus through a circuit breaker,
as shown in Fig. 1A. Each secondary unit sub-
station is an assembled unit consisting of a
three-phase, liquid-filled or air-cooled trans-
former, an integrally connected primary
fused switch, and low-voltage switchgear or
switchboard with circuit breakers or fused
switches. Circuits are run to the loads from
these low voltage protective devices.
Primary Fused Switch
Transformer
Distribution MCC
Panel
Figure 1. Simple Radial System
A-5
Since each transformer is located within a spe-
cific load area, it must have sufficient capacity
to carry the peak load of that area. Conse-
quently, if any diversity exists among the load
A
area, this modified primary radial system re-
quires more transformer capacity than the ba-
sic form of the simple radial system. However,
because power is distributed to the load areas
at a primary voltage, losses are reduced, volt-
age regulation is improved, feeder circuit
costs are reduced substantially, and large low-
voltage feeder circuit breakers are eliminated.
In many cases the interrupting duty imposed
on the load circuit breakers is reduced.
This modern form of the simple radial system
will usually be lower in initial investment
than most other type of primary distribution
system for buildings in which the peak load is
above 1000 kVA. A fault on a primary feeder
circuit or in one transformer will cause an
outage to only those secondary loads served
by that feeder or transformer. In the case of a
primary main bus fault or an utility service
outage, service is interrupted to all loads until
the trouble is eliminated.
Reducing the number of transformers per pri-
mary feeder by adding more primary feeder
circuits will improve the flexibility and service
continuity of this system; the ultimate being
one secondary unit substation per primary
feeder circuit. This of course increases the in-
vestment in the system but minimizes the ex-
tent of an outage resulting from a trans-
former or primary feeder fault.
Primary connections from one secondary
unit substation to the next secondary unit
substation can be made with “double” lugs
on the unit substation primary switch as
shown, or with separable connectors made in
manholes or other locations.
600V Class
Switchboard
Distribution
Dry-Type
Transformer
Distribution Lighting
Panel Panelboard
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-6 January 1999

System Design

Depending on the load kVA connected to each

primary circuit and if no ground fault protec-
A tion is desired for either the primary feeder
conductors and transformers connected to 52 Primary Main Breaker
that feeder or the main bus, the primary main
and/or feeder breakers may be changed to pri-
mary fused switches. This will significantly re-
duce the first cost, but also decrease the level 52 52 52 52 52 52 Primary Feeder Breakers
of conductor and equipment protection. Thus,
should a fault or overload condition occur,
down time could increase significantly and
higher costs associated with increased dam-
age levels and the need for fuse replacement
would be typically encountered. In addition,
should only one primary fuse on a circuit blow,
the secondary loads could be single phased,
causing damage to low voltage motors.

Another approach to reducing costs would be

to eliminate the primary feeder breakers com-
pletely, and just utilize a single primary main
breaker or fused switch for protection of a sin- Secondary Unit
Substation
gle primary feeder circuit with all the second-
ary unit substations supplied from this circuit. Primary Cables
Although this system would result in less ini-
tial equipment cost, system reliability would
be reduced drastically since a single fault in
any part of the primary conductor would
cause an outage to all loads within the facility. Figure 1A. Primary and Secondary Simple Radial System

2. Loop Primary System -

Radial Secondary System
This system consists of one or more “PRI- Primary Main Breaker 1 52 52 Primary Main Breaker 2
MARY LOOPS” with two or more transform-
ers connected on the loop. This system is 52
typically most effective when two services are Tie
available from the utility as shown in Fig. 2. Breaker Loop Feeder Breaker
52 52 52 52
Each primary loop is operated such that one of
the loop sectionalizing switches is kept open
Loop A
to prevent parallel operation of the sources.
When secondary unit substations are utilized, Loop B
each transformer has its own duplex (2-load
break switches with load side bus connection) NC NO NC NC
sectionalizing switches and primary load Fault Sensors
break fused switch as shown in Fig. 2A.

When pad mounted compartmentalized

transformers are utilized, they are furnished
with loop feed oil immersed gang operated
load break sectionalizing switches and draw-
out current limiting fuses in dry wells as
shown in Fig. 2B. By operating the appropri-
ate sectionalizing switches, it is possible to
disconnect any section of the loop conductors
from the rest of the system. In addition, by NC NC NO NC NC NC
opening the transformer primary switch (or
removing the load break draw-out fuses in
the pad mounted transformer) it is possible to
disconnect any transformer from the loop.

A key interlocking scheme is normally recom-

mended to prevent closing all sectionalizing
devices in the loop. Each primary loop sec-
tionalizing switch and the feeder breakers to
the loop are interlocked such that to be closed
they require a key (which is held captive until Secondary Unit Substations Consisting of:
the switch or breaker is opened) and one less Duplex Primary Switches/Fused Primary Switches/
key than the number of key interlock cylinders Transformer and Secondary Main Feeder Breakers
is furnished. An extra key is provided to de- Figure 2. Loop Primary - Radial Secondary System
feat the interlock under qualified supervision.

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
In addition, the two primary main breakers
which are normally closed and primary tie
breaker which is normally open are either
mechanically or electrically interlocked to
prevent paralleling the incoming source
lines. For slightly added cost, an automatic
throw-over scheme can be added between
the two main breakers and tie breaker. During
the more common event of a utility outage,
the automatic transfer scheme provides sig-
nificantly reduced power outage time.
This system of Fig. 2 provides for increased
equipment costs over Fig. 1, but offers in-
creased reliability and quick restoration of
service when 1) a utility outage occurs,
2) a primary feeder conductor fault occurs, or
3) a transformer fault or overload occurs.
Should a utility outage occur on one of the in-
coming lines, the associated primary main
breaker can be opened and then the tie break-
er closed either manually or through an auto-
matic transfer scheme.
When a primary feeder conductor fault oc-
curs, the associated loop feeder breaker
opens and interrupts service to all loads up to
the normally open primary loop load break
switch (typically half of the loads). Once it is
determined which section of primary cable
has been faulted, then the loop sectionalizing
switches on each side of the faulted conduc-
tor can be opened, the loop sectionalizing
switch which had been previously left open
then closed and service restored to all sec-
ondary unit substations while the faulted
conductor is replaced. If the fault should oc-
cur in a conductor directly on the load side of
one of the loop feeder breakers, the loop
feeder breaker would be kept open after trip-
ping and the next load side loop sectionaliz-
ing switch manually opened so that the
faulted conductor could be sectionalized and
replaced. Note under this condition, all sec-
ondary unit substations would be supplied
through the other loop feeder circuit breaker,
and thus all conductors around the loop
should be sized to carry the entire load con-
nected to the loop. Increasing the number of
primary loops (two loops shown in Fig. 2) will
reduce the extent of the outage from a con-
ductor fault, but will also increase the system
investment.
When a transformer fault or overload occurs,
the transformer primary fuses would blow,
and then the transformer primary switch
manually opened, disconnecting the trans-
former from the loop, and leaving all other
secondary unit substation loads unaffected.
A basic primary loop system which utilizes a
single primary feeder breaker connected di-
rectly to two loop feeder switches which in
turn then feed the loop is shown in Fig. 2C. In
this basic system the loop may be normally
operated with one of the loop sectionalizing
switches open as described above or with all
CAT.71.01.T.E
Power Distribution System Design A-7
System Design
loop sectionalizing switches closed. If a fault 3. Primary Selective System -
occurs in the basic primary loop system, the Secondary Radial System
single loop feeder breaker trips, and second-
ary loads are lost until the faulted conductor The primary selective - Secondary radial sys-
A
is found and eliminated from the loop by tem, as shown in Fig. 3, differs from those
opening the appropriate loop sectionalizing previously described in that it employs at
switches and then reclosing the breaker. least two primary feeder circuits in each load
area. It is designed so that when one primary
circuit is out of service, the remaining feeder
Loop Loop or feeders have sufficient capacity to carry
Feeder Feeder
the total load. Half of the transformers are
Loadbreak normally connected to each of the two feed-
Loop Switches ers. When a fault occurs on one of the prima-
ry feeders, only half of the load in the
building is dropped.
Duplex fused switches as shown in Fig. 3 and
detailed in Fig. 3A are the normal choice for
Fused
Disconnect this type of system. Each duplex fused switch
Switch consists of two (2) load break 3 pole switches
each in their own separate structure, connect-
ed together by bus bars on the load side.
Typically the load break switch closest to the
transformer includes a fuse assembly with
fuses. Mechanical and/or key interlocking is
furnished such that both switches cannot be
closed at the same time (to prevent parallel
operation) and interlocking such that access
to either switch or fuse assembly cannot be
Figure 2A. Secondary Unit Substation Loop
Switching obtained unless both switches are opened.
As an alternate to the duplex switch arrange-
ment, a non-load break selector switch me-
Loop Loop
Feeder Feeder chanically interlocked with a load break fused
switch can be utilized as shown in Fig. 3B.
Loadbreak The non-load break selector switch is physi-
Loop Switches
cally located in the rear of the load break
fused switch, thus only requiring one struc-
ture and a lower cost and floor space savings
over the duplex arrangement. The non-load
break switch is mechanically interlocked to
Loadbreak prevent its operation unless the load break
Drawout Fuses
switch is opened. The main disadvantage of
the selector switch is that conductors from
both circuits are terminated in the same
structure. This means limited cable space es-
pecially if double lugs are furnished for each
line as shown in Fig. 3 and should a faulted
primary conductor have to be changed, both
lines would have to be deenergized for safe
changing of the faulted conductors.
Figure 2B. Pad Mounted Transformer Loop In Fig. 3 when a primary feeder fault occurs
Switching
the associated feeder breaker opens, and the
transformers normally supplied from the
faulted feeder are out of service. Then manu-
ally, each primary switch connected to the
faulted line must be opened and then the al-
52 ternate line primary switch can be closed
connecting the transformer to the live feeder,
Loop A Loop A thus restoring service to all loads. Note that
each of the primary circuit conductors for
Feeder A1 and B1 must be sized to handle the
In cases where only one primary line sum of the loads normally connected to both
is available, the use of a single primary A1 and B1. Similar sizing of Feeders A2 and
breaker provides the loop connections B2, etc. is required.
to the loads as shown here.
Figure 2C. Single Primary Feeder - Loop System
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-8 January 1999

System Design

If a fault occurs in one transformer, the asso-

ciated primary fuses blows and interrupts the Primary Metal-Clad
A service to just the load served by that trans-
former. Service cannot be restored to the Switchgear Lineup
52 52 Primary Main Breaker
loads normally served by the faulted trans-
former until the transformer is repaired or Bus A 52 Bus B
replaced.
52 52 52 52 Primary Feeder Breaker
Cost of the primary selective - secondary radi-
al system is greater than that of the simple
primary radial system of Fig. 1 because of the Feeder A1 Feeder B1 Feeder B2
To Other
additional primary main breakers, tie breaker, Feeder A2 Substations
two sources, increased number of feeder
breakers, the use of primary-duplex or selec- NO
tor switches, and the greater amount of pri-
mary feeder cable required. The benefits
derived from the reduction in the amount of NC
load dropped when a primary feeder is fault-
ed, plus the quick restoration of service to all NO Typical Secondary Unit
or most of the loads, may more than offset the Substation Duplex Primary
greater cost. Having two sources allows for ei- Switch/Fuses
Transformer/600V Class
ther manual or automatic transfer of the two NC
Secondary Switchgear
primary main breakers and tie breaker should
one of the sources become unavailable. NO

The primary selective-secondary radial sys-

tem, however, may be less costly or more NC
costly than a primary loop - secondary radial
system of Fig. 2 depending on the physical lo-
cation of the transformers while offering Figure 3. Basic Primary Selective - Radial Secondary System
comparable down-time and reliability. The
cost of conductors for the two types of sys-
tems may vary greatly depending on the lo- Primary Primary
Feeders Feeders
cation of the transformers and loads within
the facility and greatly over-ride primary
switching equipment cost differences be- Loadbreak Non-loadbreak
tween the two systems. Switches Selector Switch

4. Two Source Primary - Secondary Interlock

Loadbreak
Selective System Disconnect
Fuses
This system uses the same principle of dupli- Fuses
cate sources from the power supply point
utilizing two primary main breakers and a
primary tie breaker. The two primary main
breakers and primary tie breaker being either
manually or electrically interlocked to pre-
vent closing all three at the same time and
paralleling the sources. Upon loss of voltage
on one source, a manual or automatic trans-
fer to the alternate source line may be utilized Figure 3A. Duplex Fused Switch In Two Figure 3B. Fused Selector Switch In One
to restore power to all primary loads. Structures Structure

Each transformer secondary is arranged in
a typical double-ended unit substation
arrangement as shown in Fig. 4. The two
secondary main breakers and secondary
tie breaker of each unit substation are again
either mechanically or electrically interlocked
to prevent parallel operation. Upon loss of
secondary source voltage on one side, manu-
al or automatic transfer may be utilized to
transfer the loads to the other side, thus
restoring power to all secondary loads.
This arrangement permits quick restoration
of service to all loads when a primary feeder
or transformer fault occurs by opening the
associated secondary main and closing the
secondary tie breaker. If the loss of secondary
voltage has occurred because of a primary
feeder fault with the associated primary feed-
er breaker opening, then all secondary loads
normally served by the faulted feeder would
have to be transferred to the opposite prima-
ry feeder. This means each primary feeder
conductor must be sized to carry the load on
both sides of all the secondary buses it is
serving under secondary emergency trans-
fer. If the loss of voltage was due to a failure
of one of the transformers in the double-
ended unit substation, then the associated
primary fuses would blow taking only the
failed transformer out of service, and then
only the secondary loads normally served by
the faulted transformer would have to be
transferred to the opposite transformer.
In either of the above emergency conditions,
the in service transformer of a double-ended
unit substation would have to have the capa-
bility of serving the loads on both sides of the
tie breaker. For this reason, transformers uti-
lized in this application have equal kVA rating
on each side of the double-ended unit substa-
tion and the normal operating maximum load
on each transformer is typically about 2/3
base nameplate kVA rating. Typically these
transformers are furnished with fan-cooling
and/or lower than normal temperature rise
such that under emergency conditions they
can carry on a continuous basis the maxi-
mum load on both sides of the secondary tie
breaker. Because of this spare transformer
capacity, the voltage regulation provided by

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
the double-ended unit substation system
under normal conditions is better than that
of the systems previously discussed.
The double-ended unit substation arrange-
ment can be utilized in conjunction with any of
the previous systems discussed which involve
two primary sources. Although not recom-
mended, if allowed by the utility, momentary
re-transfer of loads to the restored source may
be made closed transition (anti-parallel inter-
lock schemes would have to be defeated) for
either the primary or secondary systems. Un-
der this condition, all equipment interrupting
and momentary ratings should be suitable for
the fault current available from both sources.
For double-ended unit substations equipped
with ground fault systems special consider-
ation to transformer neutral grounding and
equipment operation should be made - see
“grounding and ground fault protection.”
Where two single-ended unit substations are
connected together by external tie conduc-
tors, it is recommended that a tie breaker be
furnished at each end of the tie conductors.
5. Simple Spot Network Systems
The ac secondary network system is the sys-
tem that has been used for many years to dis-
tribute electric power in the high-density,
downtown areas of cities, usually in the form
of utility grids. Modifications of this type of
system make it applicable to serve loads
within buildings.
The major advantage of the secondary net-
work system is continuity of service. No sin-
gle fault anywhere on the primary system
will interrupt service to any of the systems
loads. Most faults will be cleared without in-
terrupting service to any load. Another out-
standing advantage that the network system
offers is its flexibility to meet changing and
growing load conditions at minimum cost
and minimum interruption in service to other
loads on the network. In addition to flexibility
and service reliability, the secondary network
system provides exceptionally uniform and
good voltage regulation, and its high efficien-
cy materially reduces the costs of system
losses.
Three major differences between the network
system and the simple radial system account
for the outstanding advantages of the net-
work. First, a network protector is connected
in the secondary leads of each network trans-
former in place of, or in addition to, the sec-
ondary main breaker, as shown in Fig. 5.
Also, the secondaries of each transformer in
a given location (spot) are connected togeth-
er by a switchgear or ring bus from which the
loads are served over short radial feeder cir-
cuits. Finally, the primary supply has suffi-
cient capacity to carry the entire building load
without overloading when any one primary
feeder is out of service.
CAT.71.01.T.E
Power Distribution System Design
System Design
52
52
52 52
To Other Substations
Typical
Double-Ended
Unit
Substation
Primary Fused Transformer
Switch
Figure 4. Two Source Primary - Secondary Selective System
A network protector is a specially designed
heavy duty air power breaker, spring close
with electrical motor-charged mechanism, or
motor operated mechanism, with a network
relay to control the status of the protector
(tripped or closed). The network relay is usually
a solid-state microprocessor based component
integrated into the protector enclosure which
functions to automatically close the protector
only when the voltage conditions are such that
its associated transformer will supply power to
the secondary network loads, and to automati-
cally open the protector when power flows
from the secondary to the network transform-
er. The purpose of the network protector is to
protect the integrity of the network bus voltage
and the loads served from it against transform-
er and primary feeder faults by quickly discon-
necting the defective feeder-transformer pair
from the network when backfeed occurs.
The simple spot network system resembles
the secondary-selective radial system in that
each load area is supplied over two or more
primary feeders through two or more trans-
formers. In network systems, the transform-
ers are connected through network protectors
to a common bus, as shown in Fig. 5, from
which loads are served. Since the transform-
ers are connected in parallel, a primary feeder
or transformer fault does not cause any ser-
vice interruption to the loads. The paralleled
transformers supplying each load bus will
normally carry equal load currents, whereas
equal loading of the two separate transform-
ers supplying a substation in the secondary-
selective radial system is difficult to obtain.
A-9
A
52 Primary Main Breakers
52 52 Primary Feeder Breakers
To Other Substations
Tie Breaker Secondary Main Breaker
The interrupting duty imposed on the out-
going feeder breakers in the network will be
greater with the spot network system.
The optimum size and number of primary
feeders can be used in the spot network sys-
tem because the loss of any primary feeder
and its associated transformers does not re-
sult in the loss of any load even for an instant.
In spite of the spare capacity usually supplied
in network systems, savings in primary
switchgear and secondary switchgear costs
often result when compared to a radial sys-
tem design with similar spare capacity. This
occurs in many radial systems because more
and smaller feeders are often used in order to
minimize the extent of any outage when a pri-
mary fault event occurs.
In spot networks, when a fault occurs on a pri-
mary feeder or in a transformer, the fault is
isolated from the system through the auto-
matic tripping of the primary feeder circuit
breaker and all of the network protectors as-
sociated with that feeder circuit. This opera-
tion does not interrupt service to any loads.
After the necessary repairs have been made,
the system can be restored to normal operat-
ing conditions by closing the primary feeder
breaker. All network protectors associated
with that feeder will close automatically.
The chief purpose of the network bus normal-
ly closed ties is to provide for the sharing of
loads and a balancing of load currents for
each primary service and transformer regard-
less of the condition of the primary services.
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-10 January 1999

System Design

Also, the ties provide a means for isolating

and sectionalizing ground fault events within
A the switchgear network bus, thereby saving a
portion of the loads from service interrup-
Primary Circuit
Typical Feeder

To Other
tions, yet isolating the faulted portion for cor- Networks
rective action. Network Transformer

The use of spot network systems provides us- Network Protector

ers with several important advantages. First, Fuses
they save transformer capacity. Spot networks Optional Main, 50/51
permit equal loading of transformers under all Relaying and/or
conditions. Also, networks yield lower system Network Disconnect Tie Tie
losses and greatly improve voltage condi- Drawout
Low Voltage
tions. The voltage regulation on a network Switchgear
LV Feeder NC NC
system is such that both lights and power can
be fed from the same load bus. Much larger
motors can be started across-the-line than on Customer Customer Customer
a simple radial system. This can result in sim- Loads Loads Loads
plified motor control and permits the use of
relatively large low voltage motors with their Figure 5. Three Source Spot Network
less expensive control. Finally, network sys-
tems provide a greater degree of flexibility in b. Single Bus with Two Sources From the
adding future loads; they can be connected to Utility, Fig. 6B Utility
the closest spot network bus.
Same as the single bus, except that two utility G
Spot network systems are economical for sources are available. This system is operated
buildings which have heavy concentrations of normally with the main breaker to one source
loads covering small areas, with considerable open. Upon loss of the normal service the
distance between areas, and light loads within transfer to the standby Normally open (NO)
the distances separating the concentrated breaker can be automatic or manual. Auto-
loads. They are commonly used in hospitals, matic transfer is preferred for rapid service
high rise office buildings, and institutional restoration especially in unattended stations. 52 52
buildings where a high degree of service reli-
ability is required from the utility sources. Co- Retransfer to the “Normal” can be closed
generation equipment is not recommended for transition subject to the approval of the utility. Main Bus
use on networks unless the protectors are Closed transition momentarily (5-10 cycles)
manually opened and the utility source com- parallels both utility sources. Caution – When
pletely disconnected and isolated from the both sources are paralleled, the fault current
temporary generator sources. Spot network available on the load side of the main device
systems are especially economical where three 52
is the sum of the available fault current from
or more primary feeders are available. Princi- each source plus the motor fault contribution.
pally, this is due to supplying each load bus It is recommended that the short circuit rat-
through three or more transformers and the re- One of Several Feeders
ings of the bus, feeder breakers and all load
duction in spare cable and transformer capaci- side equipment are rated for the increased
ty required. They are also economical when available fault current. If the utility requires Figure 6A. Single Bus
compared to two transformer double-ended open transfer, the disconnection of motors
substations with normally opened tie breakers. from the bus must be ensured by means of
Utility #1 Utility #2
suitable time delay on reclosing as well as su-
6. Medium-Voltage Distribution pervision of the bus voltage and its phase
System Design with respect to the incoming source voltage. Normal Standby

a. Single Bus, Fig. 6A
The sources (utility and/or generator(s)) are
connected to a single bus. All feeders are
connected to the same bus. Generators are
used where cogeneration is employed.
This busing scheme does not preclude the
use of cogeneration, but requires the use of
sophisticated automatic synchronizing and
synchronism checking controls, in addition to
the previously mentioned load shedding,
automatic frequency and voltage controls. 52 NC 52 NO

This configuration is the simplest system,
however, outage of the utility results in total
outage.
Normally the generator does not have ade-
quate capacity for the entire load. A properly
relayed system equipped with load shedding,
automatic voltage/frequency control may be
able to maintain partial system operation.
Note that the addition of breakers to the bus
requires shutdown of the bus.
This scheme is more expensive than scheme
shown in Fig. 6A, but service restoration is
quicker. Again a utility outage results in total Loads
outage to the load until transfer occurs.
Extension of the bus or adding breakers
Figure 6B. Single Bus with Two Sources
requires a shutdown of the bus.
If paralleling sources, reverse current, re-
verse power, and other appropriate relaying
protection should be added as requested by
the utility.

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-11
January 1999

System Design

c. Multiple Sources with Tie Breaker, Figs. 6C

and 6D Utility #1 Utility #2

This scheme is similar to scheme B. It differs

A
significantly in that both utility sources nor-
mally carry the loads and also by the incorpo-
ration of a normally open tie breaker. The
outage to the system load for a utility outage
is limited to half of the system. Again the
closing of the tie breaker can be manual or
52 NC 52 NC
automatic. The statements made for the re-
transfer of scheme B apply to this scheme al-
so. NO
Bus #1 Bus #2
If looped or primary selective distribution 52
system for the loads is used, the buses can be
extended without a shutdown by closing the
tie breaker and transferring the loads to the
other bus. 52 52

This system is more expensive than B. The

system is not limited to two buses only.
Another advantage is that if the paralleling of Load Load
the buses is momentary, no increase in the
interrupting capacity of the circuit breakers is Figure 6C. Two Source Utility with Tie Breaker
required as other buses are added provided
only two buses are paralleled momentarily
for switching. Utility #1 Utility #2 Utility #3

In Fig. 6D, closing of the tie breaker following

the opening of a main breaker can be manual
or automatic. However since a bus can be fed
through two tie breakers the control scheme
should be designed to make the selection.

The third tie breaker allows any bus to be fed

from any utility source. 52 NC 52 NC 52 NC

Caution For Figures 6B, 6C and 6D:

If continuous paralleling of sources is NO NO
Bus #1 Bus #2 Bus #3
planned, reverse current, reverse power and 52 52
other appropriate relaying protection should
be added. When both sources are paralleled,
the fault current available on the load side of
the main device is the sum of the available 52 NO 52 Typical Feeer 52 52 52 NO
fault current from each source plus the motor
fault contribution. It is required that bus brac-
ing, feeder breakers and all load side equip- Tie Busway
ment is rated for the increased available fault
current. Figure 6D. Triple Ended Arrangement
without major shutdowns.
Summary

The schemes shown are based on using
metal-clad medium-voltage draw-out switch-
gear. The service continuity required from
electrical systems makes the use of single
source systems impractical.
In the design of modern medium-voltage sys-
tem the engineer should:
1. Design a system as simple as possible.
4. Relay the system so that only the faulted
part is removed from service, and dam-
age to it is minimized consistent with
selectivity.
5. Specify and apply all equipment within
its published ratings and national stan-
dards pertaining to the equipment and its
installation.

2. Limit an outage to as small a portion of

the system as possible.

3. Provide means for expanding the system

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design
A-12
Systems Analysis
Systems Analysis
A A major consideration in the design of a dis-
tribution system is to ensure that it provides
the required quality of service to the various
loads. This includes serving each load under
normal conditions and, under abnormal con-
ditions, providing the desired protection to
service and system apparatus so that inter-
ruptions of service are minimized consistent
with good economic and mechanical design.
Under normal conditions, the important tech-
nical factors include voltage profile, losses,
load flow, effects of motor starting, service
continuity and reliability. The prime consider-
ations under faulted conditions are apparatus
protection, fault isolation and service continu-
ity. During the system preliminary planning
stage, before selection of the distribution ap-
paratus, several distribution systems should
be analyzed and evaluated including both
economic and technical factors. During this
stage if system size or complexity warrant, it
may be appropriate to provide a thorough re-
view of each system under both normal and
abnormal conditions.
The principal types of computer programs
utilized to provide system studies include:
Short circuit–identify three-phase and
line-to-ground fault currents and system
impedances.
Circuit breaker duty–identify asymmetrical
fault current based on X/R ratio.
Protective device coordination–determine
characteristics and settings of medium-
voltage protective relays and fuses, and en-
tire low-voltage circuit breaker and fuse
coordination.
Load flow–simulate normal load conditions
of system voltages, power factor, line and
transformer loadings.
Motor starting–identify system voltages and
motor torques when starting large motors.
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
Short-circuit calculations define momentary
fault currents for LV breaker and fuse duty
and bus bracings at any selected location in
the system and also determine the effect on
the system after removal of lines due to
breaker operation or scheduled line outages.
With the use of computer programs it is pos-
sible to identify the fault current at any bus, in
every line or source connected to the fault
bus, or to it and every adjacent bus, or to it
and every bus which is one and two buses
away, or currents in every line or source in the
system. The results of these calculations per-
mit optimizing service to the loads while
properly applying distribution apparatus
within their intended limits.
CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-13
January 1999

Short-Circuit Currents – General

Short-Circuit Currents – General consists of an exponentially decreasing Transformer Impedance, in percent, is defined
direct-current component superimposed as that percent of rated primary voltage that
The amount of current available in a short-
circuit fault is determined by the capacity of
upon a decaying alternating-current. The rate
of decay of both the dc and ac components
must be applied to the transformer to produce
rated current flowing in the secondary, with
A
the system voltage sources and the imped- depends upon the ratio of reactance to resis- secondary shorted through zero resistance.
ances of the system, including the fault. Con- tance (X/R) of the circuit. The greater this ratio,Therefore, assuming the primary voltage can
stituting voltage sources are the power the longer the current remains higher than the be sustained (generally referred to as an infi-
supply (utility or on-site generation) plus all steady-state value which it would eventually nite or unlimited supply), the maximum cur-
rotating machines connected to the system at reach. rent a transformer can deliver to a fault
the time of the fault. A fault may be either an condition is the quantity of (100 divided by
arcing or bolted fault. In an arcing fault, part The total fault current is not symmetrical with percent impedance) times the transformer
of the circuit voltage is consumed across the respect to the time-axis because of the direct- rated secondary current. Limiting the power
fault and the total fault current is somewhat current component, hence it is called asym- source fault capacity will thereby reduce the
smaller than for a bolted fault, so the latter is metrical current. The dc component depends maximum fault current from the transformer.
the worst condition, and therefore is the value on the point on the voltage wave at which the
sought in the fault calculations. fault is initiated. The electric network which determines the
short-circuit current consists of an ac driving
Basically, the short-circuit current is deter- See Table A2 for multiplying factors that voltage equal to the pre-fault system voltage
mined by Ohm’s Law except that the imped- relate the RMS asymmetrical value of Total at the fault location and an impedance corre-
ance is not constant since some reactance is Current to the RMS symmetrical value, and the sponding to that observed when looking back
included in the system. The effect of reactance peak asymmetrical value of Total Current to the into the system from the fault location. In
in an ac system is to cause the initial current RMS symmetrical value. medium- and high-voltage work, it is general-
to be high and then decay toward steady- ly satisfactory to regard reactance as the en-
state (the Ohm’s Law) value. The fault current The ac component is not constant if rotating tire impedance; resistance may be neglected.
machines are connected to the system be- However, this is normally permissible only if
Total Current - A Wholly Offset
cause the impedance of this apparatus is not the X/R ratio of the medium-voltage system is
Asymmetrical Alternating Wave constant. The rapid variation of motor and equal to or more than 25. In low-voltage
3.0 generator impedance is due to these factors: (1000 volts and below) calculations, it is usu-
Rms Value of Total Current
Alternating Component- ally worthwhile to attempt greater accuracy
2.5 A Symmetrical Wave Subtransient Reactance (xd"), determines by including resistance with reactance in
2.0 Rms Value of fault current during the first cycle, and after dealing with impedance. It is for this reason,
Alternating Component
about 6 cycles this value increases to the tran- plus ease of manipulating the various imped-
1.5
Scale of Curent Values

sient reactance. It is used for the calculation of ances of cables and buses and transformers
the momentary and interrupting duties of of the low-voltage circuits, that computer
1.0
equipment and/or system. studies are recommended before final selec-
0.5 tion of apparatus and system arrangements.
x
Transient Reactance ( d’), which determines
1 2 3 4
0 fault current after about 6 cycles and this val- When evaluating the adequacy of short
ue in 1⁄2 to 2 seconds increases to the value of circuit ratings of medium voltage circuit
0.5
the synchronous reactance. It is used in the breakers and fuses, both the RMS symmetri-
-1.0 setting of the phase OC relays of generators. cal value and asymmetrical value of the short
circuit current should be determined.
Direct Component - The Axis
-1.5 of Asymmetrical Wave Time in Cycles of Synchronous Reactance (xd), which deter-
a 60 Cps Wave
-2.0
mines fault current after steady state condi- For low voltage circuit breakers and fuses,
tion is reached. It has no effect as far as short- the RMS symmetrical value should be deter-
Structure of an Asymmetrical Current Wave circuit calculations are concerned but is useful mined along with either: the X/R ratio of the
in the determination of relay settings. fault at the device or the asymmetrical short
circuit current.

