Pageiii

WisdomSitsinPlaces
LandscapeandLanguageamongtheWesternApache

KeithH.Basso

 Pageiv

Thisbookhaswonthe1996WesternStatesBookAwardforCreativeNonfiction.
TheWesternStatesBookAwardsareaprojectoftheWesternStatesArtsFederation.
TheawardsaresupportedbytheNationalEndowmentfortheArtsandbyCraneDuplicatingServices.

1996bytheUniversityofNewMexicoPress
Allrightsreserved.
Fourthpaperboundprinting,1999

LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
Basso,KeithH.,1940
Wisdomsitsinplaces:landscapeandlanguageamong
theWesternApache/KeithH.Basso.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferences(p.161)andindex.
ISBN0826317235(cl)ISBN0826317243(pa)
1.WesternApachelanguageEtymologyNames.
2.WesternApachelanguageDiscourseanalysis.
3.Names,GeographicalArizona.
4.Names,Apache.
5.Apachephilosophy.
6.HumangeographyArizonaPhilosophy.
I.Title.
PM2583.B371996
497'.2dc209539272
CIP

DesignedbySueNiewiarowski

 Pagev

ForthegrandchildrenofCibecue,
andGayle

 Pagevii

Contents

ListofIllustrations ix

WesternApachePronunciationGuide xi

Preface xiii

1 3
QuotingtheAncestors

2 37
StalkingwithStories

3 71
SpeakingwithNames

4 105
WisdomSitsinPlaces

Epilogue 151

Notes 153

ReferencesCited 161

Index 167

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Illustrations

1 9
LocationofCibecueontheFortApacheIndianReservation,Arizona.

2 49
MajorcategoriesofWesternApachespeech.

3 49
MajorcategoriesofWesternApachenarrative.

4 50
MajorcategoriesofWesternApachenarrativedistinguishedbytemporallocus
andprimarypurpose.

5 86
T'iisBitl'h*T'Oln*
(WaterFlowsInwardUnderACottonwoodTree).

6 87
TsLigai*DahSidil
(WhiteRocksLieAboveInACompactCluster).

7 88
TsBik'TYaahilin*
(WaterFlowsDownOnASuccessionOfFlatRocks).

8 115
ThegreatcottonwoodtreeatGizhyaa'itin
(TrailGoesDownBetweenTwoHills).

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WesternApachePronunciationGuide
TheWesternApachelanguagecontainsfourvowels:

aasin"father"

easin"red"

iasin"police"

oasin"go"(varyingtowarduasin"to")

Allfourvowelscanbepronouncedshortorlong,dependingondurationofsound.Vowellengthisindicatedtypographicallybydoubleletters(e.g.,aa).

Eachofthevowelscanbenasalized,whichisindicatedbyasubscripthookunderthevowel(e.g.,a*anda*a*).Whenonepronouncesanasalizedvowel,airpasses
throughthenasalpassagesoastogivethevowelasoft,slightlyringingsound.

ThefourWesternApachevowelscanalsobepronouncedwithhighorlowtone.Hightoneisindicatedbyanaccentmarkoverthevowel(e.g.,),showingthatthe
vowelispronouncedwitharisingpitch.Incertaininstances,theconsonantn*isalsospokenwithhightone.

WesternApachecontainsapproximatelythirtyoneconsonantsandconsonantclusters.FifteenofthemarepronouncedapproximatelyasinEnglish:b,ch,d,h,j,k,l,
m,n,s,sh,t,w,y,z.

AnotherconsonantinWesternApacheistheglottalstop.Indicatedbythesymbol',theglottalstopcanoccurbeforeandafterallfourvowelsandaftercertain
consonantsandconsonantclusters.Producedbyclosure

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oftheglottissoastomomentarilyhaltairpassingthroughthemouth,theglottalstopresemblestheinterruptionofbreathonehearsbetweenthetwo"ohs"inthe
Englishexpression"ohoh."TheglottalizedconsonantsandconsonantclustersinWesternApachearek',t',ch',tl*',andts'.

Otherconsonantsandconsonantclustersare

dlasinthefinalsyllableof"paddling"

dzasinthefinalsoundof"adds"

gasin"get"(neverasin"gentle")

ghsimilartogbutpronouncedfartherbackinthemouththisconsonantoftensoundslikeagutturalw

hwasin"what"

kwasin"quick"

l*Thisconsonant,sometimescalledthe"silentl,"hasnocounterpartinEnglish.Themouthisshapedforanlbutthevocalcordsarenotused.Thesoundismade
byexpellingairfrombothsidesofthetongue.

tl*asin"Tlingit"

tsasinthefinalsoundof"pots"

zhasin"azure"

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Preface
Whatdopeoplemakeofplaces?Thequestionisasoldaspeopleandplacesthemselves,asoldashumanattachmentstoportionsoftheearth.Asold,perhaps,as
theideaofhome,of"ourterritory"asopposedto"theirterritory,"ofentireregionsandlocallandscapeswheregroupsofmenandwomenhaveinvestedthemselves
(theirthoughts,theirvalues,theircollectivesensibilities)andtowhichtheyfeeltheybelong.Thequestionisasoldasastrongsenseofplaceandtheanswer,ifthere
isone,iseverybitascomplex.

Senseofplacecomplex?Wetendnottothinkso,mainlybecauseourattachmentstoplaces,liketheeasewithwhichweusuallysustainthem,areunthinkinglytaken
forgranted.Asnormallyexperienced,senseofplacequitesimplyis,asnaturalandstraightforwardasourfondnessforcertaincolorsandculinarytastes,andthe
thoughtthatitmightbecomplicated,orevenveryinteresting,seldomcrossesourminds.Until,assometimeshappens,wearedeprivedoftheseattachmentsandfind
ourselvesadrift,literallydislocated,inunfamiliarsurroundingswedonotcomprehendandcareforevenless.Ontheseunnervingoccasions,senseofplacemayassert
itselfinpressingandpowerfulways,anditsoftensubtlecomponentsassubtle,perhaps,asabsentsmellsintheairornotenoughvisibleskycomesurginginto
awareness.Itisthenwecometoseethatattachmentstoplacesmaybenothinglessthanprofound,andthatwhentheseattachmentsarethreatenedwemayfeel
threatenedas

 Pagexiv

well.Places,werealize,areasmuchapartofusaswearepartofthem,andsensesofplaceyours,mine,andeveryoneelse'spartakecomplexlyofboth.

Andso,unavoidably,sensesofplacealsopartakeofcultures,ofsharedbodiesof"localknowledge"(thephraseisCliffordGeertz's)withwhichpersonsandwhole
communitiesrendertheirplacesmeaningfulandendowthemwithsocialimportance.Yetculturalanthropologists,someofwhomworkforyearsincommunitieswhere
tiestoplacearevitalanddeepseated,havenot,untilrecently,hadmuchtosayaboutthem(Rodman1992).Places,tobesure,arefrequentlymentionedin
anthropologicaltexts("ThepeopleofX...,"''ThehamletofY...,""ThemarketplaceatZ..."),butlargelyinpassing,typicallyearlyon,andchieflyasameansof
locatingthetextsthemselves,groundingthem,asitwere,insettingsaroundtheworld.Andwiththattaskaccomplishedthetextsmoveahead,withscarcelya
backwardglance,totakeupothermatters.Practicingethnographers,muchlikeeveryoneelse,takesensesofplaceforgranted,andethnographicstudiesexploring
theirculturalandsocialdimensionsareinnotablyshortsupply.Humanattachmentstoplaces,asvariousanddiverseastheplacestowhichtheyattach,remain,intheir
way,anenigma.

Somefifteenyearsago,aweatheredethnographerlinguistwithtwodecadesoffieldworkinavillageofWesternApachesalreadybehindme,Istumbledontoplaces
there(acuriouswayofspeaking,Iknow,butthatisjusthowitfelt)andbecameawareoftheirconsiderablefascinationforthepeoplewhoseplacestheyare.Ihad
firstgonetoCibecue(fig.1)inthesummerof1959asanineteenyearoldcollegestudent.1 IwascaptivatedbyCibecueandalmosteverythingaboutit,andinthe
yearsthatfollowed,havingcompletedgraduateschool,IwrotearticlesandmonographsonsuchsubjectsasApacheceremonialsymbolism(1966),classificatoryverb
stems(1968),witchcraftbeliefs(1969),patternsofsilenceinsocialinteraction(1970),andasardonictypeofjokinginwhichApachesimitatewhitemen(1979).2 In
betweenprojects(nomatterhowcaptivated,youcan'tdoanthropologyallthetime),Ialsolearnedtocowboy,campingandridingforweeksatatimewithhorsemen
fromCibecuewhoweremastersofthetrade.Inbothanthropologyandcowboying,Isometimescameupshort,thoughnotsomuchastobewildlyembar

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rassed,andwhentheessayonjokingwasdoneIbegantolookaroundforsomethingnewtodo.

TheanswercamefromRonnieLupe,chairmanoftheWhiteMountainApacheTribe,akeenlyintelligentmanwithasplendidgiftforhisownApachelanguageandan
abidinginterestinCibecue,wherehewasbornandraised."Whydon'tyoumakemapsoverthere,"thechairmansuggestedfirmlyinhisofficeatWhiteriveroneday.
"Notwhitemen'smaps,we'vegotplentyofthem,butApachemapswithApacheplacesandnames.Wecouldusethem.Findoutsomethingabouthowweknowour
country.Youshouldhavedonethisbefore."Mr.Lupe'ssuggestion(orwasitadirective?)appealedtomeatonce,andafewdayslater,havingdiscusseditatlength
withsomeofmyfriendsinCibecue,IinformedhimthatIwaspreparedtobegin.Ayearlater,supportedbyagrantfromtheNationalScienceFoundation,theproject
gotunderway.

Basically,theprojecthadthreeparts:travelingwithApacheconsultants,manyofwhomwereactiveorretiredhorsemen,tohundredsofnamedlocalitiesinthegreater
Cibecueregiontalkingwithconsultants,frequentlyattheirhomes,aboutplacesandplacenamesandthestoriesthatliebehindthemandlisteningwithanewly
sensitizedeartohowplacenamesgetusedindailyconversationbyApachemenandwomen.Theprojectcontinuedforalmosteighteenmonths,spreadoverfive
years(19791984),andthisbookisoneoftheresults.Itcontainsnoneofthemapswemade(ChairmanLupehasdeterminedthatpublishingthesewouldbeunwise),
butplacesandplacenamesandsomethingofwhatApachesmakeofbothiswhatitismainlyabout.

"Mainly,"Isay,becauseApacheconstructionsofplacereachdeeplyintootherculturalspheres,includingconceptionsofwisdom,notionsofmorality,politenessand
tactinformsofspokendiscourse,andcertainconventionalwaysofimaginingandinterpretingtheApachetribalpast.Forthisandotherreasons,thechaptersofthis
book,allofwhichwerewrittenasindependentessays,approachitscentraltopicfromsomewhatdifferentperspectives,offeringastheydocomplementary"takes"on
thesignificanceofplacesinApachethoughtandpractice.3 ThereaderwillalsofindthateachchapteriscenteredonadifferentApacheperson,notonlybecausehe
orshefiguredcentrallyinmyworkbutalsobecausesensesofplace,whilealwaysinformedbybodiesoflocalknowledge,are

 Pagexvi

finallythepossessionsofparticularindividuals.People,notcultures,senseplaces,andIhavetriedtosuggestthatinCibecue,aselsewhere,theydosoinvarying
ways.

Abookasshortasthisshouldnothavetakensolongtowrite.Oneofthereasonsitdidisthattheexperienceofplaceor,asRonnieLupesaid,howpeople"know
theircountry"is,inanthropologyandthesocialsciencesgenerally,lightlychartedterritory.4 Therearefewintellectualmapsforethnographerstofollow,and
thereforetheyareobligedtofashionthemforthemselves.Butwheredoesoneturnfordirectionandhelpfulideas?Theanswer,ofcourse,iswhereveronechoosesto
turnor,asJohnsonremarkedtoBoswell,"whereverthingslookbright."Iturnedforbrightnesstoanassortmentofmodernphilosophers(Sartre,Heidegger,Nelson
Goodman,MerleauPonty,EdwardCasey),historians(L.P.Hartley,WilliamDavidChapman,Lowenthal),novelistsandpoetswithastrongsenseofplace
(Faulkner,Welty,Stegner,CormacMcCarthy,LarryMcMurtry,T.S.Eliot,Heaney),writersonnature(Dillard,Ehrlich,Lopez,McPhee),averyperceptive
physicist(NielsBohr),and,sinceIwasdealingwithAmericanIndians,topertinentworksbyN.ScottMomaday,VineDeloria,Jr.,LeslieSilko,AlfonsoOrtiz,and
otherIndianauthors.Ihavedrawnthankfully,thoughnotalwaysobviously,fromallthesesourcesandmore,asIhavefromtheincisiveanthropologyofClifford
Geertz(whocontinuestodoithisway),theeccentricsociologyofErvingGoffman(whoemphaticallydidithis),andthesensitivesociolinguisticsofDellHymes(who
thrivesonthecomplexitiesofNativeAmericanlanguagesandlikewisesteershisowndistinctivecourse).

DudleyPatterson,aCibecuehorseman,oncesaidtomeafteralongday'sridesearchingforcattleinbrokencountry,"Notmanycowsbutmanygoodplaces.Tryto
holdontothem.It'sgood.Youcouldlearnalot."Ididtry,Ihavelearned,andIhopethatthosewhothriveonattachmentstoplaceswillfindvalueinthisaccountof
howothersdothesame.Inthisconvulsiveageofuprootedpopulationsandextensivediasporas,holdingontoplacesandsensingfullythegoodnesscontained
thereinhasbecomeincreasinglydifficult,andinyearstocome,Iexpect,itmayeverywhereberegardedasaprivilegeandagift.AmericanIndians,whosettledthis
continentfirstandwerethefirsttobedisplaced,understandthisalreadyinverypervasiveways.Maywealllearn

 Pagexvii

fromthem.And,asWesternApachessayinprayerandregulartalk,"mayitsoonbeusefullyso."

AndmayI,onthatgracefulnote,concludebythankingsomeverygenerouspeoplewhosharedtheirideasonplacewithmeandcommentedonmywork:Vine
Deloria,Jr.,N.ScottMomaday,JerryFlute,GaylePotterBasso,KarenBlu,DanFrank,MichaelGraves,PhilipGreenfeld,BillDouglas,MorrisFoster,Edward
Casey,StevenFeld,NancyMunn,AlfonsoOrtiz,DellHymes,VirginiaHymes,RichardBauman,JoelSherzer,CharlesFrake,RoyD'Andrade,HaroldConklin,
CliffordGeertz,StephenMurray,JamesKari,EugeneHunn,MichaelSilverstein,ThomasThornton,LarryEvers,KatieStewart,MiriamKahn,RachelHadas,Sue
AllenMills,AlanWilson,JulieKruikshank,WilliamHanks,ScottRushforth,PeterWhitely,JaneKepp,RayMcDermott,GeorgeMarcus,StephenTyler,thelateSir
EdmundLeach,andElizabethHadas,directoroftheUniversityofNewMexicoPress.Thestandarddisclaimersapply.

