WATER TREATMENT

Flotation
WATER TREATMENT

covered path

flow path

1 floc
collision probability (-)

flocs: 100-1,000 m
therefore interception A
D
0.1 air bubble B
C

0.01 transport mechanisms:

T = 10 oC
db = 40 m A = diffusion
rd = 1,003 kg/m3
B = interception
0.001
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 C = inertia
floc size (m) D = sedimentation
T TA D
s I

= floc = air

t= $t 2$t 3$t 4$t t= $t 2$t 3$t 4$t

flotation water treatment

Framework
This module explains flotation

Contents
This module has the following contents:

1. Introduction
2. Principle
3. Theory
3.1 Saturation unit for the supply of air
3.2 Efficiency of the bubble filter in the filtration zone
3.3 Collision probability between bubbles and flocs in the filtration zone
3.4 Determination of the surface loading of the separation zone
4. Practice
4.1 Design parameters
4.2 Saturation
4.3 Flotation tank

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water treatment flotation

1 Introduction flocculation flotation

chemical dosing
and mixing separation zone
In the past, flotation was mainly used as a floc sludge
filtration zone
removal process in the Scandinavian countries disposal
outlet
float layer
and the UK.
Zevenbergen (Brabant Water) was the first Dutch
treatment plant to make use of that process (1979).
baffle weir
Other treatment plants where flotation is applied air dosing water
are Braakman (Evides), Elsbeekweg Enschede air
(Vitens) and Scheveningen (Dune Water Company 6-8% recirculation saturation unit
South Holland).
Figure 1 - Principles of floc formation and flotation
Flotation is applied to remove flocs during surface
water treatment and is preceded by floc formation direction over the baffle.
(flocculation). At the same time, a water flow with supersaturated
In the flotation process very small air bubbles are air is supplied through nozzles. This water flow is
used to air-lift the flocs to the waters surface. called the saturation or recirculation flow. Due to
The number and size of the air bubbles is the key the pressure drop in the supersaturated water at
factor for the upward velocity of the flocs, and thus the nozzles, small air bubbles form.
for the separation efficiency of the process. The rising velocity of the air bubbles is greater than
The upward velocity of the flocs is much higher the water velocity, so the air bubbles collide with
than the sedimentation rate of these flocs. There- the flocs. Air pockets form beneath the flocs and
fore the surface load of flotation is also much the density of the aggregates decreases below the
higher, than the surface load for the sedimentation water density. As a consequence, the aggregates
process. will float on the waters surface.

Flotation is often selected as the floc-removal Filtration zone

process for conditions which are less favorable
for sedimentation:
- low temperature of the water, resulting in a
reduced sedimentation rate due to increased
viscosity
- high algae content in the water, resulting in a
reduced sedimentation rate (algae might even
float due to the release of oxygen during the
night).
The air dosing level is an operation parameter
which can be brought into compliance with varying
operational conditions (temperature, viscosity, floc
size , floc density).
Schematically, the process in the zone before the
above-mentioned baffle can be considered as a
filtration process.
In Figure 2 a floc and an air bubble are represented
in subsequent periods of time. It can be seen that
the air bubbles rise faster than the flocs. Assum-
ing the air bubbles are fixed (point of reference),
the water moves with the flocs downwards and
the flocs are filtered from the water by the air
bubbles.
Separation zone
= floc = air

2 Principle

The principle of flotation is shown in Figure 1.

The flocculated raw water is distributed at the bot- t= $t 2$t 3$t 4$t t= $t 2$t 3$t 4$t
tom of the flotation tank and flows in an upward Figure 2 - Filtration principle during flotation

69
flotation water treatment

Figure 3 - Float layer in separation zone

Removal of the floating flocs takes place in the

separation zone.
The flocs and the air bubbles form a float layer
together at the waters surface (Figure 3).
The float layer is transported by the water flow to
a weir and is drained. To accelerate the removal
process of the float layer, rotors can be placed at
the sludge overflow.
The treated water flows under the sludge removal
device and over a weir to the outlet of the flotation
system (Figure 1).
In some installations the weir of the float layer Figure 4 - Saturation unit
removal device is flexible. When the weir is high,
the float layer is thin and there is a risk that water air can be dissolved than is possible under atmos-
will flow into the sludge removal system. When pheric circumstances.
the float layer is thick, the risk is that air bubbles
will escape from the float layer and the flocs will The supersaturated water flow is transported from
start to settle. the saturation unit to the filtration zone and

The height of the weirs (water and sludge) is of 200 mm

HOH
primary importance to the performance of the
161 mm 40 mm
flotation system.