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-14 January 1999

Fault Current Wave Form Relationships

Fault Current Wave Form

Relationships
A The following formulas and Table are
For example, for X/R = 15,
∈ = 2.718
reproduced from ANSI/IEEE C37.48. Table A2 w = 2πf for 60 hertz = 377
describes the relationship between fault t = 1⁄2 cycle or 1⁄120 seconds then
current peak values, rms symmetrical values
and rms asymmetrical depending on the – 377 1
---------- × ----------
calculated X/R ratio. Ip = 2+ 2 × 2.718 15 120

= 2.5612
The formulas are:
2.
1. wt 2 377 2
2  15 x 120
– ------------ – ----------------------
-
wt
– ------------ I Rms Asymm
= I + 2×∈ X⁄R
= 1 +  2 × 2.718 
X⁄R
Ip = 2+ 2∈ in per unit.  
= 1.5217
Table A2: Relation of X/R Ratio to Multiplication Factor

2.8

2.7
PEAK MAXIMUM ASYMMETRICAL

RMS MAXIMUM ASYMMETRICAL

Based Upon: Rms Asym = Dc2 + Rms Sym2
2.6 with Dc Value
RMS SYMMETRICAL

Taken at Current Peak

RMS SYMMETRICAL
2.5

2.4

2.3

2.2 1.8
R
CTO
FA

2.1 1.7
N
PEAK MULTIPLICATION FACTOR =

IO
AT

RMS MULTIPLICATION FACTOR =

2.0 1.6
IC
PL
I
LT

1.9 1.5
U
M

OR
AK

CT
PE

1.8 FA 1.4
TION
1.7 LICA 1.3
IP
LT
S MU
1.6 1.2
RM

1.5 1.1

1.4
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
CIRCUIT X/R RATIO (TAN Ø)

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
Fault Current Calculations
The calculation of asymmetrical currents is
a laborious procedure since the degree of
asymmetry is not the same on all three phas-
es. It is common practice to calculate the rms
symmetrical fault current, with the assump-
tion being made that the dc component has
decayed to zero, and then apply a multiply-
ing factor to obtain the first half-cycle rms
asymmetrical current, which is called the
“momentary current.” For medium-voltage
systems (defined by IEEE as greater than
1000 volts up to 69,000 volts) the multiplying
factor is established by NEMA and ANSI
standards depending upon the operating
speed of the breaker; for low-voltage sys-
tems, 600 volts and below, the multiplying
factor is usually 1.17 (based on generally
accepted use of X/R ratio of 6.6 representing
a source short-circuit power factor of 15%).
These values take into account that medium-
voltage breakers are rated on maximum
asymmetry and low voltage breakers are
rated average asymmetry.
To determine the motor contribution to the
first half-cycle fault current when the system
motor load is known, the following assump-
tions generally are made:
Induction Motors – Use 4.0 times motor full
load current (impedance value of 25%).
CAT.71.01.T.E
Power Distribution System Design
Fault Current Calculations
Synchronous Motors – Use 5.0 times motor
full load current (impedance value of 20%).
When the motor load is not known, the fol-
lowing assumptions generally are made:
208Y/120-volt systems
● Assume 50% lighting and 50% motor load.
or
● Assume motor feedback contribution of
twice full load current of transformer.
240-480-600-volt 3-phase, 3-wire systems
● Assume 100% motor load.
or
● Assume motors 25% synchronous and
75% induction.
or
● Assume motor feedback contribution of
four times full load current of transformer.
480Y/277-volt systems in commercial
buildings
● Assume 50% induction motor load.
or
● Assume motor feedback contribution of
two times full load current of transformer
or source.
or
● For industrial plants, make same assump-
tions as for 3-phase, 3-wire systems
(above).
A-15
Medium-Voltage Motors
● If known use actual values otherwise use
the values indicated in the above for the
same type of motor.
A
Types of Calculations
The following pages describe various meth-
ods of calculating short circuit currents for
both medium and low voltage systems. A
summary of the types of methods and types
of calculations is as follows:
● Medium Voltage Switchgear – exact
method
● Medium Voltage Switchgear – quick check
table
● Medium Voltage Switchgear Example 1 –
verify ratings of breakers
● Medium Voltage Switchgear Example 2 –
verify ratings of breakers with rotating
loads
● Medium Voltage Switchgear Example 3 –
verify ratings of breakers with generators
● Medium Voltage Fuses – exact method
● Power Breakers – asymmetry derating
factors
● Molded Case Breakers – asymmetry
derating factors
● Short Circuit Calculations – short cut
method for a system
● Short Circuit Calculations – short cut
method for end of cable
● Short Circuit Calculations – short cut
method for end of cable chart method
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-16 January 1999

Fault Current Calculations for Specific Equipment

Fault Current Calculations for From Table 1 in section C1 under column The close and latch capability is also a related
Specific Equipment “Rated Maximum Voltage” V = 15 kV, under quantity expressed in rms asymmetrical am-
A column “Rated Short-Circuit Current” I = 18 kA,
“Rated Voltage Range Factor” K = 1.3.
peres by 1.6 x maximum symmetrical inter-
rupting capability. For example 1.6 x 36 = 57.6
The purpose of the fault current calculations
is to determine the fault current at the location or 58 kA, or 1.6 K x rated short circuit current.
of a circuit breaker, fuse or other fault inter- Test 1 for V/Vo x I or 15 kV/12.47 kV x 18 kA =
rupting device in order to select a device ade- 21.65; also check K x I (which is shown in the Another way of expressing the close and
quate for the calculated fault current or to column headed “Maximum Symmetrical latch rating is in terms of the peak current,
check the thermal and momentary ratings of Interrupting Capability”) or 1.3 x 18 kA = which is the instantaneous value of the cur-
non-interrupting devices. When the devices 23.4 kA. Since both of these numbers are rent at the crest. ANSI Standard C37.09 indi-
to be used are ANSI-rated devices, the fault greater than the available system fault cates that the ratio of the peak to rms
current must be calculated and the device current of 20,000 amperes, the breaker asymmetrical value for any asymmetry of
selected as per ANSI standards. is acceptable. 100% to 20% (percent asymmetry is defined
as the ratio of dc component of the fault in per
The calculation of available fault current and Note: If the system available fault current unit to 2 ) varies not more than ±2% from a
system X/R rating is utilized to verify ade- were 22,000 amperes symmetrical, this ratio of 1.69. Therefore the close and latch
quate bus bar bracing and momentary with- breaker could not be utilized even through the current expressed in terms of the peak
stand ratings of devices such as contactors. “Maximum Symmetrical Interrupting Capa- amperes is = 1.6 x 1.69 x K x rated short-
bility” is greater than 22,000 since Test 1 cal- circuit current.
Medium-Voltage VCP-W Metal-Clad culation is not satisfied.
Switchgear
Table A3: Reactance X for E/X Amperes
The applicable ANSI Standards C37.06. is the System Component Reactance X Used for Typical Values and Range on
latest applicable edition. The following is a Component Base
review of the meaning of the ratings. (See
Short-Circuit Close and % Reactance X/R Ratio
section C1 of this catalog.) Duty Latch
(Momentary)
The Rated Maximum Voltage
2-Pole Turbo Generator X X 9 80
This designates the upper limit of design and 7-14 40-120
operation of a circuit breaker. For example, a 4-Pole Turbo Generator X X 14 80
circuit breaker with a 4.76 kV rated maximum 12-17 40-120
voltage cannot be used in a 4.8 kV system. Hydro Gen. with Damper Wdgs. and X X 20 30
Syn. Condensers 13-32 10-60
K-Rated Voltage Factor Hydro Gen. without Damper Windings .75X .75X 30 30
The rated voltage divided by this factor deter- 20-50 10-60
mines the system kV a breaker can be applied All Synchronous Motors 1.5X 1.0X 24 30
13-35 10-60
up to the short circuit kVA rating calculated Ind. Motors Above 1000 Hp, 1800 Rpm 1.5X 1.0X 25 30
by the formula and Above 250 Hp, 3600 Rpm 15-25 15-40
3 × Rated SC Current × Rated Max. Voltage. All Other Induction Motors 50 Hp 3.0X 1.2X 25 15
and Above 15-25 5-20
Rated Short Circuit Current–This is the sym- Ind. Motors Below 50 Hp and
metrical rms value of current that the breaker All Single-Phase Motors Neglect Neglect 15
can interrupt at rated maximum voltage. It Distribution System From Remote X X As Specified 5-15
should be noted that the product 3 x 4.76 x Transformers or Calculated 80
Current Limiting Reactors X X As Specified 40-120
29,000 = 239,092 kVA is less than the nominal or Calculated
250,000 kVA listed. This rating (29,000 Amps) Transformers
is also the base quantity that all the “related” OA to 10 MVA, 69 kV X X 5.5 10
capabilities are referred to. 5-7 6-12
OA to 10 MVA, above 69 kV X X 7.5 12
Maximum Symmetrical Interrupting 7-11 8-15
Capability–This is expressed in rms symmet- FOA 12 to 30 MVA X X 10 20
rical amperes or kiloamperes and is K x I 8-24 10-30
FOA 40 to 100 MVA X X 15 30
rated; 29,000 x 1.24 = 35,960 rounded to 36 kA. 8-35 20-40

This is the rms symmetrical current that the

breaker can interrupt down to a voltage =
maximum rated voltage divided by K (for
example, 4.76/1.24 = 3.85). If this breaker is
applied in a system rated at 2.4 kV the calcu-
lated fault current must be less than 36 kA.
For example, consider the following case:
Assume a 12.47 kV system with 20,000 am-
peres symmetrical available. In order to deter-
mine if a Cutler-Hammer type 150 VCP-W 500
vacuum breaker is suitable for this applica-
tion, check the following:
Table A4: Typical System X/R Ratio Range (for Estimating Purposes)
Type of Circuit X/R Range
Remote generation through other types of circuits such as transformers rated 10 MVA or 15 or less
smaller for each three-phase bank, transmission lines, distribution feeders, etc.
Remote generation connected through transformer rated 10 MVA to 100 MVA for each 15-40
three-phase bank, where the transformers provide 90 percent or more of the total equivalent
impedance to the fault point.
Remote generation connected through transformers rated 100 MVA or larger for each 30-50
three-phase bank where the transformers provide 90 percent or more of the total equivalent
impedance to the fault point.
Synchronous machines connected through transformers rated 25 to 100 MVA for each 30-50
three-phase bank.
Synchronous machines connected through transformers rated 100 MVA and larger. 40-60
Synchronous machines connected directly to the bus or through reactors. 40-120

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-17
January 1999

Fault Current Calculations for Specific Equipment

In the calculation of faults for the purposes of
breaker selection the rotating machine im-
pedances specified in ANSI Standard C37.010
Article 5.4.1 should be used. The value of the
impedances and their X/R ratios should be ob-
tained from the equipment manufacturer. At
initial short-circuit studies, data from manu-
facturers is not available. Typical values of im-
pedances and their X/R ratios are given in
Tables A3 and A4.
The ANSI Standard C37.010 requires the use
of the X values only in determining the E/X
value of a fault current. The R values are used
to determine the X/R ratio, in order to apply
the proper multiplying factor, to account for
the total fault clearing time, asymmetry, and
decrement of the fault current.
The steps in the calculation of fault currents
and breaker selection are described herein-
after:
Step 1–Collect the X and R data of the circuit
elements. Convert to a common kVA and volt-
age base. If the reactances and resistances are
given either in ohms or per unit on a different
voltage or kVA base, all should be changed to
the same kVA and voltage base. This caution
does not apply where the base voltages are
the same as the transformation ratio.
Step 2–Construct the sequence networks and
connect properly for the type of fault under
consideration. Use the X values required by
ANSI Standard C37.010 for the “interrupting”
duty value of the short-circuit current.
Step 3–Reduce the reactance network to an
equivalent reactance. Call this reactance XI.
Step 4–Set-up the same network for resis-
tance values.
Step 5–Reduce the resistance network to an
equivalent resistance. Call this resistance RI.
The above calculations of XI and RI may be
calculated by several computer programs.
Step 6–Calculate the E/XI value, where E is the
prefault value of the voltage at the point of
fault nominally assumed 1.0 pu.
XI
Step 7–Determine X/R = ----- as previously
calculated. RI
Step 8–Go to the proper curve for the type of
fault under consideration (3-phase, phase-to-
phase, phase-to-ground), type of breaker at
the location (2, 3, 5, or 8 cycles), and contact
parting time to determine the multiplier to the
calculated E/XI.
See Tables A5, A6, and A7 for 5-cycle breaker
multiplying factors. Use Table A7 if the short
cricuit is fed predominantly from generators
removed from the fault by two or more trans-
A
formations or the per unit reactance external
to the generation is 1.5 times or more than the
subtransient reactance of the generation on a
common base. Also use Table A7 where the
fault is supplied by a utility only.
Step 9–Interrupting duty short-circuit current
= E/XI x MF.
Step 10–Construct the sequence (positive,
negative and zero) networks properly con-
nected for the type of fault under consider-
ation. Use the X values required by ANSI
Standard C37.010 for the “Close and Latch”
duty value of the short-circuit current.
Step 11–Reduce the network to an equivalent
reactance. Call the reactance X. Calculate
E/X x 1.6 if the breaker close and latch capabil-
ity is given in rms amperes or E/X x 2.7 if the
breaker close and latch capability is given in
peak or crest amps.

Table A5: Three-Phase Fault Multiplying Table A6: Line-to-Ground Fault Multiplying Table A7: Three-Phase and Line-to-Ground
Factors Which Include Effects of Ac and Dc Factors Which Include Effects of Ac and Dc Fault Multiplying Factors Which Include
Decrement. Decrement. Effects of Dc Decrement Only.
130
130 130

120 120 120

8

110
5

110 110
6

12
5

10
8
100

6
100 100
4

4
3

90 90 90

3
80 80 80
TIME
Ratio X/R
Ratio X/R

Ratio X/R
TIME

70 70 70
ING
RT
ING

60 60 60
PA
ART

T
AC

50 50 50
T P

NT
AC

CO

40
NT

40 40
CO

30 30 30
5-CYCLE 5-CYCLE 5-CYCLE
BREAKER BREAKER BREAKER
20 20
20

10 10
10

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Multiplying Factors for E / X Amperes Multiplying Factors for E / X Amperes
Multiplying Factors for E / X Amperes

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-18 January 1999

Fault Current Calculations for Specific Equipment

Step 12–Select a breaker whose: Application Quick Check Table

A a. maximum voltage rating exceeds the
For application of circuit breakers in a radial
system supplied from a single source trans-
operating voltage of the system; former. Short-circuit duty was determined
using E/X amperes and 1.0 multiplying factor
V for X/R ratio of 15 or less and 1.25 multiplying
E max
b. ----- ≤ I × --------------- < KI See Table 1, Page C1-4. factor for X/R ratios in the range of 15 to 40.
XI Vo
Where: Source Operating Voltage
I = Rated short circuit current Transformer kV
Vmax = Rated maximum voltage of MVA Rating
the breaker Motor Load 2.4 4.16 6.6 12 13.8
VD = Actual system voltage
100% 0%
KI = Maximum symmetrical
interrupting capacity 1 1.5
c. E/XM x 1.6 ≤ closing and latch capability 1.5 2 50 VCP-W 250
2 2.5 12 kA 50 VCP-W 250 150 VCP-W 500 150 VCP-W 500 150 VCP-W 500
of the breaker. 10.1 kA 23 kA 22.5 kA 19.6 kA
2.5 3
The ANSI standards do not require the 3 3.75
inclusion of resistances in the calculation 3.75 5 50 VCP-W 250
of the required interrupting and close and 5 7.5 36 kA 50 VCP-W 250
latch capabilities. Thus the calculated values 7.5 10 50 VCP-W 350 33.2 kA
are conservative. However when the capa- 10➀ 10 49 kA
bilities of existing switchgears are investi- 10 12➀
gated, the resistances should be included. 12 15 50 VCP-W 350 75 VCP-W 500
46.9 kA 41.3 kA
For single line-to-ground faults the sym- 15 20
metrical interrupting capability is 1.15 x the
symmetrical interrupting capability at any 20➀ 20 Breaker Type and 150 VCP-W 750 150 VCP-W 750
25 Sym. Interrupting Capacity 35 kA 30.4 kA
operating voltage but not to exceed the maxi- at the Operating Voltage
mum symmetrical capability of the breaker. 30
Paragraphs 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 of ANSI 50➀ 150 VCP-W 1000 150 VCP-W 1000
C37.010.1979 provide further guidance for 46.3 kA 40.2 kA
medium-voltage breaker application.
Application Above 3300 Feet
Reclosing Duty The rated one-minute power frequency with-
ANSI Standard C37.010 indicates the reduc- stand voltage, the impulse withstand voltage,
tion factors to use when circuit breakers are the continuous current rating, and the maxi-
used as reclosers. Cutler-Hammer VCP-W mum voltage rating must be multiplied by
breakers are listed at 100% rating factor for the appropriate correction factors below to
reclosing. obtain modified ratings which must equal or
exceed the application requirements. Note
that intermediate values may be obtained by
interpolation.

Altitude Correction Factor

(Feet) Current Voltage
3,300 (and Below) 1.00 1.00
5,000 0.99 0.95
10,000 0.96 0.80

➀ Transformer impedance 6.5% or more, all other

transformer impedances are 5.5% or more.

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-19
January 1999

Fault Current Calculations for Specific Equipment

Application on Symmetrical Current Rating Basis X R X/R

13.8 kV System .99% .066% 15
Example 1 — Fault Calculations
Given a circuit breaker interrupting and momentary rating in the table below, verify the Transformer 5.05 .65 8 A
adequacy of the ratings for a system without motor loads, as shown. System Total 6.04% .716 9
or .0604 pu .00716 pu
Type Breaker V Max. 3ø Sym. Interrupting Capability Close and Latch
@ V. Max. Max. KI @4.16 kV Oper. Voltage or Momentary
For 3-Phase Fault
4.76
50VCP-W250 4.76 kV 29 kA 36 kA [ --------
-]
4.16 (29) = 33.2 kA I1
58 kA I3
E
I 3 ø = ---- where X is ohms per phase and E
LG Sym. Interrupting Capability X
36 kA 1.15 (33.2) = 38.2 kA I2 is the highest typical line-to-neutral operating
voltage
Note: Interrupting capabilities I1 and I2 at I
operating voltage must not exceed max. sym. or I3ø = B where X is per unit reactance
interrupting capability Kl. X
IB is base current
Check capabilities I1, I2 and I3 on the following utility system where there is no motor 3.75 MVA
Base current I B = ------------------------------- = .52 kA
contribution to short circuit.
3 (4.16 kV)
On 13.8 kV System, 3.75 MVA Base I1
13.8 kV .52
3.75 MVA I 3 ø = ---- = ------------- = 8.6 kA Sym.
X .0604
Z = -----------------------
-
375 MVA = .01 pu or 1%
X
= 15 X
R System --- = 9 (is less than 15) would use
2 R
= X + R = R  ------ + 1
2 2 2 2 X
Z
375 MVA  2 R
 1.0 multiplying factor for short-circuit duty,
Available therefore, short-circuit duty is 8.6 kA sym. for
Z 1 1 3 ø fault I1 and momentary duty is 8.6 x
R = -------------------- = ------------- = 15.03
------------- = .066% 1.6 = 13.7 kA I3.
2 226
X
------ + 1
2 For Line-to-Ground Fault
R
13.8 kV 3E 3I B
I LG = ----------------------- or = -----------------------
3750 kVA X 2X 1 + X 0 2X 1 + X 0
X = --- ( R ) = 15 (.066) = .99%
R
For this system, X0 is the zero sequence reac-
Transformer Standard 5.5% Impedance has tance of the transformer which is equal to the
a ±7.5% Manufacturing Tolerance transformer positive sequence reactance and
4.16 kV X1 is the positive sequence reactance of the
5.50 Standard Impedance system.
–.41 (–7.5% Tolerance)
Transformer Z = Therefore,
50VPC-W250 5.09%
3(.52)
I LG = --------------------------------------
2(.0604) + .0505 = 9.1 kA Sym.
-

Using 1.0 multiplying factor, short-circuit

duty = 9.1 kA Sym. LG (I2)

From transformer losses R is calculated Answer

31,000 Watts Full Load The 50VCPW250 breaker capabilities exceed

24.2 kW the duty requirements and may be applied.
–6,800 Watts No Load ----------------------- = .0065 pu or .65%
R = 3750 kVA
24,200 Watts Load Losses
With this application, short cuts could have
been taken for a quicker check of the applica-
2 2 2 2 tion. If we assume unlimited short circuit
Transformer X = Z –R (5.09) – (.65) = 25.91 – .42 = 25.48
available at 13.8 kV and that Trans. Z = X
X = 5.05%
IB .52
Then I 3 ø = ---- ----------
X = .055 = 9.5 kA Sym.

X/R ratio 15 or less multiplying factor is 1.0 for

short-circuit duty.

The short-circuit duty is then 9.5 kA Sym.

(I1, I2) and momentary duty is 9.5 x 1.6 kA =
15.2 kA(I3).

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-20 January 1999

Fault Current Calculations for Specific Equipment

Example 2 — Fault Calculations

Given the system shown with motor loads,
A calculate the fault currents and determine
proper circuit breaker selection.
13.8 kV System

21 kA Sym. Available X = 15
13.8 kV R
All calculations on per unit basis. 7.5 MVA
Base X = 5.5% X
7500 kVA Z = 5.53% = 10
R = 0.55% R
7.5 MVA
Base Curent I B = ------------------------ = .628 kA
3 6.9 kV 6.9 kV
1

X R X/R
13.8 kV System
.628 (6.9) X X
X = ---------- -------------- = .015 .015 .001 15 = 25 = 35
21 (13.8) R R
2 3
Transformer .055 .0055 10 197A FL 173A FL
X''d = 20% X''d = 25%
Total Source Transf. .070 pu .0065 pu 11

3000 Hp Syn. Motor

3000 Hp
(.628) 1.0 PF 2500 Hp
X = .20 -------------- = .638 pu at 7.5 MVA base Ind.
.197 Syn.

2500 Hp Ind. Motor

(.628)
X = .25 -------------- = .908 pu at 7.5 MVA base
(.173)
IB Source of Interrupting Momentary X X (1) 1
E
--- = ----
I3 ø = X where X on per unit base Short Circuit Current E/X Amperes E/X Amperes R R (X) R
X
I3 Source Transf. .682 .682 11 11 = 157
= 8.971 = 8.971
.070 .070 .070

.628 .628 25 = 39
I1 3000 Hp Syn. Motor = .656 = .984 25
(1.5) .638 .638 .638

.628 .628 35 35 = 39
I1 2500 Hp Syn. Motor = .461 = .691
(1.5) .908 .908 .908

I3F = 10.088 10.647 Total 1/R = 235

or 10.1 kA x 1.6
17.0 kA Momentary Duty
IB .628
Total X = ------
- ----------
I 3F = 10.1 = .062

X
System --- = .062 (235) = 14.5 is Mult. Factor 1.0 from Table 2.
R

Short Circuit Duty = 10.1 kA

Type V 3ø Sym. Interrupting Capability Close and Latch

Breaker Max. @ V. Max. Max. KI @ 6.9 kV Oper. Voltage or Momentary
75VCP-W500 8.25 kV 33 kA 41 kA 8.25 (33) = 39.5 kA 66 kA
6.9
150VCP-W500 15 kV 18 kA 23 kA 15 (18) (39.1) = 23 kA 37 kA
6.9
(But not to exceed KI)

Answer
Either breaker could be properly applied,
but price will make the type 150VCPW500
the more economical selection.

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-21
January 1999

Fault Current Calculations for Specific Equipment

Example 3 — Fault Calculations Medium-Voltage Fuses

Check breaker application or generator bus for the system of generators shown.

Each generator is 7.5 MVA, 4.16 kV 1040 amperes full load, IB = 1.04 kA
There are two basic types of medium-voltage
fuses (the following definitions are taken
A
from ANSI Standard C37.40).
Sub transient reactance Xd” = 11% or, X = 0.11 pu
X Expulsion Fuses
Gen --- ratio is 30
R
A vented fuse in which the expulsion effect of
1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 gases produced by the arc and lining of the
------- --- --- 1 = --- ------- = --- + --- + --1- = ---
X S = X + X + ---
X X
and R
S R R R R fuse holder, either alone or aided by a spring,
extinguishes the arc.
X R XS X X
or X S = --- and R S = --- Therefore, System ------- = ---
R = Gen --- = 30 Current Limiting Fuses
3 3 RS R
A fuse unit that when it is melted by a current
Since generator neutral grounding reactors are used to limit the ILG to I3ø or below, we within its specified current limiting range,
need only check the I3 short-circuit duty. abruptly introduces a high resistance to re-
duce the current magnitude and duration.
I B BI I
B 31 B 3 ( 1.04 )
I B ø = ---- ---- ----
X + X + X + --------
- = ------------------ = 28.4 kA Sym. E/X amperes There are two types of fuses; power and dis-
X .11
tribution. They are distinguished from each
X other by the current ratings and minimum
Table 2 System --- of 30 is Mult. factor 1.04 melting type characteristics.
R
Short-circuit duty is 28.4 (1.04) = 29.5 kA Symmetrical The current limiting ability of a current
limiting fuse is specified by its threshold ratio,
3ø Sym. Interrrupting Capability peak let-through current and I2t characteristics.
Type Breaker V Max. @ V Max. Max. KI @ 4.16 kV Oper. Voltage
Interrupting Ratings of Fuses
50VCP-W250 4.76 kV 29 kA 36 kA 4.76
(29) = 33.2 kA
4.16 Modern fuses are rated in amps rms symmet-
Answer rical. They also have a listed asymmetrical
rms rating which is 1.6 x the symmetrical rating.
The 50VCP-W250 breaker could be applied.
Refer to ANSI/IEEE C37.48 for fuse interrupt-
ing duty guidelines.

Calculation of the fuse required interrupting

rating:

Step 1–Convert the fault from the utility to

percent or per unit on a convenient voltage
and kVA base.
G1 G2 G3
Step 2–Collect the X and R data of all the other
circuit elements and convert to a percent or
per unit on a convenient kVA and voltage
base same as that used in Step 1. Use the sub-
stransient X and R for all generators and
motors.

4.16 kV Step 3–Construct the sequence networks us-

ing reactances and connect properly for the
type of fault under consideration and reduce
to a single equivalent reactance.

Step 4–Same as above except using resis-

tances (omit if a symmetrically rated fuse is to
be selected).

Step 5–Calculate the E/XI value, where E is the

prefault value of the voltage at the point of
fault normally assumed 1.0 in pu. For three-
phase faults E/XI is the fault current to be used
in determining the required interrupting ca-
pability of the fuse.

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-22 January 1999

Fault Current Calculations for Specific Equipment

Note: It is not necessary to calculate a single If the X/R to the point of fault is greater than Refer to Table A8 for the standard ranges of
phase-to-phase fault current. This current is 6.6, a derating multiplying factor (MF) must X/R and power factors used in testing and rat-
A very nearly 3 /2 x three-phase fault. The line-
to-ground fault may exceed the three-phase
be applied. The X/R ratio is calculated in the
same manner as that for medium-voltage cir-
ing low-voltage breakers. Refer to Table A9
for the circuit breaker interrupting rating mul-
fault for fuses located in generating stations cuit breakers. tiplying factors to be used when the calculat-
with solidly grounded neutral generators, or ed X/R ratio or power factor at the point the
in delta-wye transformers with the wye solid- Calculated symmetrical Amps x MF ≤ breaker breaker is to be applied in the power distribu-
ly grounded, where the sum of the positive interrupting rating. tion system falls outside of the Table A8 X/R
and negative sequence impedances on the or power factors used in testing and rating the
high-voltage side (delta) is smaller than the The multiplying factor MF can be calculated circuit breakers.
impedance of the transformer. by the formula:
Normally the short circuit power factor or X/R
– ( 2π ) ⁄ ( X ⁄ R )
For single line-to-ground fault; 2 [ 1 + 2.718 ] ration of a distribution system need not be
XI = XI(+) + XI(-) + XI(0) MF = --------------------------------------------------------------
2.29
- considered in applying low-voltage circuit
breakers. This is because that the ratings
E
I f = ----- × 3 If the X/R of system feeding the breaker is not established in the applicable standard are
XI known use X/R = 15. based on power factor values which amply
cover most applications. Established stan-
Step 6–Select a fuse whose published inter- For fused breakers by the formula: dard values include the following:
rupting rating exceeds the calculated fault
current. – ( 2π )/ ( X ⁄ R ) Table A8: Standard Test Power Factors
1 + 2 × ( 2.718 )
MF = ------------------------------------------------------------------- Type of Interrupting Power X/R
Table A2 should be used where older fuses 1.25
Circuit Rating in KA Factor Test
asymmetrically rated are involved. If the X/R of the system feeding the breaker is Breaker Test Range
not known use X/R = 20. Range
The voltage rating of power fuses used on Molded Case 10 or less 0.45-0.50 1.98 -1.73
three-phase systems should equal or exceed Refer to Table A8 for the standard ranges of Molded Case over 10 to 20 0.25-0.30 3.87 -3.18
the maximum line-to-line voltage rating of X/R and Power Factors used in testing and rat- Molded Case over 20 0.15-0.20 6.6 -4.9
the system. Current limiting fuses for three- ing low-voltage breakers. Refer to Table A9 for Low-Voltage All 0.15 max. 6.6 min.
Power
phase systems should be so applied that the the circuit breaker interrupting rating multiply-
fuse voltage rating is equal to or less than ing factors to be used when the calculated X/R
1.41 x nominal system voltage. ratio or power factor at the point the breaker is For distribution systems where the calculated
to be applied in the power distribution system short-circuit current X/R ratio differs from the
Low-Voltage Power Circuit Breakers falls outside of the Table A8 X/R or power standard values given in the above table, cir-
Type Magnum DS, DSII or DSLII factors used in testing and rating the circuit cuit breaker interrupting rating multiplying
breakers. MF is always greater than 1.0. factors from the following table should be
The steps for calculating the fault current for applied.
the selection of a low-voltage power circuit Molded Case Breakers and Insulated Table A9: Circuit Breaker Interrupting Rating
breaker are the same as those used for Case Type SPB Breakers Multiplying Factors
medium-voltage circuit breakers except that
where the connected loads to the low-voltage The method of fault calculation is the same as % X/R Interrupting Rating
bus includes induction and synchronous mo- P.F. ≤ = 10kA
that for low-voltage power circuit breakers. >10 kA >20 kA All
tor loads the assumption is made that in Again the calculated fault current x MF ≤ ≤ = 20 kA LV PCB
208Y/120-volt systems the contribution from breaker interrupting capacity. Because molded 50 1.7321 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
motors is 2 times the full load current of step- case breakers are tested at lower X/R ratios 30 3.1798 0.847 1.000 1.000 1.000
down transformer. This corresponds to an as- the MFs are different than those for low-volt- 25 3.8730 0.805 0.950 1.000 1.000
sumed 50% motor aggregate impedance on a age power circuit breakers. 20 4.8990 0.762 0.899 1.000 1.000
kVA base equal to the transformer kVA rating 15 6.5912 0.718 0.847 0.942 1.000
X2 12 8.2731 0.691 0.815 0.907 0.962
or 50% motor load. For 480-, 480Y/277- and
-π ⁄  ------ 10 9.9499 0.673 0.794 0.883 0.937
600-volt systems the assumption is made that 1 + 2.718  R 2
9 11.7221 0.659 0.778 0.865 0.918
the contribution from the motors is 4 times MF = ---------------------------------------
X 7 14.2507 0.645 0.761 0.847 0.899
-π ⁄  ------
1
the full load current of the step-down trans-  R 1 5 19.9750 0.627 0.740 0.823 0.874
former which corresponds to an assumed 1 + 2.718
25% aggregate motor impedance on a kVA Note: These are derating factors applied to
base equal to the transformer kVA rating or X1/R1 = test X/R value. the breaker.
100% motor load.
X2/R2 = X/R at point where breaker is applied.
In low-voltage systems which contain gener-
ators the subtransient reactance should be
used.

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-23
January 1999

Short-Circuit Calculations

Short-Circuit Calculations–Short Cut Method

Determination of Short-Circuit Current
Note 1. Transformer impedance generally relates to self-ventilated rating (e.g., with OA/FA/FOA transformer use OA base).
A
Note 2. kV refers to line-to-line voltage in kilovolts.
Note 3. Z refers to line-to-neutral impedance of system to fault where R + jX = Z.
Note 4. When totaling the components of system Z, arithmetic combining of impedances as “ohms Z”. “per unit Z”. etc., is considered a short cut or approximate
method; proper combining of impedances (e.g., source, cables transformers, conductors, etc.) should use individual R and X components. This Total Z =
Total R + j Total X (See IEEE “Red Book” Standard No. 141).
1. Select convenient kVA base for system to
be studied.
kVA base 2
2. Change per unit, or percent, impedance from one (a) Per unit = pu impedance kVA base 2 = ------------------------------- × (pu impedance on kVA base 1)
kVA base to another: kVA base 1
kVA base 2
(b) Percent = % impedance kVA base 2 = ------------------------------- × (% impedance on kVA base 1)
kVA base 1
percent impedance (ohms impedance) (kVA base)
3. Change ohms, or percent or per-unit, etc.: (a) Per unit impedance = pu Z = ------------------------------------------------------ = ----------------------------------------------------
- ------------------------------
100 ( kV ) 2 ( 1000 )
(ohms impedance) (kVA base)
(b) Per unit impedance = % Z = ----------------------------------------------------
- ------------------------------
( kV )2 ( 10 )
(% impedance) ( kV )2 (10)
(c) Ohms impedance = --------------------------------------------------------------------
kVA base

4. Change power-source impedance to per-unit or
percent impedance on kVA base as selected for
this study:
(a) —if utility fault capacity given in kVA
kVA base in study
Per-unit impedance = pu Z = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
power-source kVA fault capacity

(b) —if utility fault capacity given in rms symmetrical short-circuit Amps

kVA base in study

Per-unit impedance = pu Z = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(short-circuit current) ( 3 )(kV of source)

5. Change motor rating to kVA: (a) —motor kVA— ( 3 ) (kV) (I) where motor nameplate full-load Amps.
(b) —if 1.0 power factor synchronous motor kVA = (0.8) (hp)
(c) —if 0.8 power factor synchronous motor kVA = (1.0) (hp)
(d) —if induction motor kVA = (1.0) (hp)

3-phase kVA 1-phase kVA

6. Determine symmetrical short-circuit current: (a) Base current = I Base = ----------------------------------- or ------------------------------------------------
( 3 ) ( kV ) kV line-to-neutral
1.0
(b) Per unit I SC = -----------
puZ

(c) Rms Symmetrical current = ISC = (pu ISC) (IBase Amps)

3-phase kVA base 1-phase kVA base

(d) Rms Symmetrical current = Amps = -------------------------------------------------- or --------------------------------------------------
( puZ ) ( 3 ) ( kV ) ( puZ ) ( kV )
(3-phase kVA base) (100) 1-phase kVA base (100)
(e) = ---------------------------------------------------------------------- or ------------------------------------------------------------------
(%Z) ( 3 ) ( kV ) (%Z) ( kV )
(kV) (1000)
(g) = -----------------------------------
3 (ohms Z)
kVA base (kVA base) (100) ( kV )2 ( 1000 )
7. Determine symmetrical short-circuit kVA: (a) Sym. short circuit kVA = -------------------------- = ---------------------------------------------- = ---------------------------------
( puZ ) %Z ohms Z
3(line-to-neutral kV) 2 ( 1000 )
(b) = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
(ohms Z)

8. Determine line-to-line short-circuit current: (a) —from three-phase transformer—approx. 86% of three-phase current
(b) —three single-phase transformers (e.g., 75 kVA, Z = 2%) calculate same as one three-phase unit (i.e., 3
x 75 kVA = 225 kVA, Z = 2%).
(c) —from single-phase transformer—see page A-25.

9. Determine motor contribution (or feedback) as

source of fault current:
(a) —synchronous motor—5 times motor full load current (impedance 20%)
(b) —induction motor—4 times motor full-load current (impedance 25%)
See IEEE Standard
No. 141 }
(c) —motor loads not individually identified, use contribution from group of motors as follows:
—on 208Y/120-volt systems—2.0 times transformer full-load current
—on 240-480-600-volt 3-phase, 3-wire systems—4.0 times transformer full-load current
—on 480Y/277-volt 3-phase, 4-wire systems
—In commercial buildings, 2.0 times transformers full-load current (50% motor load)
—In industrial plants, 4.0 times transformer full-load current (100% motor load)

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-24 January 1999

Short-Circuit Calculations

Example No.1
A A. System Diagram B. Impedance Diagram (Using “Short Cut” Method for Combining Impedances and Sources).
A B C
Utility Source 500 MVA
Major Contribution
Utility

Cables
Transformer
Switchboard Fault
1,000 kVA
5.75%
480 Volts Cables

Cable Fault
Switchboard Fault

.002 pu 1.00 pu 1.00 pu 1.00 pu

100 Ft.
3-350 Kcmil Cable
in Steel Conduit
A B C .0575 pu .027 pu .027 pu .027 pu
Switchboard Fault
Mixed Load — Motors and Lighting
Each Feeder — 100 Ft. of 3-350 Kcmil Cable
in Steel Conduit Feeding Lighting and .027 pu
250 kVA of Motors
Cable Fault

Cable Fault
Combining Series Impedances: ZTOTAL = Z1 + Z2 + ... +Zn

1 = 1 + 1 + ... 1
Combining Parallel Impedances:
ZTOTAL Z1 Z2 Zn

.0595 pu .342 pu .0507 pu

E .0777 pu

C. Conductor impedance from Tables A-45 and A-46, page A-64. .027 pu .027 pu
Conductors: 3-350 kcmil copper, single conductors
Circuit length: 100 ft., in steel (magnetic) conduit
Impedance Z = 0.00619 ohms/100 ft. ZTOT = 0.00619 ohms (100 circuit feet)

D. Fault current calculations (combining impedances arithmetically, using approximate

“short cut” method—see Note 4, page A-23)

Equation
Step (See page A-23) Calculation
1 – Select 1000 kVA as most convenient base, since all data except utility source is on
secondary of 1000 kVA transformer.
kVA base 1000
2 4(a) Utility per unit impedance = Z pu = ------------------------------------------- = --------------------- = 0.002 pu
utility fault kVA 500,000

%Z 5.75
3 3(a) Transformer per unit impedance = Z pu = ---------- = ----------- = 0.0575 pu
100 100

kVA base 1000

4 4(a) and Motor contribution per unit impedance = Z pu = ---------------------------------------- = -------------------- = 1.00 pu
9(c) 4 x motor kVA 4 x 250

5 3(a) Cable impedance in ohms (see above) = 0.00619 ohms

(ohms) (kVA base) ( 0.00619 ) ( 1000 )
Cable impedance per unit = Z pu = ---------------------------------------------------
2
- = 0.027pu
- = --------------------------------------------
2
( kV ) ( 1000 ) ( 0.480 ) ( 1000 )

6 6(d) Total impedance to switchboard fault = 0.0507 pu (see diagram above)

3-phase kVA base 1000
Symmetrical short-circuit current at switchboard fault = -------------------------------------------------- = -------------------------------------------------------- = 23,720 Amps rms
( Z pu ) ( 3 ) ( kV ) ( 0.0507 ) ( 3 ) ( 0.480 )

7 6(d) Total impedance to cable fault = 0.0777 pu (see diagram above)

3-phase kVA base 1000
Symmetrical short-circuit current at cable fault = -------------------------------------------------- = -------------------------------------------------------- = 15, 480 Amps rms
( Z pu ) ( 3 ) ( kV ) ( 0.0777 ) ( 3 ) ( 0.480 )

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-25
January 1999

Short-Circuit Calculations

Example No. 2
Fault Calculation — Secondary Side of Single-Phase
Transformer Deriving Transformer R and X: A
A. System Diagram X
---- = 6.6 X = 6.6 R
R
R = 0.1498 Z
480-Volt 3-Phase Switchboard Bus at 50,000 Amp Symmetrical, X/R = 6.6 X = 0.9887 Z { Z=
2
X +R =
2 2 2
( 6.6R ) + R =
2 2
43.56R + R =
2
44.56R = 6.6753R
Z
R = ------------------ R = 0.1498Z
6.6753
X = 6.6R X = 0.9887Z
100 Ft. Two #2/0 Copper Conductors, Magnetic Conduit R = 0.0104 Ohms {
X = 0.0051 Ohms
(From tables page 30)
75 kVA Single-Phase 480-120/240 Volts; Z = 2.8%, R = 1.64%, X = 2.27%

120 Volts Half-winding of Transformer Multiply % R by 1.5 Reference: IEEE Standard No. 141
F2 {
Multiply % X by 1.2 }
240 Volts
F1 Full-winding of Transformer

B. Impedance Diagram—Fault F1 C. Impedance Diagram—Fault F2

RSyst = 0.00054 RSyst = 0.00356 RSyst = 0.00054 XSyst = 0.00356

RCond = 0.00677 RCond = 0.00332 RCond = 0.00677 XCond = 0.00332

RTfmr = 0.0164 RTfmr = 0.0227 RTfmr = 0.0246 XTfmr = 0.0272

RTotal = 0.02371 RTotal = 0.02958 RTotal = 0.03191 XTotal = 0.03408

F1 F1 F2 F2

D. Impedance and Fault Current Calculations—75 kVA Base ➀

75
ZSyst = ----------------------------------------------------- = 0.0018 pu (From page A-23, RSyst = 2 (0.1498 x Z) = 0.00054 pu
3 × 0.480 × 50,000 Formula 4(b) )
XSyst = 2 (0.9887 x Z) = 0.00356 pu

RCond = 2  --------------------------------------
0.104 × 75 
= 0.00677 pu
ohms × kVA Base
ZCond = -------------------------------------------------
- (From page A-23,  ( 0.48 )2 × 1000
2
( kV ) × 1000 Formula 3(a) )
XCond = 2  --------------------------------------
0.0051 × 75 
= 0.00332 pu
 ( 0.48 )2 × 1000
1.64
Full-winding of Tfmr (75 kVA Base) RTfmr = ----------- = 0.0164 pu
100

2.27
XTfmr = ----------- = 0.0277 pu
100

RTfmr = 1.5  -----------

1.64
Half-winding of Tfmr (75 kVA Base) = 0.0246 pu
 100 

XTfmr = 1.2  -----------

2.27
= 0.0272 pu
 100 

2 2
Impedance to Fault F1 — Full Winding Z= ( 0.02371 ) + ( 0.02958 ) = 0.03791 pu
2 2
Impedance to Fault F2 — Half Winding Z= ( 0.03191 ) + ( 0.03408 ) = 0.04669 pu

Short-circuit current F1 = 75 ÷ (0.03791 x 0.240 kV) = 8,243 Amp sym.