MuchofmyfieldworkinCibecuewasmadepossiblebygrantsfromtheNationalScienceFoundationandtheWennerGrenFoundationforAnthropological
ResearchIamgratefultotheseorganizationsfortheirconfidenceandsupport.IwouldalsoliketoacknowledgetheAmericanAnthropologicalAssociationfor
permissiontomakeuseofpreviouslypublishedmaterial.JuneelPiperpreparedthefinalmanuscriptwithgrace,expertise,andmanyhelpfulsuggestions.Finally,I
wishtothanktheUniversityofNewMexicoforgrantingmeasabbaticalleaveinordertofinishthisbook,andmycolleaguesintheDepartmentofAnthropologyfor
respectingitsocheerfully.

MydebttotheApachepeopleofCibecue,whichnowreachesbackmorethanthirtyfiveyears,isenormousandprofound.Noonecouldaskforbetterteachersor
finerfriendsthanhorsemenMorleyCromwell,CharlesHenry,RobertMachuse,NickThompson,andDudleyPatterson.Althoughallarewiththeirancestorsnow,I
knowtheyarestillonhand,forIheartheirvoicesoftenasItravelthroughtheircountry.Howdeeplytheylovedtheircountry.Andhowpleasedtheywerethatsome
oftheirknowledgeofitwouldbepreservedandmadepublic,subjecttoasetofclearlydefinedrestrictionswhichhavenotandshallneverbeviolated.Attheir
urgingandwiththeirpermission,thisbookistheirs,agiftfrom

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themtothegrandchildrenofCibecue,andtotheirgrandchildren,andtotheirs.

OtherApachepeoplewhohavetakentimetoinstructmeandshowmehowtobehaveincludeLolaMachuse(towhomIamparticularlygrateful),RuthPatterson,
AnniePeaches,DickCooley,CalvertandDarleneTessay,EstherLupe,RoseThompson,ErnestMurphy,JoeCase,SamandLillianJohnson,CharlesCromwell,
SamEndfield,LeviDehose,LonnieDehose,FrancisandSarahDehose,NelsonLupe,Sr.,RoyandNannieQuay,TeddyPeaches,AlvinQuay,ErvinQuay,Imogene
Quay,EmilyQuay,SimonandBeverlyEndfield,VirgilandJudyDehose,DelmarBoni,VincentRandall,NedAnderson,PhilipCassadore,OlaCassadoreDavis,
MarlowCassadore,andFranklinStanley.IamalsoindebtedtoNashleyTessay,Sr.,whohelpedmenoendintranslatingthestoriesandplacenameswhichappear
inthepagestofollow.RonnieLupe,chairmanoftheWhiteMountainApacheTribeformorethantwentyyears,hasbeenconstantinhisencouragement,guidance,
andadvice.Workingwithhim,aswitheveryoneelse,hasbeenanhonorandaprivilege.IamalsothankfulformyfriendshipwithWayneandFloraCole.

Mymother,EtoliaS.Basso,hashelpedinmanyways.Mywife,GaylePotterBasso,hashelpedinmanymore.Herresilientheartandcriticalmindsawthisproject
through,especiallyonthoseoccasionswhenmyspiritsheadedsouth.ToGayle,withlove,andtoW.,"Nowit'sprettygood'aal*"

KEITHH.BASSO
HEBER,ARIZONA,1995

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1
QuotingtheAncestors
Placeisthefirstofallbeings,sinceeverythingthatexistsisinaplaceandcannotexistwithoutaplace.
Archytas,ascitedbySimplicius,CommentaryonAristotle'sCategories

If,asL.P.Hartley(1956:1)proposed,"thepastisaforeigncountry""theydothingsdifferentlythere,"headdedtomakethepointitiseverywherealandthat
attractsitsshareofvisitors.Andunderstandablyso.Passagetothepastiseasytocomeby(anyreminderofbygonetimescanservetolaunchanexcursion),getting
thereisquickandefficient(aquietmomentortwoisusuallysufficienttomakethetransition),andrestrictionsonlocaltravelarevirtuallynonexistent(memoryand
imagination,themostintimateandinventiveoftravelingcompanions,alwaysseetothat).Andhoweverthetripunfolds,onecanproceedatanundemandingpace,
exploringsitesofspecialinterestormovingaboutfromplacetoplacewithoutfeelingharriedorrushed.Whichmayaccountforthefactthatreturningabruptlytothe
countryofthepresent,wherethingsareapttoberushedenough,isoftensomewhatjarring.

Justwhereoneventuresinthecountryofthepastsometimesdependsonwhereonehasventuredbefore,onpersonalpredilections,nurturedovertime,forcongenial
piecesofexperientialterrain:theterrainofone'syouth,perhaps,orofwhereone'sforebearslived,orofdecisiveeventsthatalteredthecourseofhistorythe
possibilitiesareendless.Yetwhateverthesepreferencesare,andnomatterhowoftenindulged,thepasthasawayofluringcurioustravelersoffthebeatentrack.Itis,
afterall,acountryconducivetowandering,withplentyofunmarkedroads,unexpectedvistas,andunforeseenoccurrences.Informativediscoveries,

 Page4

pleasurableandotherwise,arenotatalluncommon.Whichiswhyitcanseem,asWilliamChapman(1979:46)haswritten,that"thepastisatitsbestwhenittakesus
toplacesthatcounselandinstruct,thatshowuswhowearebyshowinguswherewehavebeen,thatremindusofourconnectionstowhathappenedhere"(italicsin
theoriginal).Andwhyitisaswell,forthesamesetofreasons,thatthiseverchanginglandscapeoftheactiveheartandmindrewardsrepeatedvisits.Forwherever
onejourneysinthecountryofthepast,instructiveplacesabound.

Manyoftheseplacesarealsoencounteredinthecountryofthepresentasmaterialobjectsandareas,naturallyformedorbuilt,whosemyriadlocalarrangements
makeupthelandscapesofeverydaylife.Buthere,now,intheongoingworldofcurrentconcernsandprojects,theyarenotapprehendedasremindersofthepast.
Instead,whenaccordedattentionatall,placesareperceivedintermsoftheiroutwardaspectsasbeing,ontheirmanifestsurfaces,thefamiliarplacestheyareand
unlesssomethinghappenstodislodgetheseperceptionstheyareleft,asitwere,totheirownenduringdevices.Butthensomethingdoeshappen.Perhapsonespotsa
freshlyfallentree,orabitofflakingpaint,orahousewherenonehasstoodbeforeanydisturbance,largeorsmall,thatinscribesthepassageoftimeandaplace
presentsitselfasbearingonpriorevents.Andatthatprecisemoment,whenordinaryperceptionsbegintoloosentheirhold,aborderhasbeencrossedandthe
countrystartstochange.Awarenesshasshifteditsfooting,andthecharacteroftheplace,nowtransfiguredbythoughtsofanearlierday,swiftlytakesonanewand
foreignlook.

ConsiderinthisregardtheremarksofNielsBohr,thegreattheoreticalphysicist,whilespeakinginJuneof1924withWernerHeisenbergatKronbergCastlein
Denmark,Bohr'sbelovedhomeland.1

Isn'titstrangehowthiscastlechangesassoonasoneimaginesthatHamletlivedhere?Asscientistswebelievethatacastleconsistsonlyofstones,andadmirethewaythe
architectputthemtogether.Thestone,thegreenroofwithitspatina,thewoodcarvingsinthechurch,constitutethewholecastle.Noneofthisshouldbechangedbythefact
thatHamletlivedhere,andyetitischangedcompletely.Suddenlythewallsandrampartsspeakadifferentlanguage.Thecourtyardbecomes

 Page5

anentireworld,adarkcornerremindsusofthedarknessofthehumansoul,wehearHamlet's"Tobeornottobe."Yetallwereallyknowisthathisnameappearsinathirteenth
centurychronicle.Noonecanprovehereallylivedhere.ButeveryoneknowsthequestionsShakespearehadhimask,thehumandepthshewasmadetoreveal,andsohetoohad
tobefoundinaplaceonearth,hereinKronberg.Andonceweknowthat,Kronbergbecomesaquitedifferentcastleforus.(quotedinBruner1986:45)

Thus,byoneinsightfulaccount,doesthecountryofthepasttransformandsupplantthecountryofthepresent.Thatcertainlocalitiespromptsuchtransformations,
evokingastheydoentireworldsofmeaning,isnot,asNielsBohrrecognized,asmalloruninterestingtruth.Neitheristhefact,whichhealsoappreciated,thatthis
typeofretrospectiveworldbuildingletuscallitplacemakingdoesnotrequirespecialsensibilitiesorcultivatedskills.2 Itisacommonresponsetocommon
curiositieswhathappenedhere?whowasinvolved?whatwasitlike?whyshoulditmatter?andanyonecanbeaplacemakerwhohastheinclination.Andevery
sooften,moreorlessspontaneously,aloneorwithothers,withvaryingdegreesofinterestandenthusiasm,almosteveryonedoesmakeplaces.Asroundlyubiquitous
asitisseeminglyunremarkable,placemakingisauniversaltoolofthehistoricalimagination.Andinsomesocietiesatleast,ifnotinthegreatmajority,itissurely
amongthemostbasictoolsofall.

Prevalentthoughitis,thistypeofworldbuildingisneverentirelysimple.Onthecontrary,amodestbodyofevidencesuggeststhatplacemakinginvolvesmultipleacts
ofrememberingandimaginingwhichinformeachotherincomplexways(Casey1976,1987).Itisclear,however,thatrememberingoftenprovidesabasisfor
imagining.Whatisrememberedaboutaparticularplaceincluding,prominently,verbalandvisualaccountsofwhathastranspiredthereguidesandconstrainshow
itwillbeimaginedbydelimitingafieldofworkablepossibilities.Thesepossibilitiesarethenexploitedbyactsofconjectureandspeculationwhichbuilduponthemand
gobeyondthemtocreatepossibilitiesofanewandoriginalsort,thusproducingafreshandexpandedpictureofhowthingsmighthavebeen.Essentially,then,

 Page6

instancesofplacemakingconsistinanadventitiousfleshingoutofhistoricalmaterialthatculminatesinapositedstateofaffairs,aparticularuniverseofobjectsand
eventsinshort,aplaceworldwhereinportionsofthepastarebroughtintobeing.3

WhenNielsBohrwentwithHeisenbergtovisitKronbergCastle,hethoughtinstantlyofHamletandrecalledthefamousplayinwhichthisfigurecomestolife.Then,
seizingonpossibilitiesinherentinShakespeare'sdrama,Bohrwentontoimagineadarklycompellingplaceworldinwhichthewallsofthecastleechoedanalien
tongue,ashadedcourtyardnookgavenoticeofthetroubledhumansoul,andHamletutteredhisanguishedcry,"Tobeornottobe."Andprobably,consideringit
wasBohr,therewasmuchmorebesides:otherfanciedelements,wroughtincompatibleterms,whichendowedhissomberplaceworldwithaddedsubstanceand
depth.WithinthisforeignuniverseBohrcouldbrieflydwell,anduntilitstartedtofade,aseveryplaceworldmust,theimaginativeDanishphysicistandabitofDanish
historybreathedlifeintoeachother.

Butthereismoretomakingplaceworldsthanlivinglocalhistoryinalocalizedkindofway.Inaddition,placemakingisawayofconstructinghistoryitself,of
inventingit,offashioningnovelversionsof"whathappenedhere."Foreverydevelopedplaceworldmanifestsitselfasapossiblestateofaffairs,andwheneverthese
constructionsareacceptedbyotherpeopleascredibleandconvincingorplausibleandprovocative,orarrestingandintriguingtheyenrichthecommonstockon
whicheveryonecandrawtomuseonpastevents,interprettheirsignificance,andimaginethemanew.Buildingandsharingplaceworlds,inotherwords,isnotonlya
meansofrevivingformertimesbutalsoofrevisingthem,ameansofexploringnotmerelyhowthingsmighthavebeenbutalsohow,justpossibly,theymighthave
beendifferentfromwhatothershavesupposed.Augmentingandenhancingconceptionsofthepast,innovativeplaceworldschangetheseconceptionsaswell.

Bywayofillustration,andreturningoncemoretoDenmark,Bohr'sremarkstoHeisenbergcouldhaveprovidedHeisenbergwithnovelpossibilitiesforbuildinghis
ownversionofHamlet'scastleinHamlet'stime,aplaceworldthatwouldhavebeendifferentfromanyhemighthavefashionedworkingbyhimself.AndifHeisenberg
hadthenreturnedthe

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favor,describinginsomedetailhisownconstructiontoBohr,thesamewouldbetrueinreverse.Whichissimplytosaythatdiscussingthestuffofplaceworlds
comparingtheircontents,pursuingtheirimplications,assessingtheirstrengthsandweaknessesisaregularsocialprocess,ascommonandstraightforwardasitis
sometimeshighlyinventive.

Inthisdiscursivefashion,eveninsocietieswherewritingandotherdevicesfor"preservingthepast"areabsentordevalued,historicalknowledgeisproducedand
reproduced.Andinthismannertoo,eveninsocietieswhichlacktheservicesofrevisionaryhistorians,historicalunderstandingsarealteredandrecast.Itiswellto
keepinmindthatinterpretingthepastcanbereadilyaccomplishedandiseverydaywithoutrecoursetodocumentaryarchives,photographicfiles,andearlysound
recordings.Itcannotbeaccomplished,readilyorotherwise,withoutrecoursetoplacesandtheplaceworldstheyengender.Longbeforetheadventofliteracy,tosay
nothingof"history"asanacademicdiscipline,placesservedhumankindasdurablesymbolsofdistanteventsandasindispensableaidsforrememberingandimagining
themandthisconvenientarrangement,ancientbutnotoutmoded,iswithusstilltoday.Inmodernlandscapeseverywhere,peoplepersistinasking,"Whathappened
here?"Theanswerstheysupply,thoughperhapsdistinctlyforeign,shouldnotbetakenlightly,forwhatpeoplemakeoftheirplacesiscloselyconnectedtowhatthey
makeofthemselvesasmembersofsocietyandinhabitantsoftheearth,andwhilethetwoactivitiesmaybeseparableinprinciple,theyaredeeplyjoinedinpractice.If
placemakingisawayofconstructingthepast,avenerablemeansofdoinghumanhistory,itisalsoawayofconstructingsocialtraditionsand,intheprocess,
personalandsocialidentities.Weare,inasense,theplaceworldsweimagine.

Buttheseandrelatedmattersareonlybroadlydiscernedandlooselyunderstood,andthemainreasonwhyiseasytoidentify.Awidespreadformofimaginative
activity,placemakingisalsoaformofculturalactivity,andso,asanyanthropologistwilltellyou,itcanbegraspedonlyinrelationtotheideasandpracticeswith
whichitisaccomplished.Andbecausetheseideasandpracticesmayvaryconsiderablybothwithinandamongparticularsocialgroups,thenatureoftheactivitycan
beunderstoodonlybymeansofsustainedethnography.Yetlittleethnographyofplacemakinghasinfactbeenundertaken,andwhatisknownabout

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placemakingNavajoorNorwegian,SinhaleseorSoviet,MexicanorMoroccanisthereforesharplylimited.Thereisworktobedone,andnowisasgoodatime
asanytoseewhatitmayinvolve.

