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SUBSYNCHRONOUS
RESONANCE IN
POWER SYSTEMS
THE KLUWER INTERNATIONAL SERIES
IN ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE
by
K. R. Padiyar
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute ofScience
Bangalore 560 012, India
~.
"
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
ISBN 978-1-4613-7577-7 ISBN 978-1-4615-5633-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-5633-6
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Preface
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Definitions of SSR 4
1.3 Interactions with power system controllers 7
1.4 FACTS Controllers 8
1.5 Methods of Analysis of SSR 12
1.6 Chapter outline 16
2. MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 17
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Synchronous machine model 18
2.3 Park's transformation 22
2.4 Per unit quantities 30
2.5 Operational impedances and equivalent circuits 35
2.6 Modelling of excitation control system 41
2.7 Modelling of turbine generator mechanical system 43
2.8 Modelling of turbine and governor 55
2.9 Modelling and analysis of the mechanical and prime mover system 56
2.10 Synchronous generator modelling for transient simulation 59
3. MODELLING OF THE ELECTRIC NETWORK 63
3.1 Introduction 63
3.2 Transmission lines 64
3.3 Transformation using a - f3 variables 68
3.4 State equations 70
3.5 Interface between the network and generator 74
3.6 Impedance functions 75
3.7 Simulation of electromagnetic transients 78
4. ANALYSIS OF SSR WITH FIXED SERIES COMPENSATION 83
VII
Vlll ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
4.1 Introduction 83
4.2 Analysis of induction generator effect: frequency scanning method 83
4.3 Analysis of torsional interaction(TI) 87
4.4 State equations and eigenvalue analysis 96
4.5 An algorithm for computing torsional modes 108
4.6 Countermeasures for SSR III
4. 7 Torsional oscillations in parallel connected turbine generators 120
5. INTERACTIONS WITH POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER 121
5.1 Introduction 121
5.2 Basic concept in the application of PSS 122
5.3 Design of PSS 126
5.4 Torsional interaction with PSS 130
5.5 A case study 132
c- Abbreviations 249
References and Bibliography 251
Index
261
Foreword
In addition to the power flow at and around the nominal power frequency, all electrical
and electromechanical power systems involve a wide range of resonant oscillatory
modes which are excited during disturbances and switching events. Most of these
oscillations are harmless and die out because of net positive damping. However, under
some circumstances, a specific oscillation may have unacceptably high magnitude, rise
or sustain for a long period, and result in damage due to insulation, mechanical aging
or breakdown, or system instability. Given the natural parameters of lines and
equipment, power system oscillations that involve only the passive electrical
components, their resonance frequencies are substantially higher than the main power
frequency. However, when the oscillations involve both the electrical and rotating
mechanical equipment coupled through the magnetic flux, frequencies lower than the
power frequency appear. These oscillations that involve mass and inertia of the
complete turbine-generator have inter-machine or inter-area electromechanical
oscillation frequencies in the range of 0.1 Hz to several Hz.
It has since been recognized that all high speed active controls of a power system such
as HVDC, FACTS, excitation control, etc., have a potential of mitigating as well as
causing damage or loss of life in large multi-machine generators. Even high speed
reclosing after fault clearance has been recognized as having a potential of causing loss
of life of turbine-generator shafts
There are simple rules of thumb that convey whether or not such possibilities of SSR
exist and, if so, there are available computational tools and expertise. Also, a large
number of papers have been published which are available in scattered form.
Analytically, SSR is a very complex subject matter, and it is gratifying to see Professor
Padiyar bring together complicated analytical and practical material into a monograph.
This monograph will be of great value to engineers and post-graduate students who
wish to learn about the details and find solutions for SSR problems.
Narain G. Hingorani
Los Altos Hills, CA
Preface
Modern power systems are large and complex syst.ems and pose challenges to
their secure and economic operation. The regulatory and resource constraints
have resulted in power transmission networks operating under stressed condi-
tions. The problems of system stability are further complicated by recent trends
towards deregulation and restructuring of electric utilities. The system plan-
ners are increasingly relying on existing and new solid-state controllers based
on high power semiconductors such as thyristors and GTO's. HVDC links
and Static Var Compensators based on thyristor controls have contributed to
system stability and prevent system collapse. New Flexible AC Transmission
System (FACTS) controllers are presently under development and have the po-
tential of overcoming many of the control problems.
The problem of Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) was encountered in the sev-
enties when fixed series compensation was us~d in long radial lines connecting
turbine-generators to load centres. This involV!~s interaction between the elec-
trical network and the torsional system of t.he turbine-generator leading to
self-excitation. The torsional oscillation modes, generally have frequencies in
the range of 10 to 50 Hz. Such torsional interactions were also discovered with
Power System Stabilizer (PSS), HVDC cOllvert.er controller and SVC voltage
controller.
While the SSR problem had discouraged syst.~1lI planners from introducing se-
ries compensation, the recent development of Thyristor Controlled Series Com-
pensator (TCSC) has demonstrated that the SSR problem can be mitigated.
New FACTS controllers based on Voltage Source Converters (VSC) such as
Static Compensator (STATCOM) and Static Synchronous Series Compensator
(SSSC) for voltage and power flow control ar~ expected to minimize the SSR
problem.
While there are a large number of papers published on SSR with fixed series
compensation, there is hardly any book that gives a comprehensive coverage of
the various aspects of the SSR problem. The modelling and analysis of SSR is
more complex than the analysis of small signal stability involving low frequency
oscillations. The system simulation for SSR studies, cannot be performed using
ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
transient stability type programs. It is generally carried out using EMTP type
program and this can be cumbersome.
This research monograph is aimed at presenting comprehensive mathematical
models and small signal stability analysis of SSR Both damping torque analysis
(in the frequency domain) and eigenvalue analysis are discussed. The analysis
is backed by a number of illustrative examples.
A major feature of this monograph is the coverage of interactions from fixed
series compensation to HYDC and FACTS controllers. Apart from present-
ing the detailed mathematical analysis, basic concepts of SSR interactions are
also explained based on simplified models which capture the phenomenon of
interest. This should help those involved with system planning and design to
understand the nature and scope of SSR interactions with various controllers.
The book is organized into eight chapters. The first chapter explains the back-
ground and introduces the topics covered. The second and third chapters cover
the modelling of the turbine-generator and the passive electric network. The
models are developed from first principles and the application of transforma-
tion (Park or Kron) that reduces the system equations to time-invariant form.
Apart from comprehensive coverage, the treatment has several new features
such as (i) the development of electrical analogue for the rotor system (ii) the
derivations of state equations based on circuit topology and (iii)application of
immittance functions based on D-Q variables.
Chapter four presents a comprehensive analysis of SSR with fixed series com-
pensation. The state-space models derived in chapt(~r 2 and 3 are used for the
study of SSR based on damping torque and eigenvalue analysis. A novel iter-
ative method for computing the eigenvalues corresponding to torsional modes
is presented. The countermeasures for SSR are also described.
Chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8 are addressed to the study of interactions with (i)PSS
(ii) HYDC converter control (iii) shunt FACTS and (iv) series FACTS con-
trollers. The torsional interactions with TCSC awl SSSC devices are explained
in sufficient detail. Many new results are also presellted.
While an attempt has been made to cover the entire gamut of SSR interactions
and discuss them in detail, the book does not claim to be complete in covering
all aspects of SSR. The emphasis is on the analysis based on linearzied models.
Also, the research on FACTS controllers is of recent origin and several new
developments are expected to take place in future. However, an attempt has
been made to explain the basic concepts of SSR int.eractions with HYDC and
FACTS controllers.
Acknowledgments
Prof. M.A. Pai at University of Illinois, encouraged me to write this mono-
graph. He has been a constant source of inspiration.
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur and Indian Institute of Science, Banga-
lore have provided an invigorating academic environment for research. Several
of my graduate students have worked on SSR. In part.icular, I wish to thank
Drs. A. G. Kothari, M.K. Geetha and A.M. Kulkarni whose work has con-
tributed to some of the case studies reported in the book.
PREFACE
K R PADIYAR
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
Modern interconnected systems are quite complex and require careful planning,
design and operation. The recent trend towards restructuring and deregulation
of power supply has put a greater emphasis on system operation and contro\.
The introduction of HVDC and FACTS controllers in transmission networks
provides both challenges and opportunities for optimum utilization of existing
facilities. For example, series compensation of long lines is an economic solu-
tion to the problem of enhancing power transfer and improving system stability.
The present trend is to introduce thyristor controllers to provide flexible and
controlled series compensation. The Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator
(TCSC) can not only improve system security by fast control action, but also
overcome the problem of Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) which is normally
associated with fixed series compensation.
There are four major dynamic problems which are significant during system
operation. These are
(i) Loss of synchronism
(ii) Voltage Collapse
(iii) Low frequency oscillations
(iv) Subsynchronous frequency oscillations
Low frequency oscillations(in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 Hz) in systems caused
by generator rotor swings can be negatively damped in the presence of fast act-
ing static exciters and high gain automatic voltage regulators (AVR). This has
been studied extensively in the literature utilizing linearized system models.
A major feature of these models is the representation of machine stators and
external stationary networks by algebraic equations based on the assumption
of quasi-steady state in the network. Voltages and currents in the network
are represented by phasors whose magnitudes and phase angles are assumed to
vary slowly. This assumption is valid for the analysis of low frequency oscilla-
tions and simplifies the solution for large power systems. Another assumption
used in the analysis of low frequency oscillations is that the shaft on which the
generator, rotating exciter (if any) and turbine rotors are mounted is very rigid
and all the rotor inertias can be clubbed together.
In contrast, torsional oscillations in the frequency range of 10 to 50 Hz occur
when the individual rotors on the shaft can swing relative to each other on
account of elastic shaft sections. As a matter of fact, there can be several
(depending on the number of rotors) modes of torsional oscillations which can
be excited by disturbances such as changes in electromagnetic torque on the
generator rotor caused by transients in the network due to switching. The
torsional oscillations are lightly damped and can take several seconds to damp
out. If the initial magnitude of the torque in a shaft is high, then it can lead
to fatigue damage caused by plastic deformation of the material.
The problem of lightly damped torsional oscillations is compounded due to in-
teractions with the external network. For example, a series compensated AC
transmission line or a radial HVDC link connected to a turbogenerator can
lead to situations when these oscillations are sustained. There are also sus-
tained subsynchronous oscillations in the armature current. This problem has
been broadly defined as SubSynchronous Resonance(SSR). While the definition
of SSR and different aspects of the problem will be taken up later, it is worth-
while to examine the physical basis for this phenomenon.
The oscillations of the generator rotor at subsynchronous frequency fm result
in voltages induced in the armature having components of (i) subsynchronous
frequency (fa - fm) and (ii) supersynchronous frequency (fa + fm) where fa
if the operating system frquency.These voltages set up currents in the arma-
ture (and network) whose magnitudes and phase angles depend on the network
impedances. Both current components (sub and supersynchronus) set up elec-
tromagnetic torques of the same frquency fm. It can be shown that in general,
supersynchronous frequency currents result in positive damping torque while
the subsyncronous frequency currents result in negative damping torque. The
net torque can result in negative damping if magnitudes of the subsynchronous
frequency currents are high and in phase with the voltages (of subsynchronous
frequency). This situation can arise when the electrical network connected to
the generator armature is in resonance around the frequency of (fa - fm). A
series compensated transmission line has a resonance frequency of (fer) given
INTRODUCTION 3
by
where x" is the subtransient reactance of the generator, XT is the leakage reac-
tance of the transformer, XE and Xc are the external inductive and capacitive
reactances respectively (see Fig.l.l), since Xc < XE, fer < fo. Thus for
particular levels of series compensation, it is possible that
ferc::.fo - fm (1.2)
The description given above suggests that it is essential to avoid steady state
TURBINE
I I
Figure 1.1. A series compensated system
SSR problem (or self excitation due to torsional interaction) by proper choice of
series compensation level to ensure that fer is not anywhere near fo - fm. This
can be difficult to achieve if Xc or XE is variable depending on the operating
condition.
The subsynchronous oscillations can be present in the armature currents even
if the generator rotor is assumed to be rotating at constant speed. Actually,
this problem has been known for quite sometime [Concordia and Carter (1941),
Kilgore et al (1971)] and is now termed as induction generator effect (to distin-
guish it from torsional interaction). The induction generator effect results from
the fact that positive sequence subsynchronous frequency (say fer) currents in
the armature set up a rotating magnetic field which induces currents in the
rotor of frequency (fer - fo). The slip of the machine is negative as the speed
of the rotor is higher than the speed of the magnetic field. Thus it behaves like
an induction generator which exhibits negative resistance for subsynchronous
frequency currents. If the net resistance in the armature circuit is negative,
self excitation takes place with sustained currents of frequency fer. Even if the
4 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
net resistance is positive, the currents (which may appear due to a switching
action) take longer to decay because of the negative resistance effect of the
synchronous machine.
The problem of torsional interactions(TI) is much more severe than that due
to induction generator effect (IGE). The problem of TI was not anticipated
and was experienced for the first time at Mohave generating station in Western
U.S.A. There were two incidents of shaft failures in December 1970 and Octo-
ber 1971 which were traced to TI after subsequent analysis [Hall and Hodges
(1976)]. These incidents alerted utilities to plan ahead to avoid SSR problems
during system operation. The planning must take care to determine not only
the permissible ranges of series compensation levels but suitable measures to
damp subsynchronous oscillations whenever they arise.
When speed input Power System Stabilizers(PSS) were first applied to damp
low frequency oscillations ,it was discovered that they can destabilize torsional
modes [Watson and Coultes (1973)] . Subsequent analysis and development re-
sulted in the application of control signals related to accelerating power [Bayne
et al (1977),DeMello et al (1978),Lee et al (1981)].
The possibility of TI with radial HVDC links connected to turbine generator,
first came to light when field tests were being carried out at Square Butte HVDC
project in 1977 [Bahrman et al(1980)] This led to a detailed analysis ofTI with
HVDC converter control [Mortensen et al (1981),Piwko and Larsen(1982)].
In recent years, Static Var Compensators (SVC), shunt connected first gen-
eration FACTS controllers have been applied to provide voltage support and
reactive power control thereby increasing power transfer capability of trans-
mission lines. Recent studies shows the possiblity of subsynchronous torsional
interactions with the voltage regulator of SVC [Rostamkolai et al (1990)]
fem = fo fm (1.3)
3.0
2.0
Shaft
Torque
(p.u.)
1.0
10 5
Cycles To Failure
Power system controllers such as PSS and HVDC converter controls are de-
signed to improve system stability under contingency conditions and thereby
improve system security (minimize probability of cascading outages and loss of
system integrity).However,it is generally observed that the performance of the
controllers can be affected due to the torsional interactions unless care is taken
in designing them.
The complexity in system behaviour in the presence of controllers is not new.ln
the mid sixties, when faster excitation systems were being installed to improve
voltage regulation and transient stability of generators, it was observed that
fast exciters with high gain Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR) caused os-
cillatory instability.To damp the low frequency electromechanical oscillations,
PSS were designed to act as supplementary controllers with input signal de-
rived from speed,electrical power or bus frequency. With speed input stabiliz-
ers,it was discovered that the first torsional mode can be destabilized unless
torsional filters are provided. The torsional filters introduce complexity in PSS
design. Subsequent developments in PSS design have overcome this problem by
introducing a composite control signal (derived from speed and power) which
is similar to the accelerating power.
While a case of adverse interactions with electro hydraulic type of turbine speed
governor has been reported Lee et al (1985),this is not a general problem. Even
in the reported case,the problem was solved by providing accurate linearization
of the valve characteristics which maintained a constant droop over the entire
loading range.As a precautionary measure, the provision of filters to eliminate
torsional components from the speed signal is desirable.
HVDC power transmission employing thyristor controls is a viable alternative
to ac power transmission,for long distance, bulk power transmission and asyn-
chronous interconnection.ln addition,HVDC transmission is considered defi-
nitely superior to ac when submarine cables are to be used.HVDC cables do not
require charging currents in steady state and thus do not require any reactive
compensation.AC transmission (overhead or underground) has the drawbacks
of (i) power fransfer capability limited by stability (ii) increase in short circuit
levels and (iii) inability of asynchronous interconnection. Even if nominal fre-
quencies of two systems are same, limitations of Automatic Generation Control
(AGC) can make the ac interconnections unviable.
The application of thyristor controllers in HVDC converter stations makes it
feasible to control the power flow in the dc link not only during normal condi-
tions,but also during system contingencies. This is due to the speed and reali-
ability of converter controls.Thus,it is possible to modulate power flows in dc
links to damp low frequency oscillations that threaten system security. It is also
possible to use a dc link for emergency control to prevent system collapse.
As damping controllers used to modulate power flow in a dc link are simi-
lar to PSS,it is reasonable to expect them to cause adverse torsional inter-
actions.However,it was discovered during field tests on Square Butte HVDC
link,that basic current controllers used in converter stations can also destabi-
8 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
1.4.1 General
The expansion in power transmission networks has taken place not only due to
the increase in generation and loads but also due to the extensive interconnec-
tion among different power utilities. The major factor responsible for system
interconnections is the economy resulting from reduced generation reserves to
achieve the same level of reliability of supply.
Except for the limited number of HVDC links in a system, the vast majority of
transmission lines are ac. The power flows in ac lines are uncontrolled and are
INTRODUCTION 9
}Jl )(
p p
try, are aimed at isolating the supply of electrical energy ( a product) from the
service involving transmission from generating stations to load centres. This
approach is feasible only if the operation of ac transmission lines is made flexi-
ble by introducing fast acting high power solid state controllers using thyristor
or GTO valves (switches). The advent of high voltage and high power thyris-
tor valves and digital controllers in HVDC transmission has demonstrated the
viability of deploying such controllers for power transmission. Thyristor con-
trollers were also utilized in late seventies to control current in reactors and
switch capacitors and this led to the development of Static Var Compensators
(SVC).
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) is a concept proposed by N.G.
Hingorani (1991,1993) that involves the application of high power electronic
controllers in ac transmission networks which enable fast and reliable control
of power flows and voltages. The objectives are:
1. Regulation of power flows in prescribed transmission routes.
2. Secure loading of lines nearer their thermal limits.
3. Prevention of cascading outages by contributing to emergency control.
4. Damping of oscillations which can threaten security or limit the usable line
capacity.
There are several FACTS controllers which have been developed or proposed.
These include:
1. Static Var Compensator (SVC)
2. Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
3. Thyristor Controlled Phase Angle Regulator (TCPAR)
4. Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) or Static Condenser (STAT-
CON)
5. Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)
6. Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
Among these, SVC is considered as a first generation FACTS Controller and is
commercially available. These are three prototype (demonstration) projects of
TCSC (all in U.S.A.). There are two projects of STATCON, one in Japan and
one in Tennessee U.S.A. The first phase of a prototype of UPFC was commis-
sioned at Inez Station in 1997 in U.S.A [Schauder et al (1997)]. STATCON and
UPFC use voltage source converters employing GTO devices which have the
capability of turn-off by injecting gate current. The technology using thyristor
valves is available for commercial use. However, the control of phase angle is
(in general) more expensive than the control of impedance.
FACTS Controllers have also been proposed in distribution systems for con-
trol of power quality [Hingorani (1995),Akagi (1996)]. The objectives are to
limit voltage fluctuations and reduce the impact of momentary interruptions
that would affect sensitive loads. In addition, distribution type FACTS devices
can be used to eliminate harmonics and voltage flicker introduced by nonlinear
loads that would affect other loads in the proximity.
In addition to the FACTS controllers mentioned above, NGH damping and
Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR) [Jiang et al (1994),Rao and
INTRODUCTION 11
Nagsarkar (1984)) for stability improvement are also considered as part of the
FACTS family. Thyristor controllers are also being proposed for Fault Current
Limiter (FCL) [Salama et al (1993),Sugimoto et al (1996)) and overcurrent
protection along with metal oxide varistors [Sarkozi et al (1994)).
0--<-.1___
Vs
Table 1.1 Constraints and control variables associated with FACTS controllers
5. STATCOM
(with energy source) e. =0 ipa(active current),ipr
6. SSSC
(without energy source) ip = 0, Re[e.I:J = 0 e .. (reacti ve voltage)
7. SSSC
(with energy source) ip =0 e.r,e.a (active voltage)
Note: SSSC is the special case of UPFC when only series element is used.
X = Xe + X , U = Ue + U (1.8)
where
x = 6.X , u = 6.U
The small signal model of the power system is described by
where [A] = CU] ,[B] = [U].It is to be noted that the partial derivatives are
evaluated at X = Xe and U = Ue .
The equilibrium state Xe is stable if all the eigenvalues of the system Jacobian
matrix [A] have negative real parts. Even if a particular equilibrium state is
stable, change in the operating conditions can result in instability. For example,
if series compensation level is increased,a complex pair of eigenvalues can cross
imaginary axis at the critically stable level of compensation.
The eigenvectors of the system (Jacobian) matrix, [A] display the information
on the relative magnitude of the response of individual state variables in the
mode represented by the corresponding eigenvalue.!f some of the elements of
the eigenvector are close to zero, it can be inferred that the state variables
corresponding to those elements do not respond to the activation of a particular
mode. Eigenvectors relating to a second order state equation
x = [F]x (1.10)
The eigenvalues that are close can result in mode coupling (although not al-
ways).Actually,the mode coupling arises from the similarity between eigenvec-
tors.What makes the phenomenon of mode coupling interesting is that it may
occur in two dissimilar subsystems.lt will be shown later that torsional inter-
actions with HVDC converter controlers are also the result of mode coupling.
( between a HVDC system mode and a torsional mode).
It is not necessary that adverse torsional interactions are always due to mode
coupling. The TI in PSS or shunt FACTS controllers is not the result of mode
coupling. While a PSS may introduce an exciter mode,it has no influence on the
torsional mode.
An interesting observation in SSR analysis is that the change in the damping
of the electrical mode (as an important parameter is varied) is opposite in sign
to the change in the damping of the coupled torsional mode. For example, in-
crease in the series compensation level results in the monotonic decrease in the
damping of the subsynchronous frequency (electrical) network mode if torsional
modes are neglected.However,in the presence of a torsional mode,the damping
of the network mode is increased while the torsional mode (with which it is
coupled) is negatively damped. Depending on the compensation level, the de-
gree of coupling also varies.
The modelling of system components such as turbine-generator,transmission
network for SSR analysis is different in nature compared to stability studies
involving only low frequency (0.2 - 2 Hz) responses.The generator must con-
sider the stator transients in addition to the torsional dynamics represented by
multimass rotor model.The network transients also cannot be ignored and have
to be modelled by differential equations.However,it is not necessary to model
the transmission lines by a distributed parameter network as the frequency re-
sponse of the model needs to be accurate only up to second harmonic of the
system frequency.
Damping Torque Analysis
This is a widely used frequency domain analysis. If it is assumed that the gen-
erator rotor is oscillating sinusoidally (superimposed on the constant speed
of rotation),restoring torques are set up to oppose the oscillatory motion.The
component of the torque in phase with the rotor angle (D.o) is termed as the
synchronizing torque (which is directly proportional to the deviation in the an-
gle) and the component of the torque in phase with the per unit rotor speed
(D.w) is termed as the damping torque.For stability of the rotor motion, both
components should be positive at the frequency of oscillation.