Saturation unit
The saturation water is made by the saturation bubbles
unit (Figure 4). filtration zone separation zone
The saturation unit is supplied by a water flow and
an air flow. vs
The water flow is about 6% - 8% of the total water vo
flow through the treatment plant and is abstracted
downstream of the flotation process. The water is
pumped into a pressure vessel, at a pressure of overflow
4 to 8 bar.
Air is supplied to the pressure vessel via an air Figure 5 - Size and distance between bubbles and
compressor. Because of the high pressure, more flocs

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water treatment flotation

Table 1 - Specific parameters of air bubbles and flocs

Air bubbles Flocs
parameter value unit parameter value unit
diameter 10 - 100 m diameter 100 - 200 m
density (1.5 - 3.0) .1011 bubbles/m3 floc density (2.5 - 19) .107 flocs/m3
distance between distance between
150 - 188 m 3600 - 3700 m
bubbles flocs
air dosage 5 - 10 l/m3 density 1003 - 1006 kg/m3
particle
10 - 25 g/m3
concentration

MW = molecular weight of gas (g/mol)

inserted through the distribution nozzles.
Specific parameters
To give an idea of the order of magnitude of the air
bubbles and flocs, some values that are encoun-
tered in practice are represented in Table 1.
Depending on the type of nozzle, the median
diameter of an air bubble lies between 30 and
40 m.
In Figure 5 some specific parameters determined
at an air dose of 8 l/m3 are represented.
From Figure 5 and Table 1 it can be concluded that
collision between air bubble and floc is inevitable,
because the distance between two air bubbles is
smaller than the diameter of a floc.
3 Theory
3.1 Saturation unit for the supply of air
The amount of air that can be dissolved in a certain
volume of water depends on the pressure and the
water temperature and can be calculated with
Henrys Law:
solubility (mg/l)
p = partial pressure of gas in air (Pa)
o .
R = universal gas constant =8.3142 (J/( K mol))
T = (air) temperature (K)
When the concentration of gas in water is calcu-
lated with Henrys Law, the total air pressure can
be used instead of the partial pressure. Then, the
concentration ca represents the specific density of
air at the prevailing temperature and pressure.
In Table 2 the distribution coefficient for different
air temperatures is represented.
By increasing the pressure, the amount of gas that
can be dissolved in a volume of water increases
proportionally, as is shown in Figure 6, where the
saturation concentration is given as a function of
pressure (atmospheric pressure at sea level is
101,325 kPa).
The gas exchange between water and air is more
extensively explained in the module on aeration
and gas stripping.
300
1 mg/l = 0.78 l/m3

250
200
MW p
c s = kH c a = kH 150
RT
100
in which: 50
cs = saturation concentration of gas in water
0
(g/m3) 0 200 400 600 800
kH = distribution coefficient (-) pressure (kPa)

ca = concentration of gas in air (g/m3) air with extra nitrogen, 20 oC air, 20 oC

o
air with extra nitrogen, 0 C air, 0 oC

Figure 6 - Solubility of air in water

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 flotation water treatment

Table 2 - kH-values at different temperatures and the molecular weight of air

Concentration of
T = 0oC T = 10oC T = 20oC T = 30oC MW [g/mol]
gas in air
79% N2, 21% O2 0.0288 0.0234 0.0200 0.0179 28.84