Short-circuit current F2 = 75 ÷ (0.04669 x 0.120 kV) = 13,386 Amp sym.

➀ To account for the outgoing and return paths of

single-phase circuits (conductors, systems, etc.)
use twice the 3-phase values of R and X.

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design
A-26
How to Calculate Short-Circuit Currents at Ends of Conductors
Method 1 – Short Cut Methods
A This method uses the approximation of
adding Zs instead of the accurate method
of Rs and Xs.
For Example: For a 480/277-volt system with
30,000 amperes symmetrical available at the
line side of a conductor run of 100 feet of 2-
500 kcmil per phase and neutral, the approxi-
mate fault current at the load side end of the
conductors can be calculated as follows.
277 volts/30,000 amperes = 0.00923 ohms
(source impedance)
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
Conductor ohms for 500 kcmil conductor
from reference data in this section in mag- X 30,000 amperes available
netic conduit is 0.00546 ohms per 100 ft. For
100 ft. and 2 conductors per phase we have:
0.00546/2 = 0.00273 ohms (conductor 100 ft.
impedance) 2-500 kcmil per phase
Add source and conductor impedance or
0.00923 + 0.00273 = 0.01196 total ohms
X If = 23,160 amperes
Next, 277 volts/0.01196 ohms = 23,160
amperes rms at load side of conductors
CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-27
January 1999

How to Calculate Short-Circuit Currents at Ends of Conductors

Method 2–Chart Approximate Short-Circuit Current Read-out Step Four

Method Select the specific curve for the conductor

The chart method is based on the following:

Motor Contribution
For system voltages of 120/208 volts, it is
reasonable to assume that the connected
load consists of 50% motor load, and that the
motors will contribute four times their full
load current into a fault. For system voltages
of 240 and 480 volts, it is reasonable to as-
sume that the connected load consists of
100% motor load, and that the motors will
contribute four times their full load current
into a fault. These motor contributions have
been factored into each curve as if all motors
were connected to the transformer terminals.
Feeder Conductors
The conductor sizes most commonly used for
feeders from molded case circuit breakers
are shown. For conductor sizes not shown,
the following table has been included for con-
version to equivalent arrangements. In some
cases it may be necessary to interpolate for
unusual feeder ratings. Table A10 is based on
using copper conductor.
Table A10: Conductor Conversion
(Based on Using Copper Conductor)
If Your
Conductor is:
3 – No. 4/0 cables
4 – No. 2/0 cables
3 – 2000 kcmil cables
5 – 400 kcmil cables
6 – 300 kcmil cables
800 Amp busway
1000 Amp busway
1600 Amp busway
The read-out obtained from the charts is the
rms symmetrical amperes available at the
given distance from the transformer. The
circuit breaker should have an interrupting
capacity at least as large as this value.
How to Use the Short-Circuit Charts
Step One
Obtain the following data:
1. System voltage
2. Transformer kVA rating (from transformer
nameplate)
3. Transformer impedance (from trans-
former nameplate)
4. Primary source fault energy available in
kVA (from electric utility or distribution
system engineers)
Step Two
Select the applicable chart from the following
pages. The charts are grouped by secondary
system voltage which is listed with each
transformer. Within each group, the chart for
the lowest kVA transformer is shown first, fol-
lowed in ascending order to the highest rated
Use Equivalent transformer.
Arrangement
2 – 500 kcmil Step Three
2 – 500 kcmil Select the family of curves that is closest to the
4 – 750 kcmil “available source kVA.” The black line family of
4 – 750 kcmil curves is for a source of 500,000 kVA. The low-
4 – 750 kcmil er value line (in red) family of curves is for a
2 – 500 kcmil
source of 50,000 kVA. You may interpolate be-
2 – 500 kcmil
4 – 750 kcmil tween curves if necessary, but for values above
100,000 kVA it is appropriate to use the 500,000
kVA curves.
size being used. If your conductor size is
something other than the sizes shown on the
A
chart, refer to the conductor conversion Table
A10.
Step Five
Enter the chart along the bottom horizontal
scale with the distance (in feet) from the
transformer to the fault point. Draw a vertical
line up the chart to the point where it inter-
sects the selected curve. Then draw a hori-
zontal line to the left from this point to the
scale along the left side of the chart.
Step Six
The value obtained from the left-hand vertical
scale is the fault current (in thousands of am-
peres) available at the fault point.
For a more exact determination, see the for-
mula method. It should be noted that even
the most exact methods for calculating fault
energy use some approximations and some
assumptions. Therefore, it is appropriate to
select a method which is sufficiently accurate
for the purpose, but not more burdensome
than is justified. The charts which follow
make use of simplifications which are rea-
sonable under most circumstances and will
almost certainly yield answers which are on
the safe side. This may, in some cases, lead
to application of circuit breakers having inter-
rupting ratings higher than necessary, but
should eliminate the possibility of applying
units which will not be safe for the possible
fault duty.

Chart 1 – 225 kVA Transformer/4.5% Impedance/208 Volts

4 – 750 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil UTILITY KVA
250 kcmil
Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)

15.0 B
#1/0 AWG A INFINITE
F #4 AWG B 500,000
C 250,000
D 150,000
12.5 E 100,000
F 50,000

10.0
4 – 750 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil
250 kcmil
#1/0 AWG
7.5 #4 AWG

5.0

2.5

0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Distance in Feet from Transformer to Breaker Location

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-28 January 1999

How to Calculate Short-Circuit Currents at Ends of Conductors

Chart 2 – 300 kVA Transformer/4.5% Impedance/208 Volts Chart 5 – 1000 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/208 Volts

A
UTILITY KVA 4 – 750 kcmil UTILITY KVA
2 – 500 kcmil
Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)

30

Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)

60
A INFINITE 250 kcmil A INFINITE
4 – 750 kcmil B 500,000 #1/0 AWG B 500,000
2 – 500 kcmil C 250,000 B #4 AWG C 250,000
250 kcmil D 150,000 D 150,000
25 E 100,000 50 E 100,000
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG F 50,000 F 50,000
F
20 B 40
F

15 30
4 – 750 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil
250 kcmil
4 – 750 kcmil #1/0 AWG
10 20 #4 AWG
2 – 500 kcmil
250 kcmil
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG
5 10

0 0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Distance in Feet from Transformer to Breaker Location Distance in Feet from Transformer to Breaker Location

Chart 3 – 500 kVA Transformer/4.5% Impedance/208 Volts Chart 6 – 1500 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/208 Volts

B 4 – 750 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil UTILITY KVA
250 kcmil UTILITY KVA
Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)

120
#1/0 AWG A INFINITE
Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)

30
#4 AWG A INFINITE B 500,000
F B 500,000 C 250,000
4 – 750 kcmil D 150,000
C 250,000 100 2 – 500 kcmil
D 150,000 E 100,000
25 250 kcmil F 50,000
E 100,000 #1/0 AWG
F 50,000 #4 AWG
80 B

20

60 F

15
40
4 – 750 kcmil 4 – 750 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil 2 – 500 kcmil
10 250 kcmil 250 kcmil
#1/0 AWG #1/0 AWG
20 #4 AWG
#4 AWG

5
0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Distance in Feet from Transformer to Breaker Location
0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Distance in Feet from Transformer to Breaker Location

Chart 4 – 750 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/208 Volts Chart 7 – 2000 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/208 Volts

UTILITY KVA UTILITY KVA

Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)

120 4 – 750 kcmil

Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)

60 A INFINITE
A INFINITE 2 – 500 kcmil
B 500,000 B 500,000
4 – 750 kcmil 250 kcmil C 250,000
C 250,000 B #1/0 AWG
2 – 500 kcmil D 150,000 D 150,000
50 250 kcmil 100 #4 AWG E 100,000
E 100,000
#1/0 AWG F 50,000 F 50,000
#4 AWG

40 B 80

F
F
30 60

20 40 4 – 750 kcmil
4 – 750 kcmil 2 – 500 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil 250 kcmil
250 kcmil #1/0 AWG
10 #1/0 AWG 20 #4 AWG
#4 AWG

0 0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Distance in Feet from Transformer to Breaker Location Distance in Feet from Transformer to Breaker Location

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-29
January 1999

How to Calculate Short-Circuit Currents at Ends of Conductors

Chart 8 – 300 kVA Transformer/4.5% Impedance/480 Volts Chart 11 – 1000 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/480 Volts

UTILITY KVA
A
UTILITY KVA 4 – 750 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil

Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)

30
Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)

12
A INFINITE 250 kcmil A INFINITE
B 500,000 #1/0 AWG B 500,000
C 250,000 #4 AWG C 250,000
D 150,000 B D 150,000
10 E 100,000 25 E 100,000
B F 50,000 F 50,000
F
F
8 20

6 4 – 750 kcmil 15
2 – 500 kcmil 4 – 750 kcmil
250 kcmil 2 – 500 kcmil
#1/0 AWG 250 kcmil
4 #4 AWG #1/0 AWG
10
#4 AWG
4 – 750 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil
2 250 kcmil 5
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG
0 0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Distance in Feet from Transformer to Breaker Location
Distance in Feet from Transformer to Breaker Location

Chart 9 – 500 kVA Transformer/4.5% Impedance/480 Volts Chart 12 – 1500 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/480 Volts

UTILITY KVA UTILITY KVA

Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)
Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)

30 60
A INFINITE A INFINITE
B 500,000 B 500,000
C 250,000 C 250,000
D 150,000 4 – 750 kcmil D 150,000
25 E 100,000 50 E 100,000
2 – 500 kcmil
F 50,000 250 kcmil F 50,000
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG
20 40
4 – 750 kcmil B
2 – 500 kcmil
250 kcmil
15 B #1/0 AWG 30
#4 AWG F
F

10 20
4 – 750 kcmil
4 – 750 kcmil 2 – 500 kcmil
2 – 500 kcmil 250 kcmil
250 kcmil 10 #1/0 AWG
5 #4 AWG
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG

0 0
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Distance in Feet from Transformer to Breaker Location Distance in Feet from Transformer to Breaker Location

Chart 10 – 750 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/480 Volts Chart 13 – 2000 kVA Transformer/5.5% Impedance/480 Volts

UTILITY KVA UTILITY KVA

Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)

60 4 – 750 kcmil
Fault Current in Thousands of Amperes (Sym.)

30 A INFINITE
A INFINITE 2 – 500 kcmil
B 500,000 250 kcmil B 500,000
C 250,000 #1/0 AWG C 250,000
4 – 750 kcmil D 150,000 B #4 AWG D 150,000
25 50 E 100,000
2 – 500 kcmil E 100,000
250 kcmil F 50,000 F 50,000
#1/0 AWG
#4 AWG
20 40
B
F
F
15 30

4 – 750 kcmil 20 4 – 750 kcmil

10 2 – 500 kcmil 2 – 500 kcmil
250 kcmil 250 kcmil
#1/0 AWG #1/0 AWG
#4 AWG 10 #4 AWG
5

0
0 0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
0 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 Distance in Feet from Transformer to Breaker Location
Distance in Feet from Transformer to Breaker Location

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-30 January 1999

Determining X and R Values From Transformer Loss Data

Determining X and R Values From

Transformer Loss Data
A Method 1: How to Estimate Short Circuit Currents at
Given a 500 kVA, 5.5% Z transformer with Transformer Secondaries:
9000W total loss; 1700W no-load loss; 7300W
Method 1:
load loss and primary voltage of 480V.
To obtain three-phase RMS symmetrical
2 short-circuit current available at transformer
3 ×  -------------------------- × R = 7300 Watts
500
secondary terminals, use the formula:
 
3 × 0.480
100
I sc = I FLC × --------
%R = .0067 ohms %Z

0.0067 × 500 where %Z is the transformer impedance in

%R = ------------------------------
2
- = 1.46%
10 × 0.48 percent, from Table A27, page A-60.

This is the maximum three-phase symmetri-

2 2 cal bolted-fault current, assuming sustained
%X = 5.5 – 1.46 = 5.30%
primary voltage during fault, i.e., an infinite
or unlimited primary power source (zero
Method 2: source impedance). Since the power source
Using same values above. must always have some impedance this a
conservative value; actual fault current will be
2 somewhat less.
I R Losses
%R = --------------------------
10 × kVA Note: This will not include motor short circuit
contribution.
7300 Method 2:
--------------------- = 1.46
10 × 500 Refer to Table A25 in the Reference section,
and use appropriate row of data based on
transformer kVA and primary short circuit
2 2 current available. This will yield more accu-
%X = 5.5 – 1.46 = 5.30%
rate results and allow for including motor
short circuit contribution.
See Tables A31, A32 and A33 on page A-61 for
loss data on transformers.

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-31
January 1999

Voltage Drop

Voltage Drop Calculations To select minimum conductor size:

Voltage Drop Tables➀
Tables for calculating voltage drop for copper 1. Multiply current in amperes by the length
and aluminum conductors, in either magnetic
(steel) or nonmagnetic (aluminum or non-
metallic) conduit, appear on page A-32. These
tables give voltage drop per ampere per 100
feet of circuit length (not conductor length).
Tables are based on the following conditions:
1. Three or four single conductors in a con-
duit, random lay. For three-conductor
cable, actual voltage drop will be approxi-
mately the same for small conductor sizes
and high power factors. Actual voltage
drop will be from 10 to 15% lower for
larger conductor sizes and lower power
factors.
2. Voltage drops are phase-to-phase, for
3-phase, 3-wire or 3-phase, 4-wire 60 Hz
circuits. For other circuits, multiply volt-
age drop given in the tables by the follow-
ing correction factors:
3-phase, 4-wire, phase to neutral x 0.577
1-phase, 2-wire x 1.155
1-phase, 3-wire, phase-to-phase x 1.155
1-phase, 3-wire, phase-to-neutral x 0.577
3. Voltage drops are for a conductor temper-
ature of 75°C. They may be used for
conductor temperatures between 60°C
and 90°C with reasonable accuracy
(within ± 5%). However, correction factors
in the table below can be applied if
desired. The values in the table are in
percent of total voltage drop.
For conductor temperature of 60°C –
SUBTRACT the percentage from Table A11.
To calculate voltage drop:
of the circuit in feet to get ampere-feet
(circuit length, not conductor length).
2. Divide by 100.
3. Multiply by proper voltage drop value in
tables. Result is voltage drop.
Example:
A 460-volt, 100-hp motor, running at 80% pf,
draws 124 amperes full-load current. It is fed
by three 2/0 copper conductors in steel con-
duit. The feeder length is 150 feet. What is the
voltage drop in the feeder? What is the per-
centage voltage drop?
1. 124 amperes x 150 ft = 18,600 ampere-feet
2. Divided by 100 = 186
3. Table: 2/0 copper, magnetic conduit,
80% pf = 0.0187
186 x 0.0187 = 3.48 volts drop
3.48 x 100 = 0.76% drop —
460
4. Conclusion – .76% voltage drop is very
acceptable
1. Determine maximum desired voltage
drop, in volts.
A
2. Divide voltage drop by (amperes x circuit
feet).
3. Multiply by 100.
4. Find nearest lower voltage drop value in
tables, in correct column for type of con-
ductor, conduit, and power factor. Read
conductor size for that value.
5. Where this results in an oversized cable,
verify cable lug sizes for molded case
breakers and fusible switches. Where lug
size available is exceeded, go to next
higher rating.
Example:
A three-phase, four-wire lighting feeder on a
208-volt circuit is 250 feet long. The load is
175 amps at 90% pf. It is desired to use alumi-
num conductors in aluminum conduit. What
size conductor is required to limit the voltage
drop to 2% phase-to-phase?
1. 2 × 208 = 4.16 volts
VD = --------
100
4.16 -
-----------------------
2. 175 × 250 = 0.0000951
3. 0.0000951 × 100 = 0.00951
4. In table, under Aluminum Conductors,
nonmagnetic conduit, 90% pf, the nearest
lower value is 0.0091. Conductor required
is 500 kcmil. (Size 4/0 THW would have
adequate ampacity, but the voltage drop
would be excessive.)

For conductor temperature of 90°C – ADD the

percentage from Table A11.

Table A11: Temperature Correction Factors

for Voltage Drop
Conductor Size Percent Correction
Power Factors
100% 90% 80% 70% 60%
No. 14 to No. 4 5.0 4.7 4.7 4.6 4.6
No. 2 to 3/0 5.0 4.2 3.7 3.5 3.2
4/0 to 500 kcmil 5.0 3.1 2.6 2.3 1.9
600 to 1000 kcmil 5.0 2.6 2.1 1.5 1.3

➀ Busway voltage drop tables are shown in section

H2 of this catalog.

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-32 January 1999

Voltage Drop

Table A12: Voltage Drop

Volts per Ampere per 100 Feet; 3-Phase, Phase-to-Phase
A Copper Conductors
Conductor Magnetic Conduit (Steel) Nonmagnetic Conduit (Aluminum or Nonmetallic)
Size AWG or Load Power Factor, % Load Power Factor, %
kcmil
60 70 80 90 100 60 70 80 90 100
14 .3390 .3910 .4430 .4940 .5410 .3370 .3900 .4410 .4930 .5410
12 .2170 .2490 .2810 .3130 .3410 .2150 .2480 .2800 .3120 .3410
10 .1390 .1590 .1790 .1980 .2150 .1370 .1580 .1780 .1970 .2150
8 .0905 .1030 .1150 .1260 .1350 .0888 .1010 .1140 .1250 .1350
6 .0595 .0670 .0742 .0809 .0850 .0579 .0656 .0730 .0800 .0849
4 .0399 .0443 .0485 .0522 .0534 .0384 .0430 .0473 .0513 .0533
2 .0275 .0300 .0323 .0342 .0336 .0260 .0287 .0312 .0333 .0335
1 .0233 .0251 .0267 .0279 .0267 .0218 .0238 .0256 .0270 .0266
1/0 .0198 .0211 .0222 .0229 .0213 .0183 .0198 .0211 .0220 .0211
2/0 .0171 .0180 .0187 .0190 .0170 .0156 .0167 .0176 .0181 .0169
3/0 .0148 .0154 .0158 .0158 .0136 .0134 .0141 .0147 .0149 .0134
4/0 .0130 .0134 .0136 .0133 .0109 .0116 .0121 .0124 .0124 .0107
250 .0122 .0124 .0124 .0120 .0094 .0107 .0111 .0112 .0110 .0091
300 .0111 .0112 .0111 .0106 .0080 .0097 .0099 .0099 .0096 .0077
350 .0104 .0104 .0102 .0096 .0069 .0090 .0091 .0091 .0087 .0066
500 .0100 .0091 .0087 .0080 .0053 .0078 .0077 .0075 .0070 .0049
600 .0088 .0086 .0082 .0074 .0046 .0074 .0072 .0070 .0064 .0042
750 .0084 .0081 .0077 .0069 .0040 .0069 .0067 .0064 .0058 .0035
1000 .0080 .0077 .0072 .0063 .0035 .0064 .0062 .0058 .0052 .0029

Aluminum Conductors
Conductor Magnetic Conduit (Steel) Nonmagnetic Conduit (Aluminum or Nonmetallic)
Size AWG or Load Power Factor, % Load Power Factor, %
kcmil
60 70 80 90 100 60 70 80 90 100
12 .3296 .3811 .4349 .4848 .5330 .3312 .3802 .4328 .4848 .5331
10 .2133 .2429 .2741 .3180 .3363 .2090 .2410 .2740 .3052 .3363
8 .1305 .1552 .1758 .1951 .2106 .1286 .1534 .1745 .1933 .2115
6 .0898 .1018 .1142 .1254 .1349 .0887 .1011 .1127 .1249 .1361
4 .0595 .0660 .0747 .0809 .0862 .0583 .0654 .0719 .0800 .0849
2 .0403 .0443 .0483 .0523 .0535 .0389 .0435 .0473 .0514 .0544
1 .0332 .0357 .0396 .0423 .0428 .0318 .0349 .0391 .0411 .0428
1/0 .0286 .0305 .0334 .0350 .0341 .0263 .0287 .0322 .0337 .0339
2/0 .0234 .0246 .0275 .0284 .0274 .0227 .0244 .0264 .0274 .0273
3/0 .0209 .0220 .0231 .0241 .0217 .0160 .0171 .0218 .0233 .0222
4/0 .0172 .0174 .0179 .0177 .0170 .0152 .0159 .0171 .0179 .0172
250 .0158 .0163 .0162 .0159 .0145 .0138 .0144 .0147 .0155 .0138
300 .0137 .0139 .0143 .0144 .0122 .0126 .0128 .0133 .0132 .0125
350 .0130 .0133 .0128 .0131 .0100 .0122 .0123 .0119 .0120 .0101
500 .0112 .0111 .0114 .0099 .0076 .0093 .0094 .0094 .0091 .0072
600 .0101 .0106 .0097 .0090 .0063 .0084 .0085 .0085 .0081 .0060
750 .0095 .0094 .0090 .0084 .0056 .0081 .0080 .0078 .0072 .0051
1000 .0085 .0082 .0078 .0071 .0043 .0069 .0068 .0065 .0058 .0038

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-33
January 1999

Voltage Drop

Voltage Drop Considerations until it has cooled. This will require several X-Ray Equipment: Medical X-Ray and similar
minutes. These lighting flicker effects can be diagnostic equipment, such as CAT-scanners,
The first consideration for voltage drop is that
under the steady-state conditions of normal
annoying, and in the case HID lamps, some-
times serious. In areas where close work is
are extremely sensitive to low voltage. They
present a small, steady load to the system
A
load, the voltage at the utilization equipment being done, such as drafting rooms, precision until the instant the X-Ray tube is “fired.” This
must be adequate. Fine-print notes in the NEC assembly plants, and the like, even a slight presents a brief but extremely high instanta-
recommend sizing feeders and branch cir- variation, if repeated, can be very annoying, neous momentary load. In some modern X-
cuits so that the maximum voltage drop in and reduce efficiency. Voltage variation in Ray equipment, the firing is repeated rapidly to
either does not exceed 3%, with the total volt- such areas should be held to 2 or 3% under create multiple images. The voltage regulation
age drop for feeders and branch circuits not to motor-starting or other transient conditions. must be maintained within the manufacturer’s
exceed 5%, for efficiency of operation. (Fine limits, usually 2 to 3%, under these momen-
print notes in the NEC are not mandatory.) Computer Equipment: With the proliferation of tary loads, to ensure proper X-Ray exposure.
data-processing and computer- or micro-
In addition to steady-state conditions, voltage processor-controlled manufacturing, the sensi- Motor Starting: Motor inrush on starting
drop under transient conditions, with sudden tivity of computers to voltage has become an must be limited to minimize voltage dips. The
high-current, short-time loads, must be con- important consideration. Severe dips of short table below will help select the proper type of
sidered. The most common loads of this type duration can cause a computer to “crash” — motor starter for various motors, and to select
are motor inrush currents during starting. shut down completely, and other voltage tran- generators of adequate size to limit voltage dip.
These loads cause a voltage dip on the sys- sients caused by starting and stopping motors See section J4 for additional data on reduced
tem as a result of the voltage drop in conduc- can cause data-processing errors. While volt- voltage motor starting.
tors, transformers, and generators under the age drops must be held to a minimum, in many
high current. This voltage dip can have cases computers will require special power- Where the power is supplied by a utility net-
numerous adverse effects on equipment in conditioning equipment to operate properly. work, the motor inrush can be assumed to be
the system, and equipment and conductors small compared to the system capacity, and
must be designed and sized to minimize these Industrial Plants: Where large motors exist, voltage at the source can be assumed to be
problems. In many cases, reduced-voltage and unit substation transformers are relatively constant during motor starting. Voltage dip
starting of motors to reduce inrush current limited in size, voltage dips of as much as 20% resulting from motor starting can be calculat-
will be necessary. may be permissible in some cases, if they do ed on the basis of the voltage drop in the con-
not occur too frequently. Lighting is often sup- ductors between the power source and the
Recommended Limits of Voltage plied from separate transformers, and is mini- motor resulting from the inrush current.
Variation mally affected by voltage dips in the power Where the utility system is limited, the utility
systems. However, it is usually best to limit will often specify the maximum permissible
General Illumination: Flicker in incandescent dips to between 5 and 10% at most. One criti- inrush current or the maximum hp motor they
lighting from voltage dip can be severe; lu- cal consideration is that a large voltage dip can will permit to be started across-the-line.
men output drops about three times as much cause a dropout (opening) of magnetic motor
as the voltage dips. That is, a 10% drop in contactors and control relays. The actual drop- If the power source is a transformer, and the
voltage will result in a 30% drop in light out- out voltage varies considerably among start- inrush kVA or current of the motor being start-
put. While the lumen output drop in fluores- ers of different manufacturers. The only ed is small compared to the full-rated kVA or
cent lamps is roughly proportional to voltage standard that exists is that of NEMA, which current of the transformer, the transformer
drop, if the voltage dips about 25% the lamp states that a starter must not drop out at 85% voltage dip will be small and may be ignored.
will go out momentarily and then restrike. For of its nominal coil voltage, allowing only a 15% As the motor inrush becomes a significant
high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps such as dip. While most starters will tolerate consider- percentage of the transformer full-load rating,
mercury vapor, high-pressure sodium, or ably more voltage dip before dropping out, an estimate of the transformer voltage drop
metal halide, if the lamp goes out because of limiting dip to 15% is the only way to ensure must be added to the conductor voltage drop
an excessive voltage dip, it will not restrike continuity of operation in all cases. to obtain the total voltage drop to the motor.
Accurate voltage drop calculation would be
Table A13: Factors Governing Voltage Drop
Type of Motor➀ Starting Starting How Starting Starting Torque per Unit of Full Full-Load Amps
Torque Current Started Current Load Torque per kVA Generator
➁ % Full-Load➂ Capacity for Each
1750 Rpm 1150 Rpm 850 Rpm 1% Voltage Drop
Motor Motor➂ Motor
Design B Normal Normal Across-the-Line 600-700 1.5 1.35 1.25 .0109-.00936
Resistance 480-560➁ .96 .87 .80 .0136-.0117
Autotransformer 375-450➁ .96 .87 .80 .0170-.0146
Design C Normal Low Across-the-Line 500-600 1.5 1.35 1.25 .0131-.0109
Resistance 400-480➁ .96 .87 .80 .0164-.01365
Autotransformer 320-400➁ .96 .87 .80 .0205-.0170
Design D High Low Across-the-Line 500-600 .... .2 to 2.5 .... .0131-.0109
Resistance 400-480➁ .... 1.28 to 1.6 .... .0164-.01365
Autotransformer 320-400➁ .... 1.28 to 1.6 .... .0205-.0170
Design E Normal High Across-the-Line 800-1000 .... .... ....
Wound Rotor High Low Secondary Controller 100% current .... .... ....
for 100% .... .... ....
Torque .... .... .... .0655
Synchronous (for compressors) Low .... Across-the-Line 300 40% Starting, 40% Pull-In .0218
Synchronous (for centrifugal pumps) Low .... Across-the-Line 450-550 60% Starting, 110% Pull-In .0145-.0118
Autotransformer 288-350➃ 38% Starting, 110% Pull-In .0228-.0197

➀ Consult NEMA MG-1 sections 1 and 12 for the ➁ In each case, a solid-state reduced voltage starter ➂ Where accuracy is important, request the code let-
exact definition of the design letter. can be adjusted and controlled to provide the re- ter of the the motor and starting and breakdown
quired inrush current and torque characteristics. torques from the motor vendor.
➃ Using 80% taps.

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-34 January 1999

Voltage Drop

complex and depend upon transformer and The choice will depend upon the torque Approximate Method
conductor resistance, reactance, and imped- requirements of the load since the use of an Voltage Drop
A ance, as well as motor inrush current and
power factor. However, an approximation can
autotransformer starter reduces the starting
torque in direct proportion to the reduction in E VD = IR cos θ + IX SIN θ
be made on the basis of the low power-factor starting current. In other words, a NEMA
motor inrush current (30-40%) and imped- design C motor with an autotransformer would where Abbreviations are same as below
ance of the transformer. For example, if a have a starting torque of approximately full- “Exact Method.”
480V transformer has an impedance of 5%, load (see Table A13) whereas the NEMA de-
and the motor inrush current is 25% of the sign D motor under the same conditions would Exact Methods
transformer full-load current (FLC), then volt- have a starting torque of approximately 11/2
age drop will be 0.25 x 5%, or 1.25%. The times full-load. Voltage Drop
allowable motor inrush current is determined
by the total permissible voltage drop in trans- Note: If a resistance starter were used for the Exact Method 1–If sending end voltage and
former and conductors. same motor terminal voltage, the starting load pf are known.
torque would be the same as that obtained
With an engine generator as the source of with autotransformer type, but the starting E VD = E S + IR COS θ +
power, the type of starter that will limit the in- current would be higher, as shown.
rush depends on the characteristics of the
generator. Although automatic voltage regu- Short-Cut Method IX SIN θ – E S2 – ( IXcosθ – IR SIN θ ) 2
lators are usually used with all ac engine-gen-
erators, the initial dip in voltage is caused by Column 7 in Table A13 has been worked out to where:
the inherent regulation of the generator and simplify checking. The figures were obtained EVD = Voltage drop, line-to-neutral, volts
occurs too rapidly for the voltage regulator to by using the formula above and assuming 1 ES = Source voltage, line-to-neutral, volts
respond. It will occur whether or not a regula- kVA generator capacity and 1% voltage drop. I = Line (Load) current, amps
tor is installed. Consequently, the percent of R = Circuit (branch, feeder) resistance,
initial voltage drop depends on the ratio of Example: ohms
the starting kVA taken by the motor to the X = Circuit (branch, feeder) reactance,
generator capacity, the inherent regulation of Assuming a project having a 1000 kVA gener- ohms
the generator, the power-factor of the load ator, where the voltage variation must not COSθ = Power factor of load, decimal
thrown on the generator, and the percentage exceed 10%. Can a 75 hp, 1750 rpm, 220-volt, SINθ = Reactive factor of load, decimal
load carried by the generator. 3-phase, squirrel-cage motor be started with-
out objectionable lamp flicker (or 10% voltage If the receiving end voltage, load current and
A standard 80% power-factor engine-type drop)? power factor (pf) are known.
generator (which would be used where power
is to be supplied to motor loads) has an inher- From tables in the circuit protective devices
2 2
ent regulation of approximately 40% from no- reference section the full-load amperes of this E VD = ( E R cos θ + I R ) +( E R sin θ + I X ) – E R
load to full-load. This means that a 50% varia- size and type of motor is 158.0 amperes. To
tion in load would cause approximately 20% convert to same basis as column 7, 158 Amps ER is the receiving end voltage.
variation in voltage (50% x 40% = 20%). must be divided by the generator
capacity and % voltage drop, or: Exact Method 2–If receiving or sending mVA
Assume that a 100 kVA, 80% pf engine-type and its power factor are known at a known
generator is supplying the power and that the sending or receiving voltage.
voltage drop should not exceed 10%. Can a
158
71/2 hp, 220-volt, 1750 rpm, 3-phase, squirrel- ------------------------ 0.0158 amps per kVA per 1% ZMVA R 2
cage motor be started without exceeding this 1000 × 10 = voltage drop E S 2 = E R 2 + -------------------
E 2 + 2ZMVA R COS ( γ – θ R )
R
voltage drop?
or
Starting ratio = Checking against the table, 0.0158 falls within
the .0170-.0146 range. This indicates that a
Percent voltage drop × gen. kVA × 1000 general-purpose motor with autotransformer ZMVA 2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- R
F.L. amps × volts × 3 × reg. of gen. starting can be used. E 2 = E 2 + -------------------
E – 2ZMVA S COS ( γ – θS )
R S 2
S
The calculation results in conservative where:
From the nameplate data on the motor the results. The engineer should provide to the
engine-generator vendor the starting kVA of ER = Receiving Line-Line voltage in kV
full-load amperes of a 71/2 hp. 220-volt, 1750
rpm, 3-phase, squirrel-cage motor is 19.0 am- all motors that we will be connected to, the ES = Sending Line-Line voltage in kV
peres. Therefore: generator and their starting sequence. The en- MVAR = Receiving 3-phase mVA
gineer should also specify the maximum al- MVAS = Sending 3-phase mVA
Starting current (%F.L.) = lowable drop. The engineer should request Z = Impedance between and
that the engine-generator vendor consider the receiving ends
10 × 100 × 1000 proper generator size when closed- γ = The angle of impedance Z
------------------------------------------------------- = 3.45 or 345%. transition autotransformer reduced voltage θR = Receiving end PF
19.0 × 220 × 3 × 0.40 θS = Sending end PF, positive when
starters, and soft-start solid-state starter are
From Table A13, a NEMA design C or NEMA used; so the most economical method of lagging
design D motor with an autotransformer installation is obtained.
starter gives approximately this starting ratio.
It could also be obtained from a properly set
solid-state adjustable reduced voltage starter.