The production of the electrical torque is the response of the electrical system
to the oscillation in the rotor speed (and angle).This is shown in Fig.1.5.
It can be seen that the system eigenvalues (closed loop poles) satisy the
followig equation.
(1.11)
The frequency response of the electrical torque (D.Te) is given by
(1.12)
INTRODUCTION 15
+ ~
Llw
- (." ~ Zm(s)
LlTe
Ye(s)
where TSe and TDe are the synchronizing and damping torque coefficients
of the electrical system.
The complex eigenvalues of the system can be obtained from the approximate
second order equation,
( 1.13)
where Hi is the modal inertia constant for the ith mode ,TD and Ts are the
net damping and synchronizing torque coefficients given by
TD = TDe + TDm (1.14)
Ts = TSe + TSm (1.15)
TDm and TSm are the damping and synchronizing torque coefficients of the
mechanical system, calculated from
(1.16)
It will be shown later (in chapter 2) that Zm (s) has contribution from all the
torsional modes and can be expressed as
Zm(s) = Lm
i =2Hs2
l'
s
+ Ds .
, + It ,'WB
(1.17)
where Di and f{i are the modal damping and spring constants. The frequency
of the torsional mode Ud is given by
Ii = ~Jf{iWB (1.18)
211" 2Hi
In the application of the damping torque analysis for SSR studies,it is assumed
that that (i) the frequency of the torsional mode is unaffected by the electrical
system and (ii) the coupling between different torsional modes is neglected (In
computing the damping of a particular torsional mode, the remaining modes
can be neglected)
16 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
and mutual) are transformed from time varying to constant values (neglecting
magnetic saturation).
The mechanical system associated with the turbine generator consists of gen-
erator rotor, various steam turbine rotors such as High Pressure (HP), Inter-
mediate Pressure (IP) and Low Pressure (LP) stages. In addition, there is
exciter rotor also to be considered if rotating exciter is used. All the rotors are
connected by long elastic shaft sections. While it is possible to model in detail,
the complex structures on the turbine rotors, for SSR studies it is adequate to
treat all the rotors as lumped masses interconnected by springs (shaft sections).
The torsional (mechanical) system can thus be modelled as a linear, lumped
mass-spring-damper network, which is analogous to a lumped, linear R-L-C
(electrical)network. Modal analysis of the torsional system is used to compute
the modal masses, mode shapes and resonant frequencies. It will be shown that
the analysis of the electrical analogue also yields some of these results.
1. The mmf in the airgap is distributed sinusoidally and the harmonics are
neglected.
2. Saliency is restricted to the rotor. The effect of slots in the stator is neglected.
3. Magnetic saturation and hysteresis are ignored.
The representation of the saturation will be considered later in this chapter.
In what follows, the machine is assumed to have two poles. There is no loss
of generality in doing this as the rotor angle () (with respect to a stationary
axis) is assumed to be the electrical angle and the equations are invariant with
respect to the number of poles. The mechanical angle ()m is related to () by
(2.1)
(2.2)
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 19
d-axis q-axis
(2.3)
where
[ Lss 1=
Laao Labo Labo
[ Labo Laao Labo +
1
Labo Labo Laao
cos2B
Laa2 [ cos(2B - 211'/3)
cos(2B - 211,/3) cos(2B + 211'/3)
cos(2B + 211'/3) cos2B
1 (2.4)
cos(2B + 211'/3) cos2B cos(2B - 211'/3)
(2.5)
20 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
[ M.f,o,O MahCOs8
[Ldsr l-- MaJcos(8 - 21r/3) MahCOs(8 - 21r/3)
MaJcos(8 + 21r/3) MahCOs(8 + 21r/3) 1
[ M."inO M ak sin8
[ L1r 1= Mag sin (8 - 21r /3) Maksin(8 - 21r/3)
Magsin( 8 + 21r /3) Mak sin( 8 + 21r /3) 1
Note that [Lsr) is a function of 8 and is time varying as the rotor rotates at
constant speed. [Lss) is also a function of 8 if Laa2 :I O. This is true for salient
pole machines.
dtPr -
-Tt [R r ).lr = Vr (2.8)
where
v; = [-vJ 0 0 0)
Ra 0 0
[
[ Rs 1= ~ ~a ~a
0 0 0
Rh 0 0
[ Rr 1
[f 0
0
Rg
0
0
Rk 1
[U3 ) is a unit matrix of dimension 3
+ +
_!!:. v !!:. v
dt dt
where
J is the combined moment of inertia of the rotor
D is the damping (assumed to be viscous) coefficient
Tm is the mechanical torque in the direction of rotation
Te is the electrical torque opposing the mechanical torque
Note that for a two pole machine, Bm = B. For P =f. 2, the equation (2.9) can
be transformed to
2 d2B dB
P (J dt 2 + D dt ) = Tm - Te (2.10)
The electrical torque Te is given by
where ,
T~ = - ~ is the electrical torque of the equivalent two pole machine,
W' is the co-energy expressed as
W' = ~ [ it i~ 1 [L..
Lrs
Lsr] [ ~s ]
Lrr Ir
(2.12)
2
Substituting (2.12) in (2.11) and noting that [Lrr) is a constant matrix, we get
J' d 2 0
dt2 + D' dO
dt
= T'm - T'
e
(2.14)
where
J' J.( ftY is the equivalent inertia
D' D.( fr)2 is the equivalent damping coefficient
r/n 2~m ,is the mechanical torque of the equivalent two pole machine
The above equation represents the transformation of 'P' pole machine to a 2
pole machine. The mechanical torque is reduced by a factor of The inertia ft.
and damping are reduced by factor of (fo)2. However, since all the equations
are expressed in per unit (to be introduced later) there is no loss of generality
in assuming that the machine has two poles (as stated earlier).
(2.15)
where
t
Z = [.tZs .t]
Zr
*
Alternatively, the voltage equations can also be expressed as
calculations both for steady state and transient conditions. R.H.Park (1929)
introduced the following transformation
(2.17)
where fa can be either voltage, current or flux linkage of the stator winding a
(a = a, b or c). [C p ] is defined by
kdCOSe
[Cp] = [ kdCOS(e - 27r/3)
kqsine
kqsin(e - 27r/3)
ko
ko
1 (2.18)
kdCOS(e + 27r/3) kqsin(e + 27r/3) ko
where k d, kq and ko are constants appropriately chosen. In original Park's
transformation kd = 1.0, kq = -1.0 and ko = 1
The inverse transformation is given by
where
k1COSe k1cos(e - 27r/3)
[Cpr 1 = [ k 2sine k2sin(e - 27r/3)
k1COS(e + 27r/3)
k2sin(e + 27r/3)
1
k3 k3 k3
221
k1 = 3k d ' k2 = -3k ' k3 = -3k
q 0
[ 1/Js ]
1/Jr
= [Lss
Lrs
Lsr] [Cp
Lrr 0
0] [ ~dqo
U4 Zr
] (2.21)
[ cpt
o
0] [Lss
U4 Lrs
Lsr] [Cp
Lrr 0
0] [ Zz:drqO
U4
]
C~~~sr ] [ i~:o ]
[ L~s (2.22)
L~s
24 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
where
Ld 0
[L~31 = [ 0 Lq
o 0
[L~rl =
[(~) ~
(Afc:h)
0 (~) (~)
0 0
(2.24)
0
q q
0 0 1
:[
(IMaJkd) 0
(2Mahkd) 0
[L:.I = [ 0 (~Magkq) (2.25)
0 (~Makkq)
Remarks
2. The mutual inductance terms between the stator and rotor coils in the q-
axis are negative for kq < 0 unless Mag and Mak are both negative. It is to
be noted that when the q-axis is lagging the direct axis (in the direction of
rotation) as assumed in Fig. 2.1, Mag and Mak are positive. These terms
are negative only if q-axis is assumed to be leading the d-axis.
Hence, if d-axis is assumed to lead q-axis, it would be convenient to choose
positive value of kq.
3. Note that there is no transformation of the rotor currents and flux linkages.
Hence the self inductance matrix of rotor coils is not altered.
4. Eq. (2.22) shows that stator coils 'a','b' and 'c' are replaced by fictitious
'd', 'q' and '0' coils from Park's transformation. Out of these, '0' coil (in
which zero-sequence current io flows) has no coupling with the rotor coils
and may be neglected if io = O. Since the (transformed) mutual inductance
terms between d,q coils and the rotor coils are constants, it can be interpreted
that d and q coils rotate at the same speed as the rotor. Furthermore, as
mutual inductances between the d-coil and the rotor coils on the q-axis are
zero, it can be assumed that d-coil is aligned with the d-axis. Similarly, it
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 25
".
9
can be assumed that q coil is aligned along with the q-axis. This is shown
in Fig.2.3
5. The following trigonometric identities are useful In the derivation of the
transformed equations.
211" 211"
cosO + cos(O - 3) + cos(O + 3) o
sinO + sin(O _ 2;) + sin(O + 2;) o
2 2 211" 211" 3
cos 0 + cos (0 - 3) + cos 2(0 + 3 ) -
2
3
sin 20 + sin2(O _ 2311") + sin2(O + 2;)
2
(2.27)
(2.28)
where
~ 1 [Cp][Pd
kqcosB
dep
kqcos(B - } = (2.29)
kqcos( B + 2f}
dB
and
dtPdqo .[]
-~ - B Pl tPdqo - Razdqo
.
= Vdqo (2.31)
(2.32)
where w = B
The rotor voltage equations are unchanged and can be written in the expanded
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 27
(2.33)
oL [Sin2B
[ o;s] = -2Laa2 sin(2B - 2;)
sin(2B - 2;)
sin(2B + 2;)
sin(2B + 2;)
sin2B
1 (2.35)
sin(2B + 2311') sin2B sin(2B - 2311')
(2.36)
where
(2.37)
(2.38)
28 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
3kk[(MaJ.
T.e = 2 d q Zq -k-zJ
Mah.
+ -k-Zh + -3 L aa2 Z.)
d -
. (Mag.
Zd -k- Zg
Mak.
+ -k-Zk 3 .)]
- -2 L aa2Zq
d d 2 q q
(2.39)
Since
(2.40)
(2.41 )
as
3 3
Ld - 2Laa2 = Lq + 2Laa2 = Laao - LabO
(2.44)
(2.46)
(2.47)
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 29
kd = /'f, /J, If
kq = ko = (2.48)
We will assume only positive values of the constants thereby defining a power
invariant Park's transformation given by
1 [V2COSB V2sinB
[ep] = y'3 V2cos(B - 23") V2sin(B - 2;) (2.49)
3 V2cos( B + 2;) V2sin(B + 2;)
The major advantage of a power invariant transformation is that the mutual
inductances in the transformed network are reciprocal.
For example,
kd = /J = k q, ko = If
As mentioned earlier, the positive value of kq indicates that q-axis is lagging the
direct axis, whereas in the original transformation by Park, q-axis is assumed
to lead d-axis. Although an IEEE committee report (1969) recommended a
revision of the old convention (of q leading d) usage in power industry is often
based on the old convention.
It should also be noted here that the use of generator convention in expressing
the stator voltage equations is consistent with the choice of d-axis leading q-
axis. Similarly the earlier motor convention is consistent with q-axis leading
d-axis. To summarize, the basic differences in the two conventions are shown
in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Comparison Between Conventions
Features Convention
I Original I
Revised
Current direction motor generator
Orientation of 'q' leading 'd' 'd' leading 'q'
axes
Constants kd = 1.0, kq = -1 kd = kq = VI
Note that although the armature currents, even in the original convention, are
considered to flow out of the generator, the signs associated with these currents
(in flux calculations) are negative. (consistent with the motor convention). As
mentioned before, the revised convention is adopted here.
30 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
__1_~ _ WB
WB aL
.J!L.I. -
o/q
Ra td = Vd }
(2.50)
-WB
1
Tt +
d1/; W - - -;
WB 1/;d - RaZq =
-
Vq
where the per unit quantities are indicated by the bar over the variables. For
example,
Remarks
1. The base voltage and current used in the previous literature are
VB Peak rated voltage per phase
IB Peak rated line current
The choice of these base quantities are consistent with the original Park's
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 31
transformation. This is because the per unit voltage (or current) in the old
system is identical to that in the revised system defined above (which IS
consistent with the power-invariant version of Park's transformation)
2. The base impedances in both systems are identical. This fact combined with
the identity of per unit quantities implies that the equations (in per unit) in
both systems are identical (except for the differences in the orientation of d-
and q-axes) thus eliminating the confusion about different versions of Park's
transformation.
3. Anderson and Fouad (1977) use different base quantities for voltage and
current along with power-invariant Park's transformation. They define VB as
(rms) rated line to neutral voltage and IB as rms line current. Although this
results in identical base impedance as defined before, the per unit voltages,
currents and fluxes are different which leads to different equations using
inconvenient factors (of )3).
4. The choice of base quantities for the rotor is related to the choice of stator
base quantities. Although in the original Park's transformation, the mutual
inductances are not reciprocal, the selection of appropriate base quantities
for the rotor will result in reciprocal per unit mutual inductances
5. The expression for the base three phase power in the old system is
(It is assumed that the zero sequence power is zero). In the revised (new)
system,
PB = 5B = VBIB
which leads to the same per unit power expression given above.
6. If the operating frequency is same as the base frequency, the per umt m-
~uctances a~e identical_ to per unit corresponding reactances. Thus Xd =
Ld, XdJ = MdJ, Xad = Lad etc.
coil. Similar conditions apply for q-axis coils. The mutual flux linkages in the
d-axis are given by
(2.51)
where Lau is the leakage inductance of the stator. IJB and hB are the base
currents in the field and damper windings (in d-axis).
From Eq. (2.51),
Lad Lad ( )
IJB =
M IB, hB
#
=-M IB
dh
2.52
where
Lad = Ld - Lau
The base flux linkages for the rotor circuits are chosen such that
(2.53)
Similar relations apply for q-axis coils also. The base currents and flux linkages
for the g and k coils are gi ven by
Laq I Laq
19B M hB= MIB (2.54)
qg B, qk
1/JBIB 1/JkB = 1/JBIB
1/JgB - -, (2.55)
19B hB
where
Remarks
1. The per unit system is chosen such that the per unit mutual reactances M#
and Mdh are equal and can be expressed as
Similarly
2. The choice of rotor base quantities is not unique. In general, the per unit
mutual inductances can be expressed as
where Lel and Lc2 can be arbitrarily chosen (assuming magnetic linearity).
It is only when representing saturation that it is convenient to define the
per unit mutual inductances as given earlier. The leakage inductance of
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 33
(2.57)
- ~ Lkj - ~ - -
'!/Jk = L . J ( - l j B ) ij = L.JLkjij (2.58)
j=l '!/JkB j=l
- Lkj
Lkj = --ljB
'!/JkB
IjB hB .
-:;:- = -:;:- for all J and k
'PkB 'PjB
which implies same base power for all the coils. It is assumed that the base
frequency is same for all the coils.
If it is assumed that the measurements are carried out at the terminals of one
coil (which may be labelled as 1 without loss of generality), the mutual flux
between coils 1 and j can be expressed as
./.
'Plj = L'
IjZj = L'"
IjZj (2.59)
34 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
where
./
tj = ( -IjB tj = -
IB ). (Nj ).tj,
Nl
can be considered as the current in coil j referred to coil 1 using the turns
ratio (~).The base current and flux in coil are defined as IB and 'lj;B dropping
the subscript 1. Equation (2.59) suggests the possibility of first referring the
quantities to coil 1 using turns ratio (if specified) and then expressing them
in per unit with respect to the base quantities defined for coil 1. Thus i 1j is
expressed as
(2.60)
where
Remarks
1. If turns ratios are known, the base currents (and fluxes) for coil j (j=2,3 ... n)
are defined in terms of the base quantities for coil 1 and the turns ratios.
2. Ifturns ratio are not explicitly defined, it is possible to choose base quantities
such that
(2.61 )
(2.62)
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 35
The per unit flux linkages are related to per unit currents by
(2.63)
~g + [ ~qg
] [ lk ] Xqk
] Z
q
(2.64)
Remarks
4. The use of Bfd (instead of vf) is convenient as, in steady state, the open
circuit voltage at the terminals of a synchronous machine is Bfd .
5. In what follows, the per unit quantities will be used and denoted (for con-
venience) without placing any bar on the symbols. For example, Xd will be
per unit direct axis reactance (or inductance)
(2.70)
where T~o and T~~ are termed as the direct axis, open circuit transient and
subtransient time constants respectively. T~ and T~' are defined as the short
circuit transient and subtransient time constants. Similar nomenclature applies
to the quadrature axis time constants.
The above equations show that the expressions for 'lj;d and 'lj;q require the knowl-
' Tildo' T'd' Tild an d Til)
ed ge 0 f fi ve (Tdo' de an d t'lour (T'qo' Tilqo' T'q' Til)
q parameters
apart from Xd and x q . Generally, the synchronous machine data is expressed
as
Xd, xd'
I "T'T"
xd' d' dan d Xa" (or Xc ) on d-axis.
Xq,Xq,X
I "T'T"
q, q' q an d Xa" on q-axls. .
x~ and x~ are termed as direct axis transient and subtransient reactances. Sim-
ilar nomenclature applies to x~ and x~. These are defined from
1 1 1 1 sT~ 1 1 sT~'
Xd(S) = Xd + (x~ - x) 1 + sT~ + (x~ - x~) 1 + sT~' (2.72)
1 1 1 1 sT~ lIsT;'
-=-+(---) +(---) (2.73)
Xq(s) Xq x~ Xq 1 + sT~ x~ x~ 1 + sT~'
From Eqs.(2.69) and (2.72), we have the following relations
(2.74)
(2.75)
(2.76)
(2.77)
shown in Fig. 2.5. Canay(1983) has shown that d-axis equivalent circuit can
be redrawn with Xaa (armature leakage reactance) replaced by Xc and in this
case X rc can be eliminated in Fig.2.4.
The presence of armature leakage reactance in d and q-axis eqiuvalent circuits
shown in Fig. 2.4 and 2.5 has no real significance in deriving the final equations
if saturation is neglected. A common approximation is to assume that only
Xad and Xaq are affected by saturation. Since saturation is difficult to model
accurately, it is desirable that the number of parameters in the equivalent
circuits is minimized. It was mentioned earlier that q-axis equivalent circuit
requires only four independent parameters. Hence Fig.2.5 can be replaced by
that shown in Fig.2.6, where
E = !!:L':!!..I1..EJd(S)
Xd/ S
R':!!..I1..
k s
Xg/ (2.78)
38 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
Xq
.E.I<.L
S T q"
(2.79)
xdxd
I
"
Xhl (2.80)
I
xd - xd "
I
Xdxd
xfl I (2.81)
Xd - xd
Remarks
1. From the d- and q-axis equivalent circuits, it can be inferred that Xd(S)
and Xq(s) are impedance functions of R-C networks. These have the property
[Ternes and Lapatra (1977)]:
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 39
(i) poles and zeroes lie on the negative real axis and they alternate.
(ii) the nearest to the origin is a pole
2. From the above, it can be shown that
T~o > T~ > T~~ > T~'
and T~o > T~ > T~~ > T~'
(2.82)
-d7/JJ
dt
= 1
-,[-7/JJ + 7/Jd +
Td
x~
I
Xd - xd
EJd] (2.83)
./,
'Pd
".
= xdld + (x~ xd
- x~) ./,
I 'Ph +
(Xd - x~) x~ ./,
Xd
-''PJ
xd
(2.84)
From the q-axis equivalent circuit shown in Fig.2.6, the following equations can
be derived
(2.85)
(2.86)
(2.87)
(2.88)
(2.89)
The armature current components id and iq are not independent, but can be
expressed in terms of the flux linkages from Eqs.(2.84) and (2.87).
Combining Eqs.(2.82) to (2.89), we can write in the state space form as
Y e = [Ce]Xe (2.91)
40 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
where
Remarks
1. The matrix [Ae] has constant elements (ignoring saturation) except for el-
ements Ae{l, 2) = -A e{2, 1) =
-w. If the generator rotor speed w is held
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 41
2. If model (1.1) is considered (ignoring damper windings hand k), the equa-
tions (2.84) and (2.87) reduce to
(2.92)
,. (x q - x~) ,. '
'ljJq = Xql q + Xq
'ljJg = Xql q - Ed (2.93)
where E~ and E~ are the d and q-axis components of the fictitious voltage
source and are governed by
(2.94)
4. Many authors use subtransient quantities on the q-axis even though only
one damper winding(say k) is considered. In such cases, it can be assumed
that x~ = Xq and Eq.(2.85) is ignored.
VREF+~VERR
--+-"0
Vs
There are three distinct types of excitation systems based on the power source
for the exciter.
3. Static Excitation system (ST) in which the power is supplied through trans-
formers and rectifiers.
The first two types of exciters are also called rotating exciters which are
mounted on the same shaft as the generator and driven by the prime mover.
(2.96)
Ejdmax
KA VR /
1 1 +sTA =-; Ejd
Ejdmin
The signal Va is the output of Power System Stabilizer (PSS). The modelling
of PSS is considered in chapter five.
2.7.1 General
The rotor of a Turbine Generator (T-G) unit is a complex mechanical system
made up of several rotors of different sizes, each with mechanical shaft sections
and couplings. Turbine sections contain a number of discs which may be inte-
gral or attached to the rotor. The length of the rotor system may extend over
50 m and weigh several hundred tons. The system also has a number of smaller
components including turbine blades, rotor coils, retaining rings, blowers and
pumps.
While an exact analysis of the rotor system may require an advanced continuum
model, for the study of torsional interactions, lumped multimass model is ade-
quate [Ramey et al (1980)]. Here each major rotor element (generator, various
turbine stages and rotating exciter) is considered to be a rigid mass connected
to adjacent elements by shafts that are modelled as massless springs. This
lumped multimass model has natural resonant frequencies below the system
(electrical) frequency. The torsional mode oscillations, induced by transient
(such as a sudden change in the air gap torque caused by network switching)
are lightly damped even when torsional interaction with the transmission net-
work is neglected. The total damping forces are due to (A) Steam pressure
on turbine blades (B) bearing friction and windage on shaft elements (C) hys-
teritic damping in the rotor steel and (D) electrical damping due to generator,
exciter and the transmission network. The first component is dependent on
the generator loading while the last component can be negative. The hysteritic
damping arises due to the energy dissipated in the material subjected to alter-
nating stress.
In what follows, it is assumed that the position of each rotor mass is measured
with respect to a synchronously rotating reference frame rotating at the (an-
gular) frequency woo (Note that in general, Wo "# WB where WB is the base
44 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
where
Oi is the position of a rotor mass 'i' with respect to a stationary reference.
where [M] is a diagonal matrix, [D'] and [I<] are tridiagonal symmetric ma-
trices.
