The Dirac Delta function

Ernesto Estevez Rams

estevez@imre.oc.uh.cu

Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa de Materiales (IMRE)-Facultad de Fsica

Universidad de la Habana

IUCr International School on Crystallography, Brazil, 2012.

III Latinoamerican series
Introduction as a limit Properties Orthonormal Higher dimen. Recap Exercises Ref.

Outline

1 Introduction
Defining the Dirac Delta function

2 Dirac delta function as the limit of a family of functions

3 Properties of the Dirac delta function

4 Dirac delta function obtained from a complete set of

orthonormal functions
Dirac comb

5 Dirac delta in higher dimensional space

6 Recapitulation

7 Exercises

8 References

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The Kronecker Delta

Suppose we have a sequence

of values {a1 , a2 , . . .} and we
wish to select algebraically a
particular value labeled by its
index i

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The Kronecker Delta

Definition (Kronecker
delta)

K 1 i=j
ij =
0 i 6= j

Picking one member of a set algebraically

X
aK
j ij = ai
j=1

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The Kronecker Delta

Definition (Kronecker
delta)

K 1 i=j
ij =
0 i 6= j

Picking one member of a set algebraically

X
aK
j ij = ai
j=1

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Properties of the Kronecker Delta

K
P
j ij = 1: Normalization condition.

K = K
ij ji : Symmetry property.

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Properties of the Kronecker Delta

K
P
j ij = 1: Normalization condition.

K = K
ij ji : Symmetry property.

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Spotting a point in the mountain profile

We want to pick up
just a narrow window
of the whole view

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How to deal with continuous functions ?

We want to do the
same with a
continuous function.

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Defining the Dirac Delta function

Consider a function f (x) continuous in the interval (a, b) and suppose we

want to pick up algebraically the value of f (x) at a particular point labeled
by x0 .
In analogy with the Kronecker delta let us define a selector function D (x)
with the following two properties:
Rb
a f (x) D (x x0 )dx = f (x0 ): Selector or sifting property

Rb D (x
a x0 )dx = 1: Normalization condition

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Defining the Dirac Delta function

Consider a function f (x) continuous in the interval (a, b) and suppose we

want to pick up algebraically the value of f (x) at a particular point labeled
by x0 .
In analogy with the Kronecker delta let us define a selector function D (x)
with the following two properties:
Rb
a f (x) D (x x0 )dx = f (x0 ): Selector or sifting property

Rb D (x
a x0 )dx = 1: Normalization condition

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Defining the Dirac Delta function

To be more general consider f (x) to be continuous in the interval (a, b)

except in a finite number of points where finite discontinuities occurs, then
the Dirac Delta can be defined as
Definition (Dirac delta function)
+
1
Z b 2 [f (x10 ) ++f (x0 ]
x0 (a, b)
f (x ) x0 = a

0
f (x)(x x0 )dx = 2
a

1
2
f (x
0 ) x0 = b
0 x0
/ (a, b)

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A bit of history

Simeon Denis Poisson (1781-1840)

In 1815 Poisson already for sees the (x x0 ) as a selector
function using for this purpose Lorentzian functions. Cauchy
(1823) also made use of selector function in much the same
way as Poisson and Fourier gave a series representation on
the delta function(More on this later).

Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac (1902-1984)

Dirac rediscovered the delta function that now bears his

name in analogy for the continuous case with the Kronecker
delta in his seminal works on quantum mechanics.

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What does it look like ?


p x (x0 1/2p, x0 + 1/2p)
p (x x0 ) =
0 x/ (x0 1/2p, x0 + 1/2p)

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What does it look like ?

R x0 +1/2p
p x0 1/2p
f (x)dx

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What does it look like ?

R R 1/2p

p (x) dx = 1/2p
p dx = 1

Definition (Dirac delta function)


x = x0
(x x0 )dx =
0 x 6= x0

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What does it look like ?

Definition (Dirac delta function)


x = x0
(x x0 ) =
0 x 6= x0

The above expression is just formal, the (x) must be always understood in
the context of its selector property i.e. within the integral

(x) is defined more rigorously in terms of a distribution or a functional

(generalized function)

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Dirac delta function as the limit of a family of functions

The Dirac delta function can be pictured as the limit in a sequence of

functions p which must comply with two conditions:
R
lmp p (x)dx = 1: Normalization condition

p (x6=0)
lmp lmx0 p (x)
= 0 Singularity condition.