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-35
January 1999

Capacitor Switching Device Selections

Capacitor Switching Device 6. Rated transient overvoltage factor. of rated capacitor current to provide for over-
Selections current from overvoltages at fundamental
7. Rated transient inrush current and its
frequency.
frequency and harmonic currents. The fol-
lowing percent of the capacitor-rated current
A
Medium-Voltage Capacitor
should be used:
Switching 8. Rated interrupting time.
Fused and unfused switches ................. 165%
Capacitance switching constitutes severe
9. Rated capacitive current switching life. Molded case breaker or equivalent ...... 150%
operating duty for a circuit breaker. At the time
DSII power circuit breakers ................... 135%
the breaker opens at near current zero the
10. Grounding of system and capacitor bank. Magnum DS power circuit breaker....... 135%
capacitor is fully charged. After interruption,
when the alternating voltage on the source
Loadbreak interrupter switches are permitted Contactors:
side of the breaker reaches its opposite maxi-
by ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.30 to switch Open type................................................ 135%
mum, the voltage that appears across the
capacitance but they must have tested ratings Enclosed type ......................................... 150%
contacts of the open circuited breaker is at
least twice the normal line-to-neutral voltage for the purpose. Refer to Cutler-Hammer type
WLI ratings. The NEC, Section 460-8(c)(4), requires the
of the circuit. Due to the circuit constants on
disconnecting means to be rated not less
the supply side of the breaker the voltage
across the open contact can reach three times Low-Voltage Capacitor Switching than 135% of the rated capacitor current (for
600V and below).
the normal line-to-neutral. If a breakdown
occurs across the open contact the arc is Circuit breakers and switches for use with a
reestablished. After it is interrupted and with capacitor must have a current rating in excess
subsequent alternation of the supply side
voltage, the voltage across the open contact Table A14: Recommended Switching Devices➀
is even higher. Capacitor Amperes Capacitor Amperes
Rating Rating
ANSI Standard C37.06 (indoor oilless circuit Volts kvar Capaci- Safety Molded DSII Volts kvar Capaci- Safety Molded DSII
breakers) Table 1A indicates the preferred rat- tor Switch Case Breaker tor Switch Case Breaker
ings of Cutler-Hammer type VCP-W vacuum Rated Fuse Breaker Trip Rated Fuse Breaker Trip
Current Rating Trip Rating Current Rating Trip Rating
breaker. For capacitor switching careful atten- Rating Rating
tion should be paid to the notes accompany- 240 21⁄2 6.0 15 15 15 480 120 144 250 225 200
ing the table. The definition of the terms are in 5 12.0 20 20 20 125 150 250 225 200
ANSI Standard C37.04 Article 5.13 (for the lat- 71⁄2 18.0 30 30 30 150 180 300 300 250
est edition). The application guide ANSI/IEEE 10 24.1 40 40 40 160 192 350 300 300
15 36.1 60 70 50 180 216 400 350 300
Standard C37.012 covers the method of calcu- 20 48.1 80 90 70 200 241 400 400 350
lation of the quantities covered by C37.06 25 60 100 100 90 225 271 500 500 400
Standard. 30 72.2 125 125 100 240 289 500 500 400
45 108 200 175 150 250 301 500 500 400
50 120 200 200 175 300 361 600 600 500
Note that the definitions in C37.04 make the 60 144 250 225 200 320 385 700 600 600
switching of two capacitors banks in close 75 180 300 275 250 360 433 800 700 600
proximity to the switchgear bus a back-to- 90 217 400 350 300 375 451 800 700 600
100 240 400 400 350 400 481 800 800 800
back mode of switching. This classification re- 120 289 500 500 400 450 541 900 900 800
quires a definite purpose circuit breaker 125 301 500 500 450
600 5 4.8 15 15 15
(breakers specifically designed for capaci- 135 325 600 500 500
71⁄2 7.2 15 15 15
150 361 600 600 500
tance switching). 180 433 800 700 600
10 9.6 20 15 15
15 14.4 25 30 20
200 480 800 800 700 20 19.2 35 30 30
We recommend that such application be re- 225 541 900 900 800 25 24.1 40 40 40
ferred to Cutler-Hammer. 240 578 1000 900 800 30 28.9 50 50 40
250 602 1000 900 900 35 33.6 60 50 50
270 650 1200 100 1000 40 38.5 70 70 70
A breaker specified for capacitor switching 300 720 1200 0 1200 45 43.3 80 70 70
should include as applicable. 360 866 1600 .... 1200 50 48.1 80 100 70
375 903 1500 .... 1200 60 57.8 100 100 90
.... 75 72.2 125 125
1. Rated maximum voltage. 100
480 2 2.41 15 15 15 80 77.0 150 125 125
5 6.01 15 15 15 100 96.2 175 150 150
2. Rated frequency. 71⁄2 9.0 15 15 15 120 115 200 175 175
10 12.0 20 20 20 125 120 200 200 175
15 18.0 30 30 30 150 144 250 225 200
3. Rated open wire line charging switching 20 24.0 40 40 40 160 154 300 250 225
current. 25 30.0 50 50 50 180 173 300 300 250
30 36.1 60 70 50 200 192 350 300 300
4. Rated isolated cable charging and shunt 35 42 70 70 60 225 217 400 350 300
40 48.1 80 100 70 240 231 400 350 350
capacitor switching current. 45 54 90 100 80 250 241 400 400 350
50 60.1 100 100 90 300 289 500 500 400
5. Rated back-to-back cable charging and 60 72.2 125 125 100 320 306 600 500 500
75 90.2 150 150 125 360 347 600 600 500
back-to-back capacitor switching current. 80 96.2 175 150 150 375 361 600 600 500
90 108 200 175 150 400 385 700 600 600
100 120 200 200 175 450 433 800 700 600

➀ Switching device ratings are based on percentage
of capacitor-rated current as indicated (above).
The interrupting rating of the switch must be
selected to match the system fault current
available at the point of capacitor application.
Whenever a capacitor bank is purchased with less
than the ultimate kvar capacity of the rack or
enclosure, the switch rating should be selected
based on the ultimate kvar capacity – not the
initial installed capacity.

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-36 January 1999

Motor Power Factor Correction

Motor Power Factor Correction Induction-Motor/Capacitor Application Tables for Motors

(Manufactured in 1956 or Later)
A Tables A15 and A16 contain suggested maxi-
mum capacitor ratings for induction motors
230-, 460- and 575-Volt Motors

switched with the capacitor. The data is gen- Table A15: NEMA Design B–Normal Starting Torque and Current
eral in nature and representative of general Induction- Nominal Motor Speed in Rpm and Number of Poles
purpose induction motors of standard design. Motor
Horse- 3600 1800 1200 900 720 600
The preferable means to select capacitor rat- 2 4 6 8 10 12
ings is based on the “maximum recommend- power
Rating kvar % AR kvar % AR kvar % AR kvar % AR kvar % AR kvar % AR
ed kvar” information available from the
motor manufacturer. If this is not possible or 5 2 13 2 17 3 23 3 28 4 36 5 49
71⁄2 21⁄2 13 3 16 3 19 4 25 6 33 71⁄2 46
feasible, the tables can be used. 10 3 12 3 14 4 18 5 24 6 30 10 39
15 5 11 5 14 5 17 71⁄2 21 71⁄2 27 10 34
An important point to remember is that if the 20 6 10 6 13 71⁄2 16 71⁄2 20 10 25 15 31
capacitor used with the motor is too large, 25 7.5 10 6 13 71⁄2 16 10 19 10 23 20 31
self-excitation may cause a motor-damaging 30 7.5 10 7.5 12 10 16 10 18 15 21 20 28
overvoltage when the motor and capacitor 40 7.5 10 10 11 15 15 15 18 15 20 25 28
50 10 10 15 11 20 15 20 18 20 19 30 28
combination is disconnected from the line. In 60 10 9 15 11 25 14 20 17 25 19 35 27
addition, high transient torques capable of 75 15 9 20 10 25 13 25 14 30 16 40 19
damaging the motor shaft or coupling can 100 20 9 25 10 30 11 30 13 35 15 45 17
occur if the motor is reconnected to the line 125 25 9 30 9 30 11 40 13 40 14 50 17
while rotating and still generating a voltage of 150 25 9 30 9 35 11 45 12 50 13 60 17
200 35 9 40 9 50 10 60 12 70 13 80 17
self-excitation.
250 40 9 50 8 60 10 70 12 80 12 100 17
300 45 9 60 8 70 10 80 12 90 12 110 17
Definitions 350 50 9 70 7 80 10 100 12 100 12 125 16
kvar—rating of the capacitor in reactive 400 70 8 70 7 80 10 110 12 125 12 150 16
kilovolt-amperes. This value is approximately 450 75 7 80 7 100 9 120 11 125 12 150 16
equal to the motor no-load magnetizing 500 90 7 90 7 120 9 125 11 140 12 175 16
kilovars.

% AR—percent reduction in line current due Table A16: Design C–High Starting Torque, Normal Current
to the capacitor. A capacitor located on the Induction- Nominal Motor Speed in Rpm and Number of Poles
motor side of the overload relay reduces line Motor 1800 1200 900 720
Horsepower
current through the relay. Therefore, a differ- Rating 4 6 8 10
ent overload relay and/or setting may be nec- kvar % AR kvar % AR kvar % AR kvar % AR
essary. The reduction in line current may be 5 2 18 21⁄2 23 4 29 ... ..
determined by measuring line current with 71⁄2 3 18 3 19 4 25 ... ..
and without the capacitor or by calculation as 10 3 15 4 17 5 22 ... ..
follows: 15 4 15 5 17 71⁄2 20 ... ..
20 4 15 5 17 1
7 ⁄2 19 ... ..
25 5 13 5 15 10 19 ... ..
(Original Pf) 30 5 13 71⁄2 15 10 19 20 23
% AR = 100 – 100 × ---------------------------------- 40 10 13 10 15 15 18 ... ..
(Improved Pf) 50 15 13 10 15 20 18 25 23
60 15 12 20 15 25 18 25 23
If a capacitor is used with a lower kVAR rating 75 20 11 20 13 30 17 35 23
100 25 10 25 12 40 17 40 17
than listed in tables, the % AR can be calcu- 125 30 10 35 11 40 14 45 16
lated as follows: 150 35 9 40 10 45 13 50 12
200 45 9 50 10 60 13 60 12
Actual kvar 250 50 8 60 10 70 13 75 12
% AR = Listed % AR × ---------------------------------- 300 60 8 70 10 80 12 80 12
kvar in Table 350 70 8 75 9 90 12 100 12

The tables can also be used for other motor
ratings as follows:
A. For standard 60 Hz motors operating at
50 Hz:
Kvar = 1.7 – 1.4 of kVAR listed
% AR = 1.8 – 1.35 of % AR listed
B. For standard 50 Hz motors operating at
50 Hz:
Kvar = 1.4 – 1.1 of kvar listed
% AR = 1.4 – 1.05 of % AR listed
C. For standard 60 Hz wound-rotor motors:
Kvar = 1.1 of kvar listed
% AR = 1.05 of % AR listed
Note: For A, B, C, the larger multipliers apply
for motors of higher speeds; i.e., 3600 rpm
= 1.7 mult., 1800 rpm = 1.65 mult., etc.
D. To derate a capacitor used on a system
voltage lower than the capacitor voltage
rating, such as a 240-volt capacitor used
on a 208-volt system, use the following
formula:
Actual kvar =
( Applied Voltage ) 2
Nameplate kvar × -------------------------------------------------------
( Nameplate Voltage ) 2
For the kVac required to correct the power fac-
tor from a given value of COS φ1 to COS φ2, the
formula is:
kVAC = KW (tan ø1 - tan φ2)
Capacitors cause a voltage rise. At light load
periods the capacitive voltage rise can raise
the voltage at the location of the capacitors to
an unacceptable level. This voltage rise can
be calculated approximately by the formula
kVAC X S
% VR = ---------------------
kVA B
XS is the impedance of the circuit elements
from the utility to the location of the capaci-
tors. kVAB is the base kVA.
With the introduction of variable speed drives
and other harmonic current generating loads,
the capacitor impedance value determined
must not be resonant with the inductive reac-
tances of the system. This matter is discussed
further under the heading “Harmonics and
Non-Linear Loads.”

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-37
January 1999

Overcurrent Protection and Coordination

Overcurrent Protection
SCALE X 100 = CURRENT IN AMPERES AT 480 VOLTS
and Coordination
A

10,000
1000

2000

3000

4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
100

200

300

400
500
600
700
800
900
70
80
90
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60
1000 1000
900 900
Overcurrents in a power distribution system 800
700
4.16 kV 250 MVA 800
700
can occur as a result of both normal (motor 600 600
500 500
starting, transformer inrush, etc.) and abnormal 400 400
(ground fault, line-to-line fault, etc.) condi- 300 B 300
tions. In either case, the fundamental purposes D
A
of current-sensing protective devices are to 200
C
200

detect the abnormal overcurrent and with

D
proper coordination, to operate selectively to 100 250 Amps 100
90 90
protect equipment, property and personnel 80 1000 80
70 70
while minimizing the outage of the remainder 60
kVA 4,160 V ∆ 60
50
5.75% 480/277 V
of the system. With the increase in electric 40
50

19,600 Amps 40
power consumption over the past few decades, ANSI 3-Phase
30 Thru Fault 30
dependence on the continued supply of this Protection Curve
power has also increased so that the direct 20 (More Than 10 in C 1,600 Amps 20
Lifetime)
costs of power outages have risen significantly.
Power outages can create dangerous and 24,400 Amps
10
B 10
9 9
unsafe conditions as a result of failure of 8
600 Amps 8
7 7
lighting, elevators, ventilation, fire pumps, M

TIME IN SECONDS
TIME IN SECONDS

6 6

security systems, communications systems, 5

4
20,000 Amps
5
4
and the like. In addition, economic loss from 3 3
outages can be extremely high as a result of A 175 Amps
computer downtime, or, especially in indus- 2 B C 2

trial process plants, interruption of production.

1 1
.9 .9
Protective equipment must be adjusted and .8 100 Hp – .8
.7 M 124 Amps FLC .7
maintained in order to function properly .6 .6

when a current abnormality occurs, but coor- .5

.4 X = Available fault current
.5
.4
dination begins during power system design including motor
.3 contribution. .3
with the knowledgeable analysis and selection Ground
and application of each overcurrent protective .2 Fault Trip .2

device in the series circuit from the power C

source(s) to each load apparatus. The objective .1 .1
of coordination is to localize the overcurrent .09
.08
.09
.08
.07 .07
disturbance so that the protective device closest .06
B
Transformer .06
Inrush
to the fault on the power-source side has the .05 .05
.04 .04
first chance to operate; but each preceding

4.16 kV Fault
.03 .03
protective device upstream toward the power A
480V Fault
source should be capable, within its designed

Max. 3Ø
.02 .02

settings of current and time, to provide back-up

Max.

and effect the isolation if the fault persists. .01 .01

Sensitivity of coordination is the degree to
70
80
90
100

200

300

400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

2000

3000

4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10,000
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60

which the protective devices can minimize
the damage to the faulted equipment.
To study and accomplish coordination
requires a: (a) one-line diagram, the roadmap
of the power distribution system, showing all
protective devices and the major or important
distribution and utilization apparatus, (b)
identification of desired degrees of power
continuity or criticality of loads throughout
system, (c) definition of operating-current
characteristics (normal, peak, starting) of
each utilization circuit, (d) calculation of max-
imum short-circuit currents (and ground fault
currents if ground fault protection is included)
possible at each protective device location,
(e) understanding of operating characteristics
and available adjustments of each protective
device, (f) any special overcurrent protection
requirements including utility limitations.
Standard definitions have been established
for overcurrent protective devices covering
ratings, operation and application systems.
SCALE X 100 = CURRENT IN AMPERES AT 480 VOLTS
Time-Current Characteristic Curves for Typical Power Distribution System Protective Devices
Coordination Analysis.
M—Motor (100 hp). Dashed line shows initial devices. Curve converted to 480V basis.
inrush current, starting current during 9-sec Clears transformer inrush point (12 x FLC for
acceleration, and drop to 124A normal run- 0.1 sec), indicating that fuse will not blow on
ning current, all well below CB A trip curve. inrush. Clears ANSI 3φ withstand curve, indi-
cating fuse will protect transformer for full
A—CB (175A) coordinates selectively with duration of faults up to ANSI rating.
motor M on starting and running and with all
upstream devices, except that CB B will trip Delta-Wye secondary side short circuit is not
first on ground faults. reflected to the primary by the relation
B—CB (600A) coordinates selectively with VS
I P = ------- × I S
all upstream and downstream devices, except VP
will trip before A on limited ground faults,
since A has no ground fault trips. for L-L and L-G faults. For line-to-line fault the
secondary (low voltage) side fault current is
C—Main CB (1600A) coordinates selectively 0.866 x I 3φ fault current.
with all downstream devices and with primary
fuse D, for all faults on load side of CB. However the primary (high voltage) side fault
is the same as if the secondary fault was a
D—Primary fuse (250A, 4,160V) coordinates three-phase fault. Therefore in close,
selectively with all secondary protective

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design
A-38
Overcurrent Protection and Coordination
coordination studies the knee of the short-
time pick-up setting should be multiplied by
A breakers with integral fuses, not only are
1 - or 1.1547
------------
0.866
before it is compared to the minimum melting
time of the fuse curve. In the example shown,
4000 Amps 30 sec., the 30-sec. trip time should
be compared to the MMT (minimum melt
time) of the fuse curve at 4000 x 1.1547 = 4619
Amps. In this case there is adequate clearance
to the fuse curve.
In the example shown the ANSI 3ø thru fault
protection curve must be multiplied by 0.577
and replotted in order to determine the pro-
tection given by the primary for single line to
ground fault in the secondary.
Maximum 480V 3φ fault indicated.
Maximum 4160V 3φ fault indicated, converted
to 480V basis.
4160
I 480V = I 4160V × -----------
480
The ANSI protection curves are specified in
ANSI C57.12.109 for liquid-filled transformers
and C57.12.59 for dry-type transformers.
Illustrative examples such as shown here start
the coordination study from the lowest rated
device proceeding upstream. In practice the
setting or rating of the utility’s protective de-
vice sets the upper limit. Even in cases where
the customer owns the medium-voltage or
higher distribution system, the setting or rating
of the lowest set protective device source
determines the settings of the downstream
devices and the coordination. Therefore the
coordination study should start at the present
setting or rating of the upstream device and
work towards the lowest rated device. If this
procedure results in unacceptable settings, the
setting or rating of the upstream device should
be reviewed. Where the utility is the sole
source they should be consulted. Where the
owner has its own medium or higher voltage
distribution the settings or ratings of all
upstream devices should be checked.
If perfect coordination is not feasible, then
lack of coordination should be limited to the
smallest part of the system.
Application data is available for all protective
equipment to permit systems to be designed
for adequate overcurrent protection and co-
ordination. For circuit breakers of all types,
time-current curves permit selection of in-
stantaneous and inverse-time trips. For more
complex circuit breakers, with solid-state trip
units, trip curves include long- and short-time
delays, as well as ground-fault tripping, with
a wide range of settings and features to pro-
vide selectivity and coordination. For current-
limiting circuit breakers, fuses, and circuit
time-current characteristic curves available,
but also data on current-limiting performance
and protection for downstream devices.
In a fully rated system, all circuit breakers
must have an interrupting capacity adequate
for the maximum available fault current at
their point of application. All breakers are
equipped with long-time-delay (and possibly
short delay) and instantaneous overcurrent
trip devices. A main breaker may have short
time-delay tripping to allow a feeder breaker
to isolate the fault while power is maintained
to all the remaining feeders.
A selective or fully coordinated system per-
mits maximum service continuity. The trip-
ping characteristics of each overcurrent
device in the system must be selected and set
so that the breaker nearest the fault opens to
isolate the faulted circuit, while all other
breakers remain closed, continuing power to
the entire unfaulted part of the system. All
breakers must have an interrupting capacity
not less than the maximum available short-
circuit current at their point of application. A
selective system is a fully-rated system with
tripping devices chosen and adjusted to pro-
vide the desired selectivity. The tripping char-
acteristics of each overcurrent device should
not overlap, but should maintain a minimum
time interval for devices in series (to allow for
normal operating tolerances) at all current val-
ues. Generally, a maximum of four low-volt-
age circuit breakers can be operated
selectively in series, with the feeder or branch
breaker downstream furthest from the source.
Specify true rms sensing devices in order to
avoid false trips due to rapid currents or
spikes. Specify tripping elements with I2t or
I4t feature for improved coordination with
other devices having I2t or I4t (such as OPTIM
trip units) characteristics, and fuses.
In general for systems such as shown in the
example:
1. The settings or ratings of the primary side
fuse and main breaker must not exceed
the settings allowed by NEC Article 450.
2. At 12 x IFL the minimum melting time
characteristic of the fuse should be higher
than 0.1 second.
3. The primary fuse should be to the left of
the transformer damage curve as much as
possible. The correction factor for a single
line-to-ground factor must be applied to
the damage curve.
4. The setting of the short-time delay element
must be checked against the fuse MMT
after it is corrected for line-to-line faults.
5. The maximum fault current must be indi-
cated at the load side of each protective
device.
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
6. The setting of a feeder protective device
must comply with Article 240 and Article
430 of the NEC. It also must allow the
starting and acceleration of the largest
motor on the feeder while carrying all the
other loads on the feeder.
Trip elements equipped with zone selective
feature, trip without intentional time delay
unless a restraint signal is received from a
protective device downstream. Breakers
equipped with this feature mainly reduce the
damage at the point of fault if the fault occurs
at a location between the zone of protection.
The upstream breaker upon receipt of the re-
straint signal will not trip until its time-delay
setting times out. If the breaker immediately
downstream of the fault does not open, then
after timing out, the upstream breaker will trip.
Breakers equipped with ground fault trip ele-
ments should also be specified to include zone
interlocking for the ground fault trip element.
To assure complete coordination, the time-trip
characteristics of all devices in series should be
plotted on a single sheet of standard log-log
paper. Devices of different-voltage systems can
be plotted on the same sheet by converting
their current scales, using the voltage ratios, to
the same voltage basis. Such a coordination
plot is shown on page A-37. In this manner, pri-
mary fuses and circuit breaker relays on the pri-
mary side of a substation transformer can be
coordinated with the low-voltage breakers.
Transformer damage points, based on ANSI
standards, and low-voltage cable heating limits
can be plotted on this set of curves to assure
that apparatus limitations are not exceeded.
Ground-fault curves may also be included in
the coordination study if ground-fault protec-
tion is provided, but care must be used in
interpreting their meaning.
Article 230-95 of NEC requires ground-fault
protection of equipment shall be provided for
solidly grounded wye electrical services of
more than 150 volts to ground, but not exceed-
ing 600 volts phase-to-phase for each service
disconnect rated 1000 amperes or more.
The rating of the service disconnect shall be
considered to be the rating of the largest fuse
that can be installed or the highest continuous
current trip setting for which the actual overcur-
rent device installed in a circuit breaker is rated
or can be adjusted.”
The maximum allowable settings are: 1200
Amps pickup, 1 second or less trip delay at cur-
rents of 3000 Amps or greater.
The characteristics of the ground-fault trip
elements create coordination problems with
downstream devices not equipped with
ground fault protection. The National Electric
Code exempts fire pumps and continuous
industrial processes from this requirement.
CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
It is recommended that in solidly grounded
480/277-volt systems where main breakers
are equipped with ground fault trip elements
that the feeder breakers be equipped with
ground-fault trip elements as well.
Suggested Ground Fault Settings
For the main devices, a ground fault pickup
setting equal to 20-30% of the main breaker
rating but not to exceed 1200 amperes and a
time delay equal to the delay of the short time
element, but not to exceed 1 second.
For the feeder ground fault setting, a setting
equal to 20-30% of the feeder ampacity and a
time delay to coordinate with the setting of
the main (at least 6 cycles below the main).
If the desire to selectively coordinate ground
fault devices results in settings which do not
offer adequate damage protection against
arcing single line-ground faults, the design
engineer should decide between coordina-
tion and damage limitation.
For low-voltage systems with high-magnitude
available short-circuit currents, common in
urban areas and large industrial installations,
several solutions are available. Current-limiting
CAT.71.01.T.E
Power Distribution System Design
Overcurrent Protection and Coordinaton
fuses can be used in fused switch assemblies,
or as limiters integral with molded-case circuit
breakers (Tri-Pac) or mounted on power circuit
breakers (type DSLII) or high interrupting
Series C molded case breakers to handle these
large fault currents. To provide current limiting,
these fuses must clear the fault completely
within the first half-cycle, limiting the peak cur-
rent (Ip) and heat energy (I2t) let-through to con-
siderably less than what would have occurred
without the fuse. For a fully fusible system,
rule-of-thumb fuse ratios or more accurate I2t
curves can be used to provide selectivity and
coordination. For fuse-breaker combinations,
the fuse should be selected (coordinated) so as
to permit the breaker to handle those overloads
and faults within its capacity; the fuse should
operate before or with the breaker only on large
faults, approaching the interrupting capacity of
the breaker, to minimize fuse blowing. Recent-
ly, unfused, truly current-limiting circuit break-
ers with interrupting ratings adequate for the
largest systems (type Series C, FDC, JDC, KDC,
LDC and NDC frames or type Current-Limit-R)
have become available.
Any of these current-limiting devices – fuses,
fused breakers, or current-limiting breakers –
can not only clear these large faults safely,
A-39
but also will limit the Ip and I2t let through
significantly to prevent damage to apparatus
downstream, extending their zone of protec-
tion. Without the current limitation of the up-
A
stream device, the fault current could exceed
the withstand capability of the downstream
equipment. Underwriters Laboratories tests
and lists these series combinations. Applica-
tion information is available for combinations
which have been tested and UL-listed for safe
operation downstream from DSLII, Tri-Pac,
and Current-Limit-R, or Series C breakers of
various ratings, under high available fault
currents.
Protective devices in electrical distribution
systems may be properly coordinated when
the systems are designed and built, but that is
no guarantee that they will remain coordinated.
System changes and additions, plus power
source changes, frequently modify the pro-
tection requirements, sometimes causing
loss of coordination and even increasing fault
currents beyond the ratings of some devices.
Consequently, periodic study of protective-
device settings and ratings is as important for
safety and preventing power outages as is
periodic maintenance of the distribution system.
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-40 January 1999

Grounding

Grounding
A Grounding encompasses several different
but interrelated aspects of electrical distribu-
tion system design and construction, all of
which are essential to the safety and proper
operation of the system and equipment sup-
plied by it. Among these are equipment
grounding, system grounding, static and light-
ning protection, and connection to earth as a
reference (zero) potential.
1. Equipment Grounding
Equipment grounding is essential to safety
of personnel. Its function is to insure that all
exposed noncurrent-carrying metallic parts
of all structures and equipment in or near the
electrical distribution system are at the same
potential, and that this is the zero reference
potential of the earth. Grounding is required
by both the National Electrical Code (Article
250) and the National Electrical Safety Code.
Equipment grounding also provides a return
path for ground fault currents, permitting
protective devices to operate. Accidental con-
tact of an energized conductor of the system
with an improperly grounded noncurrent-
carry metallic part of the system (such as a
motor frame or panelboard enclosure) would
raise the potential of the metal object above
ground potential. Any person coming in con-
tact with such an object while grounded could
be seriously injured or killed. In addition, cur-
rent flow from the accidental grounding of an
energized part of the system could generate
sufficient heat (often with arcing) to start a
fire. To prevent the establishment of such un-
safe potential difference requires that (1) the
equipment grounding conductor provide a
return path for ground fault currents of suffi-
ciently low impedance to prevent unsafe volt-
age drop, and (2) the equipment grounding
conductor be large enough to carry the maxi-
mum ground fault current, without burning
off, for sufficient time to permit protective de-
vices (ground fault relays, circuit breakers,
fuses) to clear the fault. The grounded con-
ductor of the system (usually the neutral con-
ductor), although grounded at the source,
must not be used for equipment grounding.
The equipment grounding conductor may be
the metallic conduit or raceway of the wiring
system, or a separate equipment grounding
conductor, run with the circuit conductors, as
permitted by NEC. If a separate equipment
grounding conductor is used, it may be bare or
insulated; if insulated, the insulation must be
green. Conductors with green insulation may
not be used for any purpose other than for
equipment grounding.
The equipment grounding system must be
bonded to the grounding electrode at the
source or service; however, it may be also
connected to ground at many other points.
This will not cause problems with the safe
operation of the electrical distribution system.
Where computers, data processing, or micro-
processor-based industrial process control
systems are installed, the equipment grounding
system must be designed to minimize inter-
ference with their proper operation. Often,
isolated grounding of this equipment, or
completely isolated electrical supply systems
are required to protect micro-processors from
power system “noise” that does not in any
way affect motors or other electrical equipment.
2. System Grounding
System grounding connects the electrical
supply, from the utility, from transformer sec-
ondary windings, or from a generator, to
ground. A system can be solidly grounded
(no intentional impedance to ground), imped-
ance grounded (through a resistance or reac-
tance), or ungrounded (with no intentional
connection to ground).

3. Medium-Voltage System – Grounding

Table A17: Features of Ungrounded and Grounded Systems (from ANSI C62.92)
A B C D E
Ungrounded Solidly Grounded Reactance Grounded Resistance Grounded Resonant Grounded
(1) Apparatus Fully insulated Lowest Partially graded Partially graded Partially graded
Insulation
(2) Fault to Usually low Maximum value rarely Cannot satisfactorily be Low Negligible except when
Ground Current higher than three-phase reduced below one-half or Petersen coil is short
short circuit current one-third of values for circuited for relay
solid grounding purposes when it may
compare with solidly-
grounded systems
(3) Stability Usually unimportant Lower than with other Improved over solid Improved over solid Is eliminated from
methods but can be made grounding particularly if grounding particularly if consideration during
satisfactory by use of used at receiving end of used at receiving end of single line-to-ground
high-speed breakers system system faults unless neutralizer is
short circuited to isolate
fault by relays
(4) Relaying Difficult Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory Requires special
provisions but can be
made satisfactory
(5) Arcing Likely Unlikely Possible if reactance is ex- Unlikely Unlikely
Grounds cessive
(6) Localizing Effect of fault transmitted Effect of faults localized to Effect of faults localized to Effect of faults transmitted Effect of faults transmitted
Faults as excess voltage on system or part of system system or part of system as excess voltage on as excess voltage on
sound phases to all parts where they occur where they occur unless sound phases to all parts sound phases to all parts
of conductively connected reactance is quite high of conductively connected of conductively connected
network network network
(7) Double Likely Likely Unlikely unless Unlikely unless Seem to be more likely
Faults reactance is quite high resistance is quite high but conclusive information
and insulation weak and insulation weak not available
(8) Lightning Ungrounded neutral Highest efficiency and If resistance is very high Arresters for ungrounded, Ungrounded neutral
Protection service arresters must be lowest cost arresters for ungrounded neutral service usually service arresters must
applied at sacrifice in cost neutral service must be must be applied at be applied at sacrifice
and efficiency applied at sacrifice in cost sacrifice in cost and in cost and efficiency
and efficiency efficiency

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-41
January 1999

Grounding

Table A17: Features of Ungrounded and Grounded Systems (Continued)

A B C D E
Ungrounded Solidly Grounded Reactance Grounded Resistance Grounded Resonant Grounded A
(9) Telephone Will usually be low Will be greatest in Will be reduced from Will be reduced from Will be low in magnitude
Interference except in cases of double magnitude due to higher solidly grounded values solidly grounded values except in cases of double
faults or electrostatic fault currents but can faults or series resonance
induction with neutral be quickly cleared at harmonic frequencies,
displaced but duration particularly with high but duration may be great
may be great speed breakers
(10) Ratio May be quite high during Minimum Greater than for solidly Greater than for solidly May be high during faults
Interference faults or when neutral is grounded, when faults grounded, when faults
displayed occur occur
(11) Line Will inherently clear Must be isolated for each Must be isolated for each Must be isolated for each Need not be isolated but
Availability themselves if total length fault fault fault will inherently clear itself
of interconnected line is in about 60 to 80 percent
low and require isolation of faults
from system in increasing
percentages as length
becomes greater
(12) Adaptability to Cannot be interconnected Satisfactory indefinitely Satisfactory indefinitely Satisfactory with solidly- Cannot be interconnected
Interconnection unless interconnecting with reactance-grounded with solidly-grounded or reactance-grounded unless interconnected
system is ungrounded or systems systems systems with proper system is resonant
isolating transformers are attention to relaying grounded or isolating
used transformers are used.
Requires coordination
between interconnected
systems in neutralizer
settings
(13) Circuit Interrupting capacity Same interrupting Interrupting capacity Interrupting capacity Interrupting capacity
Breakers determined by capacity as required for determined by determined by determined by
three-phase conditions three-phase short circuit three-phase fault three-phase fault three-phase fault
will practically always be conditions conditions conditions
satisfactory
(14) Operating Ordinarily simple but Simple Simple Simple Taps on neutralizers must
Procedure possibility of double be changed when major
faults introduces system switching is per-
complication in times formed and difficulty may
of trouble arise in interconnected
systems. Difficult to tell
where faults are located
(15) Total Cost High, unless conditions Lowest Intermediate Intermediate Highest unless the are
are such that arc tends to suppressing characteristic
extinguish itself, when is relied on to eliminate
transmission circuits may transmission circuits when
be eliminated, reducing it may be lowest for the
total cost particular types of service

Because the method of grounding affects the X1, R0/X1 may exceed the defining limits.
voltage rise of the unfaulted phases above Other standards (cable and lightning arrester)
ground, ANSI C62.92 classifies systems from allow the use of 100% rated cables and arrest-
the point of view of grounding in terms of a ers selected on the basis of an effectively
coefficient of grounding grounded system only where the criteria in
the above are met. In effectively grounded
system the line-to-ground fault current is
Highest Power Frequency
high and there is no significant voltage rise in
Rms Line - Ground Voltage the unfaulted phases.
COG = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Rms Line - Line Voltage at Fault
Location With the Fault Removed With selective ground fault isolation the fault
current will be at 60% of the three-phase current
at the point of fault. Damage to cable shields
This same standard also defines systems as must be checked. Although this fact is not a
effectively grounded when COG ≤ .8 such a problem except in small cables. It is a good idea
system would have X0/X1 ≤ 3.0 and R0/X1 ≤ to supplement the cable shields as returns of
1.0. Any other grounding means that does not ground fault current to prevent damage.
satisfy these conditions at any point in a sys-
tem is not effectively grounded. The burdens on the current transformers
must be checked also, where residually con-
The aforementioned definition is of signifi- nected ground relays are used and the cts
cance in medium voltage distribution sys- supply current to phase relays and meters.
tems with long lines and with grounded
sources removed during light load periods so If ground sensor current transformers are
that in some locations in the system the X0/ used they must be of high burden capacity.
Table A18 taken from ANSI-C62.92 indicates
the characteristics of the various methods of
grounding.
Reactance Grounding
It is generally used in the grounding of the
neutrals of generators directly connected to
the distribution system bus, in order to limit
the line-to-ground fault to somewhat less
than the three-phase fault at the generator
terminals. If the reactor is so sized in all prob-
ability the system will remain effectively
grounded.
Resistance Grounded
Medium-voltage systems in general are low
resistance grounded. The fault is limited from
25-20% of the three-phase fault value down
to about 200A-400A. With a properly sized re-
sistor and relaying application, selective fault
isolation is feasible. The fault limit provided has
a bearing on whether residually connected re-
lays are used or ground sensor current trans-
formers are used for ground fault relaying.