[Tm] and [Te] are the N vectors of mechanical and electrical torques. [Te] has
only one non-zero element corresponding to the generator rotor (neglecting ro-
tating exciter). Also, the mechanical torque directly acting on the generator
rotor is zero. It is not difficul t to see that the matrix [I<] is singular (the
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 45
Di=- (2.100)
WB WB
d5i
2Hidt + Di(5i - 5io) + Di,i-d5i - + Di,i+d5i - 5i+d
5i-d (2.103)
+T;,i-l + Ti,i+l = Tmi - Tei
(2.104)
(2.105)
where T;,i-l is torque in the shaft section connecting mass i and (i-I). It is not
difficult to see that the inertia (2H) is analogous to a capacitance, slip analogous
to voltage and torque analogous to current. The spring constant in pu (/{WB)
is analogous to the reciprocal of inductance. The per unit damping coefficient
(D) is analogous to conductance. For the six mass system shown in Fig.2.1O,
the electrical analogue is shown in Fig.2.11. There is no loss of generality in
assuming 5io (slip at the operating point) as zero. Actually, at equilibrium
point all the slips will be equal (50)' If 50 is not zero, it is equivalent to saying
that the voltage of the reference bus in Fig.2.11 is nonzero. This has no effect,
particularly when linearized analysis is done. Note that the state variables for
the network shown in Fig.2.11 are only 11 given by
xt m = [51 52 53 54 55 56 T12 T23 T34 T45 T56]t
(2.106)
The additional state variable (required when writing equations for the elec-
trical system) is c5m (rotor angle corresponding to the generator rotor). The
equation for c5 m is given by
(2.107)
46 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
where Sm is the generator rotor slip. In this formulation (using electrical net-
work analogy) only one rotor angle(corresponding to the generator) belongs to
the set of state variables. Hence, whenever there is no ambiguity, the subscript
'm' can be dropped for the angle and only J is used to denote the generator
rotor angle.
(2.108)
tJ.Sm
~T.
ONE PORT
PASSIVE
r--__ D_m___-'---2_H_m---{]
NETWORK
where
(2.110)
i=1
The poles of this function belong to the set of eigenvalues of the mechanical
system. There are (N-1) complex pairs (with real part equal to zero) given by
Sk = ..L
Ak
= jwk k = 1, 2 .... (N - 1) (2.111)
where Wk is the radian frequency. The zeroes of the impedance function occur
at (radian) frequencies,
j
Ik =- k=1,2, .... (N-1) (2.112)
J.lk
It is known from the properties of the impedance function of a L-C network,
that
0<,1 < WI < 12 < w2 < Ik < Wk < IN-I < WN-I (2.113)
(2.114)
All the residues ai, i = 1, 2 ... (N - 1) are positive. The impedance function of
(2.114) represents the equivalent circuit shown in Fig.2.13. Here, there are N
impedances connected in series. For torsional mode i, the impedance consists
of an inductance ai in parallel with a capacitance of A;ai . The equation for this
parallel combination is given by
(2.115)
48 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
where 6.Si and 6.6 i are the slip and angle corresponding to the torsional mode
z. 6.Si is the voltage across capacitor (see Fig.2.14). Noting that
(2.116)
(2.117)
where Hi = A;
2ai
is the modal inertia and Ki = _1_ is the modal spring con-
WBai
stant. The generator rotor slip (and angle) can be expressed as
ai
~
a,
N-l
6.Sm = 6.so + L 6.Si (2.118)
i=1
N-l
6.6 = 6.6 +L 6.6 i (2.119)
i=1
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 49
where /).SO and /).6 are the slip and angle components corresponding to the
mode zero. If damping is present, it is hypothesized that Zm(s) can be repre-
sented as the equivalent circuit shown in Fig.2.15. Di is the damping associated
with mode i. The damping associated with mode zero is
(2.120)
n'
Note: Inductance ai = WB
-.!...-K.
Remarks
l.The mode zero corresponds to the frequency zero (determined from the analy-
sis of the mechanical system alone). However interaction with electrical system
results in a nonzero frequency (normally in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 Hz). The
low frequency oscillations correspond to the mode zero. It is obvious from
Eqs(2.118)and(2.119) that in the absence of torsional oscillations, only zeroth
mode is present in which all the rotors participate equally. As there is no rela-
tive motion among rotors (in the absence of torsional oscillations), it is in order
to club all the turbine inertias together with the generator rotor.
2. Some authors model the mechanical system in terms of modal parameters
(inertias, damping and spring constants).One of the reason for this is that
the damping is normally known in terms of modal damping (determined from
decrement tests). Also the 'N' second order equations (for N modes including
mode zero) are all uncoupled.
3. Neglecting damping, Zm(s) has the properties of the immitance function of
a single port LC network. These are
(i)Zm(s) is an odd function ofs, that is Zm(s) = -Zm(-s)
(ii)It has only one simple pole at s=O
(iii)As s-+ 00, there is a zero
(iv)Zm(s) has only simple poles and zeroes; all are located on the imaginary
axis in the's' plane and they are interlaced
50 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
(2.121)
(2.122)
(2.123)
(2.124)
or
(2.125)
By proper choice of [Q] both [Mm] and [Km] can be made diagonal matrices.
However there is no unique choice of [Q] which has this property (of reducing
[Mm] and [Km] to diagonal matrices).
The transformation matrix [Q] can be obtained from the properties of eigen-
vectors of real symmetric matrices. A real symmetric matrix (such as [K]) has
only real eigenvectors (corresponding to real eigenvalues) which are mutually
orthogonal. That is if [P] is a matrix whose columns are eigenvectors of a real
symmetric matrix [K'] where
(2.126)
then
(2.127)
where [D 1 ] is a diagonal matrix. As eigenvectors are not unique, the matrix
[D 1 ] is also not unique. It can be made a unit matrix if the Euclidean norm of
each eigenvector is chosen as unity. It can also be shown that
where [n] is a diagonal matrix of eigenvalues of [K'] which are actually the
squares of the radian frequencies of the torsional modes (w~, k = 1, 2 ... N with
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 51
(2.129)
(2.130)
then,
(2.131)
Also,
(2.132)
As [P] is not unique, [Q] is also not unique. However if each vector of [Q]
is selected such that its element corresponding to the generator rotor is unity,
(which is equivalent to selecting each eigenvector of [I<'] with element [Mm] ~ in
the row corresponding to the generator rotor) then [D 1] is the diagonal matrix
of modal inertias. This is because for each mode, the linearized equation can
be expressed as
(2.133)
- - ;--- -
HP
- THI
IP
-TIL
LP
- TLG
GEN
-- -- '--- --
(2.135)
dSm
2HmTt = -(Dm + DLG}Sm + nG + DLGSLP - Te (2.136)
dTLG
--;u- = WB!\'LG(SLP - Sm) (2.137)
dSLP
2HLP--;U- = -(DLG + DLP + DIL}SLP + DLGSm +
DILSIP + TIL - TLG + FLpTm (2.138)
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 53
(2.139)
dSIP
2HIP----;[t = -(DHI + DIP + DIL)SIP + DHISHP +
DILSLP + THI - TIL + FIPTm (2.140)
dSHP
2HHP~ = -(DHP + DHI)SHP + DHISIP - THI + FHpTm (2.142)
where DHI, DIL and DLG are mutual damping terms associated with shaft
sections connecting HP-IP, IP-LP and LP-GEN respectively. Tm is the net
mechanical torque produced by the prime mover. FHP, FIP and FLP are the
fractions of the mechanical torque (or power) produced by HP, IP and LP
turbines respectively. It is assumed that initial slip (Smo) is zero.
Eqs.(2.135) to (2.142) can be expressed in the compact form as
(2.143)
(2.144)
dSo
2H0Tt = -DoSo + (Tm - Te) (2.145 )
dOl
at =WBSl (2.146)
d~
2Hl Tt = -DlSl - JilOl + (Tm1 - Te ) (2.147)
d0 2
at =W B S2 (2.148)
dS2
2H2Tt = -D2S 2 -
-'
1\2 02 + (Tm2 - Te) (2.149)
d03
at = WBS3 (2.150)
dS3
2H3Tt = -D3S3 - Ji303
+ (Tm3 - Te) (2.151)
54 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
5 m = 50 + 51 + 52 + 54 (2.152)
d = do + d2 + d3 + d4 (2.153)
where Ho, HI, H2 and H3 are modal inertias corresponding to modes zero,
one, two and three respectively. The frequency of mode zero is zero and the
mode three has the highest frequency. Do, D l , D2 and D3 are modal dampings.
T,!, , T;, and T! are defined by
(2.154)
1
2H HP
0
0
2HIP
0
0
0
0
1
[ M 1 WE
[
0 0 2HLP 0
o 0 0 2Hm
KHI -KHI 0
[ -KHI (KHI + KIL) -KIL
[ K 1 o -KIL (KIL+KLG)
o 0 -KLG
The eigenvectors of [M]-1 [K] are chosen such that their last elements (cor-
responding to generator rotor angle) are all equal to unity.
Eqns.{2.144) to (2.153) can be written in the generic form
where the non zero elements of [Am], [Bmd, [B m2 ] and [Cm] are given below
Am{l, 2) = WE, Am{2, 2) = -fit
Am{3,4) = WE,
Am{4,4) = -1ft, Am{4,3) =-1ft
*,
Am{5, 6) = WE, Am (6, 6) = - fit, Am{6, 5) = -!t
Am{7, 8) = WE, Am{8, 8) = -!tt,
Am{8, 7) =-!ft
Bmd2) = 21 0 , Bmd4) = Bml(6) =~
q'F
Bml(8) = ~
Bm2(2) = 2Ilo Bm2(4) = 2Ill Bm2(6) = 2Il2
Bm2 (8) = 2Il3
Cm (1, 1) = Cm{l, 3) = Cm{l, 5) = Cm{l, 7) = 1
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 55
+ f-----+.., L
L
+ +
Pmax
-J5- r
P
Pup
~w
K(1+sT2)
l+sT,
1
T3
J
r 1
s
Pev
-
Pdown
J
Pmin
Figure 2.18. General model of speed governor for the steam turbine
56 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
The steam turbine model represents the delays introduced by the storage of
steam in the steam chest, reheater and crossover piping. FHP, F[p and FLP
are the fractions of the total turbine power developed, in the HP, IP and LP
turbines respectively. The typical values of FHP, F[p and FLP are 0.3. 0.3 and
0.4 respectively, the sum adding to unity. Typical values of T CH , TRH and Tco
are
TRH = 4 - 11 8
The speed governor for steam turbine can be either (a) mechanical-hydraulic
type or (b) electro-hydraulic type. The diagram shown in Fig.2.18 can repre-
sent either type with suitable choice of parameters. For example, for electro-
hydraulic governor, typical values of parameters are Tl = T 2 , T3= 0.025 -
0.158, K = 20
(2.155)
(2.156)
where
Yk = [~o ~Sml
In general, it can be said that due to the slow response of the prime mover
system, it is adequate to ignore its dynamics and assume that the mechanical
power is constant for the analysis of SSR.
Example 1
Consider a hydrogenerator with only two rotor masses- the generator and the
hydraulic turbine. The rotor system equations are
+[ Ktg (2.157)
-K tg
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 57
] (2.158)
The unknown element q1t can be determined from the constraint equation that
(2.159)
Dg _ Dt
(2.160)
Hg Ht
it can be shown that [Q]t[D][Q] is also a diagonal matrix, where [D] is the
matrix of damping coefficients. It can be observed that [Q]t[K][Q] is always a
diagonal matrix irrespective of the value of q1t. The constraint equation (2.159)
can be satisfied only if
Hg
q1t = - - =-n (2.161)
Ht
Hence, the modal inertia for the (only) torsional mode is given by
where H 0 is the inertia for mode zero. It can be also derived that the modal
damping Dl is given by
(2.163)
(2.164)
The ratio of generator to turbine inertia, n varies from 7 to 30 for hydro units
with Kaplan turbine. For units with Francis and Pelton wheel turbines, n varies
from 10 to 40. [Andersson et al (1984)]. This implies that the modal inertia for
a hydro unit is high (see Eq. 2.162). This is advantageous in that the electrical
damping which can be negative with series compensated lines and HYDe links,
is reduced. This results from the fact that the decrement factor from electrical
damping, O"el is given by
O"el = -4Hl
TDe ( 2.165 )
where TDe is the damping torque (coefficient). For similar values of TDe, 0" el is
reduced as H 1 increases. This explains the fact that SSR has not been observed
on hydro units. In the past, it was argued that as the frequency of torsional
mode is around 10 Hz or less, the torsional interactions do not occur with series
58 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
(2.166)
(2.167)
60 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
ic
,------------------------------------+-----0
ib
,------------------+-----0
v
c
where,
211"
c t = A[COS(J cos((J - 2311") cos((J + "3)] (2.168)
Xc is the self reactance of the dummy coil which can be chosen as x q.1/!c is the
flux linkage of the dummy coil. [L~] is defined by
1
1
1+ 2Ld /I
3_1
[ 1
_1 (2.172)
2
MODELLING OF TURBINE GENERATOR 61
where
(2.174)
The nonzero elements of the [ARJ and [BRJ matrices are given below.
AR(1,2) = wBRJxJ~
XJXh - x Jh
AR(2,2) = _ wBRhX~
XJXh-xJh
A R (3,4) = WBRgxg~
XgXk - Xgk
AR(4,4) = _ wBRkX~
XgXk - Xgk
1
A R (5,5) = - -
Tc
B R(1, 1) = wBRJ(XhXdJ - :dh X Jh), BR(1, 3) = wBRJ
x J x h - x Jh x dJ
There is need for prediction of I.(t) which involves the prediction of Id(t), Iq(t)
and B(t). Linear prediction, defined below, of these quantities works well.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2.1 General
Transmission lines are basically distributed parameter devices. For the study
of fast switching transients, it is necessary to model them in some detail. For
example, the frequency response of a line can be approximated by cascaded
connection of 11" networks - a lumped parameter model. However for power
system dynamic performance studies involving frequencies below fundamental
(synchronous frequency), the representation by a single 11" circuit is adequate.
As a matter of fact, for studies involving low frequency transients, the trans-
mission lines can be assumed to be in quasi-steady state - the voltages and
currents can be assumed to be sinusoidal with slowly varying amplitudes and
phase angles.
A basic assumption in the modelling of three phase transmission lines is
that they are symmetric. This implies that the self impedances of all the three
phases are equal. Also, the mutual impedances between any two phases are
equal. An additional assumption is that the line parameters are constant - the
network is linear. It can be shown that, in steady state, a symmetric three
phase linear network connected to synchronous generators has only fundamen-
tal frequency voltages or currents. On the other hand, a lack of symmetry leads
to unbalanced currents (with negative sequence components) which can result
in third harmonic voltage generation.
The symmetry is disturbed during unbalanced faults such as single line to
ground or line to line faults. However, their duration is brief and the presence
of harmonics can be neglected.
2- [L] [R] 12
IVVV\
~rvvY\
0
T2 J
2T
llCI 2
VI 1c]
0 0
Ls
[LI = [ Lm
Lm
Lm
L.
Lm
Lm
Lm
L.
] , [R] =
[ Rm
R,
Rm
Rm
R.
Rm
Rm]
Rm ,
R.
C. Cm Cm
[el = [ Cm
C.
C.
Cm
Cm
C. ]
The network equations are
d
[L] d: + [R]i = Vl - V2 (3.1 )
(3.2)
(3.3)
where Vl, V2, i 1, i2 and i are three dimensional vectors, with phase variables as
elements. For example,
t [.
l =
ib ieJ,la
t _ [
v 1 - Vl a Vlb Vl e]
v~ = [V2a V2b V2e]
[ ~: 1= Ii [ cos(Bo - 2f)
cosBo sinBo
J'2
sin(Bo - 2f) Vi1 (3.4)
fe cos(B o + 2f) sin(Bo - 2f) 1
Vi
(3.7)
In other words, [GK] is an orthogonal matrix and satisfies the condition for a
power invariant transformation.
The relationship between Park's transformation [Gp] and [GK] is given by
(3.8)
where
[Td = [
COSO
-sino
si no
coso
0
0
1 (3.9)
o 0 1
(3.10)
where fd, fq are Park's components and fD, fQ are Kron's components (with
respect to a synchronously rotating reference frame).Note that subscripts D,Q
are associated with Kron's transformation. This convention will be followed
throughout.
Applying Kron's transformation to Eq. (3.1) results in
(3.11)
diQ . .
L1 dt - WoLllD + RllQ = V1Q - V2Q (3.12)
dio
L 0dt + R'oZo = V10 - V20 (3.13)
MODELLING OF THE ELECTRIC NETWORK 67
The last equation can be neglected if no zero sequence voltages are present.
L 1 , R1, Lo and Ro are defined by
= L& - L m ,
L1 Lo = L& + 2Lm
R1 = R& - R m , Ro = R& + 2Rm
2'Ie1 ~
dV1D woe .
+ 2 1VIQ = ZlD -
.
ZD (3.14)
Ie1
-
dVIQ woe . .
- - - - I VID=ZIQ-ZQ (3.15 )
2 dt 2
Ie dV2D woe .,
2' 1~ +2 1 V2Q = ZD - %2D (3.16)
1 dV2Q
-
e
1-- - -
woe .,
1V2D = ZQ - Z2Q (3.17)
2 dt 2
The zero sequence variables are normally neglected and their equations can be
omitted. e 1 is positive sequence capacitance given by
Denoting
i = iQ + jiD, VI = VIQ + jVlD, V2 = V2Q + jV2D (3.18)
Eqs. (3.11) and (3.12) can be expressed as
L I di . L)~
dt + (R I + JW "
o I Z = VI - V2
" (3.19)
cosd/d + sind/q }
(3.20)
-sind/d + COSd/q
(3.21)
[L 1 di' dt L 1 Z~I + (R I + JW
dt + J.dd . L )~/l ("'
o 1 Z = VI
"')
- V2 (3.22)
where
68 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
d~1
L I dt
Z
+ (R I + JW
. L I )~IZ = VI - 'I 'I
V2 (3.23)
where
do
W = Wo + dt
Eq. (3.23) can also be derived directly from applying Park's transformation.
Eq. (3.21) is a very useful relation and can be represented by a phasor diagram
shown in Fig. 3.2.
D
d
Figure 3.2. Phasor diagram showing relationship between d-q and D-Q variables
(3.24)
where
o 1
J3
1
[Gc] =
J3
1
73
MODELLING OF THE ELECTRIC NETWORK 69
v + Cl Cl
o~_la_T~2____________2_T~_~a~o
(a) a- sequence network
i
-.1lL. L1 Rl
rvvV\.
~+
_I...c;~_ _
o~V_l~__-r-L__~_l________________~_l_-rL-_~__~~O
(b) (3- sequence network
(3.25)
(3.26)
(3.27)
(3.28)
70 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
where
sinO o
cosO o
o
It is to be noted that [T2J is similar to [Td in that c5 is replaced by 00 , It is
not difficult to see that transformation from a{3o to dqo component is given by
(3.29)
where
cosO sinO
[T,l = [ -sinO cosO
o o
3.4 STATE EQUATIONS
The advantage of using a{3 variables for a stationary network is that the state
(differential) equations for the network can be obtained on a single phase basis.
For the single phase' a' network, the general state equations are
(3.30)
where X a are the state variables which consist of inductor currents and capac-
itor voltages (Note that only those inductors which form part of cotree (links)
and capacitors which form part of tree are considered). The equations for' (3'
network can be expressed as
(3.31)
The structure of Eq. (3.31) follows from the fact that' {3' network is identical
to the 'a' network. Ua and U{3 are input variables (in a,{3 components) which
may include voltage and current sources in the network. It is convenient to
apply D-Q transformation to Eqs. (3.30) and (3.31). Expressing Xa and X{3
in terms of X D and XQ as
(3.35)
t -- [X Dt X Q'
where X N t] t -- rutD
UN Ub]
[BN] = Diag[Bn Bn] and
(3.36)
[I] is a unit matrix of dimension equal to size of the vector Xa or Xf3 (XD
or XQ). The dimension of [AN] is twice the dimension of [An]. The following
theorem relates the eigenvalues of [AN] and [An].
Theorem: The eigenvalues (AN) of the matrix [AN] are related to the
eigenvalues (An) of the matrix [An] by the following relation.
(3.37)
The eigenvector v'N for the eigenvalue (An - jwo) of the matrix [AN] is given
by
vt = [v n - jVn]t (3.39)
AnI
[ Wo -Awol] [ ~n ] = (An _ jwo) [ ~n ] (3.40)
n JVn JVn
and
+
- VC",
+
l:[~~
~
be
0 0
1: [ :
1'
_RWB -~
[ An ~
[ B"
1
XI XI XI
-~
bep 0 ~
bep 0
where
WB
AN(3, 1) = - - ,
Xl
RwB
AN(3, 3) = - - ,
Xl
AN(3, 4) = -Wo, AN(3, 5) = WB
-Xl
AN(4,2) = _WB ,
Xl
AN(4,3) =WO, AN(4,4) = -RwB
-
Xl
AN(4,6) =-,
WB
Xl
AN(5,3) = - WB
b'
cp
AN(5,6) = -WO
WB
AN(6,4)=-b' AN(6,5)=wo
ep
dvco: _ ~I (3.43)
dt - C 0:
dVCD
- - = -wovcQ
dt
+ WB
-.
be
ID (3.44)
(3.45 )
The voltage components at the generator bus, VD and vQ are computed from
VQ + jVD = (R+ jwoL)(IQ + jID) +sL(IQ + jID) + (vcQ + jVCD) + (EQ + JED)
(3.46)
By noting that
(3.47)
Vq+ jVd = (R+jwL )(iq+ jid)+sL(iq +jid)+( vCQ +jVcD )e- j6 +(EQ +JED )e- j6
(3.48)
74 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
Ye = [Ce]Xe (3.50)
where
(3.51 )
where VD and vQ form the subset of the state variables XN. [P] is the trans-
formation matrix defined from Eq.(3.20} as
It is easy to see that current sources ID and IQ, which are treated as input
variables for the network, are expressed as
(3.53)
(3.54)
where
Example 3
Consider a simple system shown in Fig.3.5,where two generators are connected
by a single line which is modelled by a series impedance only (no shunt con-
nected elements). In this system only one generator can be viewed as a current
source for the network. This implies that Eqns. (3.49) and (3.50) cannot al-
ways be used.