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Dirac delta function as the limit of a family of functions

The Dirac delta function can be pictured as the limit in a sequence of

functions p which must comply with two conditions:
R
lmp p (x)dx = 1: Normalization condition

p (x6=0)
lmp lmx0 p (x)
= 0 Singularity condition.

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... as the limit of Gaussian functions

p HxL

"#############
p

p (x) Gaussian
family

&''''''''
1 p
r
p
p (x) = exp (px2 )

-1"###### 1"######
x
p p

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... as the limit of Gaussian functions

Normalization condition

r
r

Z Z Z
p 1
p (x)dx = exp (px2 )dx = exp (px2 )d( px) =

r Z
r Z
1 1
exp (t2 )dt = 2 exp (t2 )dt
0

R 2
I= 0
et dt
R 2 R 2 R R
I2 = 0
ey dy 0
ez dz = 0
exp (y 2 + z 2 )dydz

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Normalization condition

2
r = y2 + z2

y = r cos
z = r sin

R /2 R 2 R
I2 = 0
d 0
er rdr =
4 0
es ds =
4


I= 2

R

p (x)dx = 1

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... as the limit of Gaussian functions

Singularity condition

p (x 6= 0)
lm =
p lmx0 p (x)
p p px2

e
lm pp =0
p

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... as the limit of Lorentzian functions

p HxL

p (x) Lorentzian
family
p

2
1 p
p (x) =
p 1 + p2 x2

x
-1p 1p

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... as the limit of Lorentzian functions

Normalization condition

1
Z Z Z
1 pdx dt
p (x)dx = 2 2
= =
1 + p x 1 + t2
1 2
lm arctan t|t=k
t=k = lm arctan k = 1
k k
y

ArcTanHxL

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... as the limit of Lorentzian functions

Singularity condition

p (x 6= 0)
lm =
p lmx0 p (x)
p
1 1+p2 x2
lm =
p p
1 1
lm =0
p 1 + p2 x2

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... as the limit of Sinc functions

p HxL

p (x) Sinc family

p sin px
p (x) = 2
px p
x

3
p p

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... as the limit of Sinc functions

Normalization condition

Z Z
1 sin (px)dx
p (x)dx = =
x
Z
1 sin z
dz =
z
Z
2 sin z 2
dz = =1
0 z 2

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... as the limit of Sinc functions

Singularity condition

p (x 6= 0)
lm =
p lmx0 p (x)
1 sin (px)
x sin (px)
lm p = lm =0
p

p px

p (x) alternative definition of the

Sinc family
1
R p itx
p (x) = 2 p
e dt
1
R p
p (x) = 0 cos (tx)dt

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Properties of the Dirac delta function

Let us denote by xn the roots of the equation f (x) = 0 and suppose that
0
f (xn ) 6= 0 then

Composition of functions
(f (x)) = n (xx n)
P
0
|f (x |n

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Important consequences of the composition property are

(x) = (x) (symmetry property).

(x)
(ax) = |a|
(scaling property).

x
(x a0 )
(ax x0 ) = |a|
(a more general formulation of the scaling property).

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Important consequences of the composition property are

(x) = (x) (symmetry property).

(x)
(ax) = |a|
(scaling property).

x
(x a0 )
(ax x0 ) = |a|
(a more general formulation of the scaling property).

(xa)+(x+a)
(x2 a2 ) = 2|a|
.

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Important consequences of the composition property are

(x) = (x) (symmetry property).

(x)
(ax) = |a|
(scaling property).

x
(x a0 )
(ax x0 ) = |a|
(a more general formulation of the scaling property).

(xa)+(x+a)
(x2 a2 ) = 2|a|
.

R P g(xn )
g(x)(f (x))dx = n |f 0 (x )|
n

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Important consequences of the composition property are

(x) = (x) (symmetry property).

(x)
(ax) = |a|
(scaling property).

x
(x a0 )
(ax x0 ) = |a|
(a more general formulation of the scaling property).

(xa)+(x+a)
(x2 a2 ) = 2|a|
.