3.2 Efficiency of the bubble filter in the in which:

filtration zone Nd = floc density (flocs/m3)
The efficiency of a bubble filter in the filtration zone db = collision coefficient between air bubble and
is equal to the proportion of flocs that collide with floc (-)
the bubble filter. T = collision frequency between air bubble and
This portion of flocs can be derived from the mass floc (-)
balance, assuming a permanent attachment with Nb = air bubble density (air bubbles/m3)
one or more air bubbles. dV = volume of unit element dH (m3)
Ab = projected area of an air bubble
Kinetics equation (m2/air bubble)
In Figure 7 a plug flow is represented together
with the principle of collision between flocs and The second part of the right half of the equation
air bubbles (see also Figure 2). represents the number of flocs that collide and at-
From the mass balance for a unit element dH (Fig- tach to an air bubble in the unit element dH.
ure 7), the kinetic equation for the collision of flocs The number of flocs depends on the collision
and air bubbles in a plug flow can be derived. frequency, the collision efficiency, the number of
The mass balance for a unit element dH is: flocs and bubbles in the unit element and the size
of the projected collision area of the bubble.

dN
Q Nd dt = Q Nd + d dH dt + db T Nd Nb dV AThe
b dH
collision efficiency is determined by pre-treat-
dH ment of the water and is negatively influenced
by turbulence in the filtration zone. The collision
dNd
dH dt + db T Nd Nb dV A b dH frequency is elaborated on in section 3.3.
dH
Rearranging the mass balance leads to:
dNd
= db T Nd Nb A b
dH
Q
with

dH = v db dt

in which:
dNd vdb = approaching velocity between air bubble and
Nd + dH dH
dH floc (m/s)

The kinetics equation for collision between air

bubbles and flocs becomes:

Q dNd
= db T Nd Nb A b v db
dt

Figure 7 - Mass balance during filtration of the flocs Because the air bubbles rise much faster than the

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water treatment flotation

flocs, it is assumed that the approaching velocity in which:

is equal to the bubbles rising velocity. Nd,i = floc density of the influent (flocs/m3)
The rising velocity of an air bubble under laminar Nd,e = floc density of the effluent (flocs/m3)
flow conditions can be calculated with Stokes
Law: After integration, the efficiency of filtration can be
expressed as:
1 g db 2
vb =
18 1 a db hT db jb gt
-
12
0
Nd,i - Nd,e


R= = 1- e v
in which: Nd,i
vb = rising velocity of air bubbles (m/s) in which:
db = diameter of air bubbles (m) R = efficiency of a bubble filter (-)
= kinematic viscosity (m2/s) = residence time in the filtration zone (s)

The air bubble density is equal to the air dosage

divided by the volume of the air bubble: 3.3 Collision probability between bub-
bles and flocs in the filtration zone
b In the equation of the efficiency of filtration, the
Nb =
1 collision probability between air bubbles and flocs
db3
6 is incorporated.
The collision probability is the ratio between the ac-
in which: tual number of collisions and the possible number
b = air dosage (m3 air/m3 water) of collisions between air bubbles and flocs.
It is assumed that the floc is situated in a water
and Ab is: column above the air bubble with a surface area
(perpendicular to the rising direction) equal to the
1 projected area of the air bubble.
Ab = db 2
4
The four different removal mechanisms of filtration
Substituting vdb with vb and inserting Nb and Ab can be used to describe the collision between air
gives the following kinetics equation: bubble and floc:
- diffusion D, collision caused by Brownian mo-
dNd 1 d g tion of mainly small flocs and particles
= db T b b Nd
dt 12 0 - interception I, collision because the floc trajec-
v tory approaches the air bubble and interception
This equation is a first-order reaction and is of the floc by the air bubble is possible
equivalent to dc/dt = -kc in filtration and activated - sedimentation S, collision caused by large
carbon filtration. and heavy flocs that deviate from the original
trajectory
Efficiency - inertia TA, collision caused by mainly large and
Under the assumption that the filtration zone can heavy flocs that deviate from the curvature of
be schematized by a plug flow, the equation men- the original trajectory.
tioned above can be integrated with the following
boundary conditions: For these transport mechanisms (Figure 8), the
- at t = 0: Nd = Nd,i collision probability or the Single-Collector Col-
- at t = t : Nd = Nd,e lision Efficiency (SCCE) can be quantified:

73
flotation water treatment

covered path
dd = diameter of the flocs (m)
w = density of water (kg/m3)
flow path d = density of flocs (kg/m3)

floc The total collision probability T is equal to the

A
sum of the separate collision probabilities of each
D
transport mechanism:
air bubble B
C T = D + I + S + TA

transport mechanisms:
A = diffusion In Figure 9 the collision probabilities are repre-
B = interception sented as a function of the floc diameter, and the
C = inertia following can therefore be concluded:
D = sedimentation - the diffusion mechanism is predominant for
Figure 8 - Transport mechanisms flocs smaller than 1 m
- the interception mechanism is predominant for
2 2
2 flocs larger than 5 m.
k T 3 1 3 1
D = 6.18 b
g w dd db From the equation of collision probability for in-
2 terception and Figure 9, it can be concluded that
3 dd
I = with an air bubble of 40 m diameter, the collision
2 db
probability T =1, if the floc diameter is larger than
32 m. After this manner of floc formation, the floc
2
w dd size is between 100 and 1,000 m.
S = d Consequently, in practice, the interception mecha-
w db
nism predominates and the collision probability is
equal to 1.
g d db dd2
TA =
324 w
The progress of the total collision probability in
in which: Figure 9 is equivalent to the curves of the collision
kb = Boltzmann constant = 1.38.10-23 (J/oK) probability in the filtration and the floc formation
T = absolute water temperature (oK) theories.
Similar to filtration, the collision probability is mini-
1 mal for particle sizes of about 1 m.
collision probability (-)

flocs: 100-1,000 m The main difference between the processes,

therefore interception
however, is that the collision probability in flotation
0.1
processes is an order of magnitude larger than in
filtration and, therefore, the flocs will collide more
0.01 easily during flotation.
T = 10 oC
db = 40 m
rd = 1,003 kg/m3
0.001 3.4 Determination of the surface loading
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000
of the separation zone
floc size (m)
Removal of air bubble-floc aggregates takes place
T TA D
s
in the separation zone.
I
All aggregates are removed if the time needed for
Figure 9 - Collision probability the flotation of an aggregate at the bottom of the

74
water treatment flotation

separation zone is less than the residence time diameter of air bubbles = 40 mm
diameter of floc = 200 mm
in the separation zone (the opposite of discrete
settling):

tb
>1
t st
b 0.008 0.08 0.8 8.0
da
1.00 1.03 1.21 2.08
dd
in which: ra 995.1 928.8 557.8 112.5 kg/m3
tb = residence time in the separation zone (s) vst 0.43 6 44.7 152 m/s
tst = time an aggregate needs to reach the water
surface (s) Figure 10 - Air bubble-floc aggregate parameters

1
Assuming a plug flow in the separation zone: a = b + d
+ 1 + 1
1
v st > v so
1- m da = 3 1 + dd

in which: in which:
vst = rising velocity of the air bubble-floc = volume ratio between air bubbles and flocs in
aggregate (m/s) the aggregate (-)
vso = surface loading in the separation zone
2.
(m /(m s))
3
In Figure 10 the influence of the volume ratio on
m = fraction of dead space (eddies) in the sepa- the diameter, density and rising velocity of the
ration zone (-) aggregate is represented.

It can be concluded that the maximum surface In calculating the diameter of the aggregate da, the
loading is determined by the rising velocity of the volume of the air bubbles is assumed to be divided
aggregates in the separation zone. over the entire surface of the floc. It is practically
physically impossible for more than one bubble
Rising velocity of the air bubble-floc aggre- layer to exist. For a floc diameter of 200 m, this
gates results in a maximum volume ratio of 1.
Assuming a laminar flow and spherical aggregates, The volume ratio between the total volumes of
the rising velocity can be calculated with Stokes inserted air and flocs is about 500. Thus, only 0.2%
Law: of the total inserted air is effectively used during
the floc removal process.
1 g w a 2
v st = da
18 w 600
rising velocity (m/h)