A convenient solution to this problem is to interchange the input and output
variables (Ue and Ye ) for the reference generator. This implies that the stator
equations are not viewed as state equations, but only as equations defining
the generator terminal voltage. The state variables for the reference genera-
tor (electrical system) are reduced to the set of rotor flux linkages only. The
equations are
(3.56)
GENl R L c GEN2
8----+---' 1---+--8
Figure 3.5. A two generator system
(3.57)
(3.58)
3.6.1 General
In frequency domain analysis, the impedance functions of the network as viewed
from the generator terminals (or internal bus) is of significance. The impedance
can be expressed with respect to Kron's synchronously rotating reference frame
(D-Q ) or stationary reference frame(a - (3). It is to be noted that if Park's
reference frame has the same speed as Kron's reference frame ( if the generator
rotor speed is constant) then the impedance functions in both reference frames
are identical. This follows from Eq.(3.21) and if 0 is constant (say 00) there is
76 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
z.(p) z.(p)
a -sequence fJ -sequence
Va = Z. (p)i a (3.59)
(3.60)
where p = 1
Taking Laplace transforms on both sides of Eq.(3.59) and (3.60), we get
VD = Va cos {)o - vj3 sin {)o, vQ = Va sin {)o + vj3 cos {)o (3.63)
Taking Laplace transforms on both sides of the above equation, we get (noting
that ()o = wot)
(3.69)
In deriving the above equations, we have used the following expressions which
are analogous to (3.66) and (3.67)
If the above relations are not satisfied, what is implied is that if sinusoidal bal-
anced currents of frequency w flow in the network, other frequency component
is also present. This will be clear from the following analysis. Let the currents
in a and j3 sequence networks be
Since,
VD(S) = ZDD(s)ID(s) + ZDQ(s)IQ(s) (3.76)
VQ(s) = ZQD(s)ID(s) + ZQQ(s)IQ(s) (3.77)
78 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
in steady state, the voltages vD(t) and vQ (t) are sinusoidal quanti ties expressed
by phasors
we obtain
AD
va:(t) = T[cos(wt + D) + cos[(2wo - w)t - DJ] (3.82)
(3.84)
where Z. (jw) is the equivalent impedance per phase and can be derived by
substituting Eqs.(3.78) and (3.79) in (3.84) as
1
Zs (jw) = "2 [ZDD [j(w-wo)]+ZQq[j(w-wo)]+j[ZDq[j(W-Wo)]-ZQD [j(w-w o)]]]
(3.85 )
Remarks
I.The injection of currents of frequency w also result in voltages of frequency
(2wo - w) in addition to the voltages of frequency w
2.1t is not difficult to see that the expressions (3.72) and (3.73) are consistent
with (3.85)
at the end of kth step, given the initial condition at the beginning of the step.
Implicit methods in general, require the solution of algebraic equations for the
calculation of X k . The algebraic equations are linear if the differential equations
are linear and nonlinear otherwise. Although, this requires more computation
per step, in general, implicit algorithms are numerically stable and allow larger
step size. In stiff systems, where both slow and fast dynamics are present,
the considerations of numerical stability require very small step sizes if explicit
algorithms are used. If only slow transients are of interest, implicit algorithms
are computationally efficient as larger step sizes can be used.
Trapezoidal rule is a second order implicit algorithm which has been widely
used in power system simulation. Given the differential equation.
x = f(X, t) (3.86)
(3.87)
where h is the step size, tk-l is the instant corresponding to the beginning of
the kth step, while tk is the instant corresponding to the end of h step. e
For a linear system defined by
(3.89)
i(t) = ~
L
itt-h
v(r)dr + i(t - h) (3.90)
where v(t) is the voltage across the inductance L. Applying trapezoidal rule of
integration, Eq.(3.90) reduces to
,--------------.---------------0
I~
i(t)
2L
I(t-h) h
v(t) = -1
C
it
t-h
i(r)dr + v(t - h) (3.93)
we can derive an equivalent circuit shown in Fig.3.8. Here, the resistor value is
2~ and the current source I(t-h) is defined by
0
i(t)
I
t ~2~
I
let-h)
I 0
where J.(t) is vector of current sources impressed at the nodes, v(t) is the vec-
tor of node voltages to be solved and J(t - h) is the vector of 'history' terms.
Eq.(3.95) can be solved by triangularization of the matrix [G] with ordered elim-
ination and exploitation of sparsity. If some node voltages are known, Eq.(3.95)
can be simplified by considering only those nodes whose voltages have to be
solved.
Remarks
1. Dommel's approach to the modelling of the network elements is incorporated
in the ElectroMagnetic Transients Program (EMTP) which is widely used for
transients simulation.
2. Although it appears that this approach avoids the problem of formulat-
ing state equations based on the network topology, the problem is not really
solved. This is because of the fact that while the trapezoidal rule filters out
high frequency currents in inductances connected to voltage sources, it also
amplifies high frequency voltages across inductances in situations when cur-
rents are forced into them. In the first case, the trapezoidal rule works as an
integrator, for which it performs well, whereas in the second case it works as a
differentiator for which it performs badly. The problem shows up as numerical
oscillations in cases where the derivative of the current changes abruptly (for
example, when a current is interrupted in a circuit breaker)
3. The above discussion shows that EMTP may not be suitable in the simula-
tion of power electronics equipment involving switches. Often, snubber circuits
(across switches) are modelled in EMTP, not for its own sake, but to overcome
numerical oscillations.
4 ANALYSIS OF SSR WITH FIXED
SERIES COMPENSATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
It was mentioned in chapter 1 that series compensated transmission lines con-
nected to turbogenerators can result in Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) in
which both Induction Generator Effect (IGE) and Torsional Interaction (TI)
can occur. In this chapter, the analysis of SSR with fixed series compensation
is presented. Both frequency domain and eigenvalue analysis are presented
with examples. The IGE is first investigated using frequency scanning method
followed by TI using damping torque analysis. The state space formulation en-
ables a detailed consideration of both phenomena simultaneously. An iterative
algorithm for computing the torsional modes is proposed, which is computa-
tionally attractive.
Countermeasures for SSR problem with fixed series compensation are outlined
at the end of the chapter.
x' Xt R Xc
E g La + +
(4.1 )
where
Jk;B
a= - - (4.2)
2x.
Wn =WB f!:
-,
c
Xs
X.=XE+Xt+ X' (4.3)
(4.4)
WB is the base (rated) system frequency in rad/sec. A and j3 are determined
from initial conditions. If a is small, then Wer ~ W n .
The value of the decrement factor a can be determined from observing the
ANALYSIS OF SSR WITH FIXED SERIES COMPENSATION 85
1 d1/Jd Wo
- - - - -1/Jq = Vd (4.5)
WB dt WB
1 d1/Jq Wo
- - - + -1/Jd = Vq (4.6)
WB dt WB
Taking Laplace transforms of the Equations (4.5) and (4.6) we can express
them as a complex equation given by
(4.7)
(4.8)
.1.
'Pq ' . - E'd
= Xqlq (4.9)
If it is assumed that x~ = x~ = x', then
(4.10)
dE~ 1 [ , ( , ). ]
--;It = T' -Ed - Xq - Xq lq (4.12)
qo
Assuming T~o = T~o = T~ and Xd = Xq = x, for simplicity, we can express
Equations (4.11) and (4.12) (using Laplace transforms) as
, ., (x - x') ( .) jEJd
-Ed + JEq = (sT~ + 1) Iq + J1d + (sT~ + 1) (4.13)
From Equation (4.14) it is observed that the armature currents (Iq + j1d)
encounter an impedance given by
(Note that the negative sign in Equation (4.14) results from the fact that (Vq +
jVd) is a voltage rise in the direction of the current). It is shown (in chapter 3)
that the impedance in the d-q reference frame is related to the impedance in
the stationary (say Q' - f3 sequence) reference frame, Z. as follows
(4.16)
Z () s [ , (x - x') ] (4.17)
s = WB X + (s - jWo)T~ + 1)
In the above expression, the first term represents the inductance WBL of the
equivalent circuit of Fig.4.2. The second term in the impedance is given by
Z() - s(x-x')
(4.18)
.2 S -
WB[(S - jWo)T~ + 1]
It is not difficult to see that at a frequency W below w o , the impedance has
negati ve resistance gi ven by
(4.20)
ANALYSIS OF SSR WITH FIXED SERIES COMPENSATION 87
For model (2.2), the transfer functions Xd(S),Xq(s) and G(s) are given by
(4.22)
G( ) = (1 + sT~~) (4.24)
s (1 + sT~o)(l + sT~~)
T~~ is a time constant determined from the d-axis equivalent circuit. The other
time constants and reactances are well known. Substituting Equations (4.20)
and (4.21) in (4.7) we get
Zs (jw) = 21 [Zdd(j(w -w o)) +Zqq(j(w -w o)) +j[Zdq (j(w -wo)) - Zqd(j(W -wo))]]
(4.27)
It is observed that the real part of Zs(jw) is negative when w < woo
(4.28)
The input variable for the (linearized) mechanical system is !:l.Te which is
obtained from the electrical system equations. In the Laplace domain, the
electrical torque !:l.Te can be related to the generator rotor slip by
!:l.Te ( (4.29)
!:l.Sm (s) = Ye s)
The combined system (mechanical and electrical) is represented (at the gen-
erator port) as shown in Fig.4.3. The equation for this equivalent network is
given by
(4.30)
where the system eigenvalues are solutions of the scalar equation
(4.31)
(4.32)
(4.33)
ANALYSIS OF SSR WITH FIXED SERIES COMPENSATION 89
where TDe and TSe are the damping and synchronizing torque coefficients (cal-
culated from the analysis of the electrical torque). Similarly, one can define
.) () .TSm(Wk)
Ym ( JWk = TDm Wk - J WB (4.34)
Wk
w = Wo + Asinwmt (4.38)
where Wm is the oscillation frequency of the rotor about a synchronously ro-
tating axis in radians per seconds. The single phase equivalent circuit (0' -
sequence) of the generator stator is shown in Fig.4.4.
This consists of a voltage source (e a ) behind a transient inductance.e a is given
by
e a = wE' sin(wot + 0) (4.39)
Since
do
dt = (w - Wo)WB
L'
If it is assumed that the amplitude (A) of the rotor oscillation is very small,the
induced voltage in the stator,e a , consists of three sinusoidal components, one
of frequency fo,and other two components of frequencies fo fm .This follows
from substituting Eqs.(4.38) and (4.40) in (4.39) and noting that
AE' AE'
ea(t) = woE' sin(wot + 6) + -2- cos[(w o - wm)t + 6]- -2- cos[(wo + wm)t + 6]
(4.41)
We also note that
AE' AE'
-2- cos[(wo - wm)t + 6] >:::i -2- cos[(wo - wm)t + 60 ]
and,
AE' AE'
-2- cos[(wo + wm)t + 6] >:::i -2- cos[(wo + wm)t +6 0]
Also,
AE'
---(wo + wm ) cos[(w o + wm)t +6
0]
2w m
The voltage source ef3 in the (3 sequence equivalent circuit is given by
e{3 = woE' cos(woHt5)- A:' sin[(w o-w m )Ht5]+ A:' sin[(w o+w m )Ht5] (4.44)
(wot + 15 )
woE'cos ' cos(wot + 150 )
= woE + --- . (wot + ~
AE'w o sm 0 0
) coswmt
Wm
(4.45)
(4.46)
When these voltages are applied to the 0: and (J sequence networks respec-
tively,the subsynchronous frequency currents flow(in steady state) and are given
by the expression
(i~ub + ji~ub) = Z-l[j(w o _ wm)](e~ub + je~ub) (4.48)
If Z(s) = R + Ls + Js
Z[j(wo - wm)] = R + j[(wo - wm)L - ( _1 )C] = ZsubL<Psub
Wo Wm
Note that L includes L', the transient inductance of the generator. If the
resonance frequency fer defined by
1
fer = 2Ti"fLC
is close to (fo - fm),the impedance is small.It is resistive when(fo - fm) = fer
and capacitive when fer> (fo - fm),otherwise it is inductive (when fer <
(fo - fm)). The d-q components of the currents are given by
( 4.49)
92 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
(4.52)
(4.54)
.sup AE'
tfj =2 Z (wo+wm)sin[(wo+wm)t+do-lsup] (4.55)
Wm sup
where ZsupLlsup is the network impedance at supersynchronous frequency
,viewed from generator (internal) bus. The magnitude of Zsup tends to be
large compared to Zsub and lsup is usually positive(the impedance is induc-
tive) .
The quadrature axis components (i~UP)due to the supersynchronous currents
can be obtained as
(4.56)
'sup _ A(E')2 (
Tesup -_ E' Zq - 2 Z Wo + Wm ) sm
. (wmt - '!'sup
A..) (4.57)
Wm sup
Note that both torque components ,T: ub and T:up have same frequency Wm ,the
frequency of oscillation of the generator rotor. The damping torque coefficient
TDe is given by
(E')2 [(wo - wm )
T De -- --2-- A.. (wo + wm ) A.. ]
Z COS'!'sub - Z cos'!'sup (4.58)
wm sub sup
ANALYSIS OF SSR WITH FIXED SERIES COMPENSATION 93
10 - 1m ~ ler (4.59)
FigA.5 shows the phasor diagram giving the position of the torque components
in relation to the rotor velocity. What is interesting is that the supersynchronous
frequency currents in the network give rise to positive damping torque(although
of small amplitude).It is the subsynchronous frequency components of network
currents that cause negative damping.The smaller the oscillation frequency
,higher is the negative damping. Thus the first torsional mode(with the smallest
frequency) can cause the most severe problem if the network impedance is
minimum at that mode.
tP.ub
Remarks
1. In the literature,[Kilgore et al (1977)] the negative damping introduced by
the torsional interaction is expressed as
(4.60)
where G is the conductance of the electrical network viewed from the generator
bus defined as G(wo - wm ) = Re[Z-l[j(wo - wm )]. H m is the modal inertia
corresponding to frequency Wm .It is not difficult to see that the above expres-
sion is derived from Eq.4.58 by assuming E' ~ 1.0 and neglecting the positive
damping introduced by the supersynchronous frequency currents.A better ap-
proximation to the damping (decrement) factor (J' e is
(4.61)
94 ANALYSIS OF SUB SYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
(4.62)
we can derive
(4.64)
where
(4.65)
At the generator internal bus, the following equation applies (assuming that
the generator is connected to an infinite bus through a passive impedance)
(4.66)
where,
Wo
~eD =E I
sin60~Sm + -E
WE
I
cos60~6 (4.67)
(4.68)
ANALYSIS OF SSR WITH FIXED SERIES COMPENSATION 95
AeD and AeQ are derived from the fact that the generator voltage (at the
internal bus) has only a q-axis component (e q ) given by
eD = eq sin 15
eQ = eq cosJ
Wo '
AeD = - E AJ (4.69)
WB
AeQ = E'ASm (4.70)
YDD, YDQ, YQD and YQ Q are the admittance functions and can be expressed as
(see chapter 3)
where
AJ = WB ASm (4.74)
S
we can derive the expression for AiQ as
Wo
AiQ(s) = [YQD(S)-
S
+ YQQ(s)]E ' ASm (4.75)
E'
AiQ(s) = 2s [(s - jwo)Y(s - jwo) + (s + jwo)Y(s + jwo)]ASm (4.76)
(E')2
- --[(wo-w )G(wo-w) -(wo+w)G(wo+w)] (4.77)
2w
96 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
where
1. The derivation for TDe given here for the simplified generator model can
be extended to the case of the detailed generator model. This can be done
by noting that the total impedance viewed from the generator internal bus is
the sum of generator and the network impedance. In d-q axes, the generator
impedances are defined from Eq.(4.26). However, this approach is cumbersome
and will not be pursued. Instead, it is convenient to derive the transfer function
Ye(s) = :J:(t.l),
from the state equations of the electrical system.
2. In general, the electrical system equations can be expressed as
where
x~ = [x~ x~ XN], yk = [!:l.d' !:l.Sm]
From Eq.(4.74), we can write
YM = [ !:l.~m ] = [ i ] !:l.Sm
m(s)!:l.Sm (4.80)
(4.81 )
where
m(s) = [ ] ~1
The details of the various matrices are given in the next section.
The system equations are defined from putting together the equations for
the synchronous machine (rotor electrical) and the external network. These
equations are reproduced below from chapters 2 and 3.
(4.82)
Ye = [CelXe (4.83)
XN = [AN1XN + [BNdEb + [BN2]UN2 (4.84)
YN = [CN1XN (4.85)
where
(4.86)
where
(4.88)
where
x1 = [X! XJvl
and
(4.90)
[ ~cD ]
vCQ
= [0 -wo]
Wo 0
(4.91)
[ ~: ] = WXL ] [
RL
~d ] + XL
lq WB
[ 1,f
Tt
]+ (4.92)
where
[F] = [/2 - XL [Ce][Bdtl (4.94)
wB
(4.98)
where
BN = [ WBXC 0 ]
o WBXC
Beb = [Bd[F][P] [ ~ ]
Example 1
Consider IEEE FBM, the data for which is given in Appendix A. The eigenval-
ues of 8X8 matrix [AE] are shown in Table 4.1. This also shows the eigenvalues
for the case with the generator model (1.1).
The result shows that there are two network modes (a) Subsynchronous and
(b) Supersynchronous. The sum of the frequencies of the two modes add to
2fa as their frequencies are given by fa fer where , fer in the frequency of
the series resonance in the network. The frequency (fer) can be approximately
evaluated as
fer = fa ~
XL
+
c
Xg
(4.99)
where I I
The results show self excitation occurring at Xc > 0.20. The negative damp-
ing of the subsynchronous mode goes on increasing with increase in Xc.
where
[C er ] = [Ce 0]
If the generator is connected to an infinite bus through a series R, L, C net-
work, Eq.(4.92) applies. It can be shown that the combined state equations
(including the network model) can be obtained using Eqs. (4.109) and (4.110).
In deriving the linearized state equations, both c5 and Sm are to be treated as
variables. The final equations can be written as follows.
(4.111)
where
(4.114)
Bb = [ Ber2F[DP]{CNXNo + [ ib ]} 1 (4.115)
BN[Dp]tCerXerO
The second column of [BE2] is given by
ANALYSIS OF SSR WITH FIXED SERIES COMPENSATION 103
where
X ero and XNO are the operating values of vectors Xer and XN. It can be shown
that the nonzero elements of [DAer] and [DZd are given by
(4.117)
where
[CME] = [Cme 0 0]
The final system equations can be expressed in the compact form
(4.118)
where
x~ = (xk x:W-]
The eigenvalues of the matrix [AT] indicate system stability at the operating
point considered.
Example 2
The IEEE FBM model is taken up for study. The data are given in Appendix
A. The mechanical damping is assumed to be zero. The eigenvalues [AT] matrix
are calculated for three cases, namely
(i) No load (Pb = 0, Qb = 0)
(ii) Full load (Pb = 1, Qb = 0)
(iii) Case (ii) with static exciter modelled with KA = =
200, TA 0.025 s
The excitation system is modelled by
. 1
AEJd = TA [-AE Jd - KAA\!t] (4.119)
The system matrix [AT] is assembled as described above. The elements of the
matrix are functions of the operating point (which needs to be computed from
power flow analysis). The calculation of initial conditions of the system state
variables is described in Appendix B. The eigenvalues of [AT] for the three
cases considered are shown in Table 4.4.
Full Load
(Pb=1.0)
I Full load
with AVR
I Comments
(4.122)
where
[CSM] = [0 I][CM]
106 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
400
200
E
rn 0
I-
-200
-400
Hi = _ WB dTs m (w = wd (4.123)
4Wi dw
where Wi is the modal frequency. It is observed from FigA.6 that the pole and
zero near the frequency 298 rad/sec. are practically indistinguishable. One
could say that due to the pole zero cancellation, the mode 5 is not observable
in the electrical system. The computation of TSe and TDe are carried out from
the knowledge of Ye(s) which can be based on either simplified machine model
or detailed model. In simplified machine model, the flux decay and damper
windings are neglected and the stator is represented by a speed dependent
" II
source behind a constant inductance (x~WB +Xq). The variations of TSe and TDe
based on detailed machine model(2.2) are shown in Figures 4.7 and 4.8 respec-
tively. It can be seen from FigA.7 that TSe has much smaller magnitude than
TSm and hence the torsional mode frequencies are unaffected even in the pres-
ence of TI. The variations of the damping torque coefficient TDe computed for
the simplified machine model is shown in FigA.9. It is observed that the sim-
plified model gives a fairly accurate value of the negative damping introduced
by the network corresponding to the frequency f = fo - fer, where fer is the
series resonance frequency.
ANALYSIS OF SSR WITH FIXED SERIES COMPENSATION 107
15
10
5
Q)
fJj
I- 0
-5
-10
-15
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Win radls
150
100
Q)
0 50
I-
0
r
-50 V
Example 3
The system considered here is taken from IEEE SBM the data for which is
given in Appendix A. The rotor shaft has four masses. In this system. only
one of the two parallel lines is series compensated. There are three torsional
modes having frequencies - 154, 203 and 321 rad/sec.
The eigenvalues corresponding to torsional and network modes for the series
compensation level of 55 % of are shown in Table 4.7.
108 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
-10 r I
-20
Q) -30
o
1--40
-SO
-60
-m~--~----~----~--~----~--~~---~I--~
o SO 100 1SO 200 250 300 3SO 400
Win radls
6.Tm +
Mechanical
E System
-
6.Te
Electrical
System
Figure 4.10. Block diagram showing interaction between electrical and mechanical sys-
tems
From Fig 4.10, the poles of the closed loop system satisfy the equation
1 + G(s)H(s) = 0 (4.126)
(4.128)
where Sk-l is the estimate at the beginning of the iteration. F' is derivative of
F with respect to s and has to be updated for each iteration.
Since the eigenvalues corresponding to the torsional modes are close to the
imaginary axis and also since the variations in the imaginary part of Ym (jWi)
are quite large compared to the variations in Ye(s), it is possible to approximate
the magnitude of F'(s) corresponding to any torsional mode i as
(4.129)
110 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
The above equation follows from Eq. (4.123).The advantage of this equation
is that the derivation of F(s) remains constant at all iterations and requires no
additional computations.
The efficacy of this algorithm is checked by considering the example of IEEE
FBM, the results of which are given in Table 4.4. The initial values of the
eigenvalues are taken to be the eigenvalues of the matrix [AM l, except for
mode zero. For the latter,the initial value is assumed to be 6.28 rad/sec. The
eigenvalues at the end of each iteration for the case (a) Pb = 0.0 are given in
Table 4.8.
The results for the case (b) Pb = 1.0 are given in Table 4.9.
For both cases, it is observed the eigenvalues converge to the exact values in
less than 5 iterations. This is in spite of approximating the derivative of F(s)
in terms of the modal inertia.
Remarks
SERIES CAPACITOR
NONLINEAR
RESISTOR
REACTOR
current and the voltage across the capacitor reaches a saturation level. Thus,
the capacitor is automatically bypassed and reinserted without any hitch. A
case study showed that a 15 MW-sec nonlinear resistor applied for 5 cycles
reduces the capacitor voltage from 3.5 to 2.2 pu with a corresponding reduction
in the peak shaft torque from 3.7 to 1. 7 pu.
TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL
CURRENT
LIMmNG
REACTOR
BYPASS THYRlTE
SWITCH
DAMPING
RESISTOR
,-------'\
SERIES CAPACITOR
has a very high impedance at the system frequency and the power losses in the
resistor are limited (under normal conditions). The damping resistor becomes
effective at subsynchronous frequencies.
The damping filter can be expensive at high voltage levels but in distribution
or subtransmission circuits where series capacitors are used (e.g. in resonant
link fault current limiting circuits) the filter has been applied.
Vrcf
+~
v, l-
~~----~ AVR
v, +
~~r ~\~
o 0.2 0.4 0.15
;! ~>~ j
0.8 1 1.2 1." 1.6 1.8 2
SET TIME
RESISTOR
CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE
SERIES CAPACITOR
half cycle period exceeds the nominal value. This is done by inserting a resistor
across the capacitor through thyristor switches (see Fig. 4.16). The thyristor
stops conducting whenever the capacitor voltage (and the thyristor current)
reaches zero. Thereafter, the measurement of half cycle period restarts from
a new voltage zero. No thyristor fires for half cycles which are shorter than
the set period. Two thyristors are needed for the two polarities. For high
voltages, the thyristor shown in Fig. 4.16 actually represents a series string of
thyristors. The resistor value is not critical although lower its ohmic value, the
more effective it is (except when it is too low). It is recommended that the
resistor's ohmic value within 5 to 10 percent of the capacitor ohmic value will
give satisfactory results.