Thischapter,whichoffersanexampleoftheworkIhaveinmind,issoontocrossovertheborderintoanAmericanIndianversionofHartley'sforeignland.Thetime
hascometotravel,firsttoArizonaandthevillageofCibecue,homesincethebeginningtogroupsofmenandwomenknowntothemselvesasndee(people),to
othersasWesternApache(fig.1).4 AndthentosomeoftheirplacesnotfarawayplaceswithnamessuchasWidowsPauseForBreath,SheCarriesHerBrother
OnHerBack,andBitterAgavePlainplacesmadememorable,andinfinitelyimaginable,byeventsthathappenedlongagowhenthepeople'sdistantancestorswere
settlingintothecountry.Soletusbeoff,stoppinghereandtherewithoneCharlesHenry,agesixtyorthereabouts,skilledherbalist,devoteduncle,andveteranmaker
ofplaceworlds.NielsBohr,Iliketothink,wouldhaveenjoyedhiscompany.Forbothmenunderstood,thoughinverydifferentways,thatcastlescomeinagreat
manyshapesandneednotbewroughtwithmortarandstone.

WaterLieswithMudinanOpenContainer

Earlymorning,lateMay1979,thenight'sredemptivechillrapidlyrecedingbeforetherisingsun.Silencedeepandfull,ablanketupontheland.Iamstandingwith
CharlesHenryandoneofhiscousins,MorleyCromwell,attheedgeofacircularswalesomefortyfeetacross.Ringedbywillowsandfilledwithluxuriantgrass,itlies
nearaspringfedcreekwhichflowssoutheasttothegardensandcornfieldsofCibecue.Theearthatourfeetismarkedwiththetracksofdeer,andfromhighina
cottonwoodtreecomestheliquidcallofaraven.Achipmunkcreepstotheswale,securesanervousdrink,anddartsawaybehindarottinglogcoveredwithpatches
ofgreenandorangemoss.Theairisheavyandmoist.Asmallwhitebutterflydancesinplaceinashaftofgoldensunlight.

CharlesandMorleyhavebroughtmehereattheoutsetofalongrangeprojectinWesternApacheculturalgeography.AuthorizedandendorsedbytheWhite
MountainApacheTribalCouncil,theproject'smainobjectiveistorecordontopographicmapstheapproximatelocationofeachandeveryplacethatbearsan
Apachenamewithinatwenty

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Figure1
LocationofthecommunityofCibecueontheFortApacheIndianReservation,Arizona.

mileradiusoftheCibecuecommunity.Residentsofthecommunityhaveneverknownmapstheyconsideredtheirown(thoseintheirpossessionshowbutahandfulof
placeswithextraneousnamesinEnglishandSpanish),andtheworkwehavestarted,whichisintendedtolaythefoundationforalocalApacheatlas,isregardedby
someaslongoverdue.Acoupleofweeksago,beforetheworkbegan,thethreeofusagreed

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onasimpledivisionoflabor.Charles,whoisincharge,willguideusfromplacetoplace,supplyeachplace'spropername,andcommentashechoosesonitspast
andpresentsignificance.Morleywilltranslateasnecessary(CharlesspeaksEnglishreluctantly,andmyownApacheisstiffandunevenatbest)andofferadditional
insights.MyjobistodrivetheJeep,provideplentyofcoffeeandReese'sPeanutButterCups(Morleyhasaseriousweaknessforthem),andtrytogeteverything
downonpaperandaudiotapes.Itseemslikeasensibleplan,balancedandlooselyefficient,andallofusbelieveitwillserveourpurposewell.

Butalready,ononlyourseconddayinthecountrytogether,aproblemhascomeup.Forthethirdtimeinasmanytries,IhavemispronouncedtheApachenameof
theboggyswalebeforeus,andCharles,whoiswearyofrepeatingit,hasaguardedlookinhiseyes.Afterbotchingthenameafourthtime,Iacknowledgedefeatand
attempttoapologizeformyflawedlinguisticperformance.''I'msorry,Charles,Ican'tgetit.I'llworkonitlater,it'sinthemachine.Itdoesn'tmatter."

"It'smatter,"CharlessayssoftlytomeinEnglish.Andthen,turningtospeaktoMorley,headdresseshiminWesternApache:
Whathe'sdoingisn'tright.It'snotgood.Heseemstobeinahurry.Whyisheinahurry?It'sdisrespectful.Ourancestorsmadethisname.Theymadeitjustasitis.Theymadeit
forareason.Theyspokeitfirst,alongtimeago!He'srepeatingthespeechofourancestors.Hedoesn'tknowthat.Tellhimhe'srepeatingthespeechofourancestors!

Charles'sadmonition,whichMorleyproceedstotranslatewithoutdullingitscriticaledge,leavesmeunsettledandsilent.ThatCharleshastakenmeforsomeoneina
hurrycomesasasurprise.NeitherhadIforeseenthatmyfailuretopronouncethestubbornApacheplacenamewouldbeinterpretedbyhimasdisplayingalackof
respect.AndneverhadIsuspectedthatusingApacheplacenamesmightbeheardbythosewhousethemasrepeatingverbatimactuallyquotingthespeechof
theirearlyancestors.Thisisafairamounttotakeinatonce,andasthequietofthemorningassertsitselfagain,Ifearthatmyactions,whichwerewhollyunwittingbut
patentlyoffensive,mayhaveplacedinjeopardythefutureofourproject.Charlesand

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Morley,putoffbymyincompetence,maynowdecidetheyhavebetterthingstodo.Dammit!

Butthen,unexpectedly,inoneofthosecourteousturnaboutsthatApachepeopleemploytoassuageembarrassmentandsalvagedamagedfeelings,Charleshimself
comestotherescue.Withaquickcorroborativegrin,heannouncesheismissingseveralteethandthatmyproblemwiththeplacenamemaybeattributabletohis
lackofdentalequipment.Sometimes,hesays,heishardtounderstandhisnephewJasonrecentlytoldhimthatandheknowshetendstospeaksoftly.Maybethe
combinationoftoofewteethandtoolittlevolumeaccountsformyfallingshort.Morley,ontheotherhand,isnotsoencumbered.Thoughshyatoothortwo,he
retainsthegoodonesfortalking,andbecauseheisnotafraidtospeakupexcept,aseveryoneknows,inthepresenceofgarrulouswomennoonehastrouble
hearingwhathesays.MaybeifMorleyrepeatedtheplacenameagain,slowlyandwithampleforce,Iwouldgetitright.It'sworthatry.Cousin?

"GOSHTL'ISH*TBIL*SIKN*!"RisingtothespiritofCharles'splayfulteasing,Morleyboomsouttheplacename,wordbyconstituentword,withsuch
exuberanceastostartleintoflightapairofresidentrobins.Allofuslaughasthebirdswheelaway,butformethetidehasturned.Instantly,theformofthenameand
itsmeaningassumecoherentshape,andIknowthatatlastI'vegotit:Goshtl'ishTBilSikan,orWaterLiesWithMudInAnOpenContainer.Relievedandpleased,
Ipronouncethenameslowly,thenabitmorerapidly,andagainasitmightbespokeninnormalconversation.5 Charleslistensandnodshisheadinapproval."Yes,"
hesaysinApache."Thatishowourancestorsmadeitalongtimeago,justasitistonamethisplace."Andthen,keepingtohisownlanguageandspeakingattimes
likeanobserveronthescene,hefashionsaplaceworldinwhichthemakingandnamingoccurred.

Theycametothiscountrylongago,ourancestorsdid.Theyhadn'tseenitbefore,theyknewnothingaboutit.Everythingwasunfamiliartothem.

Theywereverypoor.Theyhadfewpossessionsandsurvivingwasdifficultforthem.Theywerelookingforagoodplacetosettle,asafeplacewithoutenemies.Theywere

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searching.Theyweretravelingallover,stoppinghereandthere,noticingeverything,lookingattheland.Theyknewnothingaboutitanddidn'tknowwhattheywouldfind.

Noneoftheseplaceshadnamesthen,noneofthemdid,andasthepeoplewentabouttheythoughtaboutthis."Howshallwespeakaboutthisland?"theysaid."Howshallwe
speakaboutwherewehavebeenandwherewewanttogo?"

Nowtheyarecoming!Theyarewalkingupstreamfromdownbelow.Nowtheyarearrivinghere,lookingallaboutthem,noticingeverythingaboutthisplace.Itlookedtothem
thenasitlookstousnow.Weknowthatfromitsnameitsnamegivesapictureofit,justasitwasalongtimeago.

Nowtheyarehappy."Thislookslikeagoodplace,"theyaresayingtoeachother.Nowtheyarenoticingtheplantsthatlivearoundhere."Someoftheseplantsareunknownto
us.Maybetheyaregoodforsomething.Maybetheyareusefulasmedicines."Nowtheyaresaying,"Thisisagoodplaceforhunting.Deerandturkeycomeheretoeatanddrink.
Wecanwaitforthemhere,hiddencloseby."Theyaresayingthat.Theyarenoticingeverythingandtalkingaboutittogether.Theylikewhattheyseeaboutthisplace.Theyare
excited!

Nowtheirleaderisthinking,"Thisplacemayhelpussurvive.Ifwesettleinthiscountry,wemustbeabletospeakaboutthisplaceandrememberitclearlyandwell.Wemustgive
itaname."

SotheynameditGoshtl'ish*TBil*Sikane*[WaterLiesWithMudInAnOpenContainer].Theymadeapictureofitwithwords.Nowtheycouldspeakaboutitandrememberit
clearlyandwell.Nowtheyhadapicturetheycouldcarryintheirminds.Youcanseeforyourself.Itlookslikeitsname.

WhenCharleshasfinishedspeaking,hereachesdownandtakesfromthemarshygroundaheapinghandfulofmud.Hesqueezesitfirmly,causinglittlejetsofwaterto
spurtfrombetweenhisfingers."There,"hesayswithevidentsatisfaction."Waterandmudtogether,justastheywerewhenourancestorscamehere."Hethenexcuses
himself,explainingthatheneedstoprocureacertainmedicinalplantforuseinhisworkatCibecuehewillnotbegonelongandwilljoin

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usbackattheJeep.WalkingalongwithMorley,IcannotcontainmyappreciationforallthatCharleshassaid."Thatwasgreat!"Iexclaim."It'slikewewerethere,
watchingthemwhentheycame!"Morleyconcurs,addingmatteroffactlythatCharlesisavigorousthinkerandhasdonethissortofthingonnumerousoccasions."Do
youthinkhe'lldoitagain?"Iask."It'suptohim,''saysMorley."Ithinkheprobablywill."

Snakes'Water

ItturnsoutMorleyisright.Intheslowmovingweekthatfollows(Juneisnowuponus,theheatarelentlessfoe)wetravelwithCharlestotwelvemoreplaces,andat
twooftheseanopenexpansenamedNadahNch''Golgaiy(BitterAgavePlain)andadispersionofverticalboulderscalledTsNaadadn'h(ScatteredRocks
StandErect)heslipsintothepastandconstructsancestralplaceworlds.Muchasbefore,andspeakingofteninthesameeyewitnessvoice,heimagineshis
forebearsarrivingonthescene,studyingitintently,andassessingitspotentialforhelpingthemsurvive.LookingoutonBitterAgavePlain,theancestorsmarvelatall
thegrass,tallandthickandladenwithedibleseeds,andpraiseitasasignofamplesummerrainfall.PausingatScatteredRocksStandErect,theywonderwitha
mixtureoffearandcuriositywhythebouldersareupright,asiframmedintotheearthbysomegigantichand.Atbothlocalitiestheymakeandbestowaplacename,a
namedescribingtheplaceitself,justasitlookedalongtimeago,justasitlookstoday.AndCharles,havinglodgedhimselfinthepresentagain,saysthatmuchis
containedinApacheplacenames,preservingastheydoboththewordsofhisancestorsandtheirgraphicimpressionsofanunfamiliarland.

ButmoreiscontainedinApacheplacenamesthanfrozenancestralquotesandagelessimagesofanewandstrikinglandscape.Inaddition,placenamescanoffer
evidenceofchangesinthelandscape,showingclearlythatcertainlocalitiesdonotpresenttheappearancetheydidinformertimes.Moreinterestingstill,someofthis
evidencepointstomajorshiftsinlocalclimaticpatterns,thusallowinginferencestobedrawnabouthowandpossiblywhytheenvironmentoftheancestors
differedinkeyrespectsfromthatoftheirmoderndescendants.Andwerethisnotenough,thethemeofplaces'changingevenastheyenduresometimesfinds
expressioningrippingApacheplaceworlds.

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IknewnothingofthesethingsuntilIaccompaniedCharlesandMorleytoTliish*BiT'(Snakes'Water),aninactivespringatthefootofasandstonebluffsome
mileswestofCibecue.Hiddenfromviewbymanzanitabushes,thespringissurvivedbyaclusterofhandcutrocks,flatandrectilinear,whichencircleapoolofwhitish
sand,nowthehomeofdelicatepurplewildflowersandamotleyassortmentofweeds.ABudweiserbeercan,fadedandpockmarkedwithrust,liesontheground
nearby.Standingaloneafewfeetaway,Charlesgazesattherocksforseveralminutes,asthoughwaitingforthemtospeak.Andperhapssomehowtheydo,forhe
suddenlydeclaresthatthespringhaslongbeendry,thatatsomepointintimeitswaterwentaway,andthattheresultofthisisanabsenceoffit(a"lackofmatch"is
whathesaysinApache)betweentheplaceitselfandthewayitsnamedescribesit.Thenameitwasgivenalongtimeagoshowsthatithaschanged.Snake'sWater,
asanyonecansee,isnolongerthewayitwaswhentheancestorssawitfirstandmadeittheirownwithwords.

MotionlessindenimshirtandsweatstainedStetsonhat,Charlesagainfallssilent.Then,withhiseyesstillfixedonthebarrencircleofrocks,hebeginstofashiona
placeworldinwhichtheyservedanimportantpurpose.
Nowtheserocksarelyingalone.Noonecomestothemanymore.Oncethiswasn'tso.Longago,peoplecamehereoften.Theysquattedontheserockswhentheyfilledtheir
containerswithwater.Theykneltontheserockswhentheydrankwaterfromtheirhands.Ourpeoplewereverygratefulforthisspring.Itmadethemhappytoknowtheycould
relyonitanytime.Theyweregladthisplacewashere.

Nowtheyarecomingtogetwater!Theyhavebeenworkingmaybetheywerediggingupagaveandnowtheyarethirsty.Amaniswalkingintheleadwithwomenand
childrenbehindhim.Thewomenarecarryingtheircontainers.Somehavewaterjugsontheirbacks.Nooneistalking.Maybetherearesnakeshere,lyingontheserocks.Yes!
Nowthemaninfrontcanseethem!Therearesnakeslyingstretchedoutontheserocks.Theyaretheoneswhoownthisspring,theoneswhoprotectit.

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Nowthatmanisspeakingtothepeople."Listentome,"heissaying."Allofyoumustwaithere.Don'tgoanycloser.Don'tapproachSnakes'WateruntilItalktothemandask
themtomoveaway."Thepeopleobeythisman,knowingthathewilldothingscorrectly.Nowtheyarewaitingtogetherinagroup,justashetoldthemtodo.

Nowthatmanhascomehere.HeistalkingtothosewhoprotectSnakes'Water,usingwordstheyunderstandanddoingthingscorrectly.Soontheymoveofftherocks.Theykeep
going,unalarmed,untiltheyareoutofsight.Nowthatmanissprinklingsomethingonthewater.Itisagifttotheoneswhoownit.HeisgivingthankstothemandWater,
informingthemthatheandthepeoplearegrateful."Thisisgood,"heissayingtothem."Thisisgood."