500

400
in which: dd = 100 m
300 dd = 200 m
a = density of the aggregate (kg/m )3
dd = 500 m
da = diameter of the aggregate (m) 200

100
The density and the diameter of the aggregate can
0
be determined with the following equation: 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
volume ratio of air bubble/floc (-)

Figure 11 - Rising velocity for different

75
flotation water treatment

theory practice
1.1 1.1
efficiency of the bubble filter (-)

total removal efficiency (-)

1 1
0.9 0.9
T = 1.6 min
0.8 0.8
db = 40 m
0.7 dd = 100 m 0.7
rd = 1,003 kg/m3
0.6 db = 0.5 0.6
0.5 0.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 11
air dosage (l/m3) air dosage (l/m3)
T = 2oC T = 10oC T = 20oC without sludge layer with sludge layer

Figure 12 - Influence of air dosage in theory and practice (total efficiency)

The applied (high) air dosage, however, is neces- In addition it can be concluded that at lower water
sary for a sufficiently high efficiency of the bubble temperatures, higher air dosages are required to
filter in the filtration zone. obtain the same efficiency.
The air dosage is an operation parameter for the
In Figure 11 the rising velocity is represented as a efficiency of the bubble filter.
function of volume ratio for flocs with a diameter
of 100 m, 200 m and 500 m. In Figure 12 the total removal efficiency, measured
Because the volume ratio between air bubbles in practice, is represented as a function of the air
and flocs is (physically) restricted (bmax 1), an dosage. The total efficiency consists of the ef-
increase in the rising velocity vst can only be real- ficiency in the filtration zone and the efficiency in
ized by an increase in floc size. the separation zone.
The total efficiency approaches the value 0.9
0.95 and not 1.
This can be due to the occurrence of short-circuit
4 Practice flows in the filtration zone, resulting in a decrease
in the efficiency in the filtration zone or to the lim-
4.1 Process parameters ited influence of the air dosage on the efficiency
Air dosage in the separation zone (less than 1% of the air is
The relationship between air dosage and efficiency effectively used for separation), and separation in
of the bubble filter is exponential, as seen in Fig- practice is not optimal.
ure 12.

theory practice
1.2 1.2
efficiency of the bubble filter (-)

total removal efficiency (-)

1 1
0.8 0.8
jb = 5 l/m3
0.6 0.6
db = 40 mm
0.4 dd = 100 mm 0.4
rd = 1,003 kg/m3
0.2 adb = 0.5 0.2
0 0
0 60 120 180 240 300 0 60 120 180 240 300
contact time (s) contact time (s)
T = 2oC T = 10oC T = 20oC T = 3oC T = 10oC T = 16oC

Figure 13 - Influence of contact time in theory and practice (total efficiency)

76
 water treatment flotation

0.8
effluent iron content (mg/l)

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec

time (month) packed column venturi

Figure 14 - Seasonal influence by temperature varia-
tion Figure 15 - Saturation units

Contact time temperature effect is obvious.

Theoretically, the contact time should be longer
than 90 seconds, as seen in Figure 13.
In practice, contact times of 54 to 126 seconds
are applied.
In this figure, the results of measurements on full-
scale plants, where the contact times are varied,
are represented.
In general, the theory is confirmed, but an ef-
ficiency of 1 is not reached, even with infinite
contact times.
The reason is that in cases where the contact times
are increased, the water flow must be decreased
(for the same flotation tank). At low water flows,
plug flow no longer occurs and the efficiency will
be lower than 1.
Temperature
The water temperature determines the viscosity
of the water, influencing both filtration and sepa-
ration.
From calculations it can be derived that the air
dosage at 5 C must be a factor 1.6 to 1.7 higher
than at 20 C to obtain the same efficiency (Figure
12).
4.2 Saturation
Saturation unit
In practice, two types of saturation units are ap-
plied.
The saturation units can be of a packed column
type, similar to the tower aerator systems, or
of a venturi type, similar to the venturi aeration
systems.
The saturation units that make use of a packed
column, similar to the tower aerator system, or the
venturi aeration units.
Both systems are schematically represented in
Figure 15.
For the design and functioning of the saturation
units, reference is made to the module on aeration
and gas stripping.
Nozzles
In Figure 16 the principle of a nozzle that is applied