The operation of the thyristor controller is independent for each phase. The
controller is simple and does not require detection of specific subsynchronous
signals. The control signal can be obtained at the platform level. Alternately,
it can be generated as the difference of two voltage signals from the measuring
devices (on each side of the capacitor) ofthe voltage with respect to ground. In
this case, the control circuitry could be located at the ground level and firing
pulses transmitted through optical links.
The objectives of the NGH damping scheme are
The scheme may be designed for any or all of the above purposes. If transient
torque control is of major concern, the set period can be larger than the nominal
half cycle period so that in steady state (and with small perturbations) the
thyristors will not fire. The thyristors will fire only during large disturbances
such as faults followed by clearing. If steady state SSR problem is of major
concern, the set period can be slightly less than the nominal half period; then
the thyristor will conduct during steady state at the tail end of each half cycle
118 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
of the capacitor voltage; This will provide detuning effect against gradual build
up of oscillations. There will be continuous power loss in this case, but is very
small and of minor consequence.
The thyristors can help to protect the capacitors (and themselves) by firing
if the instantaneous forward voltage exceeds a set level. The resistor limits the
discharge current from the capacitor. The capacitor and thyristor protection
can also be implemented by employing nonlinear zinc oxide resistors across the
thyristors. The protection level of the zinc oxide resistor can be selected such
that it (in series with the linear resistor) provides adequate protection for the
capacitor. The bypass switch helps to relieve the thyristor/resistor when their
duty exceeds safe limits. The bypass switch is also required when capacitor is
to be bypassed and reinserted under normal operating conditions.
NGH scheme is a passive scheme-it does not require feedback signals. The
requirement of thyristors are well within the state of the art. For example, a
1000 A, 30 ohm capacitor may require a 80 kV thyristor string with a resistor
duty of 20-50 MJ per phase.
The studies carried out on NGH scheme indicate that it is an effective coun-
termeasure for both steady state and transient SSR problems. However it was
found that some undamping can result for torsional modes which are 'off tune'
(not in resonance with the electrical system). It is suggested that the use of
SEDC can help to overcome this problem. In summary, the studies show that
NGH scheme with appropriate SEDC is beneficial in applying series compensa-
tion over a wider range (0-75%) whereas SSR problem limited the compensation
level to 15%.
Dynamic Stabilizer [Ramey et al (1981)]
This is a device based on the use of a modulated shunt reactance connected
to the isolated phase bus of a turbine-generator unit. The modulation of the
reactance is done with the help of thyristor control which acts in response to a
signal based on the generator rotor velocity deviation. See Fig. 4.17.
The shunt susceptance of the TCR (Thyristor Controlled Reactor) is given by
the relation
rr - sinrr
B (rr) = ----
rrXL
(4.130)
UNIT TRANSFORMER
I I STABILIZER
TRANSFORMER
FIRING
~ ANGLE
CONTROL
reactor current results in large oscillating current in the generator armature due
to amplification occuring at resonance. The amplification would be maximum
if the stabilizer is located at a point in the system when all inductive reactance
is on one side of stabilizer while all the capacitive reactance is on other side.
The advantages of dynamic stabilizer are
1. The connection as a shunt device eliminates the requirement to carry con-
tinuous generator load current (as compared to blocking filters)
2. The operation is not sensitive to variations in the system frequency or am-
bient temperature.
3. Maintenance requirements are expected to be minimal.
The disadvantageous of dynamic stabilizer are
1. It does not provide protection against induction generator or transient torque
problems. The damping is provided only when rotor oscillations are present.
2. Stabilizer introduces harmonic currents which can be minimized by a) connecting
the thyristor controlled reactors (TCR) in delta and b) providing two sec-
ondary windings, one connected in delta and other connected in star to
eliminate 5th and 7th harmonics (This arrangement is termed as 12 pulse
operation of TCR).
The first dynamic stabilizer was installed at San Juan generating station. This
is a 12 pulse TCR and has short time rating of about 20% of that of the
generating unit.
120 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Modern power systems are affected by the problem of spontaneous low fre-
quency oscillations particularly when operating under stressed system condi-
tions associated with increased loading on long transmission lines. These os-
cillations are due to swings of the generator rotors caused by disturbances.
It is to be noted that random load fluctuations are always present and if the
damping of the swings is inadequate (or even negative) the rotor oscillations
are observed in the transmission lines as power oscillations which can limit the
power transfer and threaten system security.
The frequency of these oscillations usually lies in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 Hz. It
can be shown that a N generator system has (N-l) modes of rotor swings. The
lower the frequency of oscillations, more generators participate. At the lower
end of frequency spectrum(0.2-0.8 Hz) the swing modes are termed as inter-
area modes. At the higher end (1.5-3.0 Hz) of the frequency spectrum, they are
termed as intraplant modes and the oscillations are limited to the generators
within a plant. In the intermediate range of frequencies (0.8-1.8 Hz) lie the
local swing modes corresponding to oscillations among generators within an
area. It is assumed that for the local mode oscillations, the generators within
a plant are coherent and swing against generators in another plant in the same
area.
The damping of intraplant modes is not a problem as the amortisseur circuits
K. R. Padiyar, Analysis of Subsynchronous Resonance in Power Systems
Kluwer Academic Publishers 1999
122 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
The requirement for the application of PSS is best illustrated with reference
to a single machine system shown in Fig.5.1. Considering model (1.0) for the
synchronous machine, (neglecting damper windings) the linearized model ofthe
system is shown in the block diagram given in Fig 5.2
INTERACTIONS WITH POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER 123
\!tLB Xe Re
C9 I
(\f\(\(\ MI\
~EbLO
Figure 5.1. A single machine system
In deriving the block diagram of Fig 5.2, the stator and network connected
to the generator are assumed to be in steady state. The constants Kl to K6
are termed as Heffron Phillips constants and are dependent on the operating
point.
If the losses in the stator and network are neglected, (Re = 0) then the expres-
sions for the Heffron Phillips constants are given below.
(5.1 )
124 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
(5.2)
(5.3)
(5.4)
(5.7)
J{A
EXC(s) = 1 +sTA (5.9)
(5.1O)
(5.11)
INTERACTIONS WITH POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER 125
~Te(jw) _ T jw T
(5.12)
~J (jw) - s + wB D
(5.13)
(5.14)
where
(5.16)
These conditions are generally satisfied. For the damping torque coefficient
TD > 0, the following condition applies
(5.17)
K5 > (5.18)
Hence for AVR with large gain, low frequency oscillations are negatively damped
when the constraint (5.18) is violated. Actually there is an upper limit on J{A
when J{5 < and is given by
(5.19)
It is not practical to reduce the AVR gain to satisfy (5.19) as the gain is normally
determined from the requirement of voltage regulation. Hence, PSS is applied
to ensure that the net damping torque remains positive even when K5 < 0.
126 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
(5.21)
The design of PSS can be explained wth reference to Fig.5.3. Here t::.Teo is
the component of the electrical torque in the absence of PSS and t::.Tep is the
torque component introduced by PSS. KJe(s) is the transfer function ~(W
when t::. Vs = O. If PSS is to introduce only a damping torque, then the required
transfer function of PSS(s) is given by
Dp
PSS(s) = GEP(s) (5.22)
where Dp is the required damping torque (coefficient) from PSS. Since this is
not realizable in practice, a practical PSS assumes a transfer function T(S)
with the following structure.
sTw
PSS(s) = 1 + sTw T(s) (5.23)
U
T(s) /
~
l+sT w u, 1 ""T{.J I
I
V,
1 1 1 ~
CIRCUIT COMPENSATOR FILTER
The phase angle () shown in Fig. 5.5 is calculated for the value of n=2 where
'n' is defined as
(5.26)
1e=1 5 10
20
10
o~~~~~~~~~~~~
1~ 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~
the input signal used, PSS is to be tuned for a particular system condition
which has the highest stabilizer loop gain and phase lag. Full load on the
generator yeilds the highest loop gain. The operating condition also depends
on the external reactance (xe). It is claimed that for speed and power input
stabilizers, the strongest system (with lowest value of xe) results in highest
loop gain and phase lag. For frequency input stabilizers, the highest loop gain
occurs with weakest system (highest value of xe)
To select the dc gain of PSS (1<.)' a root locus analysis is performed. A typical
root loci for the two critical modes are shown in Fig.5.6. Here, there are two
possibilities. In the first case, (shown in Fig.5.6(a)) the swing mode becomes
unstable as the PSS gain is increased. In the second case, another mode, termed
as the exciter mode becomes unstable as the gain is increased. The exciter mode
originates from the dynamics of flux decay and the excitation system.
JW JW
SWING MODE
o (J'
o
The optimal PSS gain is chosen as the gain that results in maximum damping
of the least damped mode. (swing mode or exciter mode).
For input signals other than the rotor speed, the block diagram shown in Fig.5.3
is not valid. In such cases, the stabilizer loop is to be replaced by what is shown
in Fig.5.7.
130 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
Su (8) is defined as the input signal sensitivity factor and F Bu (8) is defined
as the input signal feedback factor. For power input stabilizer,
(5.28)
Lawson, Swann and Wright (1978) have proposed a band reject filter instead
of the low pass filter.The objective is to attenuate the signal through the PSS
at torsional frequencies in order to minimize TI. Analytical investigations led to
the development of a band reject filter capable of providing attenuations greater
than 100: lover the torsional frequency range, causing less than 20 0 of phase
lag at local mode frequencies and less than 5 at inter area mode frequencies
.The band reject is made up of five stagger tuned stages in cascade.Each stage
has the transfer function given by
F ILT{s) = s2 + 2(l W n S + w;
s2 + 2(2W n S + w~
The depth of the notch characteristic and the bandwidth of each stage is de-
termined by (1 and (2 .
An alternative to provide a complex torsional filter is to design a PSS which
provides attenuation at the torsional mode frequencies. This is feasible if a
control signal is used which does not require phase lead (may even require
phase lag) at the frequencies for which PSS is expected to provide damping. If
acceleration signal is used, it already has a 90 0 inherent phase lead and PSS
may be designed with a phase lag.
If the mechanical power is constant, the acceleration is proportional to the
negative change in the electric power. Hence it is to be expected that the PSS
with power input is also immune to TI. However, as mentioned previously, the
power input stabilizer provides spurious signals during changes in the generator
loading (and mechanical power) and these can have an adverse effect on the
bus voltage.
The accelerating power signal can be synthesized from the speed and the power
signals as shown in Fig.5.8.
There are variations in the synthesis of PSS input signal based on the speed
and power signals, In one instance, equivalent speed signal is synthesized by
combining speed signal with the integral of the power signal [Lee et al (1981)].
It is claimed that with such PSS input signal, the torsional filter design can be
simplified and is independent of the generator torsional characteristics.
132 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
5.5.1 Description
To illustrate the Torsional Interaction (TI) with Power System Stabilizer (PSS),
a case study of a single machine connected to infinite bus is presented. The
system studied is adapted from the IEEE First Benchmark Model (FBM) con-
sisting of a turbine generator feeding power to an infinite bus via series capacitor
compensated system. (see Fig.5.9)
The machine data are given in the Appendix A.
d~ n~ ~
dt = Wn [( -2(Xl + X2) + T2T4 (I<.Sm - X 4) + T4 X3 - v.] (5.35)
INTERACTIONS WITH POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER 133
v.
dX 2 1 T3 Tl
- d = ~[-X2 + (1- -)[X3 + -(K.Sm - X 4 )]] (5.36)
t.4 T4 T2
dX 3 1 Tl ,
dt = T2 [-X3 + (1 - T2 )(!i.Sm - X 4)] (5.37)
dX 4 1 .
dt = Tw [-X4 + !i.Sm ] (5.38)
The equations (5.32), (5.34) to (5.38) can be linearized and expressed as
Ar(4,6)=-i.(1-.)R, Ar(5,5)=-i 2 ,
Ar(5, 6) = -i (1- R)' Ar(6,6) = -fw
The nonzero elements of [Brl and [Brml and [Crl are given by
- -T
B r (1 , 1) - KA~ vto' Br(1, 2) -
- -T
KA~ V to
.),
A A
5.5.3 Results
The excitation system parameters are KA = 200, TA = 0.025 s. The PSS
parameters were selected as
Tw = 10 s, Tl = T3 = 0.1 s, T2 = T4 = 0.05 s, K. = 5, (= 0.5, Wn = 20
The eigenvalues of the linearized system are shown in Table 5.1.
It is seen that without PSS, the zeroth mode (swing mode) of frequency
9.688 rad/sec. is destabilized. The PSS without the torsional filter resulted in
damping the swing mode but destabilizing the first two torsional mode. The
torsional filter is able to damp the torsional modes although marginally. In any
case, the presence of the torsional filter overcomes the destabilizing action of
the PSS.
The parameters of the filter, ( and Wn are to be carefully selected as they affect
the stability of the swing mode and an exciter mode.( < 0.2 resulted in instabil-
ity of an exciter mode. The increase in ( improved the damping of both exciter
and swing modes. However for ( > 0.5, the damping of the swing mode starts
to decrease. Keeping ( = 0.5, Wn was varied to study its impact on the exciter
and swing modes. For Wn < 15, the exciter mode was found to be unstable.
Application of a composite signal
INTERACTIONS WITH POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER 135
u-l--------~IL-___l_lt_:_~_;_~__~~--------v.-$
Figure 5.11. Transfer function of block replacing torsional filter
The increase in TFl resulted in damping of the torsional modes 1 and 2. How-
ever, there was a reduction in the damping of modes 0, 3 and 4.
Increase in TFI beyond 0.028 s resulted in destabilization ofthe subsynchronous
network mode. For TFl = 0.0175 s, the eigenvalues of the system are given in
Table 5.2 where they are compared to the eigenvalues with the torsional fil-
ter(shown in Table 5.1). It is to be noted that the PSS parameters selected in
this study are not the optimal values. The main objectives of this study is the
evaluation of the effects of the torsional filter and the gain of the acceleration
signal on the torsional and other modes.
The following conclusions can be drawn from the study
1. The choice of the parameters of the torsional filter is critical as it can affect
the stability of an exciter mode.
2. The torsional filter can not increase the damping of the torsional modes. It
can at the best counter the destabilizing influence of the dynamic compensator
of PSS.
3. The acceleration signal has a significant impact on the damping of the crit-
ical modes. The lower frequency torsional modes are damped.
4. If a series capacitor is used, the limit on the acceleration gain is deter-
mined from the stability of a network mode corresponding to subsynchronous
frequency.
136 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
et al(1980)]. It was found, during the tests that a 11.5 Hz torsional mode be-
came unstable upon switching out a parallel transmission line. The impact of
this discovery is that the planning and design of HVDe converter controls must
incorporate the possibility of adverse TI with HVDe systems. However, it is
important to note that the problem of TI with HVDe systems is much less se-
vere compared to the TI with fixed series capacitors. Also, the problem can be
tackled easily by modification of the current controller or by adding an auxil-
liary controller to damp subsynchronous frequency oscillations. In this chapter,
the description of HVDe system is given with special reference to converters
and control. The modelling of HVDe system for SSR studies is presented along
with an exposition of the basic characteristics of the HVDe system that results
in TI. A case study is presented highlighting the factors that affect the torsional
interactions. A simplified damping torque analysis is also presented to obtain
insights into the mechanisms of TI with HVDe system.
6.2.1 GeneraJ
A simple schematic diagram of a typical HVDe converter station is shown in
Fig.6.1.
The major components of a converter station are converters for the conver-
sion of power from ac to dc (at a rectifier station) or dc to ac ( at an inverter
station) and controls. A converter station can act either as a rectifier or in-
verter by suitable control. Modern converters are twelve pulse with two Graetz
bridges connected in series with one bridge supplied by the secondary wind-
ings of the converter transformer connected in star while the second bridge is
supplied by the set of secondary windings connected in delta. (see Fig.6.2).
The objective of the twelve pulse operation of converters is to reduce the har-
monics in ac current and dc voltage. Under ideal conditions, only characteristic
harmonics are present, the order of which are given below
hac = 12n 1
hdc = 12n
where hac and hdc are the order of harmonics present in ac and dc side quan-
tities, n is any positive integer.
The direct component of the dc side voltage for a 12 pulse converter is twice
the direct component of the dc output voltage of a Graetz bridge. Similarly,
the fundamental component of the ac side current is twice the fundamental
component of the ac current for each bridge. Hence, it is adequate to consider
the analysis of a single bridge if harmonics are not of consequence.
~
CD
y D
~
Q)
~
o?i
CD CD
oD
Pole 2
CD
CD 12 Pulse converter
~Q)
Q) Transformer
Q) Smoothing reactors
I- II
- -
@
Q)
DC Filters
Tuned AC Filters
@ HP AC Filters
Consider a Graetz bridge fed from three phase voltage sources connected in
series with the leakage impedances of the converter transformer. (see Fig.6.3).
It is assumed that the output terminals of the bridge are connected to a
current source (not necessarily of constant magnitude)
The following assumptions are made in the analysis
1. The valves can be modelled as ideal switches with zero impedance when on
(conducting) and with infinite impedance when off(not conducting).
2. AC voltage at the converter bus is sinusoidal, balanced(with positive se-
quence only).
3. The leakage impedance of converter transformer in all the three phases are
equal.
4. The valves are turned on and off instantaneously(negligible switching time).
The switching in occurs at the instant the gate pulse is present if the thyristor
(valve) is forward biased (anode is positive with respect to cathode)and the
switching out occurs at the instant when the valve current goes zero. (It is
140 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
--
~
~-'=-
D.C ..
Terminals
-=...==-
ACBus
135
~
~~------~
~
r----~~------~~
~ ~-------+---r--~
to be noted that the current flow in the valve is unidirectional- from anode to
cathode).
5. The gate pulses in steady state are equidistant
The numbering of the valves in Fig.6.3 is according to the sequence in which
individual valves are fired. In steady state, the interval between consecutive
firing pulses is 60 as there are six firing pulses in a cycle of the supply voltage.
At any given time, there are at least two valves conducting, one each from the
top and bottom valve groups in the bridge.
Assume, for example, that valves 1 and 2 are conducting and valve 3 is turned
INTERACTIONS WITH HVDC CONVERTER CONTROL 141
~------------------------------o
on. It is to be noted that the commutation voltage across valve 3 ( voltage prior
to its being turned on) is (eb - ea). The earliest instant of firing is theoretically
the instant when voltage (eb - ea) crosses zero to become positive. The delay
angle (a) is the angle by which the firing pulse is delayed with respect to the
zero crossing of the commutation voltage (see Fig.6.4).
For a rectifier, the nominal operating valve of a varies between 5 to 20.
For an inverter, the nominal valve of a varies from 140 to 160.
After the valve is turned on, the current in the valve cannot instantaneously
transfer to valve 3 because of the leakage inductance Le. The duration for
which 3 valves conduct (for example, 1,2 and 3) is termed as the overlap angle
or commutation angle 'u'. It is assumed that u < 60.
In general, the bridge can be represented by its equivalent circuit as shown in
Fig. 6.5.
Here, the equivalent voltage source eeq and the inductances Leq depend upon
the conduction pattern. When valves 1, 2 and 3 are conducting (for duration
of u) then
(6.1)
142 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
L123
eq = ~L
2 c (6.2)
With valves 2 and 3 conducting (for a duration of 60-u), the equivalent param-
eters are given by
eeq = eb - ec
23
(6.3)
(6.6)
(6.10)
(6.11)
we derive
Id = -
v
J2-c [cos a - cos (a + u) ] (6.12)
2wL c
Substituting Eq.(6.12) in (6.8), we have
(6.13)
[Middlebrook (1988)] the equivalent circuit for the converter, ignoring harmon-
ics, is derived as shown in Fig. 6.6. Here,
La _ 2Lc(60 - u) 3Lcu
(6.14)
eq - 60 + 120
INTERACTIONS WITH HVDC CONVERTER CONTROL 143
a
L R
eq c
+
3
Rc = -Xc,
11"
Ed = Vdo cos Cl (6.15)
(6.16)
Id = --
Vdoi [
2Rci
cos Ii - cos (Ji ] (6.17)
(6.18)
where Ii = 11" - Cli - Ui, is the extinction angle and (Ji = 11" - Cli, is the angle of
ad vance at the inverter.
144 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
V
cr Vci
Vr
~C 1: n a
r r
I I~I I~I I 7D-1
n. a. : 1
I I
v.I
Fui
Figure 6.B. Steady state equivalent circuit of a two terminal HVDC link
(6.19)
(6.20)
(6.21)
where
kr = 3V2nr n br VBr ,
7rVdB
nbr and nbj are the numbers of bridges connected in series at the rectifier
and inverter respectively. VBr and VBi are the base AC voltages at the rectifier
and inverter bus. Rd is the per unit line resistance of the DC line. ZdB is the
base DC impedance given by ZdB = Yj:
where PB is the base power.
Eqs.(6.19) to (6.21) represent a steady state equivalent circuit shown in Fig.
6.8.
Here, Edr and Edi are given by
(6.22)
INTERACTIONS WITH HVDC CONVERTER CONTROL 145
(6.24)
The control of power in a HVDC link can be achieved either through the
control of current or voltage or both. For HVDC links other than back to back
(BTB) links, the minimization of loss in the HVDC transmission line requires
that the voltage be held constant at the maximum feasible limit. The voltage
regulation function is usually assigned to the inverter while the current control
function is assigned to the rectifier for the following reasons.
1. The increase of power in the link is achieved by reducing Cl'r which improves
the power factor at the rectifier for increased loading thereby minimizing the
reactive power consumption at the rectifier station.
2. The inverter can now be operated at minimum value of the extinction angle
"Ii thereby minimizing the reactive power consumption at the inverter also.
3. The current during line faults are automatically limited with rectifier station
in current control.
4. The operation at the minimum extinction angle at the inverter and current
control at the rectifier results in better voltage regulation than the operation
with minimum delay angle at the rectifier and current control at the inverter.
The operation of the inverter at Constant Extinction Angle (CEA) and the
rectifier at Constant Current (CC) under normal conditions results in reduced
costs of the converter stations and losses. However, with weak AC system (in-
dicated by low short circuit ratio (SCR) where SCR is defined as the ratio of
short circuit level at the converter bus to the rated dc power), the operation of
CEA control is problematic. Constant DC Voltage (CDCV) or Constant AC
Voltage (CACV) control are the alternatives that could be used at the inverter.
Under normal conditions, on-load tap changer at the inverter is used to main-
tain a constant dc voltage by controlling ai. The tap changer (control over
a r )at the rectifier is used to maintain delay angle within certain limits (say, 10
to 20) in order to maintain certain voltage margin for the purpose of the cur-
rent control while ensuring that the power factor is reasonably high. However
the control action of tap changer is relatively very slow and during a transient,
a r and ai may be assumed to be constants. Under conditions of reduced ac
voltage at the rectifier, it is necessary to shift the current control to the inverter
to avoid run down of the HVDC link when the rectifier control (of Cl') hits the
minimum limit. This implies that a current controller must also be provided at
the inverter in addition to the CEA controller. A smooth transition from CEA
to CC takes place whenever the link current starts falling. To avoid the inverter
current controller clashing with current controller at the rectifier, the current
reference at the inverter is kept below that at the rectifier by an amount called
'current margin'. This is typically about 10% of the rated current.