Nowheisbeckoningtothepeopletocomeandgetwater.Someofthemarestillconcerned,holdingbackwiththeirchildren.Othersarearrivingnow,nervouslylookingaround.
Nowtheyseetheyhavenothingtofeareverythingwasdonecorrectlyandtheystarttofilltheircontainers.Nowtheyarehappyandgrateful,talkingamongstthemselves.
"Thiswaterisgood,"theyaresaying."Itisgoodthatitishereforus."Someofthewomenaresmiling.Theyknowtheyhavenothingtofear.Nowtheyarekneelingonthese
stones,relievingtheirthirst,drinkingfromtheirhands.

Charlessays,nomorethereisnothingtobesaid.Thethreeofusturnfromthebarrenspringandtogetherwalkslowlyaway,lostinthoughtandthedeepnessof
time,sojournersstillinadistantworldthatcastsapowerfulspell.Ashortwhilelater,seatedintheshadeofajunipertree,Charlesexplainsthatwhatweobservedat
Snakes'Waterisnotatalluncommontherearemoreplaceslikeit,scatteredthroughoutApachecountry,thathaveundergonephysicalchangesandnolonger
conformtothewaytheirnamesdescribethem.Manyoftheseplaces,hesays,werenamedforsourcesofwatersprings,seeps,bogs,seasonalpoolsatthebasesof
canyonwallswhichnowarepermanentlydry.Snakes'Waterisacaseinpoint,asareDl'*BiT'(Birds'Water),anotherdryspring,andTNlch'*(Foul
Water),aformer

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seep,probablysulfurous,locatedfartothewest.Otherlocalities,accordingtotheirnames,oncegavelifetospeciesofplantsthatthriveundermoistconditions,and
theseplantshaveeithervanishedorpersistinstuntedform.Tl'ohk'aa*Sikaad(StandOfArrowCane),wheretodaynocaneexists,offersatellingexamplesodoes
T'iisSikaad(GroveOfCottonwoodTrees),whereonesmalltreeremains.Andtheseareonlyafew.

Judgingfromwhathappenedattheseandotherplaces,Charlesgoesontosay,therecanbenodoubtthatthecountrywaswetterandgreenerwhentheancestorsfirst
exploredit.Thiswasoneofthereasons,ifnotthemajorreason,theyfoundittotheirlikinganddecidedtomakeittheirhome.Fortheywerefarmersaswellas
hunterstheyhadcorntheywantedtoplantandtheysearchedeverywhereforwateranditstelltalesigns.Inthistheywerenotdisappointed,astheirplacenames
plainlyreveal."Thenamesdonotlie,"Charlesstatesemphatically."Theyshowwhatisdifferentandwhatisstillthesame."Likesomanyfaithfulphotographs,hesays,
theyrecordthelookofthelandasitwasinancestraltimesandthelookofthelandwaslush.Itislesssotoday.Somethingmusthavehappened.Water,obviously,
begantogoaway.

Afterlightingacigaretteandpouringacupofcoffeefromthethermoswecarrywithus,Charlesvolunteersthatnoonereallyknows(heimplieswithashrugthatno
onereallycares)whenthewaterbegantogoaway.Itwassometimeinthepast,hesays,andwhetherithappenedslowlyorfast,thepeoplewouldhavenoticedand
wouldhavebeenconcerned.Therewaswaterenoughforlifetogoonthestreamsstillflowedandrainsstillcameinthesummerandfallbutitwasdefinitelyless
abundantanditssourceswerelesspredictable.Andthiswouldhavebeeninterpretedasapunitiveresponse,wroughtbyWateritself,tosomethingthepeoplehad
done.Therehadtobeareasonforwhatwastakingplace,andtheonemostlikelyadduced,becauseitwasthesimplestandfarthestreaching,wasthatWaterhad
beenoffendedbyactsofdisrespect.Charleshaswonderedoftenwhatkindsofactsthesewere.Maybe,hesays,thepeopleweregreedy,takingfromspringsand
streamsmorewaterthantheyneededmaybetheywerewasteful,throwingwaterawaytheyshouldhavebeencarefultosaveormaybetheyceaseddoingeverything
correctly,neglect

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inginhasteorforgetfulnesstogiverepeatedthankstoWaterforgivingofitself.

Nooneknowsforsure,Charlessaysagain,butnoonedoubtsthatthepeopleweregreatlyalarmedtolearnthattheywereatfault.Hethentravelsbackinhismindto
theplacefromwhichwehavecome,imaginingtherethedifficultdaywhenagroupofhisancestors,thirstyandeagertodrink,discoveredtotheirdismaythatthe
springatSnakes'Waterwasdry.
Thepeoplecameagaintogetwaterandsawthattherewasnone.Theywereexpectingittobethere.Theywereshocked!Thewomenbegantowail.Themenstoodsilentandstill.
"WhyhasSnakes'Waterdriedup?Whyhasthishappened?Whathavewedonetocausethistohappen?Watermustsurelybeangryatus."Thisiswhattheyarethinking.

Nowtheyarewalkingaway,thirstyandshakingwithfear.Thewomenarewailing,louderandlouder.Theirchildrenarecrying,too.Theyarewailingasifarelativehaddied.
"Whatifthishappenselsewhere?!Whatifthishappenseverywhere?!WhatifWatertakesallofitselfaway?!"Theyaredeeplyfrightenedbecauseofwhattheyhavedone.

"Ourholypeoplemustworkonthisforus."ThisiswhattheyaresayingastheywalkawayfromSnakes'Water."OurholypeoplemusthelpusbymakingamendstoWater.They
musthelpussowemaylive!TheymustaskWatertotakepityonus!Whatifthishappenedeverywhere!"Thisiswhattheyarethinking.Thisiswhattheyarepraying.Theydo
notunderstand.Theyareterriblyafraid.Thewomenarewailinglouder,asifarelativehasdied.Alreadytheyhavestartedtopray.

Charlesstandsupanddrinksthelastofhiscoffee.Thedayisdone.WereturntotheJeep.OnthedrivebacktoCibecue,noonesaysaword.

JuniperTreeStandsAlone

Allethnographersoccasionallylosetheirsnap,andso,ofcourse,dothosewithwhomtheywork.Rarelydoestheproblemreachepicproportions,butitcanhappen.
OnaSaturdaylateinJune,withnothingmoreinstorethanaquietweekendinCibecue,Iwasstungtwice

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onthenosebyhornets,brokemylastpairofeyeglasses,andgotbittenonthehandbyanaggravatedcentipedewhileplayingAggravation,alocallypopularboard
game,withthreeApacheenthusiastsIalsomanagedtorunoutofgas,whichinCibecueistakenasevidenceofdangerouslylowintelligence.Duringthesameeight
hourperiod,Morleyreceivedaveryunfortunatehaircut,torehispantsonabarbedwiregate,andboughtbeerforaladyfromoutoftownwhorespondedtohis
kindnessbytryingtolifthiswallethelatersatdownonamonstrouswadofbubblegumbelongingtohissixyearoldniece,whoflewintoarageandattackedhim
withadustpan.Forhispart,Charleswokeupwithanastystomachflu,slicedhishandonacanofSpam,andfailedtoamusehiswifewhenhewrappedthewoundin
oneofherfavoritedishtowelshelatermisplacedhispocketknife,afairlyworrisomeloss,onlytodiscoveritinthepocketofhisjacket.Takenalltogether,asmore
andmorepeoplerushedtoobserve,itwaslittleshortofhilarious,andwheneveningfinallycame,withMorleynursingatenderegoandmeabulbousnose,wewent
tocallonCharlestoseehowhewasdoing.

Charlesseemedhappytoseeus,proclaimingasweenteredhishousethateveryonehasunevendays,onemightaswellexpectthem,andthatnexttopailsofCrisco
anddoublebladedaxeshiswife,hesupposes,wouldstronglyfavordishtowelsthewhiteman'sbestinventionmaybePeptoBismol.Hechucklesatthethought.
EnsconcedonacouchwithhisnephewJason,heinquireswhetherIampleasedwiththeworkwehavedonesofar.WhenItellhimIam,herepliesthatmorelies
aheadbecauseplacesandtheirnamesareimportanttoApachepeopleinmanydifferentways.Jasonhere,whojustturnedeleven,islearningthisalready,andonce
weresumeourtripsintothecountryJason,bytheway,willbejoininguswhenwedoheandIcanlearntogethersoon,perhaps,wewilltakeupthematterof
Apachesociallines,thosecloseknitgroupsofkinknowntooutsidersas"clans,"whosenamesforthemselvesarereallythenamesofplaces.Charlesthenchangesthe
subjectbybeamingasmileatMorley."Iknowmywifecan'thearme,"hesaysloudlyinApache,knowingthatMrs.Henry,whoisclosebyinthekitchen,willpickup
everyword."Speaktome,cousin,anddon'tleaveanythingout.What's

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thisIhearaboutabeautifulwidowfromWhiteriverwhomadeyoutearyourpants?"

Threedayslater,withJasonHenryintowandtherestofusfeelingrevived,wearebackupontheland.Rainhasfallenthenightbefore,steadyandhardformorethan
anhour,andthecolorsofthecountryside,nolongerdullbeneathlayersofdust,lookcleanandfreshlyrestored.Theairsmellssharpandfragrant.Itiscoolforthefirst
timeinweeks.Theskyisarobustblue.OnthenorthernoutskirtsofCibecuewestopnearaplacenamedGad'O'h(JuniperTreeStandsAlone),alargeflat
encompassingfourApachehomes,twohorsecorrals,andatleastadozenacresplantedincornandbeans.Withcoffeecupinhand,Charlessurveysthescene,which
couldhardlybemorepeaceful.Themorninglightissoftandfull,andthetilledredearth,darkenedbytheraintoadeepmaroon,providesastrikingbackdroptothe
brightgreenrowsofmaize.Adogbarks.Adoorslams.Ayoungsorrelmarerollsinsomemudtokeepawaytheflies.Thelandisfairlyglowingincalmandradiant
gratitudefortheblessingsbroughtbyrain.

Icannotseeajunipertree,standingaloneorotherwise,anywhereontheflatofJuniperTreeStandsAlone,asmallbutnotableabsencewhichpromptsmetothink
thatCharlesmayspeakagainabouthowthecountryhaschangedsincehisancestorstookitover.Hedoesnot.Reachingouthishandtothefieldsofgrowingcorn,he
performsascoopingmotionthatseemstogatherthemup,drawingthemtogetherasthoughcradledinhispalmandsettingthestageforaplaceworldaboutfarming
andtheoriginofclans.
Theyhadwanderedalloverthiscountry,lookingateverything,searchingforgoodplacestolive.Theysearchedforplacesthatwouldprotectthemfromenemypeoplethe
Navajowereonesotheymadetheirhomeshighonthesidesofvalleys,nestledamongtherocks.Theyalsosearchedforplaceswheretheycouldplanttheircorn.Theylooked
forthesenearstreamsorwheretherewasrunofffromrain.

Bynowtheyknewthecountrywell.Theyhadgivennamestomanyplaceslikethisone,JuniperTreeStandsAloneandtheythoughttheywouldsurviveandraisetheir
familieshere.Thiscountryiswheretheywouldliveandraisetheirchildren.

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Nowtheyaresettlingatdifferentplaces.Someofthemsettledherenotrighthereontheflat,itwouldhaveexposedthemtoenemypeoplebutfairlycloseby,somewhere
higherup,somewherewellconcealed.Thiswaslongago.

Nowtheyareplantingtheircornhere,notfarfromthestream,hereontheflat."Corngrowsplentifullyhere,"theyaresaying."Wehaveenoughtoeatandalsotostoreaway."
TheyaregratefultoCornandtothisplaceforhelpingthemsurvive.Theyprayedoften.Theirprayerswerestrong.Theydideverythingcorrectly.Theywerehappyandgrew
confident.

Theydidn'tstayhereallthetime.Somewouldmakejourneystohuntfordeer.Somewouldmakejourneystodigandroastagave.Somewouldgoofftocollectseedsandcactus
fruits.Somewouldgooffforsalt.Buttheywouldalwaysreturnhereinplentyoftimetoharvesttheircorn.Theywouldroastanddryit.Theysaveditsseedstoplantagain.They
keptdriedcorntoeatinwinterandearlyspring,whentheyknewtheywouldbehungry.

Now,longago,thosepeoplewhoplantedcornatJuniperTreeStandsAlonearecomingbacktoharvestit.Theyhavebeenofflookingforacornsbuthavegatheredonlyafew.
Twoorthreeolderpeoplehavebeenleftbehindtowatchoverthecorn.Theyarecomingnearernow,theoneswhohavebeenaway,prayingandsingingastheyapproach.They
areprayingthatnothinghashappenedtoinjureorharmtheircorn."Whatwillwedoifthereisnocorn?"theyarethinkingbuttheyarereluctanttosaythisoutloud.

Nowtheycanseetheircornfields.Thereismuchcorn!Thereiscorninabundance!Theyareexcitedandhappy.Theyknowtheywillnotgohungry.Theyknowtheirprayers
havebeenstrong."JuniperTreeStandsAlonehaslookedafterusagain."

Later,aftergettingtheirhomesinorderagain,theirleadersaretalking."Thisiswhereourwomenfirstplantedcorn.Theyhaveplanteditagainandagain.Eachyearwehave
harvested

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enoughtoroastanddryandstoreaway.Thesefieldslookafterusbyhelpingourcorntogrow.Ourchildreneatitandbecomestrong.Weeatitandcontinuetolive.Ourcorn
drawslifefromthisearthandwedrawlifefromourcorn.Thisearthispartofus!Weareofthisplace,JuniperTreeStandsAlone.Weshouldnameourselvesforthisplace.Weare
Gad'O'hn*[JuniperTreeStandsAlonePeople].Thisishowitshallbe.

Nowthepeoplespokeamongthemselvesandagreedwithwhattheirleadershadsaid.Theyagreedtobeknownfortheplacewheretheyfirstplantedcorn.Nowtheyspokeof
themselvestootherpeoplethatway."WeareJuniperTreeStandsAlonePeople,"theywouldsaytothem.

Thiswouldhappenelsewhere,atmanydifferentplacesthroughoutthecountry.Groupsofpeoplenamedthemselvesfortheplaceswheretheirwomenfirstplantedcorn.Thatis
whyourlines[clans]gothroughwomen.Thatiswhywebelongtothelineofourmother.Weareofourmother'slineandforthelineofourfather.Ithasalwaysbeenthatway.

Yousee,theirnamesforthemselvesarereallythenamesoftheirplaces.Thatishowtheywereknown,toothersandtothemselves.Theywereknownbytheirplaces.Thatishow
theyarestillknown,eventhoughtheyhavescatteredandlivenowinmanydifferentstates,someincitiesfarfromhere.

Manyoftheoldcornfieldsarenolongerplanted.Thepeoplehaveforgottenaboutthem.Theysayit'stoomuchworktoplantthemasbefore.Butsome,likethoseJuniperTree
StandsAlonePeople,havenotforgotten.Theystillplanttheircorninthesameplace,astheyhavealwaysdone.Theircornstillmakestheirchildrenstrong.Thisplacestilllooks
afterthem.Itshowsthemwheretheirancestorsreturned,yearafteryear,toharvesttheircornandstoreitawayforthewinter.

AsCharlesisspeaking,awomanwholivesatJuniperTreeStandsAlonewalksfromherhousetotheedgeofoneofthecornfields,carryingoverherarmanempty
burlapsackandafoldedcanvasgroundcloth.Sheiswearingacapaciousblouseandaflowing,fulllengthskirt,bothashadeofbrilliantpink,andherlooselybraided
hairis

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generouslystreakedwithgray.HernameisEllenJosayTessay.Sheistheleaderofherclan,theoldestmemberandprimaryspokespersonoftheJuniperTreeStands
AlonePeople.Charleswatchesinsilenceassheentersthecornfield,seatsherselfonhergroundcloth,andbeginstopullupweeds,placingthemonebyoneinsidethe
burlapsack.Hethenresumeshisaccount,treatingwhatheseesasamodelofthepastandtransformingthefigureofEllenTessay,carefullytendinghercorn,intoa
fullypresentsymbolofwhathappenedlongago.