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-42 January 1999

Grounding

Table A18: Characteristics of Grounding 4. Low-Voltage System – Grounding

A Grounding Classes
and Means
Ratios of Symmetrical
Component Parameters➀
Percent Fault Per Unit Transient
Current LG Voltage Solidly-grounded three-phase systems (Fig. 1)
are usually wye-connected, with the neutral
X0/X1 R0/X1 R0/X0 ➁ ➂
A. Effectively ➃ point grounded. Less common is the “red-
1. Effective 0-3 0-1 -- >60 ≤2 leg” or high-leg delta, a 240V system sup-
2. Very effective 0-1 0-0.1 -- >95 <1.5 plied by some utilities with one winding cen-
B. Noneffectively ter-tapped to provide 120V to ground for
1. Inductance lighting. This 240V, 3-phase, 4-wire system is
a. Low inductance 3-10 0-1 >25 <2.3 used where 120V lighting load is small com-
b. High inductance >10 <2 <25 ≤2.73 pared to 240V power load, because the instal-
2. Resistance lation is low in cost to the utility. A corner-
a. Low resistance 0-10 ≥2 <25 <2.5 grounded three-phase delta system is some-
b. High resistance >100 ≤(-1) <1 ≤2.73 times found, with one phase grounded to sta-
3. Inductance and >10 -- >2
resistance <10 ≤2.73
bilize all voltages to ground. Better solutions
4. Resonant ➄ -- <1 ≤2.73 are available for new installations.
5. Ungrounded/capacitance
a. Range A -∞ to -40➅ -- -- <8 ≤3 Ungrounded systems (Fig. 2) can be either
b. Range B -40 to 0 -- -- >8 >3 ➆ wye or delta, although the ungrounded delta
system is far more common.
In general, where residually connected relays acceptable; for indefinite operation, as long
are used, the fault current at each grounded as necessary, 173% insulation is required.
• ∅A
source should not be limited to less than the
current transformers rating of the source. Grounding Point ∅B
This rule will provide sensitive differential The most commonly used grounding point is
• • ∅C
protection for wye-connected generators and the neutral of the system or the neutral point Ungrounded Delta
transformers against line-to-ground faults created by means of a zigzag or a wye-broken
near the neutral. Of course, if the installation delta grounding transformer in a system which ∅A
of ground fault differential protection is feasi- was operating as an ungrounded delta system. • • • ∅B
ble, or ground sensor current transformers N
are used, sensitive differential relaying in In general, it is a good practice that all source • ∅C
resistance grounded system with greater neutrals be grounded with the same grounding Ungrounded Wye
fault limitation is feasible. In general, ground impedance. Where one of the medium-
sensor current transformers do not have high voltage sources is the utility, their consent for Figure 2. Ungrounded Systems
burden capacity. Resistance grounded impedance grounding must be obtained.
systems limit the circulating currents of triple
harmonics and limit the damage at the point The neutral impedance must have a voltage ∅A
• • • ∅B
of fault. This method of grounding is not suit- rating at least equal to the rated line-to-neutral
N
able for line-to-neutral connection of loads. voltage class of the system. It must have at R • ∅C
least a 10-second rating equal to the maxi-
On medium-voltage systems, 100% cable in- mum future line-to-ground fault current and a
sulation is rated for phase-to-neutral voltage. continuous rating to accommodate the triple
harmonics that may be present. Resistance-Grounded Wye
If continued operation with one phase faulted
to ground is desired, increased insulation
• • ∅A
thickness is required. For 100% insulation,
fault clearance is recommended within one ∅A • • • ∅B
minute; for 133% insulation, one hour is • • • ∅B ∅C
•
N •
• ∅C •
N
➀ Values of the coefficient of grounding (expressed • Neutral R •
as a percentage of maximum phase-to-phase
voltage) corresponding to various combination of Grounded Wye
these ratios are shown in the ANSI C62.92 Appen-
dix figures. Coefficient of grounding affects the Delta With Derived Neutral Resistance-
• ∅B
selection of arrester ratings. Grounded Using Zig-Zag Transformer
➁ Ground-fault current in percentage of the three-
phase short-circuit value. • • • ∅C
∅A Figure 3. Resistance-Grounded Systems
➂ Transient line-to-ground voltage, following the
sudden initiation of a fault in per unit of the crest • Neutral
Resistance-grounded systems (Fig. 3) are
of the prefault line-to-ground operating voltage for
a simple, linear circuit. simplest with a wye connection, grounding
Center-Tapped (High-Leg) Delta
➃ In linear circuits, Class A1 limits the fundamental the neutral point directly through the resistor.
line-to-ground voltage on an unfaulted phase to Delta systems can be grounded by means
• ∅A
138% of the prefault voltage; Class A2 to less than of a zig-zag or other grounding transformer.
110%. Wye broken delta transformer banks may
• • ∅B
➄ See ANSI 62.92 para. 7.3 and precautions given in ∅C also be used.
application sections. •
➅ Usual isolated neutral (ungrounded) system for
which the zero-sequence reactance is capacitive
This derives a neutral point, which can be
Corner-Grounded Delta
(negative). either solidly or impedance grounded. If the
➆ Same as NOTE (6) and refer to ANSI 62.92 para. grounding transformer has sufficient capacity,
Figure 1. Solidly-Grounded Systems
7.4. Each case should be treated on its own merit. the neutral created can be solidly grounded
and used as part of a three-phase, four-wire

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
system. Most transformer-supplied systems
are either solidly grounded or resistance
grounded. Generator neutrals are often
grounded through a reactor, to limit ground-
fault (zero sequence) currents to values the
generator can withstand.
Selecting the Low-Voltage System
Grounding Method
There is no one “best” distribution system for
all applications. In choosing among solidly-
grounded, resistance-grounded, or unground-
ed power distribution the characteristics of the
system must be weighed against the require-
ments of power loads, lighting loads, continuity
of service, safety, and cost.
Under ground-fault conditions, each system
behaves very differently. A solidly grounded
system produces high fault currents, usually
with arcing, and the faulted circuit must be
cleared on first fault within a fraction of a
second to minimize damage. An ungrounded
system will pass limited current into the first
ground fault—only the charging current of the
system, caused by the distributed capacitance
to ground of the system wiring and equip-
ment. In low-voltage systems, this is rarely
more than 1 or 2 amperes. Therefore, on first
ground fault an ungrounded system can con-
tinue in service, making it desirable where
power outages cannot be tolerated. However,
if the ground fault is intermittent, sputtering
or arcing, a high voltage—as much as 6 to 8
times phase voltage—can be built up across
the system capacitance, from the phase con-
ductors to ground. Similar high voltages can
occur as a result of resonance between system
capacitance and the inductances of trans-
formers and motors in the system. The phase-
to-phase voltage is not affected. This high
transient phase-to-ground voltage can puncture
insulation at weak points, such as motor
windings, and is frequent cause of multiple
motor failures on ungrounded systems. Lo-
cating a first fault on an ungrounded system
can be difficult. If, before the first fault is
cleared, a second ground fault occurs on a dif-
ferent phase, even on a different, remote
feeder, it is a high-current phase-to-ground-
to-phase fault, usually arcing, that can cause
severe damage if at least one of the grounds
is not cleared immediately.
In general, where loads will be connected line
to neutral, solidly grounded systems are
used. High resistance grounded systems are
used as substitutes for underground systems
where high system availability is required.
With one phase grounded, the voltage to
ground of the other two phases goes up 73%,
to full phase-to-phase voltage. In low-voltage
systems this is not important, since conduc-
tors are insulated for 600V.
Low-voltage resistance grounded system is
normally grounded so that the single line-to-
CAT.71.01.T.E
Power Distribution System Design
Grounding/Ground Fault Protection
ground fault current exceeds the capacitive
charging current of the system. If data for the
charging current is not available use 40-50
ohm resistor in the neutral of the transformer.
In commercial and institutional installations,
such as office buildings, shopping centers,
schools, and hospitals, lighting loads are often
50% or more of the total load. In addition, a
feeder outage on first ground fault is seldom
crucial—even in hospitals, which have emer-
gency power in critical areas. For these rea-
sons, a solidly grounded wye distribution,
with the neutral used for lighting circuits, is
usually the most economical, effective, and
convenient design.
In industrial installations, the effect of a shut-
down caused by a single ground fault could
be disastrous. An interrupted process could
cause the loss of all the materials involved,
often ruin the process equipment itself, and
sometimes create extremely dangerous situa-
tions for operating personnel. On the other
hand, lighting is usually only a small fraction
of the total industrial electrical load. A solidly-
grounded neutral circuit conductor is not im-
perative and, when required, can be obtained
from inexpensive lighting transformers.
Because of the ability to continue in operation
with one ground fault on the system, many
existing industrial plants use ungrounded del-
ta distribution. Today, new installations can
have all the advantages of service continuity
of the ungrounded delta, yet minimize the
problems of the system, such as the difficulty
of locating the first ground fault, risk of dam-
age from a second ground fault, and damage
transient overvoltages. A high-resistance
grounded wye distribution can continue in
operation with a ground fault on the system,
will not develop transient overvoltages, and,
because the ground point is established,
locating a ground fault is less difficult than on
an ungrounded system. When combined with
sensitive ground-fault protection, damage
from a second ground fault can be nearly
eliminated. Ungrounded delta systems can
be converted to high-resistance grounded
systems, using a zig-zag or other grounding
transformer to derive a neutral, with similar
benefits. In many instances, the high-resis-
tance grounded distribution will be the most
advantageous for industrial installations.
Ground Fault Protection
A ground fault normally occurs in one of two
ways: By accidental contact of an energized
conductor with normally grounded metal, or
as a result of an insulation failure of an ener-
gized conductor. When an insulation failure
occurs, the energized conductor contacts nor-
mally noncurrent-carrying grounded metal,
which is bonded to or part of the equipment
grounding conductor. In a solidly grounded
system, the fault current returns to the source
A-43
primarily along the equipment grounding
conductors, with a small part using parallel
paths such as building steel or piping. If the
ground return impedance were as low as that
A
of the circuit conductors, ground fault currents
would be high, and the normal phase over-
current protection would clear them with little
damage. Unfortunately, the impedance of the
ground return path is usually higher, the fault
itself is usually arcing and the impedance of
the arc further reduces the fault current. In a
480Y/277-volt system, the voltage drop across
the arc can be from 70 to 140V. The resulting
ground fault current is rarely enough to cause
the phase overcurrent protection device to
open instantaneously and prevent damage.
Sometimes, the ground fault is below the trip
setting of the protective device and it does not
trip at all until the fault escalates and exten-
sive damage is done. For these reasons, low
level ground protection devices with minimum
time delay settings are required to rapidly
clear ground faults. This is emphasized by the
NEC requirement that a ground fault relay on
a service shall have a maximum delay of one
second for faults of 3000 amperes or more.
The NEC (Sec. 230-95) requires that ground
fault protection, set at no more than 1200 am-
peres, be provided for each service discon-
necting means rated 1000 amperes or more
on solidly grounded wye services of more
than 150 volts to ground, but not exceeding
600 volts phase-to-phase. Practically, this
makes ground fault protection mandatory on
480Y/277-volt services, but not on 208Y/120-
volt services. On a 208-volt system, the volt-
age to ground is 120 volts. If a ground fault oc-
curs, the arc goes out at current zero, and the
voltage to ground is often too low to cause it
to restrike. Therefore, arcing ground faults on
208-volt systems tend to be self-extinguishing.
On a 480-volt system, with 277 volts to
ground, restrike usually takes place after current
zero, and the arc tends to be self-sustaining,
doing severe and increasing damage, until
the fault is cleared by a protective device.
The NEC requires ground fault protection
only on the service disconnecting means.
This protection works so fast that for ground
faults on feeders, or even branch circuits, it
will often open the service disconnect before
the feeder or branch circuit overcurrent de-
vice can operate. This is highly undesirable,
and in the NEC (230-95) a Fine Print Note
(FPN) states that additional ground fault pro-
tective equipment will be needed on feeders
and branch circuits where maximum continuity
of electric service is necessary. Unless it is
acceptable to disconnect the entire service on
a ground fault almost anywhere in the system,
such additional stages of ground fault protec-
tion must be provided. At least two stages
of protection are mandatory in health care
facilities (NEC Sec. 517-17).
 Power Distribution System Design
A-44
Ground Fault Protection
Overcurrent protection is designed to protect
conductors and equipment against currents
A that exceed their ampacity or rating under
prescribed time values. An overcurrent can
result from an overload, short-circuit or (high
level) ground fault condition. When currents
flow outside the normal current path to
ground, supplementary ground fault protec-
tion equipment will be required to sense low
level ground fault currents and initiate the
protection required. Normal phase overcur-
rent protection devices provide no protection
against low level ground faults.
There are three basic means of sensing
ground faults. The most simple and direct
method is the ground return method as illus-
trated in Figure 1. This sensing method is
based on the fact that all currents supplied by
a transformer must return to that transformer.
When an energized conductor faults to ground-
ed metal, the fault current returns along the
ground return path to the neutral of the source
transformer. This path includes the grounding
electrode conductor–sometimes called the
“ground strap”–as shown in Figure 1. A current
sensor on this conductor (which can be a
conventional bar-type or window type CT) will
respond to ground fault currents only. Normal
neutral currents resulting from unbalanced
loads will return along the neutral conductor
and will not be detected by the ground return
sensor.
Main
Neutral
Service
Transformer
Sensor GFR
Typical
Feeder
Grounding
Electrode
Typical
Conductor
Equipment 4W Load
Grounding Grounding
Electrode Conductor
Figure 1. Ground Return Sensing Method
This is an inexpensive method of sensing
ground faults where only minimum protec-
tion per NEC (230-95) is desired. For it to op-
erate properly, the neutral must be grounded
in only one place as indicated in Figure 1. In
many installations, the servicing utility
grounds the neutral at the transformer and
additional grounding is required in the ser-
vice equipment per NEC (250-23a). In such
cases, and others including multiple source
with multiple, interconnected neutral ground
points, residual or zero sequence sensing
methods should be employed.
A second method of detecting ground faults
involves the use of a zero sequence sensing
method as illustrated in Figure 2. This sensing
method requires a single, specially-designed
sensor either of a torriodial or rectangular
shaped configuration. This core balance cur-
rent transformer surrounds all the phase and
neutral conductors in a typical 3-phase,
4-wire distribution system. The sensing
method is based on the fact that the vectorial
sum of the phase and neutral currents in any
distribution circuit will equal zero unless a
ground fault condition exists downstream
from the sensor. All currents that flow only in
the circuit conductors, including balanced or
unbalanced phase-to-phase and phase-to-
neutral normal or fault currents, and harmon-
ic currents, will result in zero sensor output.
However, should any conductor become
grounded, the fault current will return along
the ground path–not the normal circuit con-
ductors–and the sensor will have an unbal-
anced magnetic flux condition and a sensor
output will be generated to actuate the
ground fault relay.
Zero Alternate
Sequence Sensor
Sensor Location
Main
Neutral
GFR Typical
Feeder
Typical
4W Load
Figure 2. Zero Sequence Sensing Method
Zero sequence sensors are available with
various window openings for circuits with
small or large conductors, and even with
large rectangular windows to fit over bus
bars or multiple large size conductors in par-
allel. Some sensors have split cores for in-
stallation over existing conductors without
disturbing the connections.
This method of sensing ground faults can be
employed on the main disconnect where min-
imum protection per NEC (230-95) is desired.
It can also be easily employed in multi-tier
systems where additional levels of ground
fault protection are desired for added service
continuity. Additional grounding points may
be employed upstream of the sensor but, not
on the load side.
Ground fault protection employing ground
return or zero sequence sensing methods can
be accomplished by the use of separate
ground fault relays (GFRs) and disconnects
equipped with standard shunt trip devices or
by circuit breakers with integral ground fault
protection with external connections ar-
ranged for these modes of sensing.
The third basic method of detecting ground
faults involves the use of multiple current
sensors connected in a residual sensing
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
method as illustrated in Figure 3. This is a
very common sensing method used with cir-
cuit breakers equipped with electronic trip
units and integral ground fault protection.
The three-phase sensors are required for nor-
mal phase overcurrent protection. Ground
fault sensing is obtained with the addition of
an identically rated sensor mounted on the
neutral. In a residual sensing scheme, the re-
lationship of the polarity markings–as noted
by the “X” on each sensor–is critical. Since
the vectorial sum of the currents in all the
conductors will total zero under normal, non-
ground faulted conditions, it is imperative
that proper polarity connections are em-
ployed to reflect this condition.
As with the zero sequence sensing method,
the resultant residual sensor output to the
ground fault relay or integral ground fault
tripping circuit will be zero if all currents flow
only in the circuit conductors. Should a
ground fault occur, the current from the fault-
ed conductor will return along the ground
path, rather than on the other circuit conduc-
tors, and the residual sum of the sensor out-
puts will not be zero. When the level of
ground fault current exceeds the pre-set cur-
rent and time delay settings, a ground fault
tripping action will be initiated.
This method of sensing ground faults can be
economically applied on main service discon-
nects where circuit breakers with integral
ground fault protection are provided. It can be
used in minimum protection schemes per
NEC (230-95) or in multi-tier schemes where
additional levels of ground fault protection
are desired for added service continuity. Ad-
ditional grounding points may be employed
upstream of the residual sensors but, not on
the load side.
Sensor
Residual
Polarity
Sensors
Marks
Main
Neutral
Typical
GFR Feeder
Typical
4W Load
Figure 3. Residual Sensing Method
Both the zero sequence and residual sensing
methods have been commonly referred to as
“vectorial summation” methods.
Most distribution systems can utilize either of
the three sensing methods exclusively or
a combination of the sensing methods de-
pending upon the complexity of the system
and the degree of service continuity and
CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
selective coordination desired. Different
methods will be required depending upon
the number of supply sources and the num-
ber and location of system grounding points.
As an example, one of the more frequently
used systems where continuity of service to
critical loads is a factor is the dual source sys-
tem illustrated in Figure 4. This system utilizes
tie-point grounding as permitted under NEC
Sec. 250-23(a). The use of this grounding
method is limited to services that are dual fed
(double ended) in a common enclosure or
grouped together in separate enclosures and
employing a secondary tie.
This scheme utilizes individual sensors con-
nected in ground return fashion. Under tie
breaker closed operating conditions either
the M1 sensor or M2 sensor could see neutral
unbalance currents and possibly initiate an
improper tripping operation. However, with
the polarity arrangements of these two sen-
sors along with the tie breaker auxiliary
switch (T/a) and interconnections as shown,
this possibility is eliminated. Selective
ground fault tripping coordination between
the tie breaker and the two main circuit break-
ers is achieved by pre-set current pickup and
time delay settings between devices GFR/1,
GFR/2 and GFR/T.
The advantages of increased service continu-
ity offered by this system can only be effec-
tively utilized if additional levels of ground
fault protection are added on each down-
stream feeder. Some users prefer individual
grounding of the transformer neutrals. In such
cases a partial differential ground fault
scheme should be used for the mains and tie
breaker.
An infinite number of ground fault protection
schemes can be developed depending upon
the number of alternate sources, the number
of grounding points and system interconnec-
tions involved. Depending upon the individual
Main 1
Source GFR
1 1
Neutral
M1
Sensor
Typical
Feeder
Typical
4W Load
Center Point
Grounding Electrode
Figure 4. Dual Source System – Single Point Grounding
CAT.71.01.T.E
Power Distribution System Design
Ground Fault Protection/Lighting and Surge Protection
system configuration, either mode of sensing
or a combination of all types may be em-
ployed to accomplish the desired end results.
Since the NEC (230-95) limits the maximum
setting of the ground fault protection used on
service equipment to 1200 ampres (or 3000A
for one second), to prevent tripping of the
main service disconnect on a feeder ground
fault, ground fault protection must be provid-
ed on all the feeders. To maintain maximum
service continuity, more than two levels
(zones) of ground fault protection will be re-
quired, so that ground fault outages can be
localized and service interruption minimized.
To obtain selectivity between different levels
of ground fault relays, time delay settings
should be employed with the GFR furthest
downstream having the minimum time de-
lay. This will allow the GFR nearest the fault
to operate first. With several levels of protec-
tion, this will reduce the level of protection
for faults within the upstream GFR zones.
Zone interlocking was developed for GFRs to
overcome this problem.
GFRs (or circuit breakers with integral
ground fault protection) with zone interlock-
ing are coordinated in a system to operate in
a time delayed mode for ground faults oc-
curring most remote from the source. How-
ever, this time delayed mode is only
actuated when the GFR next upstream from
the fault sends a restraining signal to the up-
stream GFRs. The absence of a restraining
signal from a downstream GFR is an indica-
tion that any occurring ground fault is within
the zone of the GFR next upstream from the
fault and that device will operate instanta-
neously to clear the fault with minimum
damage and maximum service continuity.
This operating mode permits all GFRs to op-
erate instantaneously for a fault within their
zone and still provide complete selectivity
between zones. The National Electrical Manu-
facturers Association (NEMA) states, in their
application guide for ground fault protection,
Tie Main 2
GFR GFR Source
T 2 2
M1 M2
a a Neutral
Ta
M2
Tie Sensor
Sensor Typical
Feeder
Typical
4W Load
A-45
that zone interlocking is necessary to mini-
mize damage from ground faults. A two-wire
connection is required to carry the restrain-
ing signal from the GFRs in one zone to the
A
GFRs in the next zone.
Circuit breakers with integral ground fault
protection and standard circuit breakers with
shunt trips activated by the ground fault relay
are ideal for ground fault protection. Many
fused switches over 1200A, and Cutler-
Hammer Type FDP fusible switches in ratings
from 400A to 1200A, are listed by UL as suit-
able for ground fault protection. Fusible
switches so listed must be equipped with a
shunt trip, and be able to open safely on
faults up to 12 times their rating.
Power distribution systems differ widely
from each other, depending upon the require-
ments of each user, and total system overcur-
rent protection, including ground fault
currents, must be individually designed to
meet these needs. Experienced and knowl-
edgeable engineers must consider the power
sources (utility or on-site), the effects of out-
ages and costs of downtime, safety for peo-
ple and equipment, initial and life-cycle costs,
and many other factors. They must apply pro-
tective devices, analyzing the time-current
characteristics, fault interrupting capacity,
and selectivity and coordination methods to
provide the most safe and cost-effective dis-
tribution system.
Further Information
AD 29-762 Type GFR Ground Fault
Protection System
DB 28-850 Systems Pow-R Breakers
TD.44A.01.T.E Type DSII Metal-Enclosed
Low-Voltage Switchgear
IB 32-698A C-HRG “Safe Ground” Low-
Voltage High Resistance
Pulsing Ground System
PRSC-4E System Neutral Grounding
and Ground Fault Protection
(ABB Publication)
PB 2.2 NEMA Application Guide for
Ground Fault Protective
Devices for Equipment
IEEE Grounding of Industrial and
Standard 142 Commercial Power Systems
(Green Book)
Lightning and Surge Protection
Physical protection of buildings from direct
damage from lightning is beyond the scope
of this section. Requirements will vary with
geographic location, building type and envi-
ronment, and many other factors (see IEEE/
ANSI Standard 142-1982, Grounding of In-
dustrial and Commercial Power Systems).
Any lightning protection system must be
grounded, and the lightning protection
ground must be bonded to the electrical
equipment grounding system.
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-46 January 1999

Grounding Electrodes

Grounding Electrodes
A At some point, the equipment and system
grounds must be connected to the earth by
means of a grounding electrode system.

Outdoor substations usually use a ground

grid, consisting of a number of ground rods
driven into the earth and bonded together by
buried copper conductors. The required
grounding electrode system for a building is
spelled out in the NEC, Sec. 250-H. The pre-
ferred grounding electrode is a metal under-
ground water pipe in direct contact with the
earth for at least 10 feet. However, because
underground water piping is often plastic out-
side the building, or may later be replaced by
plastic piping, the NEC requires this electrode
to be supplemented by and bonded to at least
one other grounding electrode, such as the ef-
fectively grounded metal frame of the build-
ing, a concrete-encased electrode, a copper
conductor ground ring encircling the build-
ing, or a made electrode such as one or more
driven ground rods or a buried plate. Where
any of these electrodes are present, they must
be bonded together into one grounding elec-
trode system.

One of the most effective grounding elec-

trodes is the concrete-encased electrode,
sometimes called the Ufer ground, after
the man who developed it. It consists of at
least 20 feet of steel reinforcing bars or
rods not less than 1/ 2 inch in diameter, or at
least 20 feet of bare copper conductor, size
No. 4 AWG or larger, encased in at least 2
inches of concrete. It must be located within
and near the bottom of a concrete founda-
tion or footing that is in direct contact with
the earth. Tests have shown this electrode to
provide a low-resistance earth ground even
in poor soil conditions.

The electrical distribution system and equip-

ment ground must be connected to this
grounding electrode system by a grounding
electrode conductor. All other grounding
electrodes, such as those for the lightning
protection system, the telephone system,
television antenna and cable TV system
grounds, and computer systems, must be
bonded to this grounding electrode system.

Further Information
● IEEE/ANSI Standard 142–Grounding In-
dustrial and Commercial Power Systems
(Green Book)
● IEEE Standard 241–Electric Power Sys-
tems in Commercial Buildings (Gray Book)
● IEEE Standard 141–Electric Power Distri-
bution for Industrial Plants (Red Book)

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
Power Quality – Terms,
Technical Overview
Introduction
Ever since the inception of the electric utility
industry, utilities have sought to provide
their customers with reliable power main-
taining a steady voltage and frequency. Sen-
sitive electronic loads deployed today by
electrical energy users require strict require-
ments for the quality of power delivered to
loads.
For electronic equipment, power distur-
bances are defined in terms of amplitude
and duration by the electronic operating
envelope. Electronic systems may be
damaged and disrupted, with shortened
life expectancy.
The proliferation of computers, variable fre-
quency motor drives and other electronically
controlled equipment is placing a greater de-
mand on power producers for a disturbance-
free source of power. Not only do these types
of equipment require quality power for
proper operation; many times, these types of
equipment are also the sources of power dis-
turbances that corrupt the quality of power in
a given facility.
Power Quality is defined according to IEEE
Standard 1100 as the concept of powering
and grounding sensitive electronic equip-
ment in a manner that is suitable to the oper-
ation of that equipment. IEEE Standard 1159
notes that “within the industry, alternate def-
initions or interpretations of power quality
have been used, reflecting different points of
view.”
In addressing power quality problems at an
existing site, or in the design stages of a new
building, engineers need to specify different
services or mitigating technologies. The low-
est cost and highest value solution is to selec-
tively apply a combination of different
products and services as follows:
Key Services/Technologies in the “Power
Quality” Industry
● Power Quality Surveys, Analysis and
Studies
● Power Monitoring
● Grounding Products & Services
● Surge Protection
● Voltage Regulation
● Harmonic Solutions
● Lightning Protection (ground rods,
hardware, etc.)
● Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) or
Motor-Generator (M-G) set
Defining the Problem
Power quality problems can be viewed as the
difference between the quality of the power
supplied and the quality of the power re-
quired to reliably operate the load equip-
ment. With this viewpoint, power quality
problems can be resolved in three ways: by
reducing the variations in the power supply
CAT.71.01.T.E
Power Distribution System Design
Power Quality
(power disturbances), by improving the load
equipment's tolerance to those variations, or
by inserting some interface equipment
(known as power conditioning equipment)
between the electrical supply and the sensi-
tive load(s) to improve the compatibility of
the two. Practicality and cost usually deter-
mine the extent to which each option is used.
As in all problem solving, the problem must
be clearly defined before it can be resolved.
Many methods are used to define power
quality problems. For example, one option is
a thorough on-site investigation which in-
cludes inspecting wiring and grounding for
errors, monitoring the power supply for pow-
er disturbances, investigating equipment
sensitivity to power disturbances, and deter-
mining the load disruption and consequen-
tial effects (costs), if any. In this way, the
power quality problem can be defined, alter-
native solutions developed, and optimal
solution chosen. Another option is to buy
power conditioning equipment to correct any
and all perceived power quality problems
without any on-site investigation.
Sometimes this approach is not practical be-
cause of limitations in the time and expense
is not justified for smaller installations, mon-
itoring for power disturbances may be need-
ed over an extended period of time to capture
infrequent disturbances, the exact sensitivi-
ties of the load equipment may be unknown
and difficult to determine, and finally, the
investigative approach tends to solve only
observed problems. Thus unobserved or
potential problems may not be considered in
the solution. For instance, when planning a
new facility, there is no site to investigate.
Therefore, power quality solutions are often
implemented to solve potential or perceived
problems on a preventive basis instead of a
thorough on-site investigation.
Before applying power-conditioning equip-
ment to solve power quality problems, the
site should be checked for wiring and
grounding problems. Sometimes, correcting
a relatively inexpensive wiring error, such as
a loose connection or a reversed neutral and
ground wire, can avoid a more expensive
power conditioning solution.
Power Quality Terms
Power Disturbance – Any deviation from the
nominal value (or from some selected
thresholds based on load tolerance) of the
input ac power characteristics.
Total Harmonic Distortion or Distortion
Factor – The ratio of the root-mean-square of
the harmonic content to the root-mean-
square of the fundamental quantity, ex-
pressed as a percentage of the fundamental.
Crest Factor – Ratio between the peak value
(crest) and rms value of a periodic waveform.
Apparent (Total) Power Factor – The ratio of
the total power input in watts to the total volt-
ampere input.
A-47
Sag – An rms reduction in the ac voltage, at
the power frequency, for the duration from a
half-cycle to a few seconds. An under-voltage
would have a duration greater than several
A
seconds.
Interruption – The complete loss of voltage
for a time period.
Transient – A sub-cycle disturbance in the ac
waveform that is evidenced by a sharp brief
discontinuity of the waveform. May be of
either polarity and may be additive to or
subtractive from the nominal waveform.
Surge or Impulse – See transient.
Noise – Unwanted electrical signals that pro-
duce undesirable effects in the circuits of
control systems in which they occur.
Common-Mode Noise – The noise voltage
that appears equally and in phase from each
current-carrying conductor to ground.
Normal-Mode Noise – Noise signals measur-
able between or among active circuit conduc-
tors feeding the subject load, but not
between the equipment grounding conduc-
tor or associated signal reference structure
and the active circuit conductors.
Methodology for Ensuring Effective Power
Quality to Electronic Loads
The Power Quality PyramidTM is an effective
guide for addressing a power quality prob-
lem at an existing facility. The framework is
also effective for specifying engineers who
are creating a specification for a new facility.
Power quality starts with grounding (the
base of the pyramid) and then moves upward
to address the potential issues. This simple,
yet proven methodology, will provide the
most cost effective approach (refer to figure
below).
The Power Quality Pyramid™
6. Uninterruptible Power Supply
(UPS, Gen. Sets, etc.)
5. Harmonic Distortion
4. Voltage Regulation
3. Surge Protection
2. Grounding
1. P.Q. Survey, Power
Monitoring, Analysis
 Power Distribution System Design
A-48
Power Quality/Harmonics and Nonlinear Loads
1. Power Quality Survey, Power Monitoring
and Consulting Services can be conducted
A on existing facilities to provide the proper
analysis of power quality issues prior to the
implementation of the many solutions
available. A power quality survey is a fact-
finding investigation which reviews total
power outages, lights flickering, computer
malfunctioning, breaker tripping or fuse
blowing, transformers operating hot or
loud, neutral currents, capacitor fuses blow-
ing, VFDs malfunctioning, data processing
and process controllers malfunctioning,
motors tripping or overheating, transfer
schemes response times and power factor
correction. The above data is obtained both
by on-site investigation and installation of
high-speed temporary power measurement
devices. Many power quality instruments
can not be permanently installed during the
initial data collection effort, therefore pro-
viding initial and long-term monitoring. The
above survey and monitoring result in a
power quality evaluation.
Power Quality evaluations can identify defi-
ciencies and corrective measures involv-
ing: harmonics and filtering, grounding
issues, lightning protection, voltage flicker,
switching transients, K-factor transformers,
high resistance ground units, auto-transfer
switches and surge protection devices
(SPD/TVSS). In addition, the evaluation can
identify problems, which are not related to
power quality issues, but are demonstrat-
ing power quality-like conditions. This can
involve motor inrush currents or repeated
starts per hour, isolation transformers in
voltage regulating controls, separation of
feeders to critical loads and peak-reading
circuit breaker trip systems versus updated
rms sensing systems.
2. Grounding represents the foundation of
a reliable power distribution system.
Grounding and wiring problems can be the
cause of up to 80% of all power quality
problems. All other forms of power quality
solutions are dependent upon good
grounding procedures. The following
grounding standards are useful references:
● IEEE Green Book (Standard 142)
● IEEE Emerald Book (Standard 1100)
● UL96A, Installation requirements for
Lightning Protection Systems
● IAEA 1996 (International Association of
Electrical Inspectors) Soars Book on
Grounding
● EC&M – Practical Guide to Quality Power
For Electronic Equipment
● Military Handbook – Grounding Bonding
and Shielding of Electronic Equipment
The proliferation of communication and
computer network systems has increased
the need for proper grounding/wiring of ac
and data/communication lines. In addition
to reviewing ac grounding/bonding practic-
es, it is necessary to prevent ground loops
from affecting the signal reference point.
3. Surge Protection Devices (SPDs) are rec-
ommended as the next stage power quali-
ty solutions. NFPA, UL96A, IEEE Emerald
Book and equipment manufacturers rec-
ommend the use of surge protectors. The
transient voltage surge suppressors (also
called TVSS) shunt short duration voltage
disturbances to ground, thereby prevent-
ing the surge from affecting electronic
loads. When installed as part of the facility-
wide design, SPDs are cost-effective
compared to all other solutions (on a $/kVA
basis).
Suppressors are installed at the facility
entrance and/or key substation locations.
They are also recommended on data lines,
signal lines or other non-isolated commu-
nication lines at the facility’s entrance.
4. Voltage Regulation (i.e., sags or overvolt-
age) disturbances are generally site-
or load-dependent. A variety of mitigating
solutions are available depending upon
the load sensitivity, fault duration/magni-
tude and the specific problems encoun-
tered. It is recommended to install
monitoring equipment on the ac power-
lines to assess the degree and frequency of
occurrences of voltage regulation prob-
lems. The captured data will allow for the
proper solution selection.
5. Harmonics seldom affect the operation of
microprocessor-based loads. Mitigating
equipment is usually not required to pre-
vent operating problems with electronic
loads. Engineers are often more concerned
about the effects of increased neutral cur-
rent on the electrical distribution system
(i.e., neutral conductors, transformers).
Readings from a power quality meter will
determine the level of distortion and iden-
tify site-specific problems. Effective distri-
bution layout and other considerations can
be addressed during the design stage to
mitigating harmonic problems. Harmonics
related problems can be investigated and
solved once loads are up and running.
6. Uninterruptible Power is often the last
component to be selected in the design
process. While the proper selection and
application of UPS is critical to reliable op-
eration of mission critical equipment, a
common design error is to assume UPS
systems solve all power quality problems.
Given the high cost per kVA of UPS, gener-
ators, etc., (including capital, efficiency and
maintenance costs) and the use of more
decentralized network systems, the tech-
nology is often applied at specific loads
only. To prevent lightning or other surge
related damage, IEEE (Standard 1100)
recommends surge protection ahead
of UPS and associated bypass circuits.
Reference sections L and F1 for detailed
information.
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
Harmonics and Nonlinear Loads
Until recently, most electrical loads were lin-
ear. The instantaneous current was directly
proportional to the instantaneous voltage at
any instant, though lagging by some time
depending on the power factor. However,
loads that are switched or pulsed, such as
rectifiers, thyristors, and switching power
supplies, are nonlinear. With the prolifera-
tion of electronic equipment such as com-
puters, UPS systems, variable speed drives,
programmable logic controllers, and the
like, nonlinear loads have become a signifi-
cant part of many installations.
Nonlinear load currents vary widely from a
sinusoidal wave shape; often they are dis-
continuous pulses. This means that they are
extremely high in harmonic content. The har-
monics create numerous problems in electri-
cal systems and equipment. The rms value of
current is not easy to determine, and true rms
measurements are necessary for metering
and relaying to prevent improper operation
of protective devices. Devices that measure
time on the basis of wave shape, such as
many generator speed and synchronizing
controls, will fail to maintain proper output
frequency or to permit paralleling of genera-
tors. It is important that with standby genera-
tors the harmonic content of the current of
the loads that will be transferred to the stand-
by generator be reviewed with the generator
manufacturer to ensure that the voltage and
frequency controls will operate satisfactorily.
Computers will crash as their internal timing
clocks fail.
Transformers, generators, and UPS systems
will overheat and often fail at loads far below
their ratings, because the harmonic currents
cause greater heating than the same number
of rms amperes of 60 Hz current. This results
from increased eddy current and hysteresis
losses in the iron cores, and skin effect in the
conductors of the windings. In addition, the
harmonic currents acting on the impedance
of the source cause harmonics in the source
voltage, which is then applied to other loads
such as motors, causing them to overheat.
Some of the harmonic voltages are negative
sequence (rotation is ACB instead of ABC).
The second, fifth, eighth, and eleventh har-
monics are negative sequence harmonics.
Triple harmonics are zero sequence harmon-
ics and are in phase.
In addition to the above, three-phase non-
linear loads contain small quantities of even
and third harmonics although in an unbal-
anced three-phase system feeding three-
phase non-linear loads the unbalance may
cause even harmonics to exist.
In general as the order of a harmonic gets
higher its amplitude becomes smaller as a
percentage of the fundamental frequency.
CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-49
January 1999

Harmonics and Nonlinear Loads

The harmonics also complicate the applica- 4. Use ∆-∆ and ∆-Y transformers in pairs as be considered in the selection of the low-
tion of capacitors for power factor correction. supply to conversion equipment. Their voltage side breakers.
If at a harmonic frequency the capacitors
capacitive impedance at the frequency
effect is the same as that of multi-pulse
equipment and should be considered
A
equals the system’s reactive impedance at with 6-pulse equipment only. Table A19–Low-Voltage System Classifica-
the same frequency, as viewed at the point of tion and Distortion Limits for 480V Systems
application of the capacitor the harmonic 5. Install reactors between the power sup-
Class C AN DF
voltage and current can reach dangerous ply and the conversion equipment. They
magnitudes. At the same time that harmon- reduce the harmonic components of the Special Application* 10 16,400 3%
General System 5 22,800 5%
ics create problems in the application of pow- current drawn by diode type conversion
Dedicated System 2 36,500 10%
er factor correction capacitors, they lower the equipment with large filter capacitors.
actual power factor. The rotating meters Another benefit is that they protect the *Special system are those where the rate of
change of voltage of the notch might misstriggen
used by the utilities for watt-hour and var- filter capacitors from switching surges
an event. AN is volt-microseconds, C is the impe-
hour measurements do not detect the distor- produced by switched utility or medium- ance ratio of total impedance to impedance at
tion component caused by the harmonics. voltage system capacitor. common point in system. DF is distortion factor.
Rectifiers with diode front ends and large dc
side capacitor banks have displacement pow- 6. Locate capacitors as far away (in terms of Revised standard IEEE 519-1992 indicates the
er factor of 90% to 95%. More recent electron- circuit impedance) from non-linear loads. limits of current distortion allowed at the PCC
ic meters are capable of metering the true (Point of Common Coupling) point on the
kVA kW hours taken by the circuit. 7. When all the above do not produce the system where the current distortion is calcu-
desired reduction, oversize the system lated, usually the point of connection to the
Single-phase power supplies for computer components as the last resort, or derate utility or the main supply bus of the system.
and fixture ballasts are rich in third harmon- the equipment.
ics and their odd multiples. The standard also covers the harmonic lim-
ANSI Standard C57.110 covers the procedure of its of the supply voltage from the utility or
With a 3-phase, 4-wire system, if the 60 Hz derating standard (non-K-rated) transformers. cogenerators.
phase currents are balanced (equal), the neu-
tral current is zero. However, triplens and This method is based on determining the Table A20–Utility or Co-gen Supply Voltage
their odd multiple harmonics are additive in
2
load loss due to I R loss including the har- Harmonic Limits
the neutral. Even with the phase currents per- monic current plus the increase in the eddy Voltage Range 2.3-69 kV 69-138 kV >138 kV
fectly balanced, the harmonic currents in the current losses due the harmonic currents. Maximum 3.0% 1.5% 1.0%
neutral can total 173% of the phase current. The winding eddy current loss under rated Individual
This has resulted in overheated neutrals. The conditions should be obtained from the Harmonic
Computer and Business Equipment Manu- transformer manufacturer, or the method Total 5.0% 2.5% 1.5%
facturers Association (CBEMA) recommends shown in C57.110 should be used. Harmonic
that neutrals in the supply to electronic Distortion
equipment be oversized to at least 173% of The K-rated transformers calculate the sum
the ampacity of the phase conductors to pre- of Ih2(pu) x h2 where Ih is the harmonic cur- Vh
vent problems. CBEMA also recommends rent of the hth harmonic as per unit of the Percents are ------- x 100 for each harmonic and
derating transformers, loading them to no fundamental and h is the order of the har- V1
more than 50% to 70% of their nameplate monic. K is the factor that corrects the eddy 1⁄
h = h max 2
kVA, based on a rule-of-thumb calculation, to current loss under rated conditions to
 ∑ Vh 
2
compensate for harmonic heating effects. reduce the effects of adverse heating due to
harmonics. Vh =  
Three-phase, 6-pulse rectifiers produce 5th,
 h=2 
7th, 11th, 13th...harmonics. 12-pulse, 3-phase K-rated transformers have lower impedance
rectifiers produce 11th, 13th, 23rd, 25th, etc. than non-K-rated transformer which should It is important for the customer to know the
harmonic content of the utility’s supply volt-
In spite of all the concerns they cause, non- age because it will affect the harmonic distor-
linear loads will continue to increase. There- Table A21 is taken from IEEE tion on his premises.
fore the design of non-linear loads and the Standard 519 Table 10.3.
systems that supply them will have to be
designed so that their adverse effects are Table A21–“Current Distortion Limits For General Distribution Systems (120V Through 69000V)”
greatly reduced.
Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL
Such measures are: Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics)
ISC /I L <11 11≤h<17 17≤h<23 23≤h<35 35≤h TDD
1. Use multipulse conversion (ac to dc) <20* 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
equipment (greater than 6 pulses) to 20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
reduce the amplitude of the harmonics. 50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
2. Use active filters that reduce the harmon- >1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
ics taken from the system by injecting
harmonics equal to and opposite to those TDD= Total Demand Distortion. *All power generation equipment is limited
generated by the equipment. to these values of current distortion, regard-
Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd less of actual ISC /I L .
3. Where capacitors are required for a power harmonic limits above.
factor correction, design the installation where
incorporating reactors as tuned filters to Current distortions that result in a dc offset,
5th, 7th, 11th and 13th harmonics and e.g., half-wave converters, are not allowed. ISC = maximum short-circuit current at PCC.
high pass filters for higher harmonics. I L = maximum demand load current (funda-
mental frequency component) at PCC.