The control characteristics for the rectifier and the inverter stations are shown
in Fig. 6.9.
146 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
b
c A
f e
- B
g c
Here the dc voltage is shown at the inverter station. The rectifier control
characteristics is 'abc' while the inverter characteristics is 'efg'. The point
of intersection of the two characteristics (point A) determines the mode of
operation-the rectifier on CC control and the inverter on CEA control. De-
pending on the ceiling voltage of the rectifier, there are two other modes of the
operation of the DC link.
LV firing
GATE Pulse
AC line
GEN
~I---+--~ ~ INF.
BUS
I
Figure 6.11. System configuration
leba
I
I I
AC
NETWORK
J I
I I
D D
(a) Rectifier
Q (b) Inverter
Q
Figure 6.13. Phasor diagram showing converter bus voltage and injected current
Here, iga is the current injected by the generator, while ira and iia are
the currents injected at the rectifier and inverter buses respectively. The D-Q
components of the current at the converter bus can be derived from the phasor
diagram shown in Fig.6.13.
Ir and Ii are currents injected into the AC network at the rectifier and the
inverter bus respectively. - Ir is the load current at the rectifier bus and lags
the voltage v,. by the (power factor) angle cPr. Ii leads the voltage V; by cPi as
the inverter consumes reactive power while supplying active power to the AC
network. The equations for the D-Q components of Ir and Ii are given by
(6.25)
(6.26)
where
(6.29)
(6.30)
VrD
tan8 r = -v.
rQ
(6.31)
tan8 i = -
ViD (6.32)
ViQ
(6.33)
(6.34)
Vdr and Vdi are the dc voltages at the rectifier and inverter respectively. Idr
and Idi are the dc currents at the rectifier and inverter.
L~qr
Idr
Cdr
Id
~~
Cdi
L~qi
+
Edr Edi
(6.35)
O'ris the delay angle at the rectifier and f3i is the angle of the advance at
the rectifier. The state equations for the network shown in Fig.6.14 can be
expressed as
(6.37)
dId 1
dt = L}-RdId + Vdr - Vd;] (6.38)
-dVdr
dt
1
= -[Idr
Cdr
- Id] (6.39)
dVdi = _1 [I _ I .] (6.40)
dt C di d d.
dIdi 1
dt = La . [-Rc;ldi + Vdi - Ed;] (6.41)
eq.
where
u~ = [~Edr ~Edi]' Y~ = [~Idr ~ Vdr ~ldi ~ Vdi]
(6.45 )
+
(~)
TI. TD represents the average transport delay due to the sampling action of
the frequency transducer used for synchronization.
The inverter control can be used to regulate the extinction angle rather than dc
voltage. The block diagram shown in Fig.6.15 also applies in this case except
that the controller gain is positive(The angle of advance increases if "{rei is
higher than measured value of the extinction angle).
The linearized state equations for the converter controllers can be expressed as
dt
dXdc = [Adc]Xdc + [ ] Udc
Bdc (6.46 )
tl.IgD and tl.IgQ are the D and Q axis components of the generator (armature)
current injected into the AC network at the generator terminals.
The HVDC system is divided into two components - dc network and converter
controller. Combining Eqns. (6.42), (6.43), (6.48) and (6.49), we have
where
t
xND = [xNt
Y}vD = [Y}vD
U}vD = [U}vd
(6.52)
Figure 6.16. Block diagram showing connection from rotor speed to electrical torque
IREG(s) is the transfer function of the current controller. The transfer function
ST(s) is due to the ac transmission system and the HVDe system with no
control.
The overall transfer function from the rotor speed to the electrical torque is
given by
The real part of this transfer function evaluated at the torsional mode fre-
quency (Wk) gives the damping torque coefficient (TDk) at that frequency. The
decrement factor ((j ek) is calculated from
(6.55 )
where subscript k refers to the kth torsional mode. TDk is positive if the phase
of STT(jwk) lies in the range of -90 0 to 90 0 . In deriving the transfer functions
based on simplified models, the following assumptions are made
1. The turbine-generator is supplying only the HVDe system (as its only load)
2. The commutating voltage (at the rectifier bus) magnitude and phase angle
closely follow the generator internal voltage and angle.
3. In the generator,
(a) field flux decay is neglected
INTERACTIONS WITH HVDC CONVERTER CONTROL 155
(6.56)
~8r = ~8 = WB
-~Sm
S
(6.57)
(6.58)
For convenience, the subscript 'r' has been dropped for the delay angle Q'. The
change in the delay angle can be expressed as
(6.59)
where Q'R is the firing angle command of current regulator and kp(s) is given
by
kp (s) = 0 for IPe scheme of firing
= 1 for EPe scheme of firing
= 1 - SY NC(s) for EPe scheme with a synchronizing circuit whose
transfer function is SY NC(s). Substituting Eqs.(6.56), (6.57) and (6.59) in
(6.58), we get
(6.61 )
where Yd(s) is the admittance function of the dc network viewed from the
rectifier internal bus.
The dc power is given by
(6.62)
(6.63)
Based on the above equations, the transfer functions defined earlier are given
as
AT(s) = -kra r Vro sin Q'o[Ido + Edro Yd(S)] (6.64)
AI(s) = -kra r Vro sin Q'OYd(S) (6.65)
6.5.1 Description
The configuration of the system considered is shown in Fig.6.11. To simplify
the analysis, the inverter dc voltage is assumed to be constant. The generator
data is taken from IEEE FBM and is assumed to be rated at 600 MVA. The
rating of the HVDe converter is assumed to be 500 MW.
To study the torsional interactions in detail, the following cases are considered
[Kothari (1985)]
(A) Radial operation of the HVDe link
(B) Non radial operation with the ac line parameters of RL = 0.08, XL = 0.54
and variation of percentage compensation.
To examine the influence of various factors that affect TI, the following cases
are also considered
1. Influence of the current controller
(a) with EPe and (b) with IPe
In both cases, the operating value of 0' is assumed to be 18 0 with the HVDe
link operating at full load.
2. The effect of the discrete model of the converter versus the continuous
model.
INTERACTIONS WITH HVDC CONVERTER CONTROL 157
Since the controller action in the HVDC converter is of discrete nature and
not continuous, a discrete model is described by Padiyar and Sachchidanand
(1985). Here, the converter is described by the equation.
(6.69)
where
h = ;:'0 is the sampling interval.
V is the rms ac line voltage. The sampling instant is assumed to coincide with
the firing instant of a valve.
The small perturbation model of the converter is given by
(6.73)
The sampling interval for a twelve pulse converter is half the sampling interval
for a six pulse converter, namely 30 0 (h = 0 ). 6:
To examine the factors affecting TI, the following parameters were considered
(a) Current controller gain
(b) HVDC link loading
(c) firing angle
(d) DC line length
(e) Generator rating relative to HVDC link rating
(f) AC line strength
(g) Series compensation level of ac line.
The base case controller parameters were assumed to be J{ = 85, Tl = 0.01 s,
T2 = 0.005 s. The controller is assumed to be EPC unless stated to be other-
wise. The mechanical damping in the generator rotor system is neglected.
I Mode I converter
Continuous I Discrete I
model converter model
1 0.41 j 98.0 0.39 j98.6
2 0.074 j 126.9 0.087 j 126.9
3 -0.208 j 160.0 -0.306 j 160.0
4 -0.139 j 202.0 -0.162 j202
5 O.Oj 298 0.0 j 298
The com parisi on of the continuous and discrete time representation is done
by converting discrete system eigenvalues to their equivalent continuous system
eigenvalues. If Ad is an eigenvalue of the discrete system, then it is related to
the equivalent (continuous) system eigenvalue Ac, by the following relation.
(6.74)
The eigenvalues for dc line lengths of 2.0 and 3.0 pu are also shown in Table
6.3. The operating value of Q' for these cases is set at the base value of 18.
Effect of Controller Parameters
It was observed that as the controller gain is increased, damping of the dom-
inant dc system mode is reduced and the mode becomes unstable as the gain
exceeds a certain limit (around 200). The frequency of this mode increases
with the gain. As with other parameters, the damping of the torsional modes
changes significantly when the frequency of the dominant dc system mode is
around the torsional mode frequency.
Keeping the gain and T2 constant and varying Tl also resulted in a similar
behavior of the critical modes as with variation in the gain. Increase in Tl
beyond 0.015 s resulted in instability of the dc system mode.
Effect of AC Line Strength and Series Compensation
It was observed that the negative damping of the critical modes (1 and 2) con-
tinued to increase as the reactance of the parallel ac line increased. On the
other hand, the damping of modes 3 and 4 increased with increase in the line
reactance.
The variation in the ac line reactance does not have much effect on the dom-
inant dc system mode. However, the reduction in ac line reactance (increase
in the strength of the ac system) results in increase in the frequency of zeroth
mode(swing mode). This is as expected.
The presence of series compensation affects the torsional modes in the same
manner as explained in chapter 4. The eigenvalues of the torsional modes (in-
cluding mode zero) for the two cases (a) without series compensation (XL = 0.1)
and
= =
(b) with series compensation(XL 0.54, Xc 0.412)
are shown in Table 6.4.
The torsional mode with the lowest frequency (mode 1) is most affected. The
voltage controller at the inverter contributes to the negative damping to some
extent.
2. The torsional modes are better damped when the rectifier is chosen as Volt-
age Setting Terminal (VST) as opposed to the case when the inverter is chosen
as VST.
An Explanation of the Phenomenon of HVDe Torsional Interaction
The torsional interactions with HVDC system have been previously explained
in a simplistic manner, based on the fact that dc power is maintained constant
and constant power type load introduces negative damping. However, this ex-
planation does not explain why damping of higher frequency torsional modes
increase with dc power. Also the effects of controller and dc line parameters
are not explained satisfactorily.
A better explanation is to consider the amplitude and phase modulation of
the ac voltage at the rectifier bus, resulting from the torsional oscillations.
This induces a voltage in the dc link, of the same frequency as the torsional
mode, due to effective demodulation introduced by the converter. The effective
impedance (also influenced by the converter controller) of the dc link deter-
mines the current oscillations in the dc link. These oscillations result in turn,
the injection of sub and supersynchronous frequency currents in the ac system,
that flow in the generator armature. In general, the subsynchronous frequency
currents introduce negative damping torque while the supersynchronous fre-
quency currents result in positive damping torque. Unlike in the case of series
compensation, the magnitude of the two currents are equal. The net damping
is determined from the phase of the two current components relative to the ac
voltage components.
(6.75)
162 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
6.S
m
_ _-+l.'-_A_Ss_-
1
B_:__+-+f'~ ~ R+sL
1
fu
s
(6.76)
f{[
IREG(s) = - - (6.77)
s
The transfer function SAI(s) between 6.Sm and 6.Id is obtained from
Fig.6.17 as
SAI(s) = 6. I d(s) As - B (6.80)
6.Sm (s) - L(s2 + s + w~)
where
1 C = WB = 1 (6.81)
Wn = /LC' f{[ B f{[kaVro sin a o
(6.82)
INTERACTIONS WITH HVDC CONVERTER CONTROL 163
Calculation of AC current
(6.86)
Neglecting overlap angle and harmonics, the magnitude of the ac current is
directly proportional to the dc current. The phase of the ac current lags the
phase of the converter bus voltage by 0: .Using 0: - f3 sequence networks, given
the converter bus voltage as
(6.87)
the ac current ira is given by
(6.88)
the change in ira is given by the expression
Utilizing Eq.{6.85) and (6.92),we can express b.i ra in terms of sub and super-
synchronous frequency components as
164 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
-12S~--~1~O-----1~S~---2~O~---2~S~--~30------3~S-----4LO-----4~S~--~
so
f (Hz)
Following the derivation given in section 4.3.2 , chapter 4,we can derive the
expression for the damping torque coefficient as
TDe -- T,ub
De + T'u
De
p (6.94)
where
TD~b and Tl>~P and TDe are computed using the above expressions for the
HVDe system,having the data
L = 2.7 H, R = 151.4 n, Vro = E' = 1.0 pu(500 kV), ka = 1.18
WB = 377,0'0 = 18 0 and Ido = 1.0 pu(1 kA)
The damping torque coefficients are calculated for two values of the integral
gain (/{/ ); (i) 85 rad/pu and (ii) 170 rad/pu. The variations of TD~b and
Tl>~P and the total TDe as functions of 1m (the oscillation frequency in Hz)
are plotted in Figures 6.18,6.19 and 6.20 respectively.
(6.99)
INTERACTIONS WITH HVDC CONVERTER CONTROL 165
3 KI_ 85
.... KI _ 170
a..
Ul ......
~ -'.
\-..
" .
...
0
....
-1
-2
5 10 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
f (Hz)
e,-----.------.-----,------.-----.------.----~------._----,
~ -2 KI_85
.... KI _ 170
10 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
f (Hz)
where Ide is defined by Eq.(6.83).The values of Ide are (i) 11.2 Hz and (ii)
16.4 Hz for values of Kr = 85 and 170 respectively. The crossover of TDe from
negative to positive values also takes place around Ide.
The analysis given in section 6.4 also gives the same results for TDe (the total
damping torque ). In this case,TDe is divided into
2
-----'--..............................................................
KI_ 85
.... KI _ 170
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
!(Hz)
where
12,-----.------.-----.------,-----.------.-----.------,-----,
N
.:3
I-
6
5~----~10~--~1~5~--~20~--~2~5~----30~--~3~5~--~4~O-----4~5~--~50
f (Hz)
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Shunt connected reactive power compensators are used for voltage control at
load buses and transmission networks. Apart from maintaining satisfactory
voltage profile under load variations, reactive power compensators are expected
to control dynamic overvoltages, increase power transfer capacity and improve
system stability depending on the speed of control.
Mechanically Switched Capacitors (MSC) and reactors have been used primar-
ily for slow control during load tracking. Apart from the slow speed, they
also have the drawback of providing only discrete and stepped control. Syn-
chronous condensers provide a smoother and continuous control, but suffer from
the problems of maintainance, loss of synchronism under a large disturbance
etc. The application of thyristor switches, originally used with HVDC convert-
ers, for control of current in a reactor and insertion or removal of a capacitor
bank has resulted in the development of Static Var Compensator (SVC) since
mid-seventies. SVC's are now viewed as first generation FACTS controllers
which are expected to revolutionize power transmission in future.
Static Var Compensators were initially used for power factor compensation of
dynamic loads such as steel mills and arc furnaces. In recent years, SVC's have
been used for the fast ractive power control at HVDC converter stations, where
short circuit ratios (SCR) are low. They also have the capability of balancing
the load currents by independent control over phase currents and hence are
K. R. Padiyar, Analysis of Subsynchronous Resonance in Power Systems
Kluwer Academic Publishers 1999
170 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
also used with predominant single phase loads such as electric traction. In
transmission networks, their use was initially for improving the power transfer
capacity of long AC lines (e.g.735 kV AC lines in Hydro Quebec). By locating
a SVC at the midpoint of a long line, the power capacity can be practically
doubled. (subject to the availability of sufficient ratings of the equipment).
This concept can be extended for the application of multiple SVCs either in
a single line or the network. A major consideration is the choice of optimal
locations as the effectiveness of a SVC is strongly dependent on its location.
It would be desirable to have a SVC which can be relocated if the location
originally selected does not remain optimal with growth in the system.
The advantages of a SVC over Synchronous Condenser (SC) are (i) the speed
of response and (ii)lack of moving parts. The response time can be as fast as
30 ms although it tends to increase as the strength of the ac system (measured
by the short circuit level at the SVC bus) increases. Fortunately, this is not a
problem as voltage regulation is improved with strong system conditions.
The speed of response of a SVC enables it to be used for improvement of sta-
bility by incorporating a Supplementary Modulation Controller (SMC) which
modulates reactive power output of the SVC in response to a control signal.
This can be used to primarily damp interarea, low frequency power oscillations.
By providing higher bandwidth controllers, it is possible to damp higher fre-
quency subsynchronous oscillations.The concept of dynamic stabilizer described
in chapter 4 and used for damping of SSR is an example of such a modulation
controller. However, the dynamic stabilizer is a Thyristor Controlled Reactor
(TCR) connected at the generating station and has no role for voltage control;
whereas a SVC is primarily intended for voltage control at a location away
from a generating station. Rostamkolai et al(1990) studied the influence of
voltage control in a SVC on the stability of torsional modes of nearby turbine
generators. They reported that under certain system conditions, a SVC can
significantly reduce torsional damping of nearby T-G units. As a countermea-
sure to this problem, they suggested the use of a low pass filter in the SVC
vol tage regulator.
Recently, the availability of high power Gate-Turn-Off (GTO) thyristors has
led to the development of an advanced type of SVC utilizing Voltage Source
Converters (VSC) [Gyugyi (1979), Edwards et.al (1988), Schauder et al (1995)].
This device has been termed as Static Condenser (STATCON) or Static Com-
pensator (STATCOM). It is a precursor to the application of Unified Power
Flow Controller (UPFC) using VSCs for series and shunt compensation for
power flow and voltage control.
The advantage of a STATCON over SVC are
(i) elimination of bulky passive elements such as reactors.
(ii) compact and modular construction requiring less space
(iii) better control characteristics and
(iv) the possibility of controlling active power in addition to the reactive power
by employing an energy source such as batteries or fuel cells.
In this chapter, the analysis of torsional interactions with a shunt reactive
INTERACTIONS WITH SHUNT COMPENSATORS 171
7.2.1 Description
There are two types of SVC:
1. Fixed Capacitor-Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC- TCR)
2. Thyristor Switched Capacitor - Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TSC-TCR)
The second type is more flexible than the first one and requires smaller rating
of the reactor and consequently generates less harmonics.
The schematic diagram of a TSC-TCR type SVC is shown in Fig.7.1.
SVC BUS
STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER IN I PT
,--t---t--7-i CO NTRO L
This shows that the TCR and TSC are connected on the secondary side of a
step-down transformer. Tuned and high pass filters are also connected in paral-
172 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
leI which provide capacitive reactive power at the fundamental frequency. The
voltage signal is taken from the high voltage SVC bus using a potential trans-
former. The TSC is switched in using two thyristor switches(connected back to
back) at the instant in a cycle when the voltage across the switch is minimum
and positive. This results in minimum switching transients. In steady state,
TSC does not generate any harmonics. To switch off a TSC, the gate pulses
are blocked and the thyristors turns off when the currents through them fall
below the holding currents. It is to be noted that the switches are made up
of a series string of thyristor devices(termed as thyristor valve) as the voltage
rating of a thyristor is not adequate for the voltage level required. However
the voltage ratings of valves for a SVC are much less than the voltage ratings
of a HVDC valve as a step down transformer is used in the case of SVC. To
limit ~: in a TSC it is necessary to provide a small reactor in series with the
capacitor.
The current is non-sinusoidal and contains odd harmonics which are func-
tions of the conduction angle (7.
INTERACTIONS WITH SHUNT COMPENSATORS 173
(7.2)
where
B (T - sm (T
TCR = (7.3)
rrX L
By connecting the TCR in delta, the triplen harmonics are eliminated on the
line side. The harmonics present in the line current are of the order
n = 6k 1 (7.4)
where k is an integer.
The phase and line current waveforms in a delta connected TCR are shown in
Fig. 7.3 for 3 different values of a. It is assumed that the TCR currents are
~ k~;J
k?:SJ v:sJ
(ii) alpha.130 (ii) alpha.130
J pvs;J
(iii) alph~1~ (iii) alpha.1~
~
o 100
f\
200 300 o 100 200 300
phase. deg phase. deg
(a) Phase Current (b) Line Current
identical in waveform and magnitude in the three phases and only phase shifted
from each other by 120 0 This is possible only if a is the same in all three phases.
To limit the harmonics entering the system, some of the fixed capacitors are
connected as series tuned filters. To reduce the harmonics further, it is possible
to have twelve pulse configuration of TCR, in which there are two branches
of TCR supplied by the two sets of secondaries of the step down transformer.
One set of the secondary windings is connected in delta while the other set is
connected in star. In this case, the line currents on the primary side will have
harmonics of the order
n = 12k 1 (7.5)
where k is an integer. This happens because the harmonics of the order other
than those defined in (7.5) , generated in the two TCR branches cancel each
174 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
VLJ V LO
p P
f---
Isvc
SVC
It can be shown that the voltage variation in the line( due to variation in J) is
maximum at the midpoint. SVC helps to limit the variation by suitable control.
The steady state control characteristics of SVC is shown in Fig.7.5 where AB
is the control range. OA represents the characteristic where the SVC hits the
capacitor limit. BC represents the SVC at its inductor limit. Note that SVC
current is considered positive when SVC susceptance is inductive. Thus
A positive slope (in the range of 1-5 %) is given in the control range to
(a) enable parallel operation of more than one SVC connected at the same or
neighbouring buses and
INTERACTIONS WITH SHUNT COMPENSATORS 175
Vsvc
Ie
Vrej
/B
A
/
/
o Isvc
Figure 7.5. Control characteristics of SVC
The steady state value of the sve bus voltage is determined from the inter-
section of the system characteristic and the control characteristic (see Fig. 7 .6).
Vsvc
Vsvco
System characteristics
Isvco Isvc
The system characteristic is a straight line with negative slope and is defined
by
where VTh and XTh are the Thevenin voltage and reactance viewed from the
SVC bus. For the system shown in Fig.7.4, we have
v - v. _ Vcos6/2 (7.8)
Th- mo- cos(j/2
Zn
XTh = T tan (j/2, (j=(31 (7.9)
where Zn is the surge impedance defined by
(7.10)
Land C are positive sequence inductance and capacitance of the line per unit
length, I is the line length. (3 is the phase constant defined as
(7.11 )
(7.13)
P = Vm Vsin6/2 (7.14)
Zn sin (j/2
where
p, _ V 2 sin 6 P1 -_ V sin6/2
2
o-Zn SIn
'(j' (7.16)
Zn sin (j/2
and
k = X. (7.17)
X. +XTh
Remarks
1. Po is the power flow in the line without SVC and P l is the power flow in the
line where SVC maintains a constant voltage V at the midpoint (Xs=O)
INTERACTIONS WITH SHUNT COMPENSATORS 177
2. k -+ 1 as Xs -+ 00
. 9 9
3. For small values of (), it can be assumed that sin () :::: (), sm 2:::: 2'
cos!!.2 '"
-
1
IntIsh case, P,0 =
v2 ~
XL SInU, PI = V2 ~/
2XL SInu 2
where XL = (wL)1 is the total reactance of the line.
P= Po V 2 sin J Pn sinJ
(1 - XThBsve) (1 - XThBsve) sin ()
1.6,-----,------.-----,---,-------,------,------,--,-----,
/
a
1.4
1.2
80 100 120
mode has a lower frequency (say below 20 Hz), a high pass filter in addition to
the notch filter has been suggested [ Larsen et al (1990)).