Thewomenlookedaftertheircorn,theylookedafteritwell.Theolderpeoplewhostayedbehinddidthis.Theywouldgototheirfieldsinthemorningandstaytheremostofthe
day.

Nowtheyareclearingthefieldsofunwantedplants,puttingtheminsomethingtolatertakethemaway."Iamlookingafteryou,justasIwouldmychildren,"theyaresaying.
"Becauseofthisyouwillgrowstrongandtallandgiveusmuchtoeat.Iamprayingthiswillhappen."

Theywerecarefultodoeverythingcorrectly.Theydidn'trushortrytohurrytheirwork.Theydependedontheircorn,sotheytreateditwithrespect.Thiswouldhelpittogrow.
Theydideverythingcorrectly.

WhenCharlesisdone,MorleyremarksthatheowestwodollarstoEllenTessay'shusband,whichhemightaswellgivetohernow.WefollowMorleyalongapathto
thecornfieldwheresheisworking.Shegreetsourapproachwithagenialsmile,inquiringofnooneinparticular,"Whatbringsyouhere?"Morleyexplainsthereason
forourpresenceandgoesontosettlehisdebt.Hethendeliversacomplimentonthevigorofhercorn."Itseemstobegrowingwell,"shemodestlyreplies."Last
night'srainwillhelpitevenmore."Momentslater,sheaddressesJasonHenry,whoisstandinghalfhiddenbehindhisgrandfather."Youngone,doyouknowwhatI
amdoing?''Caughtoffguardbythedirectnessofherquestion,Jasonstareshardattheground."Youarehelpingyourcorn,"herespondsinafalteringvoice.Ellen
JosayTessaysmilesagain."Yes,"shesaysgently."I'mlookingaftermychildren."

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ShadesofShit

ItisnowmidJulyandourtopographicmapsoftheCibecueregionaregettingincreasinglycrowded.Dozensofdotsandshadedareasmarkthelocationsofplaces
bearingApachenames,andnumbersnexttotheseindexthenamesthemselves,whicharelistedinseparatenotebooks.Morleysaysadmiringlythatsomeofthemaps
lookliketheywereblastedwithashotgunandmorethanonce!Charles,modulatedasalways,expresseshisapprovalinlesseffusiveways.Jason,whostudiesthe
mapswheneverhegetsachance,hasyettovoiceanopinion.Iamstruckbythemountingnumberofnamedlocalitieswehavecharted109inonlyfiveweeksand
theconsistentmannerinwhichtheycluster,mainlyaroundsourcesofwaterandpastandpresentfarmsites.

ButwhatimpressesmemostofallistherichdescriptiveimageryofWesternApacheplacenames.Lately,withearandeyejointlyenthralled,Ihavestoodbefore

TsDotl'izh*Tnaahijaah*(GreenRocksSideBySideJutDownIntoWateragroupofmossybouldersonthebankofastream)

TsDitl'ige*Naaditin(TrailExtendsAcrossScorchedRocksacrossingatthebottomofacanyon)

T'iisTs'sBil*Naagolgaiy(CircularClearingWithSlenderCottonwoodTreesameadow)

Tuzhi*'Yaahigaiy(WhitenessSpreadsOutDescendingToWaterasandstonecliffnexttoaspring)

TsYaaditl'ish*(LineOfBlueBelowRocksamineraldeposit)

Yaahilbig*(StuntedRisingUpasmallmountain)

Kailby*BilNaagozwod(GrayWillowsCurveAroundABendapointonastream)

andanumberofotherplaceswhosehandsomelycraftednamesbold,visual,evocativelendpoeticforcetothevoicesoftheancestors.

JustasexpressiveareotherApacheplacenames,differentfromthese,thatdonotgiveclosedescriptionsoftheplacestowhichtheyrefer.Commemorativein
characterandlinkedtotraditionalstories,

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theyalludeinsteadtohistoricaleventsthatilluminatethecausesandconsequencesofwrongfulsocialconduct.Andinthisimportantcapacity,asIwoulddiscoverata
placenamedShadesOfShit(Chaa*BiDalt'oh*),theyinvesttheApachelandscapewithasoberingmoraldimension,darkbutinstructive,thatplacemakerscan
exploittodeeplytellingeffect.

Theshades,orbrushcoveredramadas,arenolongerstanding.Theycollapsed,Charlessays,alongtimeago.Yettheplacewheretheystood,atreecoveredknoll
southwestofCibecue,isavoidedtothisday."Noonewantstocomehere,"heexplains,asweslowlyapproachavantagepointahundredyardsaway."Thepeople
wholivedherehadfarmsdownbelow,probablynexttothecreek.Thiswaslongaftertheysettledinthisvalley.Thentheydidsomethingbad,verybad,andthey
cameclosetodying.ThereisastoryaboutitIwastoldbymygrandfather.It'sshort."Anditis...
IthappenedhereatShadesOfShit.

Theyhadmuchcorn,thosepeoplewholivedhere,andtheirrelativeshadonlyalittle.Theyrefusedtoshareit.Theirrelativesbeggedthembutstilltheyrefusedtoshareit.

Thentheirrelativesgotangryandforcedthemtostayathome.Theywouldn'tletthemgoanywhere,noteventodefecate.Sotheyhadtodoitathome.Theirshadesfilledupwith
it.Therewasmoreandmoreofit!Itwasverybad!Thosepeoplegotsickandnearlydied.

Thentheirrelativessaid,"Youhavebroughtthisonyourselves.Nowyouliveinshadesofshit!"Finally,theyagreedtosharetheircorn.

IthappenedatShadesOfShit.

Anuneasysilencesettlesoverourgroup.Jasonlookssuddenlywan.Morleyspitsindisgust.Asoftbreeze,recallingaterriblestenchitcouldnotpossiblycarry,ruffles
themorningair.WhenCharlesspeaksagain,hesaysthathewonderswhatreallyhappenedhere:itcouldn'thavebeenassimpleasthestorysuggests.Andevenifit
were,headds,thestorygivesnosenseofwhyeventsunfoldedastheydidorhowthepeopleinvolvedmighthavereactedtothem."Whatweretheythink

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ing?"heasksrhetoricallyinatoneofdisbelief."Howmusttheyhavefelt?"Charleswouldliketoknowthesethings,hesays,thoughhedoubtsheeverwill.Andthen,
speakingasifheknewthemverywell,hetellshisgrandfather'sstoryagain,fleshingitoutatlengthandconstructingforusanastonishingworldassurelyrevealingof
Apachesocialvaluesasitisviolentlyoffensivetotheirmostbasicsensibilities.
Itmusthavebeenlateinthesummer.Thosepeoplehadharvestedtheircornandweredryingitandroastingit.Theymusthavebeengratefulandhappy."Nowwehavemuchto
eat,"theyaresaying.

Theirrelativesenviedthem.Theirowncornhadnotgrownwell.(Sometimesithappensthatway.Somefieldsproducealot,andthoserightnexttothemdonot.Ithappensthat
way,andnooneknowswhy,andsometimestheytalkofwitchcraftpromptedbyrevengeforsomethingthatwasdonetotheminthepast.)Theirowncornwasmeagerandsmall
buttheywerenotyetafraidorangry."Ourmorefortunaterelativeswillhelpus,"theysaid,speakingamongthemselves."Theyhavemorethanenoughcorn.Theywillwantto
shareitwithus.Wehavealwayshelpedeachother.Thatishowitshouldbe."

Thentheywaitedfortheirrelativestohelpthem.Theywaitedinvain.Theirrelativeskepttheircorntothemselves,eatingiteverydayandmakingbigshitswhentheywentoff
intothebrush.Theydidnothingfortheirrelatives,althoughtheynoticedtheirplight."Theyhaveenoughfood,eventhoughtheyharvestedlittlecorn.Theyprobablyhave
plentyofbeansandsquash.Someofthemareskilledhunters.Soontheywillhaveplentyofdeermeattoeat.Wewillkeepourcornforourselves,sothatourchildrenwillnotbe
hungryduringthewinter."

Nowtheirpoorrelativesarebecomingscaredandpuzzled."Whydotheynotoffertohelpus?"theysaid."They'retreatinguslikewedon'texist,asifwearenothingtothem.We
willhaveahardtimeunlesstheychangetheirmindsandgiveussomeoftheircorn."

Thentheysentsomeonetotalktothepeoplewholivedhere."Weareyourrelatives,"hesaidtothem."Wemusthelp

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eachother.Youhaveplentyofcorn.Wehaveseenit.Butwehaveonlyalittleandsoonitwillbegone.Soonourchildrenwillbecryingbecausetheyhavenothingtoeat.Giveus
someofyourcorn.Giveussomeofyourcorn.Wewillbegrateful.Thisishowitshouldbe."

Thentheywaitedagain,andstilltheirrelativesdidnothingforthem.Theytalkedagainamongthemselves."Ourrelativesarenotgoingtohelpus,"theysaid."Theyhavebecome
greedyandstingy.Theythinkonlyofthemselves.Theyhaveputthemselvesaboveus,ignoringuslikewedon'texist.Wehavewaitedlongenough.Wemustdosomething!"

Thentheybecameangryattheirownrelatives."Wewillmakethemstayattheirhomes.Theywillnotgoanywhere.Wewillmakethemlivewiththeirownbigshits!"Thisiswhat
theydecidedtodo.

Thentheycameoverhereandsurroundedtheirrelatives'homes.Theytoldthemtostaythere.Theydidthisdayandnight."Wewillharmyouifyoutrytoleave,"theysaid."You
havebroughtthisonyourselves.Youcaneatallyouwant.Onlynowyouwillshitatyourhomes.Thisisnothowitshouldbe,butwearedoingitanyway,"theysaid.

Thenthosepeoplemusthavethoughttheywerejoking."Theydon'treallymeanwhattheysay,"theysaid."Theywillnotharmus,"theysaid.Sotheychoseamantoleavehis
home.Hewasforcedbackbyhisrelatives.Anothermantriedtoleave.Hewasalsoforcedback."Theymeanwhattheysay,"theysaid.''Nowweareinfortrouble,"theythought.

Thentheystartedtoshitintheirshades.Someofthemsaid,"Thisisverybad.Weshouldshareourcornandputanendtoit."Otherssaid,"No!Ifwegiveawaysomeofour
corn,theywillwantitall.Wemustnotgiveintothem.Thisistheirwayofleavinguswithnothing."

Thentheyatelessandlessbutstilltheyfouledtheirshades.Therewasmoreandmoreofit!Itwasvisibleeverywhere!Thesightandsmellcouldnotbeavoided!Therewere
swarmsandswarmsofflies!Hugeswarms!Theynolongercookedin

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theirshades.Eatingbecamesomethingtheydetested.Itwasterrible!

Thentheystartedtogetsickfromthesightandsmelloftheirownfilth.Someofthemwereconstantlydizzy.Othershadtroublewalkingstraight.Theirchildrenstartedmoaning.
Theythemselvesweremoaning."Wecoulddiefromthis!"theysaid."Wecoulddiefromourownfilth."

Thenamanofthepeoplewhohadlittlecornwentandtalkedtothem."Youhavebroughtthisonyourselves,"hesaid."Youshouldhavesharedyourcornwithusassoonas
youknewyouhadmorethanenough.Youdidn'tdothis!Yougaveusnothingatall.Youweregreedyandstingy,thinkingonlyofyourselves.Becauseofthiswehadtobegyou
toshareyourcornwithus.Eventhen,youdidnothing.Youjustkeptoneating,moreandmore,knowingthatwehadlittlefoodofourown.Youignoredusyourown
relativesasifwewerenothing!Thisisnothowitshouldbe.Asrelativeswemakeeachotherrichbecausewehelpeachotherintimesofneed.Ithasbeenthiswaysincethe
beginning.Whatmadeyouforgetthis?Whatmadeyouignoreus?Well,Idon'tknow.Butnowyouliveinshadesofshit!Nowyouaregettingsick!"

Thenhelaughedatthem.Helaughedatthem.

Thenthosepeopletalkedamongthemselves."Whathesaysistrue,"theysaid."Lookwhathasbecomeofus!Wewerethinkingonlyofourselves.Ourgreedisresponsiblefor
ourtrouble.Welookeddownonourownrelativesandgavethemnothing.Lookwhathasbecomeofus!"

Thentheysharedtheircorn.Finally,theydidthis.Theirrelativestookthecornaway,sayingnothing,sayingnothing.Nowthosepeoplewereallowedtoleavetheirhomes.

Thenthosepeoplesaid,"Wemustleavehereandgosomewhereelsetolive.Thisisabadplace.Itstinkswithsignsofourstinginessandgreed."

"Itcouldhavehappenedthatway,"Charlessaysalmostcasually.Andthen,abitsternly,"Let'smoveon.We'vebeenherelongenough."

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Duringthenexttwoweeks,wevisitotherplaceswithApachecommemorativenames,andCharlesrelatesthestoriesthatexplaintheiroriginsandsupplytheircultural
backing.Atseveraloftheseplaces,asatShadesofShit,hefindsthestoriesthreadbareandproceedstoenlargeuponthem,buildinghistoricalplaceworldswithease
andconsummateskill.Eachstoryisconcernedwithdisruptivesocialacts,witheverydaylifegoneoutofcontrol,andeachconcludeswithastarkreminderthattrouble
wouldnothaveoccurredifpeoplehadbehavedinwaystheyknewtheyshould.Eachdepictstheanguishofthosewhoerredandthedepthoftheirregret.Forme,
rivetedandmoved,thecountrytakesonadifferentcast,adensityofmeaningandwithitaformidablestrengthitdidnothavebefore.Here,there,andoverthere,
Isee,areplaceswhichproclaimbytheirpresenceandtheirnamesboththeimminenceofchaosandthepreventivewisdomofmoralnorms."Don'tmakemistakes,"
theseplacesseemtosay."Thinksensiblyanddowhatisright.Forthereingoodnesslies,thegoodnessinherentinestablishedpatternsofsocialorder,andthereinlies
survival."

ThesearemythoughtsatWidowsPauseForBreath('IstaaHadaanyol*),agrassyflatwithsunflowers,wherethreeApachesisterskeenedforseveraldaysafter
learningthattheirhusbands,withwhomtheyhadviolatedsexualproscriptions,haddiedinaraidagainstsomeNavajos.AndagainatTheyPiledOnTopOfEach
Other('Ilk'eejijeed*),aformergamblinggroundwhereamanwaskilledandothersinjuredinafuriousbrawltriggeredbyunfoundedaccusationsofcheatingduringa
highstakesmatchforhorses.AndagainatNavajosAreComing!(Yudah*Kaikaiy),awindingdrawwherefourApachefamiliesavoidedcertainambushwhenan
alertyoungwomanheardahorsewhosenickershedidnotrecognizeacomplacentsentry,supposedlyonguard,wasasleepathispost,havingdrunktoomuch
tlibai*(literally,'graywater'),anativebeveragemadefromcorn.