R P g(xn )
g(x)(f (x))dx = n |f 0 (x )|
n

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Convolution

Convolution
R
f (x)(x+x0 ) =
f ()((x+x0 ))d = f (x+x0 )

The effect of convolving with the position-shifted Dirac delta is to shift f (t)
by the same amount.

R
( x)(x )dx = ( ))

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Convolution

Convolution
R
f (x)(x+x0 ) =
f ()((x+x0 ))d = f (x+x0 )

The effect of convolving with the position-shifted Dirac delta is to shift f (t)
by the same amount.

R
( x)(x )dx = ( ))

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Heaviside

Definition (Step function)

Definition (Step function)

(x) = 21 (1 + x
) 1 x0
|x| (x) =
0 x<0

d 1 d x 1 d 2
= = lm arctan (px) =
dx 2 dx |x| 2 p dx
1 p
lm = (x)
p 1 + p2 x2

Heaviside

d(x)
(x) = dx

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Heaviside

Definition (Step function)

Definition (Step function)

(x) = 21 (1 + x
) 1 x0
|x| (x) =
0 x<0

d 1 d x 1 d 2
= = lm arctan (px) =
dx 2 dx |x| 2 p dx
1 p
lm = (x)
p 1 + p2 x2

Heaviside

d(x)
(x) = dx

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Heaviside

y y

p=0.5
x

p=2
x

y y

p=1
x

p=5
x

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Fourier transform of the Dirac delta function

Fourier transform
b ) (x) exp (2ix x)dx = 1
R
[(x)] = (x

This property allow us to state yet another definition of the Dirac delta as
the inverse Fourier transform of f (x) = 1

Definition (Dirac delta function)

Z
(x) = exp (2ix x)dx

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Fourier transform of the Dirac delta function

Fourier transform
b ) (x) exp (2ix x)dx = 1
R
[(x)] = (x

This property allow us to state yet another definition of the Dirac delta as
the inverse Fourier transform of f (x) = 1

Definition (Dirac delta function)

Z
(x) = exp (2ix x)dx

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Dirac delta function obtained from a complete set of

orthonormal functions

Let the set of functions {n } be a complete system of orthonormal functions

in the interval (a, b) and let x and x0 be inner points of that interval. Then

Theorem (Orthonormal functions)

P
n n (x)n (x0 ) = (x x0 )

To proof the theorem we shall demonstrate that the left hand side has the
sifting property of the Dirac distribution
Rb
I = a f (x) n n (x)n (x0 )dx = f (x0 )
P
P Rb
f (x) = m cm m (x) cm = a f (x)m (x)dx

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Dirac delta function obtained from a complete set of

orthonormal functions

Z b X X
I= cm m (x) n (x)n (x0 )dx =
a m n
X X Z b
cm n (x0 ) n (x)m (x)dx
m n a

Rb
a
n (x)m (x)dx = K
mn

X X
I= cm n (x0 ) K mn =
n n
X
cm m (x0 ) = f (x0 )
n

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Dirac comb

Definition (Dirac comb)

P
m= (x ma)

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Dirac comb

The set { 1 exp (2inx/a)} forms a complete set of orthonormal

(|a|)
functions, then

1
P
(x) = |a| n= exp (2inx/a)

each summand in the LHS in the above expression is periodic with period
|a| therefore the whole sum is periodic with the same period and

Dirac comb
P 1
P
m= (x ma) = |a| n= exp (2inx/a)

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Fourier transform of a Dirac comb

Z
X
(x ma) exp(2ix x)dx =
m=

X Z
X
(x ma) exp(2ix x)dx = exp(2ix ma)
m= m=

Theorem (Fourier transform of a Dirac comb)

[
P 1
P P
m= (x ma)] = |a| h= (x h/a) = |a | h= (x ha )

The Fourier transform of a Dirac comb is a Dirac comb

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Dirac delta in higher dimensional space

Dirac delta in higher dimensions. Cartesian coordinates

x x~0 )dN x = f (x~0 )
R R
f (~
x)(~

which comes from

R R
f (x1 , x1 , . . . xN )(x1 x01 )(x2 x02 ) . . . (xN x0N )dx1 dx2 . . . dxN =
f (x01 , x02~, . . . x0N )

Definition (Dirac delta in higher dimensions. Cartesian

coordinates)
(~x x~0 ) = (x1 x01 )(x2 x02 ) . . . (xN x0N ) = N
Q
s=1 (xs x0s )

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General coordinates

{xi }: Cartesian coordinates

{yi }: General coordinates

 x x1 x1

x1 = x1 (y1 , . . . yN ) 
 y1
1
y2
... yN


 x2 x2
... x2
x2 = x2 (y1 , . . . yN )

J(y1 , y2 , . . . , yN ) =  y1 y2 yN
 
 ... ... ... ... 