The rectified signal is filtered. The dc side filters include both a low pass
filter (to remove the ripple content) and notch filters tuned to the fundamen-
tal and second harmonic components. The notch filters are provided to avoid
the adverse interactions of SVC caused by second harmonic positive sequence
and fundamental frequency negative sequence voltages on the SVC bus. For
example, second harmonic positive sequence voltages at the SVC bus cause
a fundamental frequency component in the rectified signal that results in the
modulation of SVC susceptance at the same frequency. This in turn (due to am-
plitude modulation) results in two components at side band frequencies (0,2f)
in the SVC current. The dc component can result in unsymmetric saturation
of the SVC transformer and consequent increase in the magnetization current
containing even harmonics. It has been observed that this adverse harmonic
interactions between the SVC and the network can result in large distortion of
the SVC bus voltage and impaired operation of SVC (termed as second har-
monic instability ).
The auxiliary signals mentioned in Fig.7.8 are outputs from the Sus-
ceptance (or reactive power) Regulator (SR) and Supplementary Modulation
Controller (SMC). The Susceptance Regulator is aimed at regulating the out-
put of SVC in steady state such that the full dynamic range is available during
transient disturbances. The output of Susceptance Regulator modifies the volt-
age reference VreJ in steady state. However its operation is deliberately made
slow such that it does not affect the voltage regulator function during transients.
DC FILTER
V re /+
------''-<.~[ E -+-- V.(AUX. SIGNAL)
+
- - - GAIN REDUCTION
TSC BLOCKING
AUX.SIG.
The Gate Pulse Unit (GPU) for SVC produces firing pulses for TCR and TSC.
180 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
BTCR
Figure 7.9. Variation of BTCR with Bsvc for TSC-TCR type SVC
This shows that BL (the rating of TCR) is slightly larger than the rating of
either TSC and there is hysteresis in operation of the TSC. This is desirable
as the switching of a TSC is not well defined if BCl (susceptance of a TSC) is
exactly equal to B L. If BCl is greater than B L, then the operation of the SVC
is degraded.
For stability studies,it is not essential to model G PU. In this case, the modelling
of the controller shown in Fig.7.8 can be simplified greatly by also assuming
that SVC does not generate harmonics. The block diagram of the controller
in this case is shown in Fig.7.IO. Here the voltage regulator is typically a PI
controller as shown in Fig.7 .11. The proportional gain (l{p) may be set zero
unless a faster response is required. The transfer function H m (s) represents a
INTERACTIONS WITH SHUNT COMPENSATORS 181
l!,.e!
Bs
v.
Bmax
Bmin
B re
svc!
Kp Bmin
1 + sTp
(7.22)
1
H (s) - ----.,-------,-". (7.23)
m - 1 + 2s(Tm + (sTm)2
182 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
(7.24)
where T is the period of the supply voltage. Td arises due to the discrete nature
of the firing pulse. n represents the average delay in getting Bsvc from the
instant of delivering the order and is given by
n=-T4 (7.25)
Bmin
Here, assuming Kp = 0,
Fi.R=-
1 (7.26)
X3
and
TR= KR (7.27)
KJ
KR (typically) varies from 20 to 100, whereas TR varies between 20 to 150 ms.
Control Instability and Gain Supervisor [Belanger et al (1984)]
The transfer function between the change in the SVC susceptance 6.Bsvc
INTERACTIONS WITH SHUNT COMPENSATORS 183
and the change in the sve voltage AVsvc is independent of frequency if only
fundamental component of Vsvc is considered. Assuming the operating voltage
at sve bus as unity, then
The loop gain of the control system shown in Fig.7.12 depends on XTh. The
speed of the response depends on the loop gain and increases as XTh is in-
creased. However for high values of XTh the system can be unstable. The
voltage regulator of sve is designed to provide the fastest response corre-
sponding to a contingency condition at which XTh is maximum (in the range
of operating conditions considered) or the short circuit level at the sve bus is
minimum. However, during abnormal conditions resulting in tripping of several
transmission lines in the system, XTh will be higher than the design value and
the sve controller can be unstable. In such cases, it is necessary to reduce
the gain of sve (f{I) automatically by detecting instability. This is called as
gain supervisor. The gain is restored to the normal value when the instability
is not present. It is to be noted that although instability can be avoided by
designing the voltage regulator gain corresponding to the lowest value of short
circuit level (highest value of XTh) this is not an optimal choice as the response
of sve will be slower under normal conditions.
The transfer function ( ~BVSYC
~ svc
) is in general, a function dependent on frequency
if network (electromagnetic) transients are considered. The magnitude of the
transfer function is maximum at frequency, Ir defined by
Ir = INp - 10 (7.29)
where INp is the frequency corresponding to the parallel resonance in the net-
work and 10 is the operating frequency.
The controller gain will be severely restricted even under normal conditions
if Ir is within the controller bandwidth. Hence the practical solution to this
problem is to provide a notch filter in the controller (on the input side) as
mentioned earlier.
Susceptance Regulator (SR)
A typical SR is shown in Fig.7.13.
Here the output of the voltage regulator, B~Vc and a set reference B'S'Vc are
compared. If the error exceeds a threshold, it activates an integrator after an
adjustable time delay (of the order of several seconds). The integrator output
is hard limited by a non-wind up limiter and modifies the voltage reference.
The SR has to be coordinated with other reactive power controllers in the
vicinity such as HVDe power control, switched capacitor and reactor banks,
tap changing transformers etc.
Supplementary Modulation Controller(SMC}[Larsen et al(1993),(1996)]
This controller modulates either Vsvc or Bsvc by processing a signal obtained
from local measurements. The objective is to damp critical low frequency inter-
area or local modes that can affect stability during disturbances. The control
184 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
Vmax
DEAD BAND
BreI
svc TIME J{SR Vrel
DELAY s
Vmin
The control signals that have been used or suggested include (1) line current
(2) active and reactive power (3) bus frequency (4) Computed Rotor Frequency
(CRF) and (5) Computed Thevenin voltage. The last two signals are synthe-
sized from current and voltage measurements at the SVC location. A typical
controller configuration of SMC is shown in Fig.7.14.
The washout circuit is designed to drive the SMC output to zero during
steady state. The gain and phase compensation of SMC are chosen such that
it improves the system response under a wide variety of operating conditions
and different types of disturbances.
voltage is denoted as VTR (see Fig.7.15). The capacitor C, also includes the
representation for harmonic filters.
The current drawn by TCR is denoted as ITR and can be derived as output
AC
NETWORK
from SVC.
The D and Q-axis components of the current in the TCR are obtained from
the following equations.
(7.30)
(7.31)
The variable BTCR is the output of the SVC controller. In modelling the
controller, the susceptance regulator (SR) can be neglected as it is slow acting.
The voltage control is modelled as shown in Fig.7.1 O. H m (s) is assumed to
be the transfer function of a first order low pass filter, given in Eq.(7.22).
Neglecting the proportional control in the voltage regulator shown in Fig.7.11,
the following equations apply for the voltage controller,
(7.32)
. 1
X C2 = Tm [-XC2 + Vsvc - Xslsvc] (7.33)
. 1
XC3 = Tb [-XC3 + XCI] (7.34)
. 1
BTCR = -[-BTCR + XC3] (7.35)
Td
In deriving the above equations, it is assumed that e- STd ~ (1+~Td). Also, the
limiters are neglected.
186 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
no influence.
2. The adverse TI occurred with the generating unit in the sending area.
3. The level of adverse interaction increased with
(a) increased generator output
(b) increased tie line power flow
(c) increased capacitive reactive power output from sve
(d) decreased system strength in the sending area system
Even when the sve output was zero, the presence of the voltage regulator
affected the torsional damping. As with a PSS, the presence of SMe with the
sve results in increased adverse influence on the torsional damping than the
voltage regulation alone. This can be overcome by using a low pass filter in
the measurement circuit. A bandwidth of 5 Hz for the filter is suggested. The
inclusion of a similar low pass filter in the voltage regulator loop also reduced
the TI caused by the voltage regulation function. A notch filter tuned to the
frequency of the critical torsional mode is suggested as an alternative to the
low pass filter. An important point to be noted is that the negative torsional
damping introduced by the sve is less than the negative damping introduced
by the HVDe converter (current) controller.
Tl
Zs
Q+-~~>--I--I-+--~--t---iCJ~~
. I PoLO
\j.JJJ T2
svc
(7.42)
where
mt(s) = [WB Il
s
The damping torque coefficient TDe is obtained as a function of frequency as
tlTeUW)
TDe = Re[ tlSmUw) 1 (7.43)
I Mode I inFrequency
rad/s
I Without voltage I With voltage I
controller controller
0 5 59.53 83.89
1 99 -9.04 -9.51
2 127 0.70 1.04
3 160 12.25 13.03
4 203 2.78 3.97
5 298 125.77 150.30
INTERACTIONS WITH SHUNT COMPENSATORS 189
This shows that even without the voltage regulator, mode 1 is unstable. This
is due to the interaction of PSS while has no torsional filter. The effect of
the SVC voltage controller is to increase damping of all the torsional modes
(particularly mode zero) except mode 1. The mode 1 damping becomes more
negative due to SVC voltage regulator action. An eigenvalue analysis is also
performed by constructing the system matrix [AT] defined by
(7.45)
where [AM], [EM] and [eM] matrices are defined in chapter 2. The eigenval-
ues corresponding to the torsional modes evaluated at the operating point are
shown in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2 Eigenvalues corresponding to the torsional modes with SVC
These results are in agreement with those shown in Table 7.1. It is observed
that PSS while improving the damping of mode zero, destablizes other torsional
modes (particularly modes 1 and 2). The mode five is unaffected due to its high
inertia.
7.4.1 Description
The static condenser is an advanced form of SVC using Voltage Source Con-
verters (VSC). It is similar to the Synchronous Condenser (SC) in the sense
that the control of the reactive current drawn by the device is achieved by con-
trolling the magnitude of the voltage behind a series react ace (primarily the
leakage reactance of the step down transformer). However, it is much faster in
operation than SC and has no moving parts. The control characteristic of a
STATCON is shown in Fig.7.17.
It is to be noted that the reactive current output is not dependent on the bus
voltage even at the limits. Also, a transient overload capacity in the capacitive
range can be built in by proper choice of device ratings. Thus, in comparison
with the control characteristics of a SVC (see Fig.7.5), the control character-
istics of a STATCON are definitely superior. This implies that for identical
190 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
VSTAT
Transient
Overload
Capability
ib Xs
n vb "v - fVVY\
ic Xs
VC"v~
(7.46)
where Sa, Sb and Sc are termed as switching functions and shown in Fig.7.19.
In steady state, they are symmetrical, and satisfy the following relation
(7.4 7)
192 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
4,5,3 1,5,3 ,5,6 1,2,6 4,2,6 4,2,3 4,5,3 1,5,3 1,5,6 1,2,6 ON SWITCHES
Since the switches 1 to 6 are assumed to be ideal, they are lossless and from
conservation of energy principle, we have,
(7.48)
(7.49)
Sal = ksin(wot + a + 0) }
Sbl = ksin(wot + a + 0 _ 271") (7.50)
ScI = ksin(wot + a + 0 + ~)
The system voltages are assumed to be (from assumption 1)
Va = Ii V sin(wot + 0) }
Vb = /IVsin(wot + 0 - 2;)) (7.51)
Vc = ~V sin(wot + 0 + 2;))
It is to be noted that a is the angle by which the fundamental component of the
converter output voltages lead the STATCON bus voltages. Since harmonics
are ignored, Eq.(7.50) applies even when multiphase converters are considered.
In general, the constant 'k' is given by
k=v'6e (7.52)
'Tr 6
where p is the pulse number. It is assumed that the basic converters (bridges)
are connected in parallel on the dc side and in series on the ac side (which is
the normal case). The equivalent circuit representation (on the ac side) of the
STATCON is shown in Fig.7.20.
Rs
'--~~~----~I
iQ + j in
V~
X, din R . Wo X .
-- = -
WB dt
ltD - -
WB
stQ + Vn - en (7.53)
194 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
X$ diQ . Wo .
- - d = -R$zQ + -X$ZD + vQ - eQ (7.54)
WB t WB
be dVde .
WB dt = -gpVde - Zde (7.55)
(7.56)
ip =
vDiD + vQiQ
V
.. .
= ZD sm 8 + zQ cos 8 (7.61 )
- - IsrATCON
Regulator
Reactive
Current order
Controller
sTw
r - - - -I ~-wr;-
o
90
~-I-- I10rder
i
RlCL_'-o{
_90 0
(b )Reactive current controller
The steady state values of the variables, iR ,ip and Vdc are shown in Fig.
7.22 for typical values of the STATCON parameters.
It can be shown that these variables are independent of the operating values
of (). It is assumed that variation of O! ( even in a narrow range) results in
complete control of iR. It is interesting to observe that Vdc has minor variation
over the entire range of operation. Vdc is higher in the capacitive region (for
negative O! and iR) compared to the inductive region (for positive O! and iR).
Schauder and Mehta (1993) have demonstrated that a pure P-I controller for
reactive current regulation is destabilizing when operating in the inductive re-
gion. This result is also confirmed by Padiyar and Kulkarni (1997) who have
suggested fuzzy control of reactive current which is more robust than the non-
linear controller suggested by Schauder and Mehta (1993).
196 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
0.8
1 04
8
I'--
0.2
~ ~
~ 0~--------------~~--------------------4
.~
"~-0.2
-0.4
-0.6 ~
_0.8"-----'----'-----'------'-----'----~---'--------'-----'-----:c'
-0.15 -a.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.15
a
(degrees)
[ASE] = [ -~
Wo
x,
- X,
-Wo
~
-x;-ksin(a+fJ)
-x;-kcos(a + fJ)
1
~k sin(a + fJ) ~kcos(a + fJ) _WB9p
be
INTERACTIONS WITH SHUNT COMPENSATORS 197
where
XSE = ~XSE and USE = ~USE
[B SE ] and [B SE ] are defined below
- WBkVdC;~s(a+9)
WBkvdc sin(a+9)
1
[BSe] = [
X,
(7.65)
~[iD cos(a + B) - iQ sin(a + B)]
~[1
_ kVdc cos(a+9)v'51] !!!...a. e 51 v ,D
[ x, v,' x, V/
_ kVdCSIn(a+9)v'D]
[BSe] = _!!!...a.eDv'51 !!!...a. [1 (7.66)
x, v,' x, v,'
kC,WBV.Q
b c V,2
kC1WRV,Q
bcV,' 1
where
Cl = -iDcos(a+B) + iQsin(a+B)
In deriving the above expressions, the following equations are utilized
(7.67)
(7.68)
~a = [Cse]xse (7.70)
(7.71)
we have
xse = [~Xl ~X2 ~X3 ~x4lt
0 0
~1
-Tm
[ -J{/
I 0 0
[Asel 0 -Tm
-
1
[B~e] -
[~
0
~l
V.Tm
vsQ
-V,T m
- V6 Tm
.J!..LJ:L
V,Tm
0 0
INTERACTIONS WITH SHUNT COMPENSATORS 199
(...!!..UL ~) (v.r.:-~)
[
V,T m - Tm V, m Tm
0 0
[Bscl .:L ~
Tm
0
Tm
0 1
where
C2 = ---vr-
i.Q
V; -
iRV.D
= - V; - ---vr-
i.D iRV.Q
C3
It is to be noted that in Fig.7 .23, the slope of the voltage controller character-
istic is denoted by K. (instead of X.).
I Mode I inFrequency
rad/s
I current
With reactive I With voltage I
control only control
0 5 64.676 86.19
1 99 -0.354 -2.424
2 127 12.003 15.177
3 160 17.658 19.917
4 203 1.464 1.100
5 298 115.71 115.72
I Mode I control
With reactive current I With voltage control I
only
0 -0.522 j4.946 -0.716 j5.426
1 0.0038 j98.830 0.0206 j98.789
2 -0.0097 j127.008 -0.0124 j127.00
3 -0.0606 j160.57 -0.0680 j160.59
4 -0.0084 j202.91 -0.0062 j202.92
5 -0.167 j298.18 -0.167 j298.18
These results are in agreement with the results shown in Table 7.3, which
indicates that the damping torque analysis is generally accurate in predicting
the stability of the torsional modes.
To summarize the results , it can be said that the voltage regulator used with
SVC and STATCON marginally increases the negative damping of mode 1.
CD
C
y s _ (s2 LC + sRC + 1)
(7.74)
() - (R+sL)(s2LC +sRC +2)
The reactive current IR is assumed to be the output of the integral type voltage
regulator as shown in Fig.7.25.
Vrej +
--""-+I
I RD = - IR cos () (7.76)
IRQ = IR sin () (7.77)
Substituting for L:!.IR from Eq.(7.75) in the above equations and noting that
(7.80)
we finally obtain,
. )
Z eq (JW 1([
= ---- (7.83)
W -Wo
The above expression shows that the compensator offers positive resistance to
subsynchronous frequency currents while offering negative resistance to super-
synchronous frequency currents.The magnitude of the resistance is proportional
to the integral gain of the regulator. The magnitude of the resistance is higher
for lower torsional modes.
For values of XL = 0.5 ,R = .05, Wn = l.5wB, (w n = ,k)
Eg = Eb =
l.0 and IB = 50H z ,the damping torque TDe is calculated from the following
expressIOn
1
TDe = 2w [(w - wo)G(w - wo) + (w + wo)G(w + wo)] (7.84)
where G is the conductance of the network viewed from the generator internal
bus,eveluated at the appropriate frequencies.
The variation of TDe with the frequency (f ) is shown in Fig.7.26 for two
different values of 1([ ( 100 and 300 ).
It is observed that the magnitude of TDe decreases sharply (for 1([ = 100)
as the frequency ( of the torsional mode)is increased.For 1([ = 300,the decrease
in the negative damping of TDe with the frequency is less abrupt.
The variation in TDe for the case when Wn = 2WB (lower value of C)is shown
in Fig.7.27.
This figure clearly shows the higher negative damping introduced by the
voltage regulator at higher values of the gain for frequencies above 10 Hz.
However,the negative damping increases slightly as C is increased (compare
with Fig.7.26).
Remarks
0,-----,-----,------.-----,-----.------,-----,
-0.5
-1
....................................................................................
-1.5
............ KI.100
~ -2 ......
.. '
. .. KI. 300
-2.5
-3
-3.5
~5~----1~0----~15~--~2~0----~2~5----~~~--~375-----740
f (Hz)
0.-----,-----,------.-----.-----.------,-----,
-0.5
-3.5
~5L-----1~0----~15~----roL-----2~5----~30~--~3L5----~40
f (Hz)
8.1 INTRODUCTION
sator (SSSC). This FACTS device can be considered as a special case of Unified
Power Flow Controller (UPFC) with only series element which injects a voltage
in quadrature with the current. The voltage can be either lagging the current
(inductive) or leading the current (capacitive). It is to be noted that the in-
jected voltage is assumed to be a rise in the direction of the line current. The
injection of reactive voltage ensures that no active power exchange takes place
with SSSC except for the power drawn from the system to compensate for the
losses.
SSSC has some advantages over TCSC, one of them being control over power
flow even when the phase angle across the transmission line is zero. It im-
plies that power reversal is also possible by varying the voltage. On the other
hand, SSSC requires voltage modulation to provide synchronizing and damping
torque.
In this chapter SSR characteristics of both TCSC and SSSC are examined from
small signal analysis. The SSR performance of both FACTS controllers is also
studied from digital simulation.
B.2.1 General
Series Capacitors have been used in long distance EHV transmission lines for
increasing power transfer. The use of series capacitors is generally the most
economic solution for enhancing power flow. However, the problem of SSR
has deterred system planners from going in a big way for series compensation.
While the use of shunt capacitors don't have the problem of SSR, they have
drawbacks oftheir effectiveness being dependent largely on their location. Even
when a shunt capacitor is located at the midpoint of a long line, it requires much
larger rating to achieve the same level of increase in power transfer as a series
capacitor. It can be shown that the ratio of the two ratings is given by
(8.1 )
where Q.e and Q.h are the ratings of the series and the shunt capacitor respec-
tively, 6max is the maximum angular difference between the two ends of the
line. For 6max in the range of 30 - 40, Q.e varies from 7 % to 13 % of Q.h.
Although the series capacitors tend to be twice as costly as shunt capacitors
(per unit var), they are still cheaper to use. In addition, the location of a series
capacitor is not critical.
The use of thyristor control to provide variable series compensation makes it
attractive to employ series capacitors in long lines. A major advantage is that
the SSR problem (Torsional Interaction) is significantly reduced. The feasibil-
ity of fast control of thyristor valves enables the improvement of stability and
damping of oscillations using appropriate control strategies.
In October 1992, the first three phase TCSC was installed at 230 kV Kayenta
Substation in Arizona under Western Area Power Administration (WAPA).
Here a 15 n capacitor bank is connected in parallel with a TCR and permits
a smooth and rapid control of (capacitive) reactance between 15 and 60 n
through phase control of TCR. ( a varying between 145 0 to 180 0 )
A large prototype three phase TCSC was installed in 1993 at 500 kV Slatt Sub-
station in Oregon under Bonneville Power Administration (BPA). The project
was sponsored by Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and the equipment
was developed by General Electric in U.S.A. Here, six modules of TCSC are
connected in series and controlled to provide a variation in impedance from
+1.4 n to -16 n.
(a) Bypassed:
Here the thyristor valves are gated for 180 0 conduction (in each direction) and
the current flow in the reactor is continuous and sinusoidal. The net reactance
of the module is slightly inductive as the susceptance of the reactor is larger
than that of the capacitor. During this mode, most of the line current is flowing
through the reactor and thyristor valves with some current flowing through the
capacitor. This mode is used mainly for protecting the capacitor against over-
voltages (during transient overcurrents in the line). This mode is also termed
as TSR (Thyristor Switched Reactor) mode.
dvc
C dt = l$. () .
t - lTU (8.2)
(8.3)
=
Note that when U 0, and the initial current iT = 0, it remains at the zero
value until S is turned on and U = 1. If the line current i$ is defined by,
(a) Bypassed
(c}Vernier operation
--- S
c
+
Vc
'-----------t- 1----------'
the equations (8.2) and (8.3) can be solved if the switching instants are known.
The switch, 'S' is turned on twice in a cycle ( of the line current) at the instants
(assuming equidistant gating pulses)
tl = =!- } (8.5)
t 3 -!!..::..I!..
- w
/3=1f'-a (8.6)
The thyristor switch turns off at the instants t2 and t4 given by
(8.7)
where 0'1 and 0'2 are the conduction angles in the two halves of the cycle. In
steady state, 0'1 = 0'2 = 0' with half wave symmetry and
. K2 cos (3
ZT{t) = -2--1m[coswt - --(3 coswrt], -(3 ::; wt ::; (3 (8.9)
K - 1 cos K
where K = ~ =
wr
Vrx;
X";' Wr = VLC
In steady state, the capacitor voltage at the instant wt = -(3 is given by
Im X c [Sill
VCl = -2-- . (3 - Kcos (3 tan K(3] (8.10)
K - 1
It can be shown that when wt = (3, iT = 0 and
The voltage across the capacitor is not sinusoidal in steady-state. The fun-
damental component of Vc is given by
The above equation follows from the fact that Vc has odd symmetry about the
axis wt = O. The ratio of VCF to 1m is the equivalent reactance of TCSC and
is given by
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-
!!