Thecommemorativeplacenames,accompaniedbytheirstories,continuetoaccumulate,eachonemarkingthesiteofsomesadortragiceventfromwhichvaluable
lessonscanbereadilydrawnandtakenfasttoheart.Andthesenamestoo,liketheirmoredescriptivecounterparts,haveapoetryoftheirown,asongtheysing,
hauntingandprovocative,inavoiceasoldasApachesontheland.Placenamessuchas

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SanLeezhiteezh*(TwoOldWomenAreBuriedahill)

T'Ahiyi'eeNzin*(TheyAreGratefulForWaterasmallflatclosetoanarroyo)

Na'ish*Bitsit'iiy(LizardsDartAwayInFronttheeasternfaceofamountain)

KolahDahch'ewool*(SheCarriesHerBrotherOnHerBackasteepslope)

S*Sil*Sidh(SheBecameOldSittingacornfield)

Tk'ehGodzig(RottenFieldanothercornfield)

'Ihi'na'Ha'itin(TrailToLifeGoesUpabutte)

ChaghshBik'(Children'sFootprintsarockinanevanescentstream)

D*'Bigowan*(Fly'sCampanephemeralspring)

andmanymorebesides.

OntheseconddayofAugust,whiledrinkingcoffeenearasandstoneformationnamedTsLitsog*Deez'h(YellowRocksJutOut),Charlesannouncesthathewill
workwithusnomore.Thereareplantsheneedstocollect,medicineshemustmake,andheiscountingonJasontohelphimuntilthestartofschool.Healsonotes
thatMorleyandIhaveyettotranslatesomeofthetapeshemadeduringthesummer,andthis,ofcourse,willtaketimeitwouldnotbewiseforus(hemeansme)to
doitinahurry.Charlesseemsrelievedwithhisdecisiontoleaveourproject,gladthathistimewillagainbehisowntodowithashechooses.Autumnisnotfaroff
thecloudshavetoldhimthatandnowisnonetoosoontobegintoprepareforwinter.Heisobviouslyeagertogetonwithotherthings.

ButCharlesisnotfinishedteaching.Fingeringhishatandlookingattheground,herecallsthedayinMaywhenheexplainedtomethatWesternApacheplacenames
werecreatedbyhisancestors,thattheywereandarehisancestors'veryownwords.Now,hebelieves,Iknowthistobeso.Healsowantsmetoknowthatour
travelstogetherwereplannedbyhimtoreflectthechangingconditionsunderwhichthenameswereconferred.Descriptiveplacenamescamefirst,

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heremindsme,bestowedatatimewhenhisancestorswereexploringthelandanddecidingtomakeittheirhome.Thenamesofclans,whicharebasedupon
descriptiveplacenames,camelater,whenthelandwasbeingsettledandpeoplehadgatheredinthevicinityoffarms.Commemorativenameswereawardedlast,
aftertheApacheshadmadethelandtheirownandwereexperiencingtherewardsandalsothepainfulproblemsthatcomewithcommunityliving.(Additional
names,hegoesontosay,havebeencoinedinrecenttimes,inEnglishaswellasinApache,butthesearefairlyfewandofrelativelyminorconsequence.)Thepoint
Charleswishestomakeisonehemadebeforethatwheneveroneusesaplacename,evenunthinkingly,oneisquotingancestralspeechandthatisnotonlygood
butsomethingtotakeseriously.Itissomething,hesays,tothinkabout.

Andnowitistimetogo.MorleylooksdowncastandIamfeelingsad.WewillmissourdaysinthecountrywithCharles.Stumblingovermywords,Itrytothankhim
forallhehasdone.Helistens,nods,andonceagaintakesstepstorelieveanawkwardmoment."Jasonneedstodrinkpop,"hesaysbrightly."MaybeOrangeCrush.
Morley,youneedaReeseCup!"Andthen,adjustinghiswellwornhat,CharlesHenrysmilesandturnstowalkbacktotheJeep.

PlaceworldsandWesternApacheHistory

In1962,thedistinguishedanthropologistEdwardN.SpicerobservedsomewhatwistfullythatWesternApachepeople,whileplainlyinterestedintheirowntribal
history,showedverylittleinterestinbecomingtribalhistorians.
Curiouslyenough,theWesternApacheareoneofthemostwrittenaboutpeoplesoftheSouthwestandyettheyremain,inmyopinion,themostpoorlyunderstoodbywhitemen.
Apachescomplainconstantlythatallthehistoryinprintmisrepresentsthem,yetsofarnoApacheautobiographerorevenaroughchroniclerhasemerged.Perhapswemay
expectthatdevelopmentwithinthenextfewyears.(Spicer1962:593)

Today,morethanthirtyyearslater,onecouldstillmaintainthattheWesternApacheshaveyettoproduceatribalhistorianbutonly

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wereonetojudge,asSpicerdid,byAngloAmericanstandardsofwhathistoriansareandhowtheypracticetheircraft.Andthere,ofcourse,istherub.Forbynow
itshouldbeclearthatApachestandardsforinterpretingthepastarenotthesameasourown,andthatworkingApachehistoriansCharlesHenryamongthemgo
abouttheirbusinesswithdifferentaimsandprocedures.ItmayalsohavebeensurmisedthatfewApachepeoplewouldwishtochangetheseprocedures,muchless
abandonthem,andthatSpicer'scalltoadoptanotherapproachwillprobablygounheededforquitesometimetocome.Butwhy?Whytheresistance?Whatisit
aboutestablishedApachepracticesforexploringtribalhistorythatApachemenandwomenfindsoattractiveandrewarding?AndwhyarecertainAngloAmerican
practices,suchascraftingextendedchroniclesandpresentingautobiographies,tangentialtotheirinterestsandunsuitedtotheirtastes?What,inshort,createsthe
evidentgulfbetweenthesetwoconflictingperspectivesonmakingusefulvisitstothecountryofthepast?

AsconceivedbyApachesfromCibecue,thepastisawellworn'path'or'trail'('intin)whichwastraveledfirstbythepeople'sfoundingancestorsandwhich
subsequentgenerationsofApacheshavetraveledeversince.Beyondthememoriesoflivingpersons,thispathisnolongervisiblethepasthasdisappearedand
thusitisunavailablefordirectconsultationandstudy.Forthisreason,thepastmustbeconstructedwhichistosay,imaginedwiththeaidofhistoricalmaterials,
sometimescalled'footprints'or'tracks'(bik'goz'*),thathavesurvivedintothepresent.6 Thesematerialscomeinvariousforms,includingApacheplacenames,
Apachestoriesandsongs,anddifferentkindsofrelicsfoundatlocationsthroughoutApachecountry(thehandcutstonessurroundingthespringatSnakes'Water
provideagoodexample).Becausenooneknowswhenthesephenomenacameintobeing,locatingpasteventsintimecanbeaccomplishedonlyinavagueand
generalway.Thisisoflittleconsequence,however,forwhatmattersmosttoApachesiswhereeventsoccurred,notwhen,andwhattheyservetorevealaboutthe
developmentandcharacterofApachesociallife.Inlightofthesepriorities,temporalconsiderations,thoughcertainlynotirrelevant,areaccordedsecondary
importance.

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ForpeoplelikeCharlesHenryandMorleyCromwell,thecountryofthepastandwithitApachehistoryisnevermorethananarratedplaceworldaway.Itisthus
verynear,asnearastheworkingsoftheirownimaginations,andcanbeeasilybroughttolifeatalmostanytime.Itishistoryconstructedinspurts,insuddenburstsof
imaginativeactivity,andittakestheformofstoriesdeliveredinspokenApache,thelanguageoftheancestorsandmostoftheirmoderndescendants.Answeringthe
question"Whathappenedhere?",itdealsinthemainwithsingleevents,andbecausethesearetiedtoplaceswithinApacheterritory,itispointedlylocalandunfailingly
episodic.Itisalsoextremelypersonal,consistentlysubjective,andthereforehighlyvariableamongthosewhoworktoproduceit.Fortheseandotherreasons,itis
historywithoutauthoritiesallnarratedplaceworlds,providedtheyseemplausible,areconsideredequallyvalidandtheideaofcompiling"definitiveaccounts"is
rejectedoutofhandasunfeasibleandundesirable.Weaklyempirical,thinlychronological,andrarelywrittendown,WesternApachehistoryaspracticedbyApaches
advancesnotheories,testsnohypotheses,andoffersnogeneralmodels.Whatitdoesinstead,andlikelyhasdoneforcenturies,isfashionpossibleworlds,givethem
expressiveshape,andpresentthemforcontemplationasimagesofthepastthatcandeepenandenlargeawarenessofthepresent.Inthecountryofthepast,as
Apachesliketoexploreit,theplacemakerisanindispensableguide.

Andthisinapowerfulsense.Fortheplacemaker'smainobjectiveistospeakthepastintobeing,tosummonitwithwordsandgiveitdramaticform,toproduce
experiencebyforgingancestralworldsinwhichotherscanparticipateandreadilylosethemselves.Tothisengrossingend,asCharlesHenryshowedrepeatedly,the
placemakeroftenspeaksasawitnessonthescene,describingancestralevents"astheyareoccurring"andcreatingintheprocessavividsensethatwhathappened
longagorighthere,onthisveryspotcouldbehappeningnow.Withinthisnarrativeframe,allismovementandanimatedtalk:theancestorscomeandgo,voicing
theirthoughtsandfeelings,alwaysengagedinpressingactivities(namingplacesandclans,cultivatingcorn,guardingagainstenemies),occasionallyelated,often
subdued,constantlyconcernedwithstayingalive.Leaderslead,followersfollow,andmostofthetime

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thingsaredonecorrectly.Butnowandagainmistakesaremade,serioustroubleensues,andsociallifeisshattered.Pathosreignsandtheairischargedwithsuspense.
Whatwillhappennext?Whatwilltheancestorsdo?Howwilltheysurvive?

Thusperformedanddramatized,WesternApacheplacemakingbecomesaformofnarrativeart,atypeofhistoricaltheaterinwhichthe"pastness"ofthepastis
summarilystrippedawayandlongelapsedeventsaremadetounfoldasifbeforeone'seyes.Itishistorygivenlargelyintheactivepresenttense("Nowtheyare
arriving..."),anditmakesextensiveuseofquotedspeechtoentertheheartsandmindsofthosewhomitportrays("Ourrelativeswillnotharmus,''theysaid"Now
weareinfortrouble,"theythought).Itistypicallyconcise,tendstobecloselyplotted,andrarelybecomesredundant.Itthrivesonverisimilitude("Therewereswarms
andswarmsofflies.Hugeswarms!"),andwhatitmaylackinsubtletyismorethanoffsetbymomentsofintenseurgencyandinvolvementwithitssubjects("Look
whathasbecomeofusnow!").Itsprincipalthemesaretheendlessquestforsurvival,thecrucialimportanceofcommunityandkin,andthebeneficialconsequences,
practicalandotherwise,ofadheringtomoralnorms.Accordingly,oneofitsbasicaimsistoinstillempathyandadmirationfortheancestorsthemselvestheycame,
theysettled,theytoiled,theyenduredandtoholdthemuptoallasworthyofemulation,except,ofcourse,whentheyfailtodowhatisrightandthreatenbytheir
actionsthewelfareofthegroupthentheyarepunishedorkilled.

Bycomparison,WesternApachehistoryoftheAngloAmericanvarietystrikesmanyApachepeopleasdistantandunfamiliar.7 Unspokenandunanimated,itlies
silentandinertontheprintedEnglishpageitishistorywithoutvoicestothrustitintothepresent.Removedfromthecontextsofdailysociallife(reading,Apaches
havenoticed,isanisolatingactivity),italsoseemsunconnectedtodailyaffairsandconcernsitishistorywithoutdiscernibleapplications.Detachedfromthelocal
Apachelandscape,ithasfewspatialanchors,andwhenplacesareidentified,asoftentheyarenot,theirnamesarenottheirownitishistorylooselysituated,
geographicallyadrift.Obsessedwithdatinghistoricalevents,itpacksthemintotightlyorderedsequenceswhichitthenmaytrytoexplainbyinvokingabstractforces
("mountingtribalaggression"and

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"outbreaksofculturaldisarray"weretwoofMorleyCromwell'sfavorites)inwhichnoonecanquitebelieveitthusbecomesremote,intangible,divorcedinsuspect
waysfromtheforcesofhumanagency.Commonlyqualifiedandsometimeshotlydebatedbypersonswhoconstructit,itappearstobeinsearchoffinalhistorical
truths,ofwhichApachesbelievethereareveryfewindeeditcanthereforeseemarrogantandmisguided,pretendingtolargediscoveriesitcouldnotpossiblymake.
Anditdoesgoonandon,persistentlyuninformedbytheviewsofApachepeople,suggestingquiteimprobablythatusefulaccountsofhistorycanandshouldbe
fashionedwithoutconsultingthosewhosehistoryitis.Addtothisthatithasalmostnothingtosayaboutthepeople'searlyancestors,andthatrecognizableplace
worldsarevirtuallynonexistent,andyouhaveasetofpracticeswhichbyWesternApachestandardsrathermissthemark.ApachetribalhistoryascraftedbyAnglo
Americansproceedsondifferentassumptions,producesadifferentdiscourse,andinvolvesadifferentaesthetic.8 Muteandunperformed,sprawlinginitswayover
timeandspacealike,itstrikesApacheaudiencesasdense,turgid,andlackinginutility.Butfarmoreimportantisthefactthatitdoesnotexcite.Itdoesnotcaptivate.
Itdoesnotengageandprovokeameasureofwonder.AsCharlesHenrysaidonceinEnglish,summingupquiteabit,"It'sprettymainlyquiet.Itstaysfarawayfrom
allourmanyplaces."9

StayingawayfromplacesissomethingthatWesternApacheswouldnotrecommend,andinthispervasiveconvictiontheyarenotalone.AsVineDeloria,Jr.
(StandingRockSioux),hasobserved,mostAmericanIndiantribesembrace"spatialconceptionsofhistory"inwhichplacesandtheirnamesandallthatthesemay
symbolizeareaccordedcentralimportance.10ForIndianmenandwomen,thepastliesembeddedinfeaturesoftheearthincanyonsandlakes,mountainsand
arroyos,rocksandvacantfieldswhichtogetherendowtheirlandswithmultipleformsofsignificancethatreachintotheirlivesandshapethewaystheythink.
Knowledgeofplacesisthereforecloselylinkedtoknowledgeoftheself,tograspingone'spositioninthelargerschemeofthings,includingone'sowncommunity,and
tosecuringaconfidentsenseofwhooneisasaperson.Withcharacteristiceloquence,N.ScottMomaday(Kiowa)suggeststhatthishasbeensoforaverylong
time.