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-50 January 1999

Secondary Voltages

Secondary Voltage conductors are insulated for 600 volts, the in- the higher voltages. However, the interrupt-
stallation of 480-volt systems uses the same ing ratings of circuit breakers and fuses at 480
A The most prevalent secondary distribution techniques and is essentially no more diffi-
voltage in commercial and institutional build- cult, costly, or hazardous than for 208-volt
volts have increased considerably in recent
years, and protective devices are now avail-
ings today is 480Y/277 volts, with a solidly systems. The major difference is that an arc of able for any required fault duty at 480 volts. In
grounded neutral. It is also a very common 120 volts to ground tends to be self-extin- addition, many of these protective devices
secondary voltage in industrial plants and guishing, while an arc of 277 volts to ground are current limiting, and can be used to pro-
even in some high-rise, centrally air-conditioned tends to be self-sustaining and likely to cause tect downstream equipment against these
and electrically heated residential buildings, severe damage. For this reason, the National high fault currents.
because of the large electrical loads. Up until Electrical Code requires ground fault protec-
the early 1950s, most commercial buildings, tion of equipment on grounded wye services Economic Factors
such as offices and stores, used 208Y/120-volt of more than 150 volts to ground but not ex- Utilization equipment suitable for principal
distribution. About 1950, several simulta- ceeding 600 volts phase-to-phase (for practi- loads in most buildings is available for either
neous developments changed this. First, cal purpose, 480Y/277V services), for any 480-volt or 208-volt systems. Three-phase
central air conditioning became standard service disconnecting means rated 1000 am- motors and their controls can be obtained for
practice, more than doubling the previous peres or more. The National Electrical Code either voltage, and for a given horsepower
loads for similar non-air-conditioned build- permits voltage up to 300 volts to ground on are less costly at 480 volts. Fluorescent and
ings. Second, lighting levels were increased, circuits supplying permanently installed elec- HID lamps can be used with either 277- or
with fluorescent lighting replacing most of tric discharge lamp fixtures, provided the lu- 120-volt ballasts. However, in almost all
the incandescent lighting. Third, the develop- minaires do not have an integral manual cases, the installed equipment will have a
ment of 277-volt ballasts and 277-volt wall switch and are mounted at least eight feet lower total cost at the higher voltage.
switches made it possible to serve this fluo- above the floor. This permits a three-phase,
rescent lighting load from a 480Y/277-volt four-wire, solidly grounded 480Y/277-volt Incandescent lighting, small fractional-
system. Finally, economical mass-produced system to supply directly all of the fluorescent horsepower motors, wall receptacles, and
dry-type 480-volt to 208Y/120-volt transform- and high-intensity discharge (HID) lighting in plug-and-cord connected appliances for
ers became readily available to step down the a building at 277 volts, as well as motors at receptacle loads require a 120-volt supply.
voltage for 120V incandescent lighting and 480 volts. While mercury-vapor HID lighting is With a 480Y/277-volt service, it is necessary
receptacle loads. becoming obsolescent, other HID lighting, to supply these loads through step-down
such as high-pressure sodium or metal halide, transformers. If the amount of 120-volt load
With the increase in loads, the ability to serve is increasing in use, as color rendition is im- to be served is high, this can influence the
the air-conditioning and other motor loads at proved, because of the economical high lumen choice of supply voltage, or the relative cost
480 volts, and to serve increased lighting loads output of light per watt of power consumed. of 480- and 208-volt systems. Therefore, it is
at 277 volts, 480Y/277-volt systems became economically advantageous to minimize the
the most economical distribution. It permitted Technical Factors amount of 120-volt load, using as little incan-
smaller feeders or larger loads on each feeder, The principal advantage of the use of higher descent lighting as possible.
and fewer branch circuits. In addition, the secondary voltages in buildings is that for a
problems of excessive voltage drop from large given load, less current means smaller con- The higher secondary voltage system will
loads on 208-volt systems was greatly reduced ductors and lower voltage drop. Also, a given usually be more economical in office build-
with 480-volt distribution. In some very tall conductor size can supply a large load at the ings, shopping centers, schools, hospitals,
high-rise office buildings, it would have been same voltage drop in volts, but a lower per- and similar commercial and institutional in-
nearly impossible, and prohibitively expen- centage voltage drop because of the higher stallations, as well as in industrial plants. It is
sive, to use 208-volt distribution and keep supply voltage. Fewer or smaller circuits can interesting to note that in some recent instal-
voltage drops within acceptable limits. be used to transmit the power from the ser- lations in Canada, these considerations have
vice entrance point to the final distribution been carried one step further, using 600Y/
The choice between 208Y/120V and 480Y/ points. Smaller conductors can be used in 346-volt distribution, (600 volts phase-to-
277V secondary distribution for commercial many branch circuits supplying power loads, phase and 346 volts phase-to-neutral). This
and institutional buildings depends on sever- and a reduction in the number of lighting system supplies 600-volt three-phase motors,
al factors. The most important of these are branch circuits is usually possible. and 346-volt ballasts for the fluorescent and
size and types of loads (motors, fluorescent HID lighting. A 346-volt wall switch has been
lighting, incandescent lighting, receptacles) It is easier to keep voltage drops within ac- developed to control this fighting. A 277-volt
and length of feeders. In general, large motor ceptable limits on 480-volt circuits than on wall switch and 277-volt ballast made the
and fluorescent lighting loads, and long feed- 208-volt circuits. When 120-volt loads are sup- 480Y/277-volt system practical. These Cana-
ers, will tend to make the higher voltages, plied from a 480-volt system through step- dian installations would violate the National
such as 480Y/277V, more economical. Very down transformers, voltage drop in the 480- Electrical Code in the United States, since
large loads and long runs would indicate the volt supply conductors can be compensated they exceed 300 volts to ground. This prohibi-
use of medium-voltage distribution and load- for by the tap adjustments on the transform- tion does not exist in Canada.
center unit substations close to the loads. er, resulting in full 120-volt output. Since
Conversely, small loads, short runs, and a these transformers are usually located close Utility Service Voltage
high percentage of incandescent lighting to the 120-volt loads, secondary voltage drop Whether the utility service is at primary or sec-
would favor lower utilization voltages such as should not be a problem. If it is, taps may be ondary voltage will depend upon many fac-
208Y/120V. used to compensate by raising the voltage at tors, such as type of building, total load, class
the transformer. of user, and the utility rate structure and stan-
Industrial installations, with large motor dard practice. In most downtown metropolitan
loads, are almost always 480V, often Fault interruption by protective devices may areas, the utility will serve a single commercial
ungrounded delta or resistance grounded be more difficult at 480 volts than at 208 volts or institutional building at secondary voltage
delta or wye systems (see section on for two principal reasons. First, the 480-volt only. In more open areas, especially for large
ground fault protection). arc is more difficult to interrupt than the buildings or multiple-building installations
208-volt arc. Second, the small impedances in such as shopping centers, educational institu-
Practical Factors the system, such as bus or cable impedances, tions, and hospitals, the utility may offer a
Since most low-voltage distribution equip- and upstream protective device impedances, choice of primary or secondary service.
ment available is rated for up to 600 volts, and have less effect in reducing fault currents at

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-51
January 1999

Secondary Voltages

Where a choice is available, the decision is mercial buildings to use secondary service. tions for larger systems. Primary distribution
essentially an economic one. Utility rate struc- Institutional services vary, depending upon the can be radial, or have multiple feeders or one
tures provide higher cost for a given load served
at secondary voltage than for the same load
size of the institution, the number and arrange-
ment of buildings, continuity of service
or more loops, to single-ended or double-
ended substations. Secondary distribution
A
served at primary voltage, since the utility must required, and quality of maintenance available. can be radial, loop, secondary-selective, or
provide and maintain the substations and pay even secondary network. Any of the primary
for the substation losses on a secondary ser- Where secondary service is delivered, most and secondary distribution methods previ-
vice. For the customer, the lower cost of primary buildings will use simple radial distribution ously described may be used. The choice will
service must be weighed against the cost of the from the service. The utility will supply the depend on the continuity of service required,
primary distribution equipment and substations load in various ways, ranging from a single and the cost of the system. Generally, those
required and the space they occupy, the cost pad-mounted transformer, or several trans- systems that provide higher service reliability
and availability of qualified maintenance for the formers for a multi-building installation, also have higher cost, and the initial andoper-
primary distribution equipment and substa- through spot networks for a high-rise office ating costs must be weighed against the cost
tions, reliability of service, the cost of substation building. of downtime. In industrial installations, espe-
(mostly transformer) losses, and similar factors. cially in the process industries, the cost of an
It is common for industrial plants, with large Where the service is at primary voltage, the outage can be tremendous, and distribution
loads, available room for electrical equipment, distribution can be from a single substation systems with maximum reliability, flexibility,
and well qualified maintenance, to take advan- for smaller installations, or with primary dis- and redundant equipment can easily be justified.
tage of primary service. It is also usual for com- tribution to multiple load-center unit substa-
High-Rise Office Buildings
Over the past 30 years, most major cities have
grown rapidly, and their central areas have
been the sites for construction of many high-
rise office buildings. The distribution system
in this type of building is worthy of discussion,
Elevator
Panel because it represents very large loads and of-
ten high available short-circuit fault currents.
Typical In most cases, the electric utility company
serves these buildings at a secondary voltage
of 480Y/277 volts from one or more spot net-
Emergency works. There are exceptions, such as one ma-
Typical
Lighting jor office building in Pittsburgh supplied at
HVAC
Panel (Typical 13,800 volts primary service by the utility and
Panel
Every Third feeding 67 building-owned unit substations,
Floor)
but they are not common. At the other ex-
treme would be a typical block-square 60-story
office building in New York City. The utility
480Y/277V 208Y/120V Typical
Panel Panel
would have one spot network in a utility vault
Dry Type under the sidewalk, supplying services in the
Transformer basement, and another in a specially con-
480 -208Y/120V structed fireproof utility vault on the 40th floor
(Typical Every Floor)
of the building, supplying additional services,
HVAC Busway
Feeder Riser
Emergency Elevator to reduce the length of secondary feeder runs.
Lighting Riser Each vault might have six 2500-kVA network
Riser
transformers, supplying four 4000-ampere
480Y/277-volt service takeoffs. The fault cur-
rent available at each service would be nearly
Typical Typical 200,000 amperes. Many high-rise office build-
Building ings fall between these extremes, served by a
and utility network system at 480Y/277 volts, and
Miscellaneous
Typical using a secondary radial distribution system
Loads within the building. A typical single-line riser
diagram for such a building is shown, along
with the arrangement of a typical electrical
Typical Typical
closet on each floor.
Spare
The main and feeder circuit breakers in the
switchboard must be able to interrupt the
➀ ➀ ➀ ➀ ➀ ➀ ➀ high fault currents available at their line ter-
minals. The main circuit breaker and the
large feeder circuit breaker supplying the ris-
➀ Include Ground Automatic
er busway can be of the encased type (Sys-
4000A
Fault Trip. ➀ Transfer Switch tems Pow-R), with the required interrupting
Main CB
capacity. The smaller feeder circuit breakers
Gen. CB in both normal and emergency sections can
Utility Emergency
CTs Metering or Standby be of the current-limiting type (Current Limit-
PTs Generator R), integrally fused breakers (Tri-Pac), or high
4000A at 480Y/277V
interrupting capacity breakers (Series C).
Utility
Service 100,000A Available Fault Current Whatever type is chosen, the design should
provide that the switchboard breakers not
Typical Power Distribution and Riser Diagram for a Commercial Office Building

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design
A-52
Secondary Voltages/Energy Conservation/Building Control Systems
only have adequate interrupting capacity,
but also that they limit the fault current let-
A through to values that the devices they sup-
ply can withstand. Current limiting and inte-
grally fused circuit breakers have been tested
by UL in series with lower-rated circuit break-
ers at high fault currents, and the acceptable
combinations are listed. The 2500-ampere
circuit breaker supplying the busway will
provide little current limitation, so the
busway takeoff disconnect circuit breakers
on each floor will have to be selected to with-
stand high fault currents and to protect the
devices they supply. Current limiting or inte-
grally fused circuit breakers may be required
for this duty.
Many commercial office buildings are con-
structed at minimum cost, and use fusible
service equipment and distribution equip-
ment with current limiting fuses. The main
switch and busway feeder switch could be
the bolted pressure contact type, with Class
L fuses. The branch switches should be able
to be shunt tripped, to provide ground fault
protection (Type FDP, in 400A, and larger siz-
es). Busway disconnects must be fusible, to
provide sufficient current limiting to protect
the circuit breakers in the 480-volt panel-
boards. Fusible equipment will often have
lower initial cost than circuit breakers, but
downtime after a fault will be higher, as fus-
es must be replaced. If maintenance is not
qualified, incorrect replacement fuse types
or sizes may be chosen resulting in loss of
selectivity, and, in some cases, reduced
safety. Replacement current limiting fuses
in all sizes and types used must be stocked,
at substantial cost.
Other variations of the typical design shown
will be determined by building size, costs,
and special requirements. A busway riser
might be replaced with cable risers to each
floor, supplied from individual switches on a
larger switchboard. However, in large instal-
lations, the busway riser will provide more
diversity for feeding loads, a smaller switch-
board, and often a lower installed cost for
equal capacity. Buildings of larger size may
have two electric closets per floor, on oppo-
site sides of the building, each with its own
busway riser.
Energy Conservation
Because of the greatly increased cost of electri-
cal power, designers must consider the efficien-
cy of electrical distribution systems, and design
for energy conservation. In the past, especially
in commercial buildings, design was for lowest
first cost, because energy was inexpensive.
Today, even in the speculative office building,
operating costs are so high that energy-
conserving designs can justify their higher
initial cost with a rapid payback and continuing
savings. There are four major sources of energy
conservation in a commercial building – the
lighting system, the motors and controls, the
transformers, and the HVAC system.
The lighting system must take advantage of
the newest equipment and techniques. New
light sources, familiar light sources with high-
er efficiencies, solid-state ballasts with dim-
ming controls, use of daylight, environmental
design, efficient luminaires, computerized or
programmed control, and the like, are some
of the methods that can increase the efficien-
cy of lighting systems. They add up to provid-
ing the necessary amount of light, with the
desired color rendition, from the most effi-
cient sources, where and when it is needed,
and not providing light where or when it is
not necessary. Using the best of techniques,
office spaces that originally required as much
as 3.5 watts per square foot have been given
improved lighting, with less glare and higher
visual comfort, using as little as 1.0 to 2.0
watts per square foot. In an office building of
200,000 sq. ft., this could mean a saving of
400 kW, which, at $.05 per kWh, 250 days per
year, 10 hours per day, could save $50,000
per year in energy costs. Obviously, efficient
lighting is a necessity.
Motors and controls are another cause of
wasted energy that can be reduced New,
energy efficient motor designs are available
using more and better core steel, and larger
windings. For any motor operating ten or
more hours per day, it is recommended to
use the energy-efficient types. These motors
have a premium cost of about 20% more than
standard motors. Depending on loading,
hours of use, and the cost of energy, the ad-
ditional initial cost could be repaid in energy
saved within a few months, and it rarely takes
more than two years. Since, over the life of a
motor, the cost of energy to operate it is
many times the cost of the motor itself, any
motor with many hours of use should be of
the energy-efficient type. For motors operat-
ing lightly loaded a high percentage of the
time, energy-saving devices, such as those
based on the NASA patents, can result in sub-
stantial savings, especially when combined
with solid-state starters. However, power fac-
tor control-type devices can rarely be justified
unless the motor is loaded to less than 50% of
its rating much of the time.
Where a motor drives a load with variable out-
put requirements such as a centrifugal pump
or a large fan, customary practice has been to
run the motor at constant speed, and to throt-
tle the pump output or use inlet vanes or out-
let dampers on the fan. This is highly
inefficient and wasteful of energy. In recent
years, solid-state variable-frequency, vari-
able-speed drives for ordinary induction mo-
tors have been available, reliable, and
relatively inexpensive. Using a variable-speed
drive, the throttling valves or inlet vanes or
output dampers can be eliminated, saving
their initial cost, and energy will be saved
over the life of the system. An additional ben-
efit of both energy-efficient motors and vari-
able-speed drives (when operated at less
than full speed) is that the motors operate at
reduced temperatures, resulting in increased
motor life.
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
Transformers have inherent losses. Trans-
formers, like motors, are designed for lower
losses by using more and better core materi-
als, larger conductors, etc., and this results in
increased initial cost. Since the 480-volt to
208Y/120-volt stepdown transformers in an
office building are usually energized 24 hours
a day, savings from lower losses can be
substantial, and should be considered in all
transformer specifications. One method of
obtaining reduced losses is to specify trans-
formers with 220°C insulation systems
designed for 150°C average winding temper-
ature rise, with no more than 80°C (or some-
times 115°C) average winding temperature
rise at full load. A better method would be to
evaluate transformer losses, based on actual
loading cycles throughout the day, and con-
sider the cost of losses as well as the initial
cost of the transformers in purchasing.
HVAC systems have traditionally been very
wasteful of energy, often being designed for
lowest first cost. This, too, is changing. For
example, reheat systems are being replaced
by variable air volume systems, resulting in
equal comfort with substantial increases in
efficiency. While the electrical engineer has
little influence on the design of the HVAC sys-
tem, he can specify that all motors with con-
tinuous or long duty cycles are specified as
energy efficient types, and that the variable-
air-volume fans do not use inlet vanes or out-
let dampers, but are driven by variable-speed
drives. Variable-speed drives can often be
desirable on centrifugal compressor units as
well. Since some of these requirements will
be in HVAC specifications, it is important for
the energy-conscious electrical engineer to
work closely with the HVAC engineer at the
design stage.
Building Control Systems
In order to obtain the maximum benefit from
these energy-saving lighting, power, and
HVAC systems, they must be controlled to
perform their functions most efficiently. Con-
stant monitoring would be required for man-
ual operation, so some form of automatic
control is required. The simplest of these en-
ergy-saving controls, often very effective, is a
time clock to turn various systems on and off.
Where flexible control is required, program-
mable controllers may be used. These range
from simple devices, similar to multifunction
time clocks, up to full microprocessor-based,
fully programmable devices, really small
computers. For complete control of all build-
ing systems, computers with specialized soft-
ware can be used. Computers can not only
control lighting and HVAC systems, and pro-
vide peak demand control, to minimize the
cost of energy, but they can perform many
other functions. Fire detection and alarm sys-
tems can operate through the computer,
which can also perform auxiliary functions
such as elevator control and building commu-
nication in case of fire. Building security sys-
tems, such as closed-circuit television
monitoring, door alarms, intruder sensing,
CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
can be performed by the same building com-
puter system.
The time clocks, programmable controllers,
and computers can obtain data from exter-
nal sensors and control the lighting, motors,
and other equipment by means of hard wir-
ing-separate wires to and from each piece of
equipment. In the more complex systems,
this would result in a tremendous number of
control wires, so other methods are fre-
quently used. A single pair of wires, with
electronic digital multiplexing, can control or
obtain data from many different points.
Sometimes, coaxial cable is used with ad-
vanced signaling equipment. Some systems
dispense with control wiring completely,
sending and receiving digital signals over
the power wiring. The newest systems may
use fiber-optic cables to carry tremendous
quantities of data, free from electromagnetic
interference. The method used will depend
on the type, number, and complexity of func-
tions to be performed.
Because building design and control for max-
imum energy saving is important and com-
plex, and frequently involves many functions
and several systems, it is necessary for the
design engineer to make a thorough building
and environmental study, and to weigh the
costs and advantages of many systems. The
result of good design can be economical, effi-
cient operation. Poor design can be wasteful,
and extremely costly.
Cogeneration
Cogeneration is another outgrowth of the
high cost of energy. Cogeneration is the pro-
duction of electric power concurrently with
the production of steam, hot water, and simi-
lar energy uses. The electric power can be the
main product, and steam or hot water the by-
product, as in most commercial installations,
or the steam or hot water can be the most
required product, and electric power a by-
product, as in many industrial installations.
In some industries, cogeneration has been
common practice for many years, but until
recently it has not been economically feasible
for most commercial installations. This has
been changed by the high cost of purchased
energy, plus a federal law (Public Utility Reg-
ulatory Policies Act, known as PURPA) that
requires public utilities to purchase any ex-
cess power generated by the cogeneration
plant. In many cases, practical commercial
cogeneration systems have been built that
provide some or all of the electric power
required, plus hot water, steam, and some-
times steam absorption-type air conditioning.
Such cogeneration systems are now operat-
ing successfully in hospitals, shopping cen-
ters, high-rise apartment buildings and even
commercial office buildings.
Where a cogeneration system is being con-
sidered, the electrical distribution system be-
comes more complex. The interface with the
CAT.71.01.T.E
Power Distribution System Design
Building Control Systems/Cogeneration/Emergency Power
utility company is critical, requiring careful
relaying to protect both the utility and the
cogeneration system. Many utilities have
stringent requirements that must be incorpo-
rated into the system. Proper generator con-
trol and protection is necessary, as well. An
on-site electrical generating plant tied to an
electrical utility, is a sophisticated engineer-
ing design.
Utilities require that when the protective
device at their substation opens that the
device connecting a cogenerator to the
utility open also.
One reason is that most cogenerators are
connected to feeders serving other custom-
ers. Utilities desire to reclose the feeder after
a transient fault is cleared. Reclosing in most
cases will damage the cogenerator if it had
remained connected to their system.
Islanding is another reason why the utility in-
sists on the disconnection of the cogenerator.
Islanding is the event that after a fault in the
utility’s system is cleared by the operation of
the protective devices, a part of the system
may continue to be supplied by cogeneration.
Such a condition is dangerous to the utility’s
operation during restoration work.
Major cogenerators are connected to the sub-
transmission or the transmission system of
a utility. Major cogenerators have buy-sell
agreements. In such cases utilities use a
trip transfer scheme to trip the cogenerator
breaker.
Guidelines that are given in ANSI Guide Stan-
dard 1001 are a good starting point, but the
entire design should be coordinated with
the utility.
Emergency Power
Most areas have requirements for emergency
and standby power systems. The National
Electrical Code does not specifically call for any
emergency or standby power, but does have
requirements for those systems when they are
legally mandated and classed as emergency
(Article 700) or standby (Article 701) by munic-
ipal, state, federal, or other codes, or by any
governmental agency having jurisdiction.
Optional standby systems, not legally required,
are also covered in the NEC (Article 702).
Emergency systems are intended to supply
power and illumination essential for safety to
human life, when the normal supply fails.
NEC requirements are stringent, requiring
periodic testing under load and automatic
transfer to emergency power supply on loss
of normal supply. All wiring from emergency
source to emergency loads must be kept sep-
arate from all other wiring and equipment, in
its own distribution and raceway system, ex-
cept in transfer equipment enclosures and
similar locations. The most common power
source for large emergency loads is an
A-53
engine-generator set, but the NEC also per-
mits the emergency supply (subject to local
code requirements) to be storage batteries,
uninterruptible power supplies, a separate
A
emergency service, or a connection to the
service ahead of the normal service discon-
necting means. Unit equipment for emergen-
cy illumination, with a rechargeable battery, a
charger to keep it at full capacity when nor-
mal power is on, one or more lamps, and a re-
lay to connect the battery to the lamps on loss
of normal power, is also permitted. Because
of the critical nature of emergency power,
ground fault protection is not required. It is
considered preferable to risk arcing damage,
rather than to disconnect the emergency sup-
ply completely. On 480Y/277-volt emergency
systems with protective devices rated 1000 am-
peres or more, a ground fault alarm is required
if ground fault protection is not provided.
Legally required standby systems, as required
by the governmental agency having jurisdic-
tion, are intended to supply power to selected
loads, other than those classed as emergency
systems, on loss of normal power. These are
usually loads not essential to human safety,
but loss of which could create hazards or ham-
per rescue or fire-fighting operations. NEC re-
quirements are similar to those for emergency
systems, except that wiring may occupy the
same distribution and raceway system as the
normal wiring if desired. Optional standby
systems are those not legally required, and are
intended to protect private business or proper-
ty where life safety does not depend on perfor-
mance of the system. Optional systems can be
treated as part of the normal building wiring
system. Both legally required and optional
standby systems should be installed in such a
manner that they will be fully available on loss
of normal power. It is preferable to isolate
these systems as much as possible, even
though not required by code.
Where the emergency or standby source, such
as an engine generator or separate service,
has capacity to supply the entire system, the
transfer scheme can be either a full-capacity
automatic transfer switch, or, less costly but
equally effective, normal and emergency main
circuit breakers, electrically interlocked such
that on failure of the normal supply the emer-
gency supply is connected to the load. Howev-
er, if the emergency or standby source does
not have capacity for the full load, as is usually
the case, such a scheme would require auto-
matic disconnection of the nonessential loads
before transfer. Simpler and more economical
in such a case is a separate emergency bus,
supplied through an automatic transfer
switch, to feed all critical loads. The transfer
switch connects this bus to the normal supply,
in normal operation. On failure of the normal
supply, the engine-generator is started, and
when it is up to speed the automatic switch
transfers the emergency loads to this source.
On return of the normal source, manual or au-
tomatic retransfer of the emergency loads can
take place.
 Power Distribution System Design
A-54
Peak Shaving
Peak Shaving
A Many installations now have emergency or
standby generators. In the past, they were re-
quired for hospitals and similar locations, but
not common in office buildings or shopping
centers. However, many costly and unfortu-
nate experiences during utility blackouts in
recent years have led to the more frequent in-
stallation of engine generators in commercial
and institutional systems for safety and for
supplying important loads. Industrial plants,
especially in process industries, usually have
some form of alternate power source to pre-
vent extremely costly shutdowns. These
standby generating systems are critical when
needed, but they are needed only infrequent-
ly. They represent a large capital investment.
To be sure that their power will be available
when required, they should be tested period-
ically under load.
The cost of electric energy has risen to new
high levels in recent years, and utilities bill on
the basis not only of power consumed, but
also on the basis of peak demand over a small
interval. As a result, a new use for in-house
generating capacity has developed. Utilities
measure demand charges on the basis of the
maximum demand for electricity in any given
specific period (typically 15 or 30 minutes)
during the month. Some utilities have a
demand “ratchet clause” that will continue
demand charges on a given peak demand for
a full year, unless a higher peak results in
even higher charges. One large load, coming
on at a peak time, can create higher electric
demand charges for a year.
Obviously, reducing the peak demand can re-
sult in considerable savings in the cost of
electrical energy. For those installations with
engine generators for emergency use, mod-
ern control systems (computers or program-
mable controllers) can monitor the peak
demand, and start the engine-generator to
supply part of the demand as it approaches a
preset peak value. The engine-generator must
be selected to withstand the required duty cy-
cle. The simplest of these schemes transfer
specific loads to the generator. More complex
schemes operate the generator in parallel
with the normal utility supply. The savings in
demand charges can reduce the cost of own-
ing the emergency generator equipment.
In some instances, utilities with little reserve
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
capacity have helped finance the cost of some
larger customer-owned generating equip-
ment. In return, the customer agrees to take
some or all of his load off the utility system
and on to his own generator at the request of
the utility (with varying limitations) when the
utility load approaches capacity. In some cas-
es, the customer’s generator is paralleled
with the utility to help supply the peak utility
loads, with the utility buying the supplied
power. Some utilities have been able to delay
large capital expenditures for additional gen-
erating capacity by such arrangements.
It is important that the electrical system
designer providing a substantial source of
emergency and standby power investigate
the possibility of using it for peak shaving,
and even of partial utility company financing.
Frequently, substantial savings in power
costs can be realized for a small additional
outlay in distribution and control equipment.
Peak shaving equipment operating in parallel
with the utility are subject to the comments
made under cogeneration as to separation
from the utility under fault conditions.
CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
Computer Power
Computers require a source of steady,
constant-voltage, constant-frequency power,
with no transients superimposed. Such
“clean” power is not consistently available
from utility sources, and utility power is fur-
ther degraded by disturbances from the build-
ing power distribution system. Power that is
entirely satisfactory for motors, Iighting, heat-
ing, and other familiar uses in commercial or
industrial buildings, can in computers cause
loss of data, output errors, incorrect computa-
tions, and even sudden computer shutdowns,
or “crashes.” These computer problems can
be extremely costly, and correction can be
very time consuming. For these reasons, raw
incoming power is seldom used for critical
computer installations. Power to the comput-
ers is conditioned to make it more satisfactory.
The type and degree of conditioning depends
on the types of power disturbances present,
the sensitivity of the computer installation, the
cost of computer errors and interruptions, and
the cost of power improvement equipment.
There are several categories of power distur-
bances. One of the most common is the tran-
sient, a sudden, rapid rise (or dip) in voltage,
either singly or as a damped oscillation, A
single spike can be as brief as a few micro-
seconds; oscillatory transients may have a
frequency of several hundred to several
thousand kilohertz, lasting up to a full cycle.
Transients can reach a peak several times the
system voltage. Also very common are
undervoltages, where the system voltage
sags 10% or more for a period as short as one
or several cycles to as long as several hours or
more. Much less common are overvoltages of
10% or more. Frequency deviations from 60
Hz are rarely a problem from the power
company; they may be a problem from on-site
power generation. Least frequent, but most
serious when they occur, are complete power
outages, or blackouts.
The technology to improve raw power falls into
two broad categories, power enhancement and
power synthesis. Power enhancement takes
the incoming power, modifies and improves it
by clipping spike peaks, filtering transients and
harmonics, regulating the voltage, isolating
power line “noise,” and the like. Then the im-
proved power is delivered to the computer.
Power synthesis uses the incoming power only
as a source of energy, from which it creates a
new, completely isolated power output wave-
form to supply to the computer. This generated
or synthesized output power is designed to
meet computer requirements, regardless of the
disturbances on the input power.
Power enhancement can be provided by tran-
sient (spike) suppressors, harmonic filters,
voltage regulators, isolating transformers
(best with a Faraday shield), or a combination
of some or all of these. Power synthesis can be
provided by a wide variety of rotating motor-
generator (MG) sets, static semiconductor
CAT.71.01.T.E
Power Distribution System Design
Computer Power
rectifier-inverters, or ferro-magnetic synthesiz-
ers. Both MG sets and rectifier-inverters can be
connected to a battery, which “floats” when
normal power is available, and supplies power
to the generator or inverted, with no interrup-
tion apparent to the computers, on loss of nor-
mal power. This comprises the so-called
uninterruptible power supply (UPS), which, on
loss of normal power, continues power to the
computer while the batteries last. Typical bat-
tery time ranges from 5 minutes to 1 hour, with
15 to 30 minutes most common. Battery sup-
plies are costly, so for most critical operations
the UPS is further supplied by a standby gen-
erator, which comes on line before the battery
supply runs down and keeps the computers
operating as long as necessary.
In general, power enhancement is less costly
than power synthesis, but provides less isola-
tion and protection for the computers. If
power must be of the highest quality, and
must continue without interruption even if the
normal power source fails, only some form of
static or rotary UPS can be used. Critical com-
puters, such as used by banks, communica-
tions systems, reservation systems, and the
like, where outages cannot be tolerated, are
usually supplied from a UPS system, which is
the most costly class of power conditioner.
The computer power center is an increasingly
popular method of supplying power to comput-
ers. It combines power enhancement, power
distribution, and equipotential computer
grounding in one unit, which can be located
right in or adjacent to the computer room. The
power center consists of a shielded isolating
transformer, often with 480-volt input and 208Y/
120-volt output as required by the computers.
This supplies a distribution panelboard with
circuits feeding flexible computer connection
cables under the raised computer-room floor.
The computer units plug into these cables. A
transient suppressor is often included, and a
constant-voltage transformer or voltage regula-
tor may be used to eliminate voltage variations.
In addition to the improvement in the quality
of power, the computer power center has some
financial advantages. Since it is an equipment
unit, not part of the permanently installed pre-
mises wiring system, it can be depreciated rap-
idly (in 5 to 8 years). It can be moved to a new
location like other computer equipment, mak-
ing the frequent rearrangement or relocation of
computer rooms easier and less costly. UPS
systems are sometimes used to supply com-
puter power centers, for maximum flexibility.
Computer Grounding
Because computers are so sensitive to electri-
cal “noise” input, computer grounding is ex-
tremely important. Some computer suppliers,
familiar with the electronic needs of their
equipment but not with power systems, have
recommended computer grounding schemes
that separate the computer grounding system
from the power grounding system. This is
unsafe, a violation of the National Electrical
Code, and absolutely unnecessary. In fact, it
A-55
may introduce electrical noise into the com-
puters, rather than keep it out. It is possible to
ground computer systems with maximum
safety, meeting all NEC requirements, and
A
minimizing noise input to the computers
through the grounding systems. Each sepa-
rate unit of computer equipment must be
grounded (usually by the equipment ground-
ing conductor in the power cable), back to a
common equipotential ground point at the
power source to the computers. The ground
bus in a computer power center is excellent
for this purpose. The computer units should
be individually grounded to this point with
radial connections, and not interconnected
with many grounds that form ground loops.
At the power source, the building service or
the separately derived system (the computer
power center or MG set or UPS), the grounded
conductor (neutral) is connected to the
grounding electrode. The ground bus should
be connected to the neutral at that point, and
only there, for equipotential grounding. If any
other grounding electrodes are present on the
premises, such as for a lightning protection
system, telephone or other communications
systems, cable TV, and the like, they must all
be bonded to the power system grounding
electrodes to make one grounding electrode
system. Separate computer grounding elec-
trodes, buried counterpoises, and similar
schemes, may do more harm than good; if
they are present, they must also be bonded to
the power system grounding electrode.
This will provide 60 Hz grounding for safety.
However, most noise is of much higher fre-
quencies, up to about 30 MHz. Ordinary conduc-
tors have a high impedance at noise
frequencies. To provide effective noise ground-
ing, an additional high-frequency grounding
system must supplement the 60 Hz system. This
requires conductors in a grid or mesh with sides
of each square no more than two feet long. This
signal reference grid can best be formed by the
raised floor stringers, if they are bolted to the
pedestals to form good electrical connections. It
can also be made of thin copper foil, with con-
nections brazed or welded at the intersections,
placed under the raised floor. The individual
computer unit cabinets should be connected to
this high-frequency grid by the shortest possi-
ble leads, and the grid itself bonded to the
ground bus by a single short connection.
Where “isolated ground” plug-in receptacles
are used, they provide a separate grounding
connection for plug-and-cord-connected com-
puter equipment. The isolated grounds for
these receptacles should be run with the sup-
ply conductors, back to the source, and there
connected to the common ground bus.
Standard equipment grounding for exposed
metal must also be provided. This will produce
the radial equipotential grounding system that
results in minimum ground-system noise to
the computers, with no sacrifice in safety.
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-56 January 1999