...
.
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-50 350
(a) iT vs wt(degrees)
u
>
.,1
7rW
f3re. = (2m - 1)-2-' m = 1,2 ..... (8.17)
Wr
INTERACTIONS WITH SERIES COMPENSATORS 213
The arrester energy protection initiates a bypass when f i 2 dt in the arrester ex-
ceeds its rating. In this case, the bypass is not removed automatically because
of the long thermal time constants associated with excessive arrester energy.
h
C
C
B
Iref
/
""'/'---~A
/
/ /
/
/ /
/ /
/
o VTCSC
VTCSC
(a) CC CONTROL (b) CA CONTROL
Figure 8.6. Control Characteristics
and BC correspond to the limits on XTcsc. In Fig.5.23 (b), the control range
AB is described by the equation
(8.18)
where h is the magnitude of the line current, XLR is the net line reactance (
taking into account the fixed series compensation if any), VLO is the constant
(regulated) voltage drop across the line (including TCSC). Thus, the slope of
the line AB is XLR. Line OA in Fig.5.23 (b), corresponds to the lower limit on
TCSC reactance while BC corresponds to the higher limit on TCSC reactance.
Power Swing Damping Control (PSDC)
This is designed to modulate the TCSC reactance in response to an appropri-
ately chosen control signal derived from local measurements. The objective is
to damp low frequency swing modes (corresponding to oscillation of generator
rotors) of frequencies in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 Hz. One of the signal that is
easily accessible is the line current magnitude. Alternatively, the signal corre-
sponding to the frequency of Thevenin (equivalent) voltage of the system across
the TCSC can be used. This signal can be synthesized from the knowledge of
voltage and current measurements.
Transient Stability Control (TSC)
This is generally a discrete control in response to the detection of a major sys-
tem disturbance.
The discrete or bang-bang control of TCSC in response to signals from locally
measured variables is described by Padiyar and Uma Rao (1997). The con-
troller is activated immediately after a major disturbance such as clearing of a
fault and is deactivated when the magnitude of frequency deviation is below a
threshold. This type of control is beneficial not only in reducing the first swing
but also for damping subsequent swings.
Subsynchronous Damping Control (SSDC)
The use of vernier control mode at the module level by setting the reactance
216 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
It is to be noted that the above expression is different than the one derived
in chapter 7 for TCR connected across a sinusoidal voltage source. The dif-
ference arises from the fact that the TCR in a TCSC is connected across a
non-sinusoidal voltage (across the capacitor Xc). For SSR studies it is not
necessary to model the gate pulse unit and the generation of gate pulses. It is
adequate to assume that the desired value of TCSC reactance is implemented
within a well defined time frame. This delay can be modelled by first order
lag as shown in Fig.8.7. The value of TTCSC varies from 15 to 20 ms. Xrej
is determined by the power scheduling controller or in its absence, by manual
control based on order from load dispatch centre.
The block diagram of constant current (CC) or constant angle (CA) controller
is shown in Fig. 8.8. Tm is the time constant of first order low pass filter as-
INTERACTIONS WITH SERIES COMPENSATORS 217
aux
Xmax
XreJ XTCSC
;-----+--~ l+.1'TCSC
+
Xmin
Xmod
MOD.
CaNT
u
Figure 8.7. Block diagram of TCSC
X
re !
;---+-
sociated with the measurement of line current h and the TCSC voltage. S=O
for CC control and S = -Xl
LR
for CA control. X LR is the net reactance of line
given by
(8.20)
where XLine is the line reactance and XFC is the reactance of the fixed series
capacitor if any. Generally, TCSC will be used in conjunction with fixed series
capacitor to minimize the overall cost of compensation while providing effective
control for stability improvement.
The regulator block diagram is shown in Fig.8.9. This consists of mainly PI
controller and phase lead circuit if required. f{p, the proportional gain can be
set to zero if only integral control is used. The gain f{ [ is positive in the case
of current control and negative in case of CA control. In the latter case Ire! is
actually the voltage reference divided by X. Hence positive error signal implies
the net voltage drop in the line is less than the reference and XTCSC (assumed
218 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
Ie
r
1 + sTl f{/ +
- E
1 + sT2 s
j +
f{p
'--
1 + sTc
A B
VTCSC
o
c
D E
Xmaxo
XTCSC
Xc
1.0
X mino
Figure B.11. Extended TCSC control structure model for transient simulation
for the protection of the capacitor or metal oxide varistor (MOV) during short
circuit conditions.Bypass mode is activated whenever the line current or MOV
current exceeds limits specified.The bypass mode fires all valves at a = 90
resulting in full conduction of TCR. The blocking mode operates when the ca-
pacitor is to be inserted and avoid vernier mode operation.
The firing pulse generator has to be synchronized with either the capacitor
voltage or the line current.It is observed from transient simulation [Pilot to
et al (1996) , Angquist et al (1996)] that synchronization with the line cur-
rent is definitely superior as the current has negligible harmonics.Angquist et
al (1996) suggest using directly the capacitor voltage boost control (during
vernier operation) instead of impedance control based on firing angle, as the
steady state characteristic of TCSC (impedance) is highly nonlinear, particu-
larly when the natural frequency (w r ) is high ( say, around 5 pu) .It is to be
noted that if only one resonance value of f3 is to be permitted in the range
o < f3 < 90,then Wr < 3 (see Eq.(8.17)).Typical values of Wr (used in
the Slatt project) is around 2.75 pu. There is danger of high capacitor voltage
and harmonic instability [Jalali and Lasseter (1992)] if the operating value of f3
strays near f3res. This underlines the need for direct voltage control of the ca-
pacitor. Additional advantage of the voltage control is claimed to be linearity.
Angquist,Ingestrom and Othman (1994) describe a control method for TCSC
,termed as Synchronous Voltage Reversal (SVR) scheme. This is explained be-
low.
The influence of the line current is to reduce the conduction angle. However,
the transient in the TCSC circuit caused by the thyristor turn-on can still be
characterized as capacitor voltage reversal.
Fig.8.12 shows the current pulse in the thyristor and the line current ( which
is assumed to be constant during the conduction of the thyristor).
IT
__
: .~-
: : :
i :
--,
-----;--- (b) ac1:Uai voltage reversal
boost:
It is to be noted that the line current is at its peak when the capacitor voltage
passes through zero. Fig .8.12 (b) and (c) shows the capacitor voltage reversal.
While the actual voltage reversal takes finite time, it can be approximated as
instantaneous as shown in Fig.8.12 (c) for simplifying the analysis.
Fig. 8.13 shows the approximate steady state voltage waveform which is
sinusoidal neglecting the voltage boost that occurs periodically at the interval
t
of where T is the period of the fundamental component of the line current.
The presence of subsynchronous frequency component in the line current
would result in extra offsets in the capacitor voltage.If only conventional ca-
pacitor is used, the period (or interval) between voltage crossings is not equal
to t (see chapter 4 where NGH damping is described). However in a TCSC,
using the concept of Synchronous Voltage Reversal ( SVR) implies that zero
222 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-2 -1 0 2 3 4 5
(a) iL vs wt (radians)
1.5,---,------,-----.----.-------.-------,-----,
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2 -1 0 2 3 4 5
(b) Vc vs wt (radians)
crossings of the capacitor voltage are equidistant ( and synchronized to the line
current). In addition, the voltage boost can also be controlled either in relation
to the line current magnitude (constant reactance control) or as part of higher
level control scheme to provide damping of interarea low frequency oscillations
and improve transient stability.
INTERACTIONS WITH SERIES COMPENSATORS 223
Remarks
1. The SVR scheme is similar to the vernier control scheme described earlier.
It must be noted that SVR scheme is primarily designed for TCSC schemes
*
where the vernier control is not provided. The thyristor control is intended to ei-
ther switch in (insert) or out (bypass) the series capacitore.In such schemes,the
inductance value is kept low and just enough to limit the in thyristors. On
the other hand with schemes where vernier operation is provided, the induc-
tance value is higher to prevent the multiple resonance points in the entire
range of f3 varying from 0 to 90 0
2. It will be shown ( in the next section) how the concept of SVR can result
in preventing or mitigating torsional interactions in a range of subsynchronous
frequencies.
The operation of TCSC using constant reactance control (XTcsc > Xc) using
vernier mode or SVR is sufficient in most of the cases to avoid torsional inter-
action which is a serious problem with fixed series compensation. This feature
of TCSC is due to the following characteristics (of TCSC ).
1. For the same compensation level that results in fer = fo - fm (where fer
and fm are the electrical resonance, and the critical torsional mode frequency
) with a fixed series compensation, a TCSC avoids the resonance condition by
detuning ( which results from different frequency response characteristics than
a fixed series capacitor) .In other words, although the reactance of a TCSC and
fixed capacitor may be identical at the fundamental frequency, their impedances
are vastly different at subsynchronous frequencies).
2. For sufficiently large values of XTSCSC (~ 2Xc),which also imply con-
duction angle exceeding a minimum limit, TCSC appears inductive at subsyn-
chronous frequencies of interest. This also means that the resonance frequency
in the elctrical network is reduced for the same level of compensation ( compared
to fixed series compensation) .Hedin et al(1995) mention that in a particular
case,fer reduced from 40 Hz to 23 Hz.
3. Although the resistance of the TCR is small, the effective resistance that
comes in series with the transmission line is high at subsynchronous frequen-
cies. Also, the resistance increases with the frequency which implies that high
compensation levels with TCSC are permissible without worrying about tor-
sional interaction.
Although the objective of NGH damping is also to increase the effective series
resistance of the transmission line, it does not have the advantage of inductive
characteristics at the subsynchronous frequency. While increased resistance is
beneficial under worst case conditions (fer ~ fo - fm)it can increase negative
damping in the off tune conditions.
The frequency characteristics of a TCSC will be derived, for small perturba-
tions.For simplicity ,it is assumed that the voltage reversals are instantaneous.
Consider that time is discretized. Consider an interval of (tk ,tk+l ) where
the sampling instants tk and tk+l are selected as midpoints between voltage
224 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
reversals.
For, tk 2: t < tk+t, we have
C-dvc .
=ZL (8.22)
dt
For tk+t < t < tk+l also, the above equation applies. Linearizing, Eq.(8.22),
we can express
1 1 1t(k+~)
~vc (k + -) = ~vc(k) +- ~idt)dt (8.23)
2 C
1
tk
1 1 t (k+1)
~vc(k + 1) = ~v~(k + 2) + C ~idt)dt (8.24)
t(k+~)
where ~vc (k+~) and ~v~ (k+~) are the perturbations in the capacitor voltage
just prior to and immediately after the (instantaneous) voltage reversal.
Assuming losses in the circuit, we can write
(8.25)
o.45,---.,---,---,-----r---r----,-----,--,----.,-------,
0.4
0.35 D.095
.... D.0.98
0.3
10 .25
Z
a: 0.2
0.15
0.1
........................... . .... .
0.05 .' .
~~-~5-~10~~,5~~~L--2~5--~~-~35--4~0--4L5-~~
, (Hz)
(a)
3.5 r - - , - - , - - - - . - - - , - - - - , - - - - - , - - , - - - - , - - - . , - - - ,
3
D .095
.... D. 0.98
2.5
0.5
~~~~-~10~~,~5-~2=0-~25~~~7-~3=5--4~0~~4~5-~~
'(Hz)
(b)
The real and imaginary parts of the apparent impedance are shown in Fig. 8.14
for Wo = 377 and two values of D=0.95 and 0.98. It is seen that the apparent
resistance increases with frequency and higher for lower value of D (increased
losses). The apparent reactance is inductive and is unaffected by the difference
in the losses (for realistic values).
Example 1
The system considered in this example is adapted from IEEE FBM. The gen-
226 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
XTC
BTCR
Figure 8.15. Series compensation with fixed and thyristor controlled series capacitor
The eigenvalues correponding to the torsional modes are given in table 8.1
for the three cases considered. It is observed that with fixed compensation,
mode 1 is destabilized as fer ~ fo - f m .However ,for cases (b) and (c), all the
torsional modes (including mode 1) are well damped .. What is interesting is
INTERACTIONS WITH SERIES COMPENSATORS 227
that in case (c), even with a large share of fixed compensation,the presence of
TCSC operating in the vernier mode is adequate to mitigate SSR.
The transient simulation of the system is also carried out using MATLAB/
SIMULINK package.The disturbance considered is a 0.02 pu step reduction in
the infinite bus voltage, initiated at t = 0.3 s .The results for the case (c) are
shown in Fig. 8.16.
Here, the TCSC is initially blocked.ln this condition, there is no difference
between fixed and thyristor controlled series capacitor. As the first torsional
mode is unstable (see Table 8.1 ,column 1),both line current magnitude and the
shaft ( GEN-LPB) torque grow until at t=l.Os, the TCSC is switched in to
vernier mode with XTCSC = 1.lpu(of XTC ).Since the system is stable for this
condition,the oscillations decay.
(a) constant impedance ( reactance) control (b) constant current control and
(c) constant angle control. For cases (b) and (c),the controller is modelled as
shown in Fig. 8.8. The net series compensation level of 50% is assumed. This
is made of
(A) Fixed series capacitor only (XFC = 0.5XLl)
(B) TCSC and fixed series capacitor
(XFC = 0.25XLl,XTCSC = 1.667XTc,XTC = 0.I5XLr)
Th exciter data is same as in Example 1. The PSS considered is assumed to
have the transfer function
Table 8.2. Eigenvalues correponding to torsional modes ( Example 2)with fixed capacitor
and constant reactance control of TCSC
Table 8.3 shows the results for the cases with (b) constant current and (c)
constant angle control.It is observed that while the constant current controller
increases the damping of the swing mode,it increases the negative damping of
mode 1. The constant angle control improves the damping of both modes'I'
and '0' (swing mode).The PSS signal is taken from generator rotor speed which
results in torsional interaction unless countered by providing a torsional filter
( not considered here).
INTERACTIONS WITH SERIES COMPENSATORS 229
I Mode I With CA
(I(I = -52)
With CC
(/(1=5.0)
3 -0.0478 j321.051 -0.0478 j321.051
2 -0.0462 j203.429 -0.0209 j203.412
1 -0.0048 j155.163 0.2068 j155.125
0 -3.076 j12.643 -4.199 j9.526
B.5.1 Description
The SSSC is similar to STATCON (or STATCOM) in the sense that both de-
vices use voltage source converter (VSC).While a STATCON is shunt connected
device where the voltage output of VSC is controlled to regulate the reactive
current drawn (or injected) by the STATCON, SSSC is used for the injection
of a controllable reactive voltage source in series with the transmission line in
which it is connected. The major objective of SSSC is to control or regulate
the power flow in the line in which it is connected while a STATCON is used
to regulate the voltage at the bus where it is connected.
The influence of injecting a reactive voltage on the power flow can be analyzed
by considering a symmetric loss less line shown in Fig.8.17. Here,the voltage
at the two ends of the line are assumed to have the same magnitude V for
simplicity and the reactive voltage Vq is injected at a location midway between
the two ends of the line.
It can be shown that the line current magnitude is given by
I _ 2V sino/2 ~
(8.31 )
L - XL + XL
230 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
Transmission
I\!f\/\ Line
VSC
= V XLsinJ + -VV
2
P =Vh cos (J/2) q cos(J/2)
XL
(8.32)
The above expression can be compared with that in the case of series com-
pensation , given by
(8.33)
Transmission line
series
!VIV\
I shunt Transformer Transformer
~
VSC 2 VSC 1
T
t control t
Figure 8.19. UPFC
et al(1997)].
It is possible to combine a STATCON and SSSC connected at the same location
to form Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC). See Fig.8.19.
This arrangement eliminates the need for a separate energy source as VSC1
and VSC2 can exchange active power through the dc link.Thus ,a UPFC can
be used to regulate three quantities in the transmission line - active power and
reactive power (or voltages) at the two ends of a line.
To summarize, the SSSC has the following unique features which result in certain
advantages over TCSC.
1. SSSC can generate a controllable reactive voltage over an identical capacitive
and inductive range independent of the magnitude of the line current.
2. With an external dc power supply,SSSC can supply power to compensate
the resistance in a transmission line. The objective is to keep effectivei ratio
high,independent of the degree of compensation.
3. It has better control over the line flow compared to TCSC.The power flow
can even be reversed if required.
4. Unlike series compensation, an ideal synchronous (fundamental frequency)
voltage source does not cause electrical resonance in the line and hence the
SSSC is expected to be SSR neutral.
+
E REG
k~
1+STw
An auxiliary feedback signal derived from the phase of the line current ()
is used to stabilize the control loop.lt is to be noted that a power controller
cannot be used when there is no parallel path.ln this case, Vqo may be set at a
value that varies slowly depending on the loading conditions.To improve system
stability,a damping controller is also provided.
There are two controller structures,as with a STATCON,that can be used for
SSSC.
Type I controller
Here,both magnitude and phase of the converter output voltage are controlled.
The capacitor is maintained at a constant voltage by controlling the voltage
component in phase with the line current. The reactive voltage reference is
obtained by summing Vqo with ~Vq , (output from the damping controller).
(see Fig.8.21).
The capacitor voltage reference can be varied (depending on reactive voltage
reference) to give reduced harmonics. [Hatziadoniu and Funk (1996)].
The outputs of the controller are real and reactive voltage orders. The magni-
tude and phase angle orders are obtained as follows
(8.34)
,= Vqref
t an -1 - -
v"ref
(8.35)
INTERACTIONS WITH SERIES COMPENSATORS 233
Modulation
+
Damping + Vqref
Signal Controller
V pref
Vdcref
+
REG
where"Y is the angle of the reference voltage vector in relation to the line current
vector. The absolute phase of the reference voltage vector (with reference to a
synchronous reference frame) is given by
(8.36)
where
J = tan- 1 ~ is the phase of the line current vector.
The magnitude control is normally achieved by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
using three level converters. However, it is also possible to vary the magnitude
by employing two square wave converters with a phase displacement as shown
in Fig. 8.22.
Assuming each converter is 12 pulse, the magnitude (V) of the resultant
voltage injected is given by
V =
4J6
--Vdc cos B (8.37)
7r
- - - -, V
- - - ,
,
I
,,
,,
VqreJ +
REG
on the charging of the capacitor by the line current. Hence, this controller may
not be satisfactory at low power level.
They also postulate that an energy neutral device cannot contribute to SSR
which essentially involves oscillation of energy (and power) between a gener-
ator and energy storage components in the network connected to the generator.
It is observed that the first two torsional modes are destablized in case (i)
with fixed series capacitor. Actually, while mode 2 is destabilized on account of
236 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
I +~ ~
I,-------,w..1 '1,-------,
D
Table 8.5. Network and torsional modes (case (ii) with damping controller)
85r-----~----~----~----~------~----~----,
84.5
84
83.5
~
~ 83
a:
I
~82.5
82
'" 81.6
81
80.5
800~----~----~2~----3~----~4----~5~----~6----~7
time (seconds)
'"
.-'
O.90'------~------,2"------~3----~~----~----~8~----.J7
time (seconds)
0.9
w
~08
~
a:
f2 0.7
U O.8
<>
0.5
0.4 '--~:----------=2--------:3':-------:4-------5;:---------:6':----'
time (seconds)
tions in the generator rotor angle and the shaft torque (GEN-LPB) are shown
in Fig.8.25. The damping controller is considered.
There are no oscillations in the rotor angle (6) and the steady state is reached
quickly. The shaft torque takes some time to reach steady state, but the tor-
sional oscillations are eefectively damped. It is also observed that the SSSC
238 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
controller regulates the dc capacitor voltage at 0.75 pu indicating that the SSSC
is operating as an energy neutral device.
Appendix A
Data on IEEE Benchmark Models
Table A.l gives the network impedances in per unit on the generator MVA
base of 892.4 MVA.
The reactances are in per unit on the generator base and the time constants
are in seconds. From the specified open circuit time constants, the short circuit
time constants can be derived from Eqs.(2.74) to (2.77) in chapter 2. These
values are given below.
T~ = 0.4000, T~' = 0.0259
T~ = 0.1073, T~' = 0.0463
The rotor model of the FBM is shown in Fig . A.2. This is typical of large
Inertia
I Constant
Inertia I Shaft Section I Spring Constant
(H) K in p.u T /rad
HP turbine 0.092897 HP - IP 19.303
IP turbine 0.155589 IP - LPA 34.929
LPA turbine 0.858670 LPA - LPB 52.038
LPB turbine 0.884215 LPB - GEN 70.858
Generator 0.868495 GEN - EXE 2.82
Exciter 0.0342165
APPENDIX A: DATA ON IEEE BENCHMARK MODELS 241
INF
BUS
All data are given on a 100 MVA base and the line impedances are on a 500
kV base.
The generator is rated at 600 MVA.The reactances and time constants are given
in Table A.5.
242 ANALYSIS OF SUBSYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN POWER SYSTEMS
It has four masses including the exciter. The data are given in Table A.6.
I Mass I Ibm
Inertia I Damping I
- ft
2 Ibf-ft-sec/rad
Shaft
Section
Spring Constant
Ibf-ft/ rad
EXC 1383 4.3 EXC-GEN 4.39 x 10 6
GEN 176204 547.9 LP-GEN 97.97x 10 6
LP 310729 966.2 HP-LP 50.12x 10 6
HP 49912 155.2
The rotor mode shapes are given in Table A.7 and the computed modal
quantities are given in Table A.8.
Hk
I Mode
fk Uk
Hz rad/s seconds
1 24,65 0,05 1.55
2 32,39 0,05 9,39
3 51.10 0,05 74,80
Appendix B
Calculation of Initial Conditions
(B.I)
(B.3)
(B.17)
(B.18)
For the rotor system,the slips of the various masses (Sm, SHP, SIP etc) cannot
be calculated from the equations describing them.They are assumed to be zero
if the rotor speed (w o ) is same as the base speed (w B)'
The equilibrium values of the shaft torques can be calculated from the state
equations for the rotor system.For example,for the four mass system shown in
Fig.2.l6 (chapter 2),the initial condtions of the shaft torques are given by
(B.26)
where Xc = Wo
--L-c and
(B.29)
Appendix C
Abbreviations
ac : alternating current
AGC : automatic generation control
AVR : automatic voltage regulator
CA : constant angle
CACV : constant ac voltage (control)
CC : constant current (control)
CDCV : constant dc voltage (control)
CEA : constant extinction angle (control)
dc : direct current
EPC : equidistant pulse control
ESS : excitation system stabilizer
FACTS: flexible ac transmission system
FCL : fault current limiter
GPU : gate pulse unit
GTO : gate turn-off thyristor
H P : high pass (filter)
HP : high pressure (turbine)
HVDC : high voltage direct current
Hz : hertz
IGBT : insulated gate bipolar transistor
IGE : induction generator effect
IP : intermediate pressure (turbine)
IPC : individual phase control
KVL : Kirchoff's voltage law
LP : low pass (filter)
LP : low pressure (turbine)
MCT : metal oxide semiconductor controlled thyristor
MOV : metal - oxide varistor
PLL : phase-locked loop
PSDC : power swing damping controller
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