...  xN xN xN 
...
xN = xN (y1 , . . . yN )
 y y2 y

1 N

Definition (Dirac delta in higher

dimensions. General coordinates)
1
(~x x~0 ) = |J(y1 ,y2 ,...,yN )|
(~
y y~0 )

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Oblique coordinates

x1 = a11 y1 + a12 y2 . . . a1N yN J(y1 , y2 , . . . , yN ) =

 
x2 = a11 y1 + a22 y2 . . . a2N yN 
 a11 a12 . . . a1N 
..  a21 a22 . . . a2N 
. 
 ... ... ... . . . 
xN = aN 1 y1 + aN 2 y2 . . . aN N yN 
 aN 1 aN 2 . . . aN N 

a11 a12 ... a1N
a21 a22 ... a2N
~x =
...
~y
... ... ...
aN 1 aN 2 ... aN N

Definition (Dirac delta in higher

dimensions. Oblique coordinates)
1 1
(~x x~0 ) = | ||A|| |
y y~0 )
(~ = y y~0 )
(~
| ||G|| |

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Recap: Definitions

 
 d 1 x
x = x0 (x) = (1 + )
(x x0 )dx = dx 2 |x|
0 x 6= x0
r 1 p
p (x) = lm
(x) = lm exp (px2 ) p p 1 + p2 x2
p
Z
p sin px (x) = exp (2ix x)dx
(x) = lm
p px

X
(x x0 ) = n (x)n (x0 )
n

where {n (x)} is a complete set of orthornormal functions.

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Recap: Properties

1
[f (x +

2 0 ) + f (x0 ] x0 (a, b)
b +
Z 1
f (x0 ) x0 = a

f (x)(x x0 )dx = 2
a

1
2
f (x
0 ) x0 = b
0 x0
/ (a, b)

X (x xn ) Z X g(xn )
(f (x)) = g(x)(f (x))dx =
n
|f 0 (xn | n
|f 0 (xn )|
(x xa0 )
(x) = (x) (ax x0 ) =
|a|
(x a) + (x + a)
(x2 a2 ) = f (x) (x + x0 ) = f (x + x0 )
2|a|

b ) = 1
X X
[ (x ma)] = |a | (x ha ) [(x)] = (x
m= h=

X 1 X
(x ma) = exp (2inx/a)
m=
|a| n=

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Recap: Higher Dimensions

Cartesian coordinates:
Z Z
f (~ x x~0 )dN x = f (x~0 )
x)(~

N
Y
x x~0 ) = (x1 x01 )(x2 x02 ) . . . (xN x0N ) =
(~ (xs x0s )
s=1

General Coordinates {yi }:

1
x x~0 ) =
(~ y y~0 )
(~
|J(y1 , y2 , . . . , yN )|
x=A~
Oblique Coordinates ~ y:
1 1
x x~0 ) =
(~ y y~0 ) = p
(~ y y~0 )
(~
| ||A|| | | ||G|| |

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Exercises

Prove:

P (xxn )
(f (x)) = n |f 0 (x | (Hint: develop f (x) in Taylor series around xn and
n
prove the sifting property with (f (x)))

P P
n= f (na) = |x | m= fb(mx ) (Poisson summation formula)

xx0
sin ((2p+1) a
) P
lmp = |a| m= (x x0 ma)
sin ( xx0
a
)

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Exercises

Prove that on the limit p the sawtooth funtion tends to the Dirac
comb

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References

Prof. RNDr. Jiri Komrska.

The Dirac distribution
http://physics.fme.vutbr.cz/komrska

V. Balakrishnan
All about the Dirac Delta Function(?)

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