Sound Levels

Sound Levels Table A22: Typical Sound Levels Since values given in Table A23 are in general
higher than those given in Table A22, the dif-
A Sound Levels of Electrical
Radio, Recording and TV Studios
Theatres and Music Rooms
25-30 db
30-35 ference must be attenuated by distance and
by proper use of materials in the design of the
Equipment for Offices, Hospitals, Hospitals, Auditoriums and Churches 35-40
Classrooms and Lecture Rooms 35-40 building. An observer may believe that a
Schools and Similar Buildings Apartments and Hotels 35-45 transformer is noisy because the level in the
Private Offices and Conference Rooms 40-45 room where it is located is high. Two trans-
Insurance underwriters and building owners Stores 45-55 formers of the same sound output in the
desire and require that the electrical appara- Residence (Radio, TV Off) and Small same room increase the sound level in the
tus be installed for maximum safety and the Offices 53
room approximately 3 db, and 3 transformers
least interference with the normal use of the Medium Office (3 to 10 Desks) 58
Residence (Radio, TV On) 60 by about 5 db, etc.
property. Architects should take particular
care with the designs for hospitals, schools Large Store (5 or More Clerks) 61
Factory Office 61 Sounds due to structure-transmitted vibra-
and similar buildings to keep the sound per-
Large Office 64 tions originating from the transformer are
ception of such equipment as motors, blow- Average Factory 70 lowered by mounting the transformers on
ers and transformers to a minimum. Average Street 80 vibration dampeners or isolators. There are a
number of different sound vibration isolating
Even though transformers are relatively quiet,
Decrease in sound level varies at an approxi- materials which may be used with good results.
resonant conditions may exist near the equip-
mate rate of 6 decibels for each doubling of Dry-type power transformers are often built
ment which will amplify their normal 120
the distance from the source of sound to the with an isolator mounted between the trans-
Hertz hum. Therefore, it is important that con-
listener. For example, if the level six feet from former support and case members. The natural
sideration be given to the reduction of ampli-
a transformer is 50 db, the level at a distance period of the core and coil structure when
tude and to the absorption of energy at this
of twelve feet would be 44 db and at 24 feet mounted on vibration dampeners is about
frequency. This problem begins in the design-
the level decreases to 38 db, etc. However, 10% of the fundamental frequency. The
ing stages of the equipment and the building.
this rule applies only to equipment in large reduction in the transmitted vibration is
There are two points worthy of consideration:
areas equivalent to an out-of-door installa- approximately 98%. If the floor or beams
1) What sound levels are desired in the nor-
tion, with no nearby reflecting surfaces. beneath the transformer are light and flexible,
mally occupied rooms of this building? 2) To
the isolator must be softer or have improved
effect this, what sound level in the equipment
Transformer Sound Levels characteristics in order to keep the transmitted
room and what type of associated acoustical
vibrations to a minimum. (Enclosure covers
treatment will give the most economical in-
Transformers emit a continuous 120 Hertz and ventilating louvers are often improperly
stallation overall?
hum with harmonics when connected to tightened or gasketed and produce unneces-
60 Hertz circuits. The fundamental frequency sary noise.) The building structure will assist
A relatively high sound level in the equipment
is the “hum” which annoys people primarily the dampeners if the transformer is mounted
room does not indicate an abnormal condi-
because of its continuous nature. For purposes above heavy floor members or if mounted on
tion within the apparatus. However, absorp-
of reference, sound measuring instruments a heavy floor slab. Positioning of the trans-
tion may be necessary if sound originating in
convert the different frequencies to 1000 former in relation to walls and other reflecting
an unoccupied equipment room is objection-
Hertz and a 40 db level. Transformer sound surfaces has a great effect on reflected noise
able outside the room. Furthermore, added
levels based on NEMA publication TR-1 are and resonances. Often, placing the trans-
absorption material usually is desirable if
listed in Table A23. former at an angle to the wall, rather than
there is a “build-up” of sound due to
parallel to it, will reduce noise. Electrical con-
reflections.
Table A23: Maximum Average Sound Levels - nections to a substation transformer should
Decibels be made with flexible braid or conductors;
Some reduction or attenuation takes place
connections to an individually-mounted
through building walls, the remainder may be kVA Liquid-Filled Dry-Type
transformer should be in flexible conduit.
reflected in various directions, resulting in a Transformers Transformers
build-up or apparent higher levels, especially Self- Forced- Self- Forced-
if resonance occurs because of room dimen- Cooled Air Cooled Air
sions or material characteristics. Rating Cooled Rating Cooled
(OA) Rating (AA) Rating
Area Consideration (FA) (FA)
In determining permissible sound levels with- 300 55 .. 58 67
in a building, it is necessary to consider how 500 56 67 60 67
the rooms are to be used and what levels may 750 58 67 64 67
be objectionable to occupants of the building. 1000 58 67 64 67
1500 60 67 65 68
The ambient sound level values given in
2000 61 67 66 69
Table A22 are representative average values 2500 62 67 68 71
and may be used as a guide in determining 3000 63 67 68 71
suitable building levels. 3750 64 67 70 73
5000 65 67 71 73
6000 66 68 72 74
7500 67 69 73 75
10000 68 70 .. 76

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer
January 1999
Codes and Standards
The National Electrical Code (NEC), NFPA
Standard No. 70, is the most prevalent electri-
cal code in the United States. The NEC, which
is revised every three years, has no legal
standing of its own, until it is adopted as law
by a jurisdiction, which may be a city, county,
or state. Most jurisdictions adopt the NEC in
its entirety; some adopt it with variations,
usually more rigid, to suit local conditions
and requirements. A few large cities, such as
New York and Chicago, have their own elec-
trical codes, basically similar to the NEC. The
designer must determine which code applies
in the area of a specific project.
The Occupational Safety and Health Act
(OSHA) of 1970 sets uniform national require-
ments for safety in the workplace — any-
where that people are employed. Originally
OSHA adopted the 1971 NEC as rules for elec-
trical safety. As the NEC was amended every
three years, the involved process for modify-
ing a federal law such as OSHA made it im-
possible for the act to adopt each new code
revision. To avoid this problem, the OSHA ad-
ministration in 1981 adopted its own code, a
condensed version of the NEC containing
only those provisions considered related to
occupational safety. OSHA was amended to
adopt this code, based on NFPA Standard
70E, Part 1, which is now federal law.
The NEC, Article 90, Introduction, reads: 90-1.
(a) The purpose of this Code is the practical
safeguarding of persons and property from
hazards arising from the use of electricity.
(b)This Code contains provisions considered
necessary to safety. Compliance therewith
and proper maintenance will result in an
installation essentially free from hazard,
but not necessarily efficient, convenient, or
adequate for good service or expansion of
electrical use.
(c) This Code is not intended as a design
specification nor an instruction manual for
untrained persons.
The NEC is a minimum safety standard. Effi-
cient and adequate design usually requires
not just meeting, but often exceeding NEC
requirements to provide an effective, reliable,
economical electrical system.
Many equipment standards have been estab-
lished by the National Electrical Manufacturers
Association (NEMA) and the American Nation-
al Standards Institute (ANSI). Underwriters
Laboratory (UL) has standards that equipment
must meet before UL will list or label it. Most
jurisdictions and OSHA require that where
equipment listed as safe by a recognized labo-
ratory is available, unlisted equipment may
not be used. UL is by far the most widely ac-
cepted national laboratory, although Factory
Mutual Insurance Company lists some equip-
ment, and a number of other testing laborato-
ries have been recognized and accepted. The
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
(IEEE) publishes a number of books (the “color
book” series) on recommended practices for
the design of industrial buildings, commercial
CAT.71.01.T.E
Power Distribution System Design
Codes and Standards
buildings, emergency power systems,
grounding, and the like. Most of these IEEE
standards have been adopted as ANSI stan-
dards. They are excellent guides, although
they are not in any way mandatory.
A design engineer should conform to all
applicable codes, and require equipment to
be listed by UL or another recognized testing
laboratory wherever possible, and to meet
ANSI or NEMA standards. ANSI/IEEE recom-
mended practices should be followed to a
great extent. In many cases, standards should
be exceeded to get a system of the quality
required. The design goal should be a safe,
efficient, long-lasting, flexible, and economi-
cal electrical distribution system.
Excerpts From ANSI/IEEE C37.100
Definitions for Power Switchgear
Available (Prospective) Short-Circuit Current
The maximum current that the power system
can deliver through a given circuit point to
any negligible impedance short circuit
applied at the given point.
Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL)
A reference impulse insulation strength
expressed in terms of the crest value of the
withstand voltage of a standard full impulse
voltage wave.
Direct-Current Component (of a Total Current)
That portion of the total current which consti-
tutes the asymmetry.
Enclosed Switchboard
A dead-front switchboard that has an overall
sheet metal enclosure (not grille) covering
back and ends of the entire assembly. (Note:
Access to the enclosure is usually provided
by doors or removable covers. The tops may
or may not be covered.)
Ground Bus
A bus to which the grounds from individual
pieces of equipment are connected and that,
in turn, is connected to ground at one or more
points.
Ground Protection
A method of protection in which faults to
ground within the protected equipment are
detected.
Ground Relay
A relay that by its design or application is
intended to respond primarily to system
ground faults.
Interrupting (Breaking) Current
The current in a pole of a switching device at
the instant of initiation of the arc.
Load-Interrupter Switch
An interrupter switch designed to interrupt
currents not in excess of the continuous-
current rating of the switch. (Note: It may be
designed to close and carry abnormal or
short-circuit currents as specified).
Metal-Enclosed Low-Voltage Power Circuit
Breaker Switchgear
Metal-enclosed power switchgear including
the following equipment as required: (1) low-
A-57
voltage power circuit breaker (fused or un-
fused), (2) bare bus and connections, (3) in-
strument and control power transformers, (4)
instruments, meters, and relays, and (5) con-
A
trol wiring and accessory devices. The low-
voltage power circuit breakers are contained
in individual grounded metal compartments
and controlled remotely or from the front of
the panels. The circuit breakers may be sta-
tionary or removable. When removable, me-
chanical interlocks are provided to ensure a
proper, safe operating sequence.
Molded-Case Circuit Breaker
One that is assembled as an integral unit in a
supporting and enclosing housing of molded
insulating material.
Stored-Energy Operation
Operation by means of energy stored in the
mechanism itself prior to the completion of
the operation and sufficient to complete it un-
der predetermined conditions.
Switchboard
A type of switchgear assembly that consists of
one or more panels with electric devices
mounted thereon, and associated framework.
Switchgear
A general term covering switching and inter-
rupting devices and their combination with as-
sociated control, metering, protective and
regulating devices. Also assemblies of these
devices with associated interconnections,
accessories, enclosures and supporting struc-
tures, used primarily in connection with the
generation, transmission, distribution and
conversion of electric power.
Zone of Protection
The part of an installation guarded by a certain
protection.
Professional Organizations
American National Standards Institute
1430 Broadway
New York, New York 10018
212-642-4900
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
445 Hoes Lane
P.O. Box 1331
Piscataway, NJ 08855-9970
201-562-5522
International Association of Electrical Inspectors
930 Busse Highway
Park Ridge, IL 60068-2398
708-696-1455
National Electrical Manufacturers Association
2101 L Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20037-1526
202-457-8474
National Fire Protection Association
1 Battery March Drive
P.O. Box 9101
Quincy, MA 02269-9959
1-800-344-3555
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
333 Pfingsten Road
Northbrook, IL 60062
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-58 January 1999

Reference Data – Motor Protection

Motor Protection➀ Table A24: 60 Hz, Induction Motors

In line with NEC 430-6(a), circuit breaker, HMCP
A and fuse rating selections are based on full load
currents for induction motors running at
Hp Full
Load
Amps
Minimum
Wire Size
75°C Copper
Minimum
Conduit
Size, In’s.
Fuse Size
NEC 430-152
Max. Amps➁
Recommended Cutler-Hammer
Circuit➂
Breaker
Motor Circuit
Protector
(NEC) Ampacity
speeds normal for belted motors and motors FLA @125% FLA THW THWN Time Non- Type GMCP/HMCP
XHHN Delay Time
with normal torque characteristics using data Size Amps Delay Amps Type Amps Adj. Range
shown taken from NEC tables 430-148 (single-
phase) and 430-150 (3-phase). Actual motor 230 Volts, 3-Phase
1⁄2 1⁄2 21-70
nameplate ratings shall be used for selecting 1 3.6 12 20 10 15 15 ED 7
11⁄2 5.2 12 20 1⁄2 1⁄2 10 20 15 ED 7 21-70
motor running overload protection. Motors 2 6.8 12 20 12
⁄ 12
⁄ 15 25 15 ED 15 45-150
built special for low speeds, high torque 3 9.6 12 20 1⁄2 1⁄2 20 30 20 ED 15 45-150
5 15.2 12 20 1⁄2 1⁄2 30 50 30 ED 30 90-300
characteristics, special starting conditions and
71⁄2 22 10 30 12
⁄ 12
⁄ 40 70 50 ED 30 90-300
applications will require other considerations 10 28 8 50 3⁄4 1⁄2 50 90 60 ED 50 150-500
as defined in the application section of the NEC. 15 42 6 65 1 3⁄4 80 150 90 ED 70 210-700
20 54 4 85 1 1 100 175 100 ED 100 300-1000
25 68 4 85 1 1 125 225 125 ED 100 300-1000
Circuit breaker, HMCP and fuse ampere rating 30 80 3 100 11⁄4 1 150 250 150 ED 150 450-1500
selections are in line with maximum rules given 40 104 1 130 11⁄4 11⁄4 200 350 150 ED 150 450-1500
in NEC 430-52 and table 430-152. Based on known 50 130 2/0 175 11⁄2 11⁄2 250 400 200 ED 150 750-2500
60 154 3/0 200 2 11⁄2 300 500 225 ED 250 1250-2500
characteristics of Cutler-Hammer type breakers, 75 192 250 255 21⁄2 2 350 600 300 KD 400 2000-4000
specific units are recommended. The current rat- 100 248 350 310 21⁄2 21⁄2 450 800 400 KD 600 1800-6000
ings are no more than the maximum limits set by 125 312 (2)3/0 400 (2)2 (2)11⁄2 600 1000 500 LD 600 1800-6000
150 360 (2)4/0 460 (2)2 (2)2 700 1200 600 LD — —
the NEC rules for motors with code letters F to V 200 480 (2)350 620 (2)21⁄2 (2)21⁄2 1000 1600 700 MD — —
or without code letters. Motors with lower code
460 Volts, 3-Phase
letters will require further considerations.
12 12
1 1.8 12 20 ⁄ ⁄ 6 6 15 EHD 3 9-30
11⁄2 2.6 12 20 1⁄2 1⁄2 6 10 15 EHD 7 21-70
In general, these selections were based on: 2 3.4 12 20 1⁄2 1⁄2 6 15 15 EHD 7 21-70
3 4.8 12 20 1 1
⁄2 ⁄2 10 15 15 EHD 7 21-70
5 7.6 12 20 1⁄2 1⁄2 15 25 15 EHD 15 45-150
1. Ambient – Outside enclosure not more than 71⁄2 11 12 20 1⁄2 1⁄2 20 35 25 EHD 15 45-150
40°C (104°F). 10 14 12 20 12
⁄ 12
⁄ 25 45 35 EHD 30 90-300
1⁄ 1⁄ 90-300
15 21 10 30 2 2 40 70 45 EHD 30
20 27 8 50 3⁄4 1⁄2 50 90 50 EHD 50 150-500
2. Motor starting – Infrequent starting, stop- 25 34 8 50 34
⁄ 12
⁄ 60 110 70 EHD 50 150-500
ping or reversing. 30 40 8 50 34
⁄ 12
⁄ 70 125 70 EHD 70 210-700
40 52 6 65 1 3⁄ 100 175 100 EHD 100 300-1000
4
50 65 4 85 1 1 125 200 110 FDB 100 300-1000
3. Motor accelerating time – 10 seconds or less. 60 77 3 100 11⁄4 1 150 250 125 FDB 150 450-1500
75 96 1 130 11⁄4 11⁄4 175 300 150 JD 150 450-1500
4. Locked rotor – Maximum 6 times motor FLA. 100 124 2/0 175 11⁄2 11⁄2 225 400 175 JD 150 750-2500
125 156 3/0 200 2 11⁄2 300 500 225 JD 250 1250-2500
150 180 4/0 230 2 2 350 600 250 JD 250 1250-2500
5. Type HMCP motor circuit protector may not 200 240 350 310 21⁄2 21⁄2 450 800 350 KD 400 2000-4000
be set at more than 1300% of the motor 575 Volts, 3-Phase
full-load current, to comply with the NEC, 1 1.4 12 20 1⁄2 1⁄2 3 6 15 HFD 3 9-30
Sec. 430-52. (Except for new E rated motor 11⁄2 2.1 12 20 1
⁄2 1
⁄2 6 10 15 HFD 3 9-30
which can be set up to 1700%.) 2 2.7 12 20 1⁄2
1⁄2
1⁄2
1⁄2
6 10 15 HFD 7 21-70
3 3.9 12 20 10 15 15 HFD 7 21-70
5 6.1 12 20 12 12 HFD 15 45-150
⁄ ⁄ 15 20 15
Circuit breaker selections are based on types 71⁄2 9 12 20 1⁄
2
1⁄
2 20 30 20 HFD 15 45-150
1⁄2 1⁄2
with standard interrupting ratings. Higher inter- 10 11 12 20
12 12
20 35 25 HFD 15 45-150
15 17 12 20 ⁄ ⁄ 30 60 40 HFD 30 90-300
rupting rating types may be required to satisfy 20 22 10 30 1⁄2 1⁄2 40 70 50 HFD 50 150-500
specific system application requirements. 25 27 8 50 1⁄
2
1⁄
2 50 90 60 HFD 50 150-500
30 32 8 50 34 12
⁄ ⁄ 60 100 60 HFD 50 150-500
40 41 6 65 3⁄4
1 80 125 80 HFD 70 210-700
Cutler-Hammer type circuit breakers rated less 50 52 6 65 1 3⁄4 100 175 100 HFD 100 300-1000
than 125 amperes are marked for application 60 62 4 85 1 1 110 200 125 HFD 100 300-1000
with 60/75°C wire. Wire size selections shown 75 77 3 100 11⁄4 1 150 250 150 HFD 150 450-1500
100 99 1 130 11⁄4 11⁄4 175 300 175 HJD 150 450-1500
are minimum sizes based on the use of 75°C 125 125 2/0 175 11⁄2 11⁄2 225 400 200 HJD 250 875-1750
copper wire per NEC table 310-16. 150 144 3/0 200 2 11⁄2 300 450 225 HJD 250 1250-2500
200 192 250 255 21⁄2 2 350 600 300 HKD 400 2000-4000
Conduit sizes shown are minimum sizes for the 115 Volts, Single-Phase
type conductors (75°C) indicated and are based 3⁄4 13.8 12 20 1⁄2 1⁄2 25 45 30 ED Two-Pole
on the use of three conductors for three-phase 1 16 12 20 1⁄2 1⁄2 30 50 35 ED Device
1
1 ⁄2 20 10 30 12 12
motors and two conductors for single-phase ⁄ ⁄ 35 60 40 ED Not
1⁄2 1⁄2
2 24 10 30 45 80 50 ED Available
motors. Conduits with internal equipment 3 34 8 50 3⁄4 1⁄2 60 110 70 ED
grounding conductors or conductors with differ- 5 56 4 85 1 34
⁄ 100 175 100 ED
ent insulation will require further considerations. 71⁄2 80 3 100 1 1 150 250 150 ED
230 Volts, Single-Phase
For motor full load currents of 208 and 200 34
⁄ 6.9 12 20 12
⁄ 12
⁄ 15 25 15 ED Two-Pole
volts, increase the corresponding 230-volt 1 8 12 20 1⁄2 1⁄2 15 25 20 ED Device
motor values by 10 and 15 percent respectively. 11⁄2 10 12 20 1⁄2 1⁄2 20 30 25 ED Not
12 12
2 12 12 20 ⁄ ⁄ 25 40 30 ED Available
Wire and conduit sizes as well as equipment 3 17 10 30 1⁄2 1⁄2 30 60 40 ED
ratings will vary accordingly. 5 28 8 50 1⁄2 1⁄2 50 90 60 ED
71⁄2 40 8 50 34
⁄ 12
⁄ 70 125 80 ED

➀ These recommendations are based on previous ➁ Consult fuse manufacturer’s catalog for smaller ➂ Types are for minimum interrupting capacity
code interpretations. See the current NEC for exact fuse ratings. breakers. Ensure that the fault duty does not
up-to-date information. exceed breakers I.C.

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-59
January 1999

Reference Data – Secondary, Short Circuit Capacity of Typical Power Transformers

Table A25: Secondary Short Circuit Capacity of Typical Power Transformers

Trans-
Former
Rating
Maximum
Short
Circuit
208 Volts, 3-Phase
Rated Short-Circuit Current
240 Volts, 3-Phase
Rated Short-Circuit Current
480 Volts, 3-Phase
Rated Short-Circuit Current
600 Volts, 3-Phase
Rated Short-Circuit Current A
Load RMS Symmetrical Amps Load RMS Symmetrical Amps Load RMS Symmetrical Amps Load RMS Symmetrical Amps
3-Phase kVA
Contin- Contin- Contin- Contin-
kVA and Available Trans- 50% Com- Trans- 100% Com- Trans- 100% Com- Trans- 100% Com-
uous uous uous uous
Imped- From former Motor bined former Motor bined former Motor bined former Motor bined
Current, Current, Current, Current,
ance Primary Alone Load Alone Load Alone Load Alone Load
Amps ➀ ➁ Amps ➀ ➁ Amps ➀ ➁ Amps ➀ ➁
Percent System
300 50000 834 14900 1700 16600 722 12900 2900 15800 361 6400 1400 7800 289 5200 1200 6400
5% 100000 15700 17400 13600 16500 6800 8200 5500 6700
150000 16000 17700 13900 16800 6900 8300 5600 6800
250000 16300 18000 14100 17000 7000 8400 5600 6800
500000 16500 18200 14300 17200 7100 8500 5700 6900
Unlimited 16700 18400 14400 17300 7200 8600 5800 7000
500 50000 1388 21300 2800 25900 1203 20000 4800 24800 601 10000 2400 12400 481 8000 1900 9900
5% 100000 25200 28000 21900 26700 10900 13300 8700 10600
150000 26000 28800 22500 27300 11300 13700 9000 10900
250000 26700 29500 23100 27900 11600 14000 9300 11200
500000 27200 30000 23600 28400 11800 14200 9400 11300
Unlimited 27800 30600 24100 28900 12000 14400 9600 11500
750 50000 2080 28700 4200 32900 1804 24900 7200 32100 902 12400 3600 16000 722 10000 2900 12900
5.75% 100000 32000 36200 27800 35000 13900 17500 11100 14000
150000 33300 37500 28900 36100 14400 18000 11600 14500
250000 34400 38600 29800 37000 14900 18500 11900 14800
500000 35200 39400 30600 37800 15300 18900 12200 15100
Unlimited 36200 40400 31400 38600 15700 19300 12600 15500
1000 50000 2776 35900 5600 41500 2406 31000 9600 40600 1203 15500 4800 20300 962 12400 3900 16300
5.75% 100000 41200 46800 35600 45200 17800 22600 14300 18200
150000 43300 48900 37500 47100 18700 23500 15000 18900
250000 45200 50800 39100 48700 19600 24400 15600 19500
500000 46700 52300 40400 50000 20200 25000 16200 20100
Unlimited 48300 53900 41800 51400 20900 25700 16700 20600
1500 50000 4164 47600 8300 55900 3609 41200 14400 55600 1804 20600 7200 27800 1444 16500 5800 22300
5.75% 100000 57500 65800 49800 64200 24900 32100 20000 25800
150000 61800 70100 53500 57900 26700 33900 21400 27200
250000 65600 73900 56800 71200 28400 35600 22700 28500
500000 68800 77100 59600 74000 29800 37000 23900 29700
Unlimited 72500 80800 62800 77200 31400 38600 25100 30900
2000 50000 2406 24700 9600 34300 1924 19700 7800 27500
5.75% 100000 31000 40600 24800 32600
150000 34000 43600 27200 35000
250000 36700 46300 29400 37200
500000 39100 48700 31300 39100
Unlimited 41800 51400 33500 41300
2500 50000 3008 28000 12000 40000 2405 22400 9600 32000
5.75% 100000 36500 48500 29200 38800
150000 40500 52500 32400 42000
250000 44600 56600 35600 45200
500000 48100 60100 38500 48100
Unlimited 52300 64300 41800 51400

➀ Short-circuit capacity values shown correspond ➁ The motor’s short-circuit current contributions other voltages 100% motor load is assumed. For
to kVA and impedances shown in this table. For are computed on the basis of motor characteris- other percentages, the motor short-circuit current
impedances other than these, short-circuit cur- tics that will give four times normal current. For will be in direct proportion.
rents are inversely proportional to impedance. 208 volts, 50% motor load is assumed while for

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-60 January 1999

Reference Data – Transformer Full Load Amperes and Impedances

Table A26: Transformer Full-load Current, Three-Phase, Self-cooled Ratings

A Voltage, Line-to-Line
kVA 208 240 480 600 2,400 4,160 7,200 12,000 12,470 13,200 13,800 22,900 34,400
30 83.3 72.2 36.1 28.9 7.22 4.16 2.41 1.44 1.39 1.31 1.26 0.75 0.50
45 125 108 54.1 43.3 10.8 6.25 3.61 2.17 2.08 1.97 1.88 1.13 0.76
75 208 180 90.2 72.2 18.0 10.4 6.01 3.61 3.47 3.28 3.14 1.89 1.26
1121/2 312 271 135 108 27.1 15.6 9.02 5.41 5.21 4.92 4.71 2.84 1.89
150 416 361 180 144 36.1 20.8 12.0 7.22 6.94 6.56 6.28 3.78 2.52
225 625 541 271 217 54.1 31.2 18.0 10.8 10.4 9.84 9.41 5.67 3.78
300 833 722 361 289 72.2 41.6 24.1 14.4 13.9 13.1 12.6 7.56 5.04
500 1,388 1,203 601 481 120 69.4 40.1 24.1 23.1 21.9 20.9 12.6 8.39
750 2,082 1,804 902 722 180 104 60.1 36.1 34.7 32.8 31.4 18.9 12.6
1,000 2,776 2,406 1,203 962 241 139 80.2 48.1 46.3 43.7 41.8 25.2 16.8
1,500 4,164 3,608 1,804 1,443 361 208 120 72.2 69.4 65.6 62.8 37.8 25.2
2,000 .... 4,811 2,406 1,925 481 278 160 96.2 92.6 87.5 83.7 50.4 33.6
2,500 .... .... 3,007 2,406 601 347 200 120 116 109 105 63.0 42.0
3,000 .... .... 3,609 2,887 722 416 241 144 139 131 126 75.6 50.4
3,750 .... .... 4,511 3,608 902 520 301 180 174 164 157 94.5 62.9
5,000 .... .... .... 4,811 1,203 694 401 241 231 219 209 126 83.9
7,500 .... .... .... .... 1,804 1,041 601 361 347 328 314 189 126
10,000 .... .... .... .... 2,406 1,388 802 481 463 437 418 252 168

Approximate Impedance Data

Table A27: Typical Impedances – Table A28: 15 kV Class Primary – Oil Liquid- Table A30: 600-Volt Primary Class Dry-Type
Three-Phase Transformers a Filled Substation Transformers Distribution Transformers
kVA Liquid-Filled 65°C Rise 150°C Rise
Network Padmount kVA %Z %R %X X/R kVA %Z %R %X X/R
37.5 .... .... 112.5 5.00 1.71 4.70 2.75 3 7.93 6.60 4.40 0.67
45 .... .... 150 5.00 1.88 4.63 2.47 6 3.70 3.28 1.71 0.52
50 .... .... 225 5.00 1.84 4.65 2.52 9 3.42 1.94 2.81 1.45
75 .... 3.4 300 5.00 1.35 4.81 3.57 15 5.20 4.83 1.92 0.40
112.5 .... 3.2 500 5.00 1.50 4.77 3.18 30 5.60 4.67 3.10 0.66
150 .... 2.4 750 5.75 1.41 5.57 3.96 45 4.50 3.56 2.76 0.78
225 .... 3.3 1000 5.75 1.33 5.59 4.21 75 4.90 3.47 3.46 1.00
300 5.00 3.4 1500 5.75 1.12 5.64 5.04 112.5 5.90 3.91 4.42 1.13
500 5.00 4.6 2000 5.75 0.93 5.67 6.10 150 6.20 4.07 4.68 1.15
750 5.00 5.75 2500 5.75 0.86 5.69 6.61 225 6.40 3.51 5.35 1.52
1000 5.00 5.75 300 7.10 3.13 6.37 2.03
1500 7.00 5.75 Table A29: 15 kV Class Primary – Dry-Type 500 5.50 1.46 5.30 3.63
2000 7.00 5.75 Substation Transformers 750 6.30 1.27 6.17 4.87
2500 7.00 5.75 1000 6.50 1.08 6.41 5.93
3000 .... 6.50 150°C Rise
3750 .... 6.50 115°C Rise
kVA %Z %R %X X/R
5000 .... 6.50 kVA %Z %R %X X/R
300 4.50 2.87 3.47 1.21
500 5.75 2.66 5.10 1.92 15 5.20 3.67 3.69 1.01
750 5.75 2.47 5.19 2.11 30 4.60 4.33 1.54 0.36
1000 5.75 2.16 5.33 2.47 45 3.70 3.11 2.00 0.64
1500 5.75 1.87 5.44 2.90 75 4.60 2.53 3.84 1.52
2000 5.75 1.93 5.42 2.81 112.5 6.50 2.31 6.08 2.63
2500 5.75 1.74 5.48 3.15 150 6.20 3.53 5.09 1.44
225 7.20 2.36 6.80 2.89
80°C Rise 300 6.30 1.93 6.00 3.10
300 4.50 1.93 4.06 2.10 500 5.50 1.02 5.40 5.30
500 5.75 1.44 5.57 3.87 750 4.10 1.00 3.98 3.98
750 5.75 1.28 5.61 4.38
80°C Rise
1000 5.75 0.93 5.67 6.10
1500 5.75 0.87 5.68 6.51 kVA %Z %R %X X/R
2000 5.75 0.66 5.71 8.72 15 2.30 2.00 1.14 0.57
2500 5.75 0.56 5.72 10.22 30 2.90 2.25 1.83 0.81
45 2.90 1.78 2.29 1.29
75 3.70 2.07 3.07 1.49
112.5 4.30 2.49 3.51 1.41
150 4.10 1.70 3.73 2.19
225 5.30 1.42 5.11 3.59
300 3.30 1.00 3.14 3.14
500 4.50 0.62 4.46 7.19

Note: K factor rated distribution dry type

transformers may have significantly lower
impedances.
➀ Values are typical. For guaranteed values, refer to
transformer manufacturer.