It can also be derived that the rising velocity of

an aggregate in the separation zone is 1.6 times
lower at 2 C than at 20 C.
Therefore, the efficiency in the separation zone
will be lower at lower temperatures.
In Figure 14 the progress of the residual iron con-
centration in a flotation system is represented. The Figure 16 - Nozzle

77
flotation
50
median bubble size (m)
40
30
20
3 4 5 6
saturation pressure (bar)
Figure 17 - Performance of three different nozzles
in the filtration zone for the distribution of satura-
tion water is shown.
In practice Bete, AKA and WRC nozzles are ap-
plied.
In Figure 17 the median bubble diameter for the
different nozzles is given as a function of saturation
pressure of the recirculation flow.
Based on the required median bubble diameter, a
nozzle and a saturation pressure can be chosen.
The median bubble diameter is, for most of the
nozzles, between 30 m and 40 m.
4.3 Flotation tank
In Figure 18 a flotation tank with a filtration or
contact zone, separation zone and baffle is rep-
resented. These will be discussed in the following
paragraphs.
Filtration zone
The filtration zone (Vc in Figure 18) is designed
based on a contact time longer than 90 seconds.
To obtain a plug flow in the filtration zone, the
length/width ratio must be higher than 5 (long
L based on surface loading, which is determined
H Vc
VI
Figure 18 - Design of flotation tank
78
water treatment
Bete
AKA
WRC
baffle
7 8
overflow
Figure 19 - Division of filtration and separation zone
and narrow).
A column reactor would thus be suitable for the
filtration zone.
In existing flotation tanks, the saturation water is
released into the filtration zone, resulting in local
(near the nozzles) velocity gradients of 20-30 m/s,
turbulence and break-up of flocs and bubble-floc
aggregates.
Therefore, strong (and thus small) flocs must be
formed during floc formation to resist the turbulent
flows.
Moreover, this turbulence can be minimized by the
arrangement of the nozzles. An example of this is
the application of a separate nozzle zone outside
the main water flow.
Separation zone
The separation zone (Va in Figure 18) is designed
B from the rising velocity of the bubble-floc aggre-
gates and takes the dead zones Vl into account.
Q
In practice, surface loadings of 10 to 25 m3/(m2.
Va
h) are applied.
The residence times in the separation zone vary
between 5 and 10 minutes.
The height H must be about 2 meters to avoid
water treatment flotation

1.4 Different types of overflow structures are repre-

effluent iron content (mg/l)

A
1.2 1.8 m
sented in Figure 20.
1 3.6 m
T = 0.1oC
0.8
0.5 m
1.8 m
B
0.6
o
T = 15 C
0.4 7.1 m

0.2
1.8 m C
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
flotation time (min) 7.1 m

A B C

Figure 20 - Design of flotation tank with different over-

flow structures

large flow gradients and the zone must be long

and narrow to approach a plug flow.
Finally, the water flow must be uniformly distributed
and collected over the width of the separation zone
to limit the fraction of dead zone.

Division between filtration zone and separation

zone
The division between the filtration zone and sepa-
ration zone is achieved with a baffle or an overflow
(Figure 19).
Comparing the overflow structure with the baffle,
no difference is observed in effluent quality and
residence time. In both cases the residence time
is about 70 % of the gross residence time (Figure
18):

Q Q Q Q Q
tbruto = = = + +
Vbr L B H Vc Va Vl

The flow conditions with an overflow are favorable

and less sludge is deposited. It can therefore be
concluded that an overflow is preferred above
the baffle.

Advanced literature Further reading

Flotatie: Theorie en praktijk (Dutch), G.J. J. Haarhof

Schers MSc thesis TU-Delft (1991)
Summary: H2O (in Dutch), 5th Gothenburg
Symposium (1992)

79
flotation water treatment

80