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FromthetimetheIndianfirstsetfootuponthiscontinent,hecenteredhislifeinthenaturalworld.Heisdeeplyinvestedintheearth,committedtoitbothinhisconsciousness
andinhisinstinct.Thesenseofplaceisparamount.Onlyinreferencetotheearthcanhepersistinhisidentity.(Momaday1994:1)

IntheWesternApachecase,thisiscertainlytrue.Thepeople'ssenseofplace,theirsenseoftheirtribalpast,andtheirvibrantsenseofthemselvesareinseparably
intertwined.Theiridentityhaspersisted.Theirancestorssawtothis,andinthecountryofthepast,wheretheancestorscomealiveinresonatingplaceworlds,theydo
sostilltoday.Theirvoicesarestrongandfirmandsometimesitisunclearwhoisquotingwhom.11

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2
StalkingwithStories
AmericanIndiansholdtheirlandsplacesashavingthehighestpossiblemeaning,
andalltheirstatementsaremadewiththisreferencepointinmind.
VineDeloria,Jr.,GodIsRed

Shortlybeforehisdeathin1960,ClydeKluckhohnmadethefollowingobservationinacoursehegaveatHarvardUniversityonthehistoryofanthropologicalthought:
"Themostinterestingclaimspeoplemakearethosetheymakeaboutthemselves.Culturalanthropologistsshouldkeepthisinmind,especiallywhentheyaredoing
fieldwork."AlthoughKluckhohn'scommentseemedtenuouslyconnectedtothetopicofhislecture(hewasspeakingthatdayontheuseofstatisticalmethodsin
cultureandpersonalitystudies),fewofhisstudentsweredistractedorannoyed.Wehaddiscoveredearlyonthatsomeofhismostprovocativethoughtscameinthe
formofbriefasidesdeliveredcasuallyandwithoutapologyatunexpectedmoments.Wealsolearnedthattheseostensiblyoffhandremarksfrequentlycontainedadvice
onatopicthatwewereeagertoknowmoreabout:ethnographyandethnographicresearch.Rarely,however,didKluckhohnseefittoelaborateonhisadvice,andso
itwasonlylater,aftersomeofushadbecomeethnographersourselves,thatwecouldbegintoassessitproperly.

IthinkthatinthisinstanceKluckhohnwasright.Attendingcarefullytoclaimsthatpeoplemakeaboutthemselves,andthentryingtograspwithsomeexactnesswhat
theyhaveclaimedandwhy,canbeaperplexingandtimeconsumingbusiness.Butwhentheworkgoeswellwhenpuzzlingclaimsareseentomakeprincipledsense
andwhen,asaconsequenceofthis,oneisabletomoveclosertoanun

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derstandingofwhothepeopleinvolvedtakethemselvestobeitcanberichlyinformativeandhighlyworthwhile.Indeed,asKluckhohnimpliedinhistextbook
MirrorforMan(1949),itisjustthissortofworkthatmakesethnographythesingularlyvaluableactivityand,hemighthaveadded,thesingularlyarrestingand
gratifyingoneitveryoftenis.

ThischapterfocusesonasmallsetofspokentextsinwhichmembersofthecommunityofCibecueexpressclaimsaboutthemselves,theirlanguage,andthelandson
whichtheylive.Thestatementsthatinterestme,whichcouldbesupplementedbyalargenumberofothers,arethefollowing.
Thelandisalwaysstalkingpeople.Thelandmakespeopleliveright.Thelandlooksafterus.Thelandlooksafterpeople.(AnniePeaches,age77,1978)

Ourchildrenarelosingtheland.Itdoesn'tgotoworkonthemanymore.Theydon'tknowthestoriesaboutwhathappenedattheseplaces.That'swhysomegetintotrouble.
(RonnieLupe,age42Chairman,WhiteMountainApacheTribe,1978)

Weusedtosurviveonlyofftheland.Nowit'snolongerthatway.Nowweliveonlywithmoney,soweneedjobs.Butthelandstilllooksafterus.Weknowthenamesofthe
placeswhereeverythinghappened.Sowestayawayfrombadness.(NickThompson,age64,1980)

IthinkofthatmountaincalledTsLigai*DahSidil(WhiteRocksLieAboveInACompactCluster)asifitweremymaternalgrandmother.Irecallstoriesofhowitoncewasat
thatmountain.Thestoriestoldtomewerelikearrows.Elsewhere,hearingthatmountain'sname,Iseeit.Itsnameislikeapicture.Storiesgotoworkonyoulikearrows.Stories
makeyouliveright.Storiesmakeyoureplaceyourself.(BensonLewis,age64,1979)

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OnetimeIwenttoL.A.,trainingformechanic.Itwasnogood,surenogood.Istartdrinking,hangaroundbarsallthetime.Istartgettingintotroublewithmywife,fight
sometimeswithher.Itwasbad.IforgetaboutthiscountryherearoundCibecue.Iforgetallthenamesandstories.Idon'theartheminmymindanymore.Iforgethowtoliveright,
forgethowtobestrong.(WilsonLavender,age52,1975)

Ifthesestatementsresisteasyinterpretation,itisnotbecausethepeoplewhomadethemareconfusedorcloudythinkers.Neitherisitbecause,asoneunfortunate
commentatorwouldhaveusbelieve,theWesternApacheare"mysticallyinclinedandcorrespondinglyinarticulate."Theproblemwefaceisasemioticone,abarrier
toconstructingappropriatesenseandsignificancewhicharisesfromthefactthatallviewsarticulatedbyApachepeopleareinformedbytheirexperienceinaculturally
constitutedworldofobjectsandeventswithwhichmostofusareunfamiliar.Whatsortofworldisit?Or,todrawthequestionintosomewhatsharperfocus,whatis
theculturalcontextinwhichApachestatementssuchastheforegoingfindacceptanceasvalidclaimsaboutreality?

Morespecificallystill,whatisrequiredtointerpretAnniePeaches'sclaimthatthelandoccupiedbytheWesternApacheis"alwaysstalkingpeople"andthatbecause
ofthistheyknowhowto"liveright"?HowshouldweunderstandChairmanLupe'sassertionthatApachechildrensometimesmisbehavebecausetheland''doesn'tgo
toworkonthemanymore"?WhydoesNickThompsonclaimthathisknowledgeofplacenamesandhistoricaleventsenableshimto"stayawayfrombadness"?
WhydoesBensonLewislikenplacenamestopictures,storiestoarrows,andamountainnearCibecuetohismaternalgrandmother?Andwhatshouldwemakeof
WilsonLavender'srecollectionofanunhappytimeinCaliforniawhenforgettingplacenamesandstoriescausedhimtoforget"howtobestrong"?Aretheseclaims
structuredinmetaphoricalterms,orarethey,givenWesternApacheassumptionsaboutthephysicaluniverseandtheplaceofpeoplewithinit,somehowtobe
interpretedliterally?Inanycase,whatisthereasoningthatliesbehindtheclaims,theinformallogicofwhichtheyare

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simultaneouslyproductsandexpressions?Aboveall,whatmakestheclaimsmakesense?

IshalladdresstheseandotherquestionsthroughaninvestigationofhowWesternApachestalkaboutthenaturallandscapeandtheimportancetheyattachtonamed
locationswithinit.Accordingly,mydiscussionfocusesonelementsoflanguageandpatternsofspeech,mypurposebeingtolearnfromtheseelementsandpatterns
somethingofhowApachepeopleconstruetheirlandandrenderitintelligible.WheneverApachesdescribethelandor,ashappensmorefrequently,wheneverthey
tellstoriesaboutincidentsthathaveoccurredatspecificpointsuponittheytakestepstoconstituteitinrelationtothemselves.Whichissimplytoobservethatinacts
ofspeech,mundaneandotherwise,Apachesfashionimagesandunderstandingsofthelandthatareacceptedascredibleaccountsofwhatitactuallyis,whyitis
significant,andhowitimpingesonthedailylivesofmenandwomen.Inshort,portionsofaworldviewareconstructedandmadeavailable,andaWesternApache
versionofthelandscapeisdeepened,amplified,andtacitlyaffirmed.Withwords,amassivephysicalpresenceisfashionedintoameaningfulhumanuniverse.

ThisuniverseofmeaningscomprisestheculturalcontextinwhichtheWesternApachetextspresentedearlieracquiretheirvalidityandappropriateness.Consequently,
ifwearetounderstandtheclaimssetforthinthesestatements,portionsofthatcontextmustbeexploredandmadeexplicit.Wemustproceed,inotherwords,by
relatingourtextstootheraspectsofWesternApachethoughtineffect,toothertextsandotherclaimsandcontinuedoingthis,moreandmorecomprehensively,
untilfinallyitispossibletoconfrontthetextsdirectlyandexposethemajorpremisesonwhichtheyrest.Asweshallsee,mostofthesepremisesaregroundedinan
unformalizednativemodelofWesternApachestorytellingwhichholdsthatoralnarrativeshavethepowertoestablishenduringbondsbetweenindividualsandfeatures
ofthenaturallandscape,andthatasadirectconsequenceofsuchbonds,personswhohaveactedimproperlywillbemovedtoreflectcriticallyontheirmisconduct
andresolvetoimproveit.AnativemodelofhowstoriesworktoshapeApaches'conceptionsofthelandscape,itisalsoamodelofhowstoriesworktoshape
Apaches'conceptions

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ofthemselves.Ultimately,itisamodelofhowtwosymbolicresourceslanguageandthelandaremanipulatedbyApachestopromotecompliancewithstandards
foracceptablesocialbehaviorandthemoralvaluesthatsupportthem.

Shoulditappear,then,thattheseWesternApachetextslackeithersubstanceorcomplexity,weshallseethatinfactbothqualitiesarepresentinamplemeasure.And
shouldtheaimofinterpretingsuchmodestlywordeddocumentsseemundulynarrow,ormystrategyfortryingtoaccomplishittootightlyboundupwithan
examinationoflinguisticandethnographicparticulars,itwillbecomeevidentsoonenoughthatwiderandmoregeneralissuesareverymuchinvolved.Ofthese,Ishall
suggest,noneismorepressingorconspicuousthanthereluctanceofculturalecologiststodealopenlyandinclosedetailwiththesymbolicattributesofhuman
environmentsandtheeffectsofenvironmentalconstructionsonpatternsofsocialaction.

ButIamgettingaheadofmyself.Theproblemnowishowtogetstarted,andforadviceonthatmatterIturnhere,asIactuallydidinCibecueanumberofyearsago,
toagiftedandunusualman.Teacherandconsultant,seriousthinkerandsalaciousjokeralike,hehassostronglyinfluencedthecontentandorganizationofthisessay
thathehasbecome,withhispermission,apartofithimselfandso,too,oftheinterpretationitpresents.

"LearntheNames"

NickThompsonis,byhisownadmission,anoldman.Itispossible,hetoldmeonce,thathewasbornin1918.Beneathsnowwhitehaircutshort,hisfaceisround
andcompact,hisfeaturessmallandsharplymolded.Hislarge,black,andverybrighteyesmovequickly,andwhenhesmilesheacquiresanexpressionthatisatonce
mischievousandintimidating.Ihaveknownhimformorethantwentyyears,andhehasinstructedmeoftenonmatterspertainingtoWesternApachelanguageand
culture.Amanwhodelightsinplay,hehasalsoteasedmeunmercifully,concoctedhumorousstoriesaboutmethatarethoroughlyapocryphal,andembarrassedme
beforelargenumbersofincredulousApachesbyinquiringpubliclyintothemostintimatedetailsofmyprivatelife.DescribedbymanypeopleinCibecueasatrue

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SlimCoyote(Ma'Ts's),NickThompsonisoutspoken,incorrigible,andunabashed.1 Heisalsogenerous,thoughtful,andhighlyintelligent.Ivaluehisfriendship
immensely.

AsIbringmyJeeptoahaltontheroadbesidetheoldman'scamp,IhearNickcomplainingloudlytohiswifeaboutthechangingcharacteroflifeinCibecueandits
regrettableeffectsonyoungermembersofthecommunity.IhaveheardthesecomplaintsbeforeandIknowtheyaredeeplyfelt.Butstill,onthissunnymorninginJune
1980,itishardtosuppressasmile,fortheimageNickpresents,astrikingexampleofwhatcanbeachievedwithsartorialbricolage,ishardlywhatonewouldexpect
ofastaunchtribalconservative.Crippledsincechildhoodandpartiallyparalyzedbyarecentstroke,theoldmanisseatedintheshadeofacottonwoodtreeafew
yardsfromthemodestwoodencabinwhereheliveswithhiswifeandtwosmallgrandchildren.HeissmokingaSalemcigaretteandstudyingwithundisguised
approvaltheshoesonhisfeetanewpairofbrightblueNikerunningshoestrimmedinincandescentorange.Heisalsowearingapairoffadedgreentrousers,a
batteredbrowncowboyhat,andawhiteTshirtwith"Disneyland"printedinboldredlettersacrossthefront.Withineasyreachofhischair,restingonthebaseofan
upendedwashtub,isacopyoftheNationalEnquirer,amugofhotcoffee,andanopenboxofchocolatecovereddoughnuts.IfNickThompsonisanopponentof
socialchange,itiscertainlynotevidentfromhisappearance.Butappearancescanbedeceiving,andNick,whoisanaccomplishedsingerandamedicinemanof
substantialreputation,wouldbethefirsttopointthisout.

Theoldmangreetsmewithhiseyes.Nothingissaidforaminuteortwo,butthenwebegintotalk,exchangingbitsoflocalnewsuntilenoughtimehaspassedforme
topolitelyannouncethepurposeofmyvisit.IexplainthatIampuzzledbycertainstatementsApacheshavemadeaboutthecountrysurroundingCibecueandIam
eagertoknowhowtointerpretthem.Tomysurprise,NickdoesnotaskwhatIhavebeentoldorbywhom.Herespondsinsteadbyswinginghisarmoutinawide
arc."Learnthenames,"hesays."Learnthenamesofalltheseplaces."Unpreparedforsuchafirmandunequivocalsuggestion(itsoundstomelikenothinglessthanan
order),Iretreatinto

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silence."Startwiththenames,"theoldmancontinues."Iwillteachyoulikebefore.Comebacktomorrowmorning."Noddinginagreement,IthankNickforhis
willingnesstohelpandtellhimwhatIwillbeabletopayhim.Hesaysthewageisfair.

Afewminuteslater,asIstandtotakemyleave,Nick'sfacebreakssuddenlyintoabroadsmileandhiseyesbegintodance.Iknowthatlookwellandbracemyself
forthefarewelljokethatalmostalwaysaccompaniesit.Theoldmanwastesnotime.HesaysIlooklonely.Heurgesmetohaveprolongedandabundantsexwith
veryoldwomen.Hesaysitpreventsnosebleeds.HesaysthatsomedayIcanwriteabookaboutit.Flusteredandatalossforwords,Ismileweaklyandshakemy
head.Delightedwiththisreaction,Nicklaughsheartilyandreachesforhiscoffeeandachocolatecovereddoughnut.

Ireturntotheoldman'scampthefollowingdayandstarttolearnWesternApacheplacenames.Mylessons,whichareinterruptedbymappingtripswithmore
mobileApacheconsultants,continueforthenexttenweeks.InlateAugust,shortlybeforeImustleaveCibecue,Nickaskstoseethemaps.Heisnotimpressed.
"Whitemenneedpapermaps,"heobserves."Wehavemapsinourminds."

WesternApachePlacenames

ThestudyofAmericanIndianplacenamesystemshasfallenonhardtimes.OnceaviablecomponentofanthropologyintheUnitedStates,ithasvirtuallyceasedto
exist,theinconspicuousvictimofchangingintellectualfashionsandlargeamountsofethnographicneglect.Therearegoodreasonsforadvocatingarevival.Asearlyas
1900,FranzBoas,whowasdeeplyimpressedbytheminutelydetailedenvironmentalknowledgeoftheBaffinLandandHudsonBayEskimos,suggestedthatoneof
themostprofitablewaystoexplorethe"mentallife"ofIndianpeopleswastoinvestigatetheirgeographicalnomenclatures(Boas19011907).In1912,EdwardSapir
madethesamepointinmoregeneralterms,sayingthatIndianvocabulariesprovidedvaluableinsightintonativeconceptionsofthenaturalworldandmuchthatwas
heldtobesignificantwithinit.Later,in1934,BoaspublishedashortmonographentitledGeographicalNamesoftheKwakiutlIndians.Thisessayisessentiallya
studyofKwakiutlwordmorphology,butitdem

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onstratesbeautifullyBoas'searlierideasconcerningtheEskimos:thatthestudyofplacenamesystemsmayrevealagreatdealaboutthecognitivecategorieswith
whichenvironmentalphenomenaareorganizedandunderstood.Thistraditionofresearch,whichalsoincludedJ.P.Harrington's(1916)massivetreatiseonTewa
placenames,begantofalterintheyearsprecedingWorldWarII.Afewbriefarticlesappearedinthe1950s,andFloydLounsburycontributedanimportantpaper
onIroquoisplacenamesin1960.Sincethen,however,littleworkhasbeendone.Indeed,withthenotableexceptionofFredericadeLaguna's(1972)longdelayed
monographontheTlingit,Iknowofnotasinglestudywrittenbyalinguistoranthropologistinthepasttwentyfiveyearsthatdealsextensivelyorindepthwiththe
placenamesystemofaNorthAmericantribe.2

OnecanonlyimaginehowBoasorSapirmighthavereactedtoNickThompson'sinterestinWesternApacheplacenames.Theywouldhavebeenintrigued,Ithink,
butprobablynotsurprised.Foreachofthemhadcometounderstand,asIwouldatCibecue,thatAmericanIndianplacenamesareintricatelittlecreationsandthat
studyingtheirinternalstructure,togetherwiththefunctionstheyserveinspokenconversation,canleadtheethnographertoanynumberofusefuldiscoveries.Allthatis
requiredissoundinstructionfromablenativeconsultants,afondnessformappingextensiveareasofterritory,andamodestcapacityforwonderanddelightatthe
largetasksthatsmallwordscanbemadetoperform.Andonemorething:awillingnesstorejectthewidelyacceptednotionthatplacenamesarenothingmorethan
handyvehiclesofreference.Placenamesdorefer,andquiteindispensablyatthat,butincommunitiessuchasCibecue,theyareusedandvaluedforotherreasonsas
well.3

Locatedinanarrowvalleyatanelevationof4,900feet,thesettlementatCibecue(fromDeeschii'Bikoh,ValleyWithLongRedBluffs)isbisectedbyashallow
streamemanatingfromspringsthatriseinlowlyingmountainstothenorth.Apachehomes,separatedbyhorsepastures,agriculturalplots,andceremonialdance
grounds,arelocatedonbothsidesofthestreamforadistanceofapproximatelytenmiles.Thevalleyitself,boundedontheeastandwestbyaseriesofredsandstone
bluffs,displaysmarkedtopographicdiversityintheform

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ofheavilydissectedcanyonsandarroyos,broadalluvialfloodplains,andseveralclustersofprominentpeaks.Vegetationrangesfromamixedponderosapinedouglas
firassociationneartheheadwatersofCibecueCreektoachaparralcommunityconsistingofscruboak,catclaw,agave,andavarietyofcactusspeciesatthe
confluenceofthecreekwiththeSaltRiver.Inbetween,numerousotherfloralassociationsoccur,includingdenseripariancommunitiesandheavystandsof
cottonwood,oak,walnut,andpine.

TogetherwithCharlesHenry,MorleyCromwell,andotherApacheconsultants,IhavemappednearlyfortyfivesquaremilesinandaroundthecommunityatCibecue
andwithinthisareahaverecordedtheWesternApachenamesof296locationsitis,tosaytheleast,aregiondenselypackedwithplacenames.Butlargenumbers
alonedonotaccountforthehighfrequencywithwhichplacenamestypicallyappearinWesternApachediscourse.Inpart,thispatternofrecurrentuseresultsfrom
thefactthatApaches,whotravelagreatdealtoandfromtheirhomes,regularlycalloneachothertodescribetheirtripsindetail.Almostinvariably,andinmarked
contrasttocomparablereportsdeliveredbyAngloslivingatCibecue,thesedescriptionsfocusasmuchonwhereeventsoccurredasonthenatureandconsequences
oftheeventsthemselves.ThispracticehasbeenobservedinotherApacheangroupsaswell,including,asHarryHoijernoted,theNavajo:"Eventhemostminute
occurrencesaredescribedbyNavajosincloseconjunctionwiththeirphysicalsettings,suggestingthatunlessnarratedeventsarespatiallyanchoredtheirsignificanceis
somehowreducedandcannotbeproperlyassessed"(personalcommunication,1973).HoijercouldjustaswellbespeakingoftheWesternApache.

SomethingelsecontributestothecommonuseofplacenamesinWesternApachecommunities,however,andthat,quitesimply,isthatApachesenjoyusingthem.
Severalyearsago,forexample,whenIwasstringingabarbedwirefencewithtwoApachecowboysfromCibecue,Inoticedthatoneofthemwastalkingquietlyto
himself.WhenIlistenedcarefully,Idiscoveredthathewasrecitingalistofplacenamesalonglist,punctuatedonlybyspurtsoftobaccojuice,thatwentonfor
nearlytenminutes.Later,whenIventuredtoaskhimaboutit,hesaidhe"talkednames"allthetime.Why?"Iliketo,"

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hesaid."Iridethatwayinmymind."AndondozensofotheroccasionswhenIhavebeenworkingortravelingwithApaches,theyhavetakensatisfactioninpointing
outparticularlocationsandpronouncingtheirnamesonce,twice,threetimesormore.Why?"Becauseweliketo,"or"Becausethosenamesaregoodtosay."More
often,however,Apachesaccountfortheirenthusiasticuseofplacenamesbycommentingontheprecisionwithwhichthenamesdepicttheirreferents."Thatplace
looksjustlikeitsname,''someonewillexplain,or"Thatnamemakesmeseethatplacelikeitreallyis."Or,asBensonLewisstatedsosuccinctly,"Itsnameislikea
picture."

StatementssuchasthesemaybeinterpretedinlightofcertainfactsaboutthelinguisticstructureofWesternApacheplacenames.Tobeginwith,itisessentialto
understandthatallbutaveryfewApacheplacenamestaketheformofcompletesentences.Thisismadepossiblebyoneofthemostprominentcomponentsofthe
WesternApachelanguage:anelaboratesystemofprefixesthatoperatemostextensivelyandproductivelytomodifythestemsofverbs.Thus,wellformedsentences
canbeconstructedthatareextremelycompactyetsemanticallyveryrich.Itisthiscombinationofbrevityandexpressiveness,Ibelieve,thatappealstoApachesand
makesthemerepronunciationofplacenamesasatisfyingexperience.

Bywayofillustration,considerthefollowingplacenames,whichhavebeensegmentedintotheirgrossmorphologicalconstituents.

TsBik'TYaahiln*:Ts(rock,stone)+Bik'(ontopofitaflatfishobject)+T(water)+Yaa(downward)+hi(linearsuccessionofregularly
repeatedmovements)+l*(itflows)+n(theone).

Translation:WaterFlowsDownOnASuccessionOfFlatRocks

T'iisBitl'h*T'Oln*T'iis(cottonwoodtree)+Bitl'h(belowit,underneathit)+T(water)+'O(inward)+l(itflows)+n(theone).

Translation:WaterFlowsInwardUnderACottonwoodTree

TsHadigaiy:Ts(rock,stone)+Ha(upandout)+di(extendsinaline)+gai(white,whiteness)+y(theone).

Translation:LineOfWhiteRocksExtendsUpAndOut

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Noticehowthoroughlydescriptivetheseplacenamesareandhowpointedlyspecificinthephysicaldetailstheypickout.Thenamespresentedherearenotuniquein
thisrespect.Onthecontrary,aswehaveseen,descriptivespecificityischaracteristicofmanyWesternApacheplacenames,anditisthisdistinctiveattributethat
causesApachestolikenplacenamestopicturesandtocommentappreciativelyonthecapacityofplacenamestoevokefullandaccurateimagesofthelocationsto
whichtheyrefer.

Butwhythisinterestinfaithfulevocation?Thereasons,nodoubt,aremultiple,butoneofthemiscloselylinkedtothestylisticfunctionsservedbyplacenamesin
WesternApachestorytelling.PlacenamesareusedinallformsofApachestorytellingassituatingdevices,asconventionalizedverbalinstrumentsforlocatingnarrated
eventsatandinthephysicalsettingswheretheeventsoccurred.Thus,insteadofdescribingthesesettingsdiscursively,anApachestorytellercansimplyemploytheir
names,andApachelisteners,whethertheyhavevisitedthesitesornot,areabletoimagineinsomedetailhowtheymightappear.Inthisway,toborrowHoijer's
felicitousphrase,narratedeventsare"spatiallyanchored"atpointsontheland,andtheevocativepicturespresentedbyWesternApacheplacenamesbecome
indispensableresourcesforthestoryteller'scraft.4

"AllThesePlacesHaveStories"

WhenIreturntoCibecueinthespringof1981,NickThompsonisrecoveringfromabadcaseoftheflu.Heisweak,despondent,anduncomfortable.Wespeak
verylittleandmakenomentionofplacenames.HiswifeisworriedabouthimandsoamI.Withinaweek,however,Nick'seldestsoncomestomycampwitha
message:IamtovisithisfatherandbringwithmetwopacksofSalemcigarettesandadozenchocolatecovereddoughnuts.Thisisgoodnews.

WhenIarriveattheoldman'scamp,heissittingunderthecottonwoodtreebyhishouse.Ablanketisdrapedacrosshiskneesandheiswearingaheavyplaidjacket
andaredvinylcapwithwhitefurlinedearflaps.Thereiscolorinhischeeksandthesparkleisbackinhiseyes.Shortlyafterwestarttoconverse,andaproposof
nothingIcandiscern,Nickannouncesthatin1931hehadsexualintercourseeight

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timesinonenight.HewantstoknowifIhaveeverbeensofortunate.Hiswife,whohasbroughtuseachacupofcoffee,hearsthisremarkandtellshimheisacrazy
oldman.Nicklaughsloudly.Plainly,heisfeelingbetter.

Eventually,IaskNickifheisreadytoresumeourworktogether."Yes,"hesays,"butnomoreonnames."Whatthen?"Stories,"ishisreply."Alltheseplaceshave
stories.Weshooteachotherwiththem,likearrows.Comebacktomorrowmorning."Puzzledonceagain,butsuspectingthattheoldmanhasaplanhewantsto
follow,ItellhimIwillreturn.WethendiscussNick'swages.HeinsiststhatIpayhimmorethanIdidtheyearbeforeasitisnecessarytokeepupwithinflation.I
agreeandwesettleonalargersum.Thencomesthepredictablefarewelljoke:afinepieceofnonsenseinwhichNick,speakingEnglishandimitatingcertain
mannerismshehascometoassociatewithAnglophysicians,diagnosesmybadlysunburnednoseasanadvancedcaseofvenerealdisease.5 ThistimeitisNick'swife
wholaughsloudest.

ThenextdayNickbeginstoinstructmeonaspectsofWesternApachestorytelling.ConsultingonaregularbasiswithotherApachesfromCibecueaswell,Ipursue
thistopicthroughoutthesummer.

HistoricalTales

IfplacenamesappearfrequentlyinordinaryformsofWesternApachediscourse,theiruseisequallyconspicuousinoralnarratives.Itisthere,inconjunctionwith
storiesApachestell,thatwecanmoveclosertoaninterpretationofnativeclaimsaboutthesymbolicimportanceofgeographicalfeaturesandthepersonalized
relationshipsthatindividualsmayhavewiththem.Asshowninfigure2,thepeopleofCibecueclassify'speech'(yat'i')intothreemajorforms:'ordinarytalk'(yat'i'),
'prayer'('okaah*),and'narratives'or'stories'(nagoldi').Narrativesarefurtherclassifiedintofourmajorandtwominorgenres(seefig.3).Themajorgenres
include'myths'(godiyihgo*nagoldi'literally,'totellofholiness'),'historicaltales'('godzaahor'godzaahnagoldi'literally,'totellofthatwhichhas
happened'),'sagas'(nlt'gonagoldi'literally,'totellofpleasantness'),andstoriesthatariseinthecontextof'gossip'(ch'idii).Theminorgenres,whichdonot
concernushere,are'Coyotestories'(ma'highaaly*nagoldi'literally,'totellofCoyote'stravels')and'seductiontales'(binbaa'nagoldi'literally,'totellof
sexualdesires').

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Figure2
MajorcategoriesofWesternApachespeech.

WesternApachesdistinguishamongthemajornarrativegenresontwobasicsemanticdimensions:timeandpurpose.Valuesonthetemporaldimensionidentifyin
generaltermswhentheeventsrecountedinnarrativestookplace,whilevaluesonthepurposivedimensiondescribetheobjectivesthatApachenarratorstypicallyhave
inrecountingthem(seefig.4).Accordingly,mythsdealwitheventsthatoccurred'inthebeginning'(godiyaan*'),atimewhentheuniverseandallthingswithinit
wereachievingtheirpresentformandlocation.Performedonlybymedicinemenandwomen,mythsarepresentedfortheprimarypurposeofenlightenmentand
instruction:toexplainandreaffirmthecomplexprocessesbywhichtheknownworldcameintoexistence.Historicaltalesrecounteventsthattookplace'long
ago'(doo'nn)whentheWesternApachepeople,havingemergedfrombelowthesurfaceoftheearth,weredevelopingtheirowndistinctivewaysandcustoms.
Mosthistoricaltalesdescribeincidentsthatoccurredpriortothecomingofwhitemen,butsomeofthesestoriesaresetinpostreservationtimes,whichbeganforthe
WesternApachein

Figure3
MajorcategoriesofWesternApachenarrative.

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Figure4
MajorcategoriesofWesternApachenarrativedistinguishedbytemporallocus
ofeventsandprimarypurposesfornarration.

1872.Likemyths,historicaltalesareintendedtoedify,buttheirmainpurposeistocriticizesocialdelinquents(or,astheApachessay,to"shoot"them),thereby
impressingtheseindividualswiththeundesirabilityofimproperbehaviorandalertingthemtothepunitiveconsequencesoffurthermisconduct.

Althoughsagasdealwithhistoricalthemes,thesenarrativesarechieflyconcernedwitheventsthathavetakenplacein'moderntimes'(djiigo*),usuallywithinthelast
sixtyorseventyyears.Incontrasttohistoricaltales,whichfocusonseriousanddisturbingmatters,sagasarelargelydevoidofthem.Ratherthanservingasvehiclesof
personalcriticism,theprimarypurposeofsagasistoprovidetheirlistenerswithrelaxationandentertainment.Storiesofthekindassociatedwithgossipconsistof
reportsinwhichpersonsrelateandinterpreteventsinvolvingothermembersoftheWesternApachecommunity.Thesestories,whichembraceincidentsoccurring
'now'or'atpresent'(k'ad),areoftentoldfornootherreasonthantokeeppeopleinformedoflocaldevelopments.Notuncommonly,however,narrativesingossip
arealsousedtoridiculeandmalignthecharacteroftheirsubjects.

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Nowheredoplacenamesservemoreimportantcommunicativefunctionsthaninthecontextofhistoricaltales.Asiftoaccentuatethisfact,storiesofthe'godzaah
genrearestylisticallyquitesimple.Historicaltalesrequirenospecializedlexicon,displaynounusualsyntacticalconstructions,andinvolvenoirregularmorphophonemic
alternationsneitheraretheycharacterizedbyuniquepatternsofstress,pitch,volume,orintonation.Intheseways,'godzaahnarrativescontrastsharplywithmyths