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-61
January 1999

Reference Data – Transformer Losses

Approximate Transformer Loss Data

Table A31: 15 kV Class Primary – Oil Liquid-
Filled Substation Transformers
Table A33: 600-Volt Primary Class Dry-Type
Distribution Transformers
A
65°C Rise 150°C Rise
kVA No Load Full Load kVA No Load Full Load
Watts Loss Watts Loss Watts Loss Watts Loss
112.5 550 2470 3 33 231
150 545 3360 6 58 255
225 650 4800 9 77 252
300 950 5000 15 150 875
500 1200 8700 30 200 1600
750 1600 12160 45 300 1900
1000 1800 15100 75 400 3000
1500 3000 19800 112.5 500 4900
2000 4000 22600 150 600 6700
2500 4500 26000 225 700 8600
300 800 10200
Table A32: 15 kV Class Primary – Dry-Type 500 1700 9000
Substation Transformers 750 2200 11700
1000 2800 13600
150°C Rise
115°C Rise
kVA No Load Full Load
Watts Loss Watts Loss kVA No Load Full Load
Watts Loss Watts Loss
300 1600 10200
500 1900 15200 15 150 700
750 2700 21200 30 200 1500
1000 3400 25000 45 300 1700
1500 4500 32600 75 400 2300
2000 5700 44200 112.5 500 3100
2500 7300 50800 150 600 5900
225 700 6000
80°C Rise 300 800 6600
300 1800 7600 500 1700 6800
500 2300 9500 750 1500 9000
750 3400 13000
80°C Rise
1000 4200 13500
1500 5900 19000 kVA No Load Full Load
2000 6900 20000 Watts Loss Watts Loss
2500 7200 21200 15 200 500
30 300 975
45 300 1100
75 400 1950
112.5 600 3400
150 700 3250
225 800 4000
300 1300 4300
500 2200 5300

Note: 1 watt hour = 3.413 Btu

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-62 January 1999

Reference Data – Power Equipment Losses

Power Equipment Losses Table A39: Panelboards (Indoor, 480 volts)

A Table A34: Medium Voltage Switchgear (Indoor, 5 and 15 kV) Equipment

225 Ampere, 42 Circuit
Watts Loss
300
Equipment Watts Loss
1200 Ampere Breaker 600 Table A40: Low Voltage Busway (Indoor, Copper, 480 volts)
2000 Ampere Breaker 1400 Equipment Watts Loss
3000 Ampere Breaker 2000 800 Ampere 44 per foot

Table A35: Medium Voltage Switchgear (Indoor, 5 and 15 kV) 1200 Ampere 60 per foot
1350 Ampere 66 per foot
Equipment Watts Loss
1600 Ampere 72 per foot
600 Ampere Unfused Switch 500
2000 Ampere 91 per foot
1200 Ampere Unfused Switch 750
2500 Ampere 103 per foot
100 Ampere CL Fuses 840
3200 Ampere 144 per foot
Table A36: Medium Voltage Starters (Indoor, 5 kV) 4000 Ampere 182 per foot
Equipment Watts Loss 5000 Ampere 203 per foot
400 Ampere Starter FVNR 600
800 Ampere Starter FVNR 1000
600 Ampere Fused Switch 500
1200 Ampere Fused Switch 800

Table A37: Low Voltage Switchgear (Indoor, 480 volts)

Equipment Watts Loss
800 Ampere Breaker 400
1600 Ampere Breaker 1000
2000 Ampere Breaker 1500
3200 Ampere Breaker 2400
4000 Ampere Breaker 3000
5000 Ampere Breaker 4700
Fuse Limiters – 800 A CB 200
Fuse Limiters – 1600 A CB 500
Fuse Limiters – 2000 A CB 750
Fuse Truck – 3200 A CB 3600
Fuse Truck – 4000 A CB 4500
Structures – 3200 Ampere 4000
Structures – 4000 Ampere 5000
Structures – 5000 Ampere 7000
High Resistance Grounding 1200

Table A38: Motor Control Centers (Indoor, 480 volts)

Equipment Watts Loss
NEMA Size 1 Starter 39
NEMA Size 2 Starter 56
NEMA Size 3 Starter 92
NEMA Size 4 Starter 124
NEMA Size 5 Starter 244
Structures 200

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-63
January 1999

Reference Data – Enclosures

Enclosures
The following are reproduced from NEMA 250-1991. A
Table A41: Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Nonhazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against the Type of Enclosures
Following Environmental Conditions 1➀ 2➀ 4 4X 5 6 6P 12 12K 13
Incidental contact with the enclosed equipment X X X X X X X X X X
Falling dirt X X X X X X X X X X
Falling liquids and light splashing ... X X X X X X X X X
Circulating dust, lint, fibers, and flyings➁ ... ... X X ... X X X X X
Settling airborne dust, lint, fibers, and flyings➁ ... ... X X X X X X X X
Hosedown and splashing water ... ... X X ... X X ... ... ...
Oil and coolant seepage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... X X X
Oil or coolant spraying and splashing ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... X
Corrosive agents ... ... ... X ... ... X ... ... ...
Occasional temporary submersion ... ... ... ... ... X X ... ... ...
Occasional prolonged submersion ... ... ... ... ... ... X ... ... ...

Table A42: Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Outdoor Nonhazardous Locations
Provides a Degree of Protection Against the Type of Enclosures
Following Environmental Conditions 3 3R➂ 3S 4 4X 6 6P
Incidental contact with the enclosed equipment X X X X X X X
Rain, snow, and sleet➃ X X X X X X X
Sleet➄ ... ... X ... ... ... ...
Windblown dust X ... X X X X X
Hosedown ... ... ... X X X X
Corrosive agents ... ... ... ... X ... X
Occasional temporary submersion ... ... ... ... ... X X
Occasional prolonged submersion ... ... ... ... ... ... X

Table A43: Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Hazardous Locations (See Paragraph 3.6)
(If the installation is outdoors and/or additional protection is required by Tables A41 and A42, a combination-type enclosure is required.
Provides a Degree of Protection Against Atmospheres Typically Containing Type of Enclosure Type of Enclosure
(For Complete Listing, See NFPA 497M-1986, Classification of Gases, Vapors 7 and 8, Class I Groups➅ 9, Class II Groups➅
and Dusts for Electrical Equipment in Hazardous (Classified) Locations) Class A B C D E F G 10
Acetylene I X ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Hydrogen, manufactured gas I ... X ... ... ... ... ... ...
Diethel ether, ethylene, cyclopropane I ... ... X ... ... ... ... ...
Gasoline, hexane, butane, naphtha, propane, acetone, toluene, isoprene I ... ... ... X ... ... ... ...
Metal dust II ... ... ... ... X ... ... ...
Carbon black, coal dust, coke dust II ... ... ... ... ... X ... ...
Flour, starch, grain dust II ... ... ... ... ... ... X ...
Fibers, flyings➆ III ... ... ... ... ... ... X ...
Methane with or without coal dust MSHA ... ... ... ... ... ... ... X

Table A44: Knockout Dimensions

Conduit Trade Knockout Diameter, Inches
Size, Inches Minimum Nominal Maximum
1/2
0.859 0.875 0.906
3/4
1.094 1.109 1.141
1 1.359 1.375 1.406
11/4 1.719 1.734 1.766
11/2 1.958 1.984 2.016

2 2.433 2.469 2.500

21/2 2.938 2.969 3.000
3 3.563 3.594 3.625
31/2 4.063 4.125 4.156
4 4.563 4.641 4.672

5 5.625 5.719 5.750

6 6.700 6.813 6.844

➀ These enclosures may be ventilated. However,
Type 1 may not provide protection against small
particles of falling dirt when ventilation is provid-
ed in the enclosure top. Consult the manufacturer.
➁ These fibers and flying are nonhazardous materi-
als and are not considered the Class III type ignit-
able fibers or combustible flyings. For Class III
type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings see
the National Electrical Code, Article 500.
➂ External operating mechanisms are not required
to be operable when the enclosure is ice covered.
➃ External operating mechanisms are operable
when the enclosure is ice covered.
➄ These enclosures may be ventilated.
➅ For Class III type ignitable fibers or combustible
flyings see the National Electrical Code, Article
500.
➆ Due to the characteristics of the gas, vapor, or
dust, a product suitable for one Class or Group
may not be suitable for another Class or Group
unless so marked on the product.

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-64 January 1999

Reference Data – Conductor Resistance, Reactance, Impedance ➅

The tables below are average characteristics
based on data from several manufacturers of
A copper and aluminum conductors and cable,
and also NEC Table 9. Values from different
sources vary because of operating tempera-
tures, wire stranding, insulation materials
and thicknesses, overall diameters, random
lay of multiple conductors in conduit, con-
ductor spacing, and other divergences in
materials, test conditions and calculation
methods. These tables are for 600-volt con-
ductors, at an average temperature of 75°C.
Other parameters are listed in the notes. For
medium-voltage cables, differences among
manufacturers are considerably greater
because of the wider variations in insulation
materials and thicknesses, shielding, jacket-
ing, overall diameters, and the like. There-
fore, data for medium-voltage cables should
be obtained from the manufacturer of the
cable to be used.

Average Characteristics of 600-Volt Conductors (Ohms per 100 Feet)

Table A45: Two or Three Single Conductors

Wire Size, Copper Conductors Aluminum Conductors
AWG or Magnetic Conduit Nonmagnetic Conduit Magnetic Conduit Nonmagnetic Conduit
kcmil
R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z
14 .3130 .00780 .3131 .3130 .00624 .3131 – – – – – –
12 .1968 .00730 .1969 .1968 .00584 .1969 – – – – – –
10 .1230 .00705 .1232 .1230 .00564 .1231 – – – – – –
8 .0789 .00691 .0792 .0789 .00553 .0791 – – – – – –
6 .0490 .00640 .0494 .0490 .00512 .0493 .0833 .00509 .0835 .0833 .00407 .0834
4 .0318 .00591 .0323 .0318 .00473 .0321 .0530 .00490 .0532 .0530 .00392 .0531
2 .0203 .00548 .0210 .0203 .00438 .0208 .0335 .00457 .0338 .0335 .00366 .0337
1 .0162 .00533 .0171 .0162 .00426 .0168 .0267 .00440 .0271 .0267 .00352 .0269
1/0 .0130 .00519 .01340 .0129 .00415 .01360 .0212 .00410 .0216 .0212 .00328 .0215
2/0 .0104 .00511 .01159 .0103 .00409 .01108 .0170 .00396 .0175 .0170 .00317 .0173
3/0 .00843 .00502 .00981 .00803 .00402 .00898 .01380 .00386 .0143 .01380 .00309 .01414
4/0 .00696 .00489 .00851 .00666 .00391 .00772 .01103 .00381 .0117 .01097 .00305 .01139
250 .00588 .00487 .00763 .00578 .00390 .00697 .00936 .00375 .01008 .00933 .00300 .00980
300 .00512 .00484 .00705 .00501 .00387 .00633 .00810 .00366 .00899 .00797 .00293 .00849
350 .00391 .00480 .00619 .00380 .00384 .00540 .00694 .00360 .00782 .00688 .00288 .00746
400 .00369 .00476 .00602 .00356 .00381 .00521 .00618 .00355 .00713 .00610 .00284 .00673
450 .00330 .00467 .00595 .00310 .00374 .00486 .00548 .00350 .00650 .00536 .00280 .00605
500 .00297 .00458 .00546 .00275 .00366 .00458 .00482 .00346 .00593 .00470 .00277 .00546
600 .00261 .00455 .00525 .00241 .00364 .00437 .00409 .00355 .00542 .00395 .00284 .00486
700 .00247 .00448 .00512 .00247 .00358 .00435 .00346 .00340 .00485 .00330 .00272 .00428
750 .00220 .00441 .00493 .00198 .00353 .00405 .00308 .00331 .00452 .00278 .00265 .00384
1000 – – – – – – .00250 .00330 .00414 .00230 .00264 .00350

Table A46: Three-conductor Cables (and Interlocked Armored Cable)

Wire Size, Copper Conductors Aluminum Conductors
AWG or Magnetic Conduit Nonmagnetic Conduit Magnetic Conduit Nonmagnetic Conduit
kcmil
R X Z R X Z R X Z R X Z
14 .3130 .00597 .3131 .3130 .00521 .3130 – – – – – –
12 .1968 .00558 .1969 .1968 .00487 .1969 – – – – – –
10 .1230 .00539 .1231 .1230 .00470 .1231 – – – – – –
8 .0789 .00529 .0790 .0789 .00461 .0790 – – – – – –
6 .0490 .00491 .0492 .0490 .00427 .0492 .0833 .00509 .0834 .0833 .00407 .0834
4 .0318 .00452 .0321 .0318 .00394 .0320 .0530 .00490 .0532 .0530 .00392 .0531
2 .0203 .00420 .0207 .0203 .00366 .0206 .0335 .00457 .0338 .0335 .00366 .0337
1 .0162 .00408 .0167 .0162 .00355 .0166 .0267 .00440 .0271 .0267 .00352 .0269
1/0 .0130 .00398 .0136 .0129 .00346 .0134 .0212 .00410 .0216 .0212 .00328 .0215
2/0 .0104 .00390 .0111 .0103 .00341 .0108 .0170 .00396 .0175 .0170 .00317 .0173
3/0 .00843 .00384 .00926 .00803 .00335 .00870 .01380 .00389 .0143 .01380 .00309 .01414
4/0 .00696 .00375 .00791 .00666 .00326 .00742 .01103 .00381 .0117 .01097 .00305 .01139
250 .00588 .00373 .00696 .00578 .00325 .00663 .00936 .00375 .01006 .00933 .00300 .00980
300 .00512 .00370 .00632 .00501 .00323 .00596 .00810 .00366 .00889 .00797 .00293 .00849
350 .00391 .00365 .00535 .00380 .00320 .00497 .00694 .00360 .00782 .00688 .00288 .00746
400 .00369 .00360 .00516 .00356 .00318 .00477 .00618 .00355 .00713 .00610 .00284 .00673
450 .00360 .00351 .00503 .00310 .00312 .00440 .00548 .00350 .00650 .00536 .00280 .00605
500 .00297 .00343 .00454 .00275 .00305 .00411 .00482 .00346 .00593 .00470 .00277 .00546
600 .00261 .00337 .00426 .00241 .00303 .00387 .00409 .00355 .00542 .00395 .00284 .00486
700 .00247 .00330 .00412 .00227 .00298 .00375 .00346 .00341 .00486 .00330 .00272 .00428
750 .00220 .00323 .00391 .00198 .00294 .00354 .00308 .00331 .00452 .00278 .00265 .00384
1000 – – – – – – .00250 .00330 .00414 .00230 .00264 .00350

➀ Resistance and reactance are phase-to-neutral
values, based on 60 Hertz ac, 3-phase, 4-wire
distribution, in ohms per 100 feet of circuit length
(not total conductor lengths).
➁ Based upon conductivity of 100% for copper, 61%
for aluminum.
➂ Based on conductor temperatures of 75°C. ➃ For interlocked armored cable, use magnetic
Reactance values will have negligible variation conduit data for steel armor and non-magnetic
with temperature. Resistance of both copper and conduit data for aluminum armor.
aluminum conductors will be approximately 5% 2 2
lower at 60°C or 5% higher at 90°C. Data shown in ➄ Z = X +R
tables may be used without significant error ➅ For busway impedance data, see section H2 of
between 60°C and 90°C. this catalog.

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-65
January 1999

Reference Data – Conductor Ampacities ➀

Current Carrying Capacities of Copper and Aluminum and Copper-Clad Aluminum Conductors From National
Electrical Code (NEC), 1996 Edition (NFPA70-1996)
Table 310-16: Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductors Rated 0-2000 Volts, 60° to 90°C (140° to 194°F)
Not More Than Three Conductors in Raceway or Cable or Earth (Directly Buried), Based on Ambient Temperature of 30°C (86°F)
A
Size Temperature Rating of Conductor. See Table 310-13. Size Exception No. 1: Where conductors of differ-
AWG 60°C 75°C 90°C 60°C 75°C 90°C AWG ent systems, as provided in Section 300-3, are
kcmil (140°F) (167°F) (194°F) (140°F) (167°F) (194°F) kcmil installed in a common raceway or cable, the
Types Types Types Types Types Types derating factors shown above shall apply to
TW†, FEPW†, TBS, SA, TW†, RH†, RHW†, TBS, the number of power and lighting (Articles
UF† RH†, RHW†, SIS, FEP†, UF† THHW†, SA, SIS,
THHW†, FEPB†, MI, THW†, THHN†, 210, 215, 220, and 230) conductors only.
THW†, RHH†, RHW-2, THWN†, THHW†, Exception No. 2: For conductors installed in
THWN†, THHN†, THHW†, XHHW†, THW-2, THWN-2,
XHHW†, THW-2, THWN-2, USE† RHH†, RHW-2, cable trays, the provisions of Section 318-11
USE†, ZW† USE-2, XHH, USE-2, shall apply.
XHHW†, XHH, XHHW,
XHHW-2, ZW-2 XHHW-2, ZW-2 Exception No. 3: Derating factors shall not
Copper Aluminum or Copper-Clad Aluminum apply to conductors in nipples having a
18 .... .... 14 .... .... .... .... length not exceeding 24 inches (610 mm).
16 .... .... 18 .... .... .... .... Exception No. 4: Derating factors shall not
14 20† 20† 25† .... .... .... ....
12 25† 25† 30† 20† 20† 25† 12 apply to underground conductors entering or
10 30 35† 40† 25 30† 35† 10 leaving an outdoor trench if those conductors
8 40 50 55 30 40 45 8
have physical protection in the form of rigid
6 55 65 75 40 50 60 6 metal conduit, intermediate metal conduit, or
4 70 85 95 55 65 75 4
3 85 100 110 65 75 85 3 rigid nonmetallic conduit having a length not
2 95 115 130 75 90 100 2 exceeding 10 feet (3.05 m) and the number of
1 110 130 150 85 100 115 1
conductors does not exceed four.
1/0 125 150 170 100 120 135 1/0
2/0 145 175 195 115 135 150 2/0 Exception No. 5: For other loading conditions,
3/0 165 200 225 130 155 175 3/0 adjustment factors and ampacities shall be
4/0 195 230 260 150 180 205 4/0
permitted to be calculated under Section
250 215 255 290 170 205 230 250
300 240 285 320 190 230 255 300 310-15(b).
350 260 310 350 210 250 280 350 (FPN): See Appendix B, Table B-310-11 for ad-
400 280 335 380 225 270 305 400
500 320 380 430 260 310 350 500 justment factors for more than three current-
600 355 420 475 285 340 385 600
carrying conductors in a raceway or cable
700 385 460 520 310 375 420 700 with load diversity.
750 400 475 535 320 385 435 750 b. More Than One Conduit, Tube or Raceway.
800 410 490 555 330 395 450 800
900 435 520 585 355 425 480 900 Spacing between conduits, tubing or
1000 455 545 615 375 445 500 1000 raceways shall be maintained.
1250 495 590 665 405 485 545 1250
1500 520 625 705 435 520 585 1500
1750 545 650 735 455 545 615 1750 9. Overcurrent Protection.
2000 560 665 750 470 560 630 2000 Where the standard ratings and settings of
Correction Factors overcurrent devices do not correspond with
Ambient For ambient temperatures other than 30 °C (86°F), multiply the allowable ampacities shown Ambient the ratings and settings allowed for conduc-
Temp. °C above by the appropriate factor shown below. Temp. °F tors, the next higher standard rating and set-
21-25 1.08 1.05 1.04 1.08 1.05 1.04 70-77 ting shall be permitted.
26-30 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 78-86
31-35 .91 .94 .96 .91 .94 .96 87-95 Exception: As limited in Section 240-3.
36-40 .82 .88 .91 .82 .88 .91 96-104 Note 9: Overcurrent protection.
41-45 .71 .82 .87 .71 .82 .87 105-113
46-50 .58 .75 .82 .58 .75 .82 114-122 Where the standard ratings and settings of
51-55 .41 .67 .76 .41 .67 .76 123-131 overcurrent devices do not correspond with
56-60 .... .58 .71 .... .58 .71 132-140
61-70 .... .33 .58 .... .33 .58 141-158 the ratings and settings allowed for conduc-
71-80 .... .... .41 .... .... .41 159-176 tors, the next higher standard rating and set-
†Unless otherwise specifically permitted elsewhere in this Code, the overcurrent protection for conductor types marked ting shall be permitted, except as limited in
with an obelisk (†) shall not exceed 15 amperes for No. 14, 20 amperes for No. 12, and 30 amperes for No. 10 copper; or 15
amperes for No. 12 and 25 amperes for No. 10 aluminum and copper-clad aluminum after any correction factors for ambi- Section 240-3 (not above a rating of 800A).
ent temperature and number of conductors have been applied. Note 10: Neutral Conductor
Note: For applications 2000 volts and below under conditions of use other than covered by the a. A neutral conductor which carries only the
above table, and for applications over 2000 volts, see Article 310 and additional tables in NEC. unbalanced current from other conduc-
tors, as in the case of normally balanced
circuits of three or more conductors, shall
See NEC for complete notes to Table 310-16. Number of Percent of Values in Tables not be counted when applying the provi-
Some of the most important are summarized Current-Carrying Conductors as Adjusted for Ambien
Temperature if Necessary sions of Note 8.
in part below.
4 through 6 80 b. In a 3-wire circuit consisting of 2-phase
7 through 9 70 wires and the neutral of a 4-wire, 3-phase
8. Adjustment Factors 10 through 20 50
21 through 30 45 wye-connected system, a common con-
a. More Than Three Current-Carrying 31 through 40 40 ductor carries approximately the same cur-
Conductors in a Raceway or Cable. 41 and above 35
rent as the line to neutral load currents of
Where the number of current-carrying
the other conductors and shall be counted
conductors in a raceway or cable exceeds Where single conductors or multiconductor
when applying the provisions of Note 8.
three, the allowable ampacities shall be cables are stacked or bundled longer than 24
c. On a 4-wire, 3-phase wye circuit where
reduced as shown in the following table: inches (610 mm) without maintaining spacing
the major portion of the load consists of
and are not installed in raceways, the allow-
non linear loads, there are harmonic cur-
able ampacity of each conductor shall be
rents present in the neutral conductor and
reduced as shown in the above table.
the neutral shall be considered to be a
current-carrying conductor.
➀ For impedance data, see page A-64.

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-66 January 1999

Reference Data – Conduit Fill

Note 11: Grounding or Bonding Conductor
A grounding or bonding conductor shall not
A be counted when applying the provisions of
Note 8.
Conduit Fill
Note: UL listed circuit breakers rated 125A or
less shall be marked as being suitable for
60°C (140°F), 75°C (167°F) only or 60/75°C
(140/167°F) wire. All Westinghouse listed
breakers rated 125A or less are marked 60/
75°C. All UL listed circuit breakers rated over
125A are suitable for 75°C conductors. Con-
ductors rated for higher temperatures may be
used, but must not be loaded to carry more
current than the 75°C ampacity of that size
conductor for equipment marked or rated
75°C or the 65°C ampacity of that size conduc-
tor for equipment marked or rated 65°C. How-
ever, the full 90°C ampacity may be used
when applying derated factors, so long as the
actual load does not exceed the lower of the
derated ampacity or the 75°C or 60°C ampac-
ity that applies.

Reproduced From 1993 NEC. For estimate only – see 1996 NEC, Chapter 9, Tables 1-10 for exact code requirements.

Table 3A: Maximum Number of Conductors in Trade Sizes of Conduit or Tubing (Based on Table 1, Chapter 9)
Conduit or Tubing Trade Size (Inches) 1⁄2 3⁄4 1 11⁄4 11⁄2 2 21⁄2 3 31⁄2 4 5 6
Type Letters Conductor Size
AWG/kcmil
TW, XHHW 14 9 15 25 44 60 99 142
(14 through 8) 12 7 12 19 35 47 78 111 171
RH (14 + 12) 10 5 9 15 26 36 60 85 131 176
8 2 4 7 12 17 28 40 62 84 108
RHW and RHH 14 6 10 16 29 40 65 93 143 192
(without outer cover 12 4 8 13 24 32 53 76 117 157
ing), RH (10 + 8) 10 4 6 11 19 26 43 61 95 127 163
THW, THHW 8 1 3 5 10 13 22 32 49 66 85 133
TW, 6 1 2 4 7 10 16 23 36 48 62 97 141
4 1 1 3 5 7 12 17 27 36 47 73 106
THW, 3 1 1 2 4 6 10 15 23 31 40 63 91
2 1 1 2 4 5 9 13 20 27 34 54 78
1 1 1 3 4 6 9 14 19 25 39 57
FEPB (6 through 2), 1/0 1 1 2 3 5 8 12 16 21 33 49
RHW and RHH (with- 2/0 1 1 1 3 5 7 10 14 18 29 41
out outer covering) 3/0 1 1 1 2 4 6 9 12 15 24 35
4/0 1 1 1 3 5 7 10 13 20 29
250 1 1 1 2 4 6 8 10 16 23
300 1 1 1 2 3 5 7 9 14 20
350 1 1 1 3 4 6 8 12 18
400 1 1 1 2 4 5 7 11 16
500 1 1 1 1 3 4 6 9 14
RH, THHW 600 1 1 1 3 4 5 7 11
700 1 1 1 2 3 4 7 10
750 1 1 1 2 3 4 6 9

Note 1. This table is for concentric stranded conductors only. For cables with compact conductors, the dimensions in Table 5A shall be used.
Note 2. Conduit fill for conductors with a -2 suffix is the same as for those types without the suffix.

Reproduced From 1993 NEC

Table 3B: Maximum Number of Conductors in Trade Sizes of Conduit or Tubing (Based on Table 1, Chapter 9)
Conduit or Tubing Trade Size (Inches) 1⁄2 3⁄4 1 11⁄4 11⁄2 2 21⁄2 3 31⁄2 4 5 6
Type Letters Conductor Size
AWG/kcmil
THWN, 14 13 24 39 69 94 154
12 10 18 29 51 70 114 164
10 6 11 18 32 44 73 104 160
8 3 5 9 16 22 36 51 79 106 136
THHN, 6 1 4 6 11 15 26 37 57 76 98 154
FEP (14 through 2), 4 1 2 4 7 9 16 22 35 47 60 94 137
FEPB (14 through 8), 3 1 1 3 6 8 13 19 29 39 51 80 116
PFA (14 through 4/0) 2 1 1 3 5 7 11 16 25 33 43 67 97
PFAH (14 through 4/0) 1 1 1 3 5 8 12 18 25 32 50 72
Z (14 through 4/0)
1/0 1 1 3 4 7 10 15 21 27 42 61
XHHW (4 through
2/0 1 1 2 3 6 8 13 17 22 35 51
500 kcmil)
3/0 1 1 1 3 5 7 11 14 18 29 42
4/0 1 1 1 2 4 6 9 12 15 24 35
250 1 1 1 3 4 7 10 12 20 28
300 1 1 1 3 4 6 8 11 17 24
350 1 1 1 2 3 5 7 9 15 21
400 1 1 1 3 5 6 8 13 19
500 1 1 1 2 4 5 7 11 16
600 1 1 1 1 3 4 5 9 13
700 1 1 1 3 4 5 8 11
750 1 1 1 2 3 4 7 11
XHHW 6 1 3 5 9 13 21 30 47 63 81 128 185
600 1 1 1 1 3 4 5 9 13
700 1 1 1 3 4 5 7 11
750 1 1 1 2 3 4 7 10

Note 1. This table is for concentric stranded conductors only. For cables with compact conductors, the dimensions in Table 5A shall be used.
Note 2. Conduit fill for conductors with a -2 suffix is the same as for those types without the suffix.

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-67
January 1999

Reference Data – Formulas and Terms

Formulas for Determining Amperes, hp, kW, and kVA➀

To Find Direct Current Alternating Current
Single-Phase Two-Phase — 4-Wire➁ Three-Phase
A
Amperes (l) When hp × 746 hp × 746 hp × 746 hp × 746
-------------------------- -------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------
Horsepower is Known E × % eff E × % eff × pf 2 × E × % eff × pf 3 × E × % eff × pf
Amperes (l) When kW × 1000 kW × 1000 kW × 1000 kW × 1000
----------------------------- ----------------------------- ----------------------------- -------------------------------------
Kilowatts is Known E E × pf 2 × E × pf 3 × E × % pf
Amperes (l) When kVA × 1000 kVA × 1000 kVA × 1000
------------------------------- ------------------------------- -------------------------------
kVA is Known E 2×E 3×E
Kilowatts I×E l × E × pf l × E × 2 × pf l × E × 3 × pf
------------- ------------------------ --------------------------------- -------------------------------------
1000 1000 1000 1000
kVA I×E I×E×2 I×E× 3
------------- --------------------- -------------------------
1000 1000 1000
Horsepower (Output) I × E × % eff I × E × % eff × pf I × E × 2 × % eff × pf I × E × 3 × % eff × pf
-------------------------------- -------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------------
746 746 746 746

Common Electrical Terms How to Compute Power Factor

Ampere (l) = unit of current or rate of flow of electricity
watts
Volt (E) = unit of electromotive force Determining watts: pf = --------------------------------------------
volts × amperes
Ohm (R) = unit of resistance
E 1. From watt-hour meter.
Ohms law: I = --- (DC or 100% pf) Watts = rpm of disc × 60 × Kh
R
Megohm = 1,000,000 ohms Where Kh is meter constant printed on face
or nameplate of meter.
Volt Amperes (VA) = unit of apparent power
= E × l (single-phase) If metering transformers are used, above
= E×l× 3 must be multiplied by the transformer ratios.

Kilovolt Amperes (kVA) = 1000 volt-amperes 2. Directly from wattmeter reading.

Where:
Watt (W) = unit of true power
= VA × pf Volts = line-to-line voltage as measured by
= .00134 hp voltmeter.

Kilowatt (kW) = 1000 watts Amps = current measured in line wire (not
neutral) by ammeter.
Power Factor (pf) = ratio of true to apparent power
Temperature Conversion
W kW
= ------- ---------- (F° to C°) C°=5/9 (F°-32°)
VA kVA (C° to F°) F°=9/5(C°)+32°
Watt-hour (Wh) = unit of electrical work C° -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
= one watt for one hour F° 5 14 23 32 41 50 59 68
= 3.413 Btu C° 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
= 2,655 ft. lbs. F° 77 86 95 104 113 122 131 140
C° 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 1000 watt-hours F° 149 158 167 176 185 194 203 212

Horsepower (hp) = measure of time rate of doing work 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
= equivalent of raising 33,000 lbs. one ft. in one minute 1 kilogram = 2.20 lbs.
= 746 watts 1 square inch = 1,273,200 circular mills
1 circular mill = .785 square mil
Demand Factor = ratio of maximum demand to the total connected load 1 Btu = 778 ft. lbs.
= 252 calories
Diversity Factor = ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands of the various 1 year = 8,760 hours
subdivisions of a system to the maximum demand of the
whole system

Load Factor = ratio of the average load over a designated period of time to the
peak load occurring in that period

➀ Units of measurement and definitions for E ➁ For 2-phase, 3-wire circuits the current in the
(volts), I (amperes), and other abbreviations are common conductor is 2 times that in either
given below under Common Electrical Terms. of the two other conductors.

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-68 January 1999

Seismic Requirements

Seismic Requirements
A Uniform Building Code (UBC)
The 1994 Uniform Building Code (UBC)
3

2B
3
2A

1
0
includes Volume 2 for earthquake design 1

requirements. Sections 1624-1633 of this ref- 2B 4

3
erence specifically require that structures and 2B 0 2A
portions of structures shall be designed to 3
withstand the seismic ground motion speci- 2B 1
3
fied in the code. The design engineer must 4 3 0
1

evaluate the effect of lateral forces not only on 4 1

2A 1
the building structure but also on the equip- 3
2A
ment in determining whether the design will
1 3
withstand those forces. In the code electrical 3
2B 1
equipment such as control panels, motors, 4 2A
2A
switchgear, transformers, and associated con- ALASKA
0 1 1
duit are specifically identified. 1
2B
1

2B 0
2B
1
The criteria for selecting the seismic require- 1
3
HAWAII
ments are defined in Section 1627 of the code. 1 4
2B
0
3
Figure 16-2 of the code includes a seismic zone 0
map of the United States. Figure 16-3 of the 3
3 4
PUERTO
code includes the normalized response spec- ALEUTIAN RICO
ISLANDS
tra shapes for different soil conditions. The
damping value is 5% of the critical damping.
UBC Figure 16-2. Seismic Zone Map of the United States
The seismic requirements in the UBC can be
completely defined as the Zero Period Accel- 4
eration (ZPA) and Spectrum Accelerations are
computed. In a test program, these values are Soft to Medium Clays and Sands
Effective Peak Ground Acceleration

computed conservatively to envelop the (Soil Type 3)

requirements of all seismic zones. The lateral 3
force on elements of structures and nonstruc-
Spectral Acceleration

tural components are defined in Section Deep Cohesionless or Stiff Clay Soils
(Soil Type 2)
1630. The dynamic lateral forces are defined
in Section 1629. These loads are converted to 2
Rock and Stiff Soils
seismic accelerations according to the nor- (Soil Type 1)
malized response spectra shown in Figure
16-3 of the UBC.
1
The total design lateral force required is:

Force Fp = Z Ip Cp Wp
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Dividing both sides by Wp, the acceleration Period, T
requirement in g’s is equal to: (Seconds)

Acceleration = Fp/Wp = Z Ip Cp UBC Figure 16-3. Normalized Response Spectra Shapes

Where:
Z: is the seismic zone factor and is
taken equal to 0.4. This is the
maximum value provided in
Table 16-I of the code.
Ip: is the importance factor and is
taken equal to 1.5. This is the
maximum value provided in
Table 16-K of the code.
Cp: is the horizontal force factor and is
taken equal to 0.75 for rigid equip-
ment as defined in Table 16-O. For
flexible equipment, this value is equal
to twice the value for the rigid equip-
ment: 2 x 0.75 = 1.5. This is the maxi-
mum value provided in the code.
Wp: is the weight of the equipment.
Therefore, the maximum acceleration for the lowest natural frequency of Cutler-Hammer
rigid equipment is: equipment is greater than 3 Hz. Therefore, the
requirements for the flexible equipment ex-
Acceleration = Fp/Wp tend from 3 Hz. to 16.7 Hz. The rigid equipment
= Z Ip Cp requirements extend beyond 16.7 Hz. The
= 0.4 x 1.5 x 0.75 resultant levels are shown in Figure 16-3.
= 0.45g
Equipment must be designed and tested to
The maximum acceleration for flexible the UBC requirements to determine that it
equipment is: will be functional following a seismic event.
In addition, a structural or civil engineer must
Acceleration = Fp/Wp perform calculations based on data received
= Z Ip Cp from the equipment manufacturer specifying
= 0.4 x 1.5 x 1.5 the size, weight, center of gravity, and mount-
= 0.9g ing provisions of the equipment to determine
its method of attachment so it will remain
Flexible equipment is defined in the UBC as attached to its foundation during a seismic
equipment with a period of vibration equal to event. Finally, the contractor must properly
or greater than 0.06 seconds. This period of install the equipment in accordance with the
vibration corresponds to a dominant frequency anchorage design.
of vibration equal to 16.7 Hz. From actual tests,

CAT.71.01.T.E
Cutler-Hammer Power Distribution System Design A-69
January 1999

Seismic Requirements

California Building Code

The 1992 California Building Code (CBC) Period (seconds)
requirements and the UBC requirements are
similar except that the CBC specifies the
.31 .25 .20 .16 .13 .10 .08 .06 .05 .04 .03 0 A
coefficient Cp for flexible equipment is taken
equal to 4 times the rigid value. The maxi- 2.0
mum acceleration for rigid equipment is:

Acceleration = Fp/Wp
= Z I Cp Damping = 5%
= 0.4 x 1.5 x 0.75 1.5
= 0.45g

The maximum acceleration for flexible

equipment is: Response
Acceleration 1.0
(g)
Acceleration = Fp/Wp

Zero Period Acceleration

= Z I Cp
= 0.4 x 1.5 x 4 x 0.75 Cutler-Hammer Equipment Capability
= 1.8g 50% of the Level Specified in ANSI C37.81
0.5 California Building Code Zone 4
Requirement
In addition, CBC State Requirements add
Uniform Building Code Zone 4
under Note 12 in Table 23P, vertical accelera- Requirement
tions are to be met along with the horizontal,
equal to 1⁄3 of the horizontal accelerations.
Because the 1⁄3 figure has been found to 0
be inadequate for some applications, 3.2 4 5 6.4 8 10 13 17 20 26 32
Cutler-Hammer recommends the vertical Frequency (Hz)
acceleration requirements to be equal to the
horizontal seismic requirements. The result- Figure 1. Tested Equipment Capability and Seismic Requirements
ant levels are shown in Figure 1.

ANSI C37.81 - 1995

The seismic requirements for Class 1E
Switchgear in nuclear power plants are
defined in ANSI C37.81, Guide for Seismic
Qualification of Class 1E Metal-Enclosed
Power Switchgear Assemblies. Cutler-
Hammer elected to test the equipment to 1⁄2
of the nuclear requirements. The 50% ANSI
C37.81 seismic requirements are also plotted
in Figure 1.

CAT.71.01.T.E
 Power Distribution System Design Cutler-Hammer
A-70 January 1999

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CAT.71.01.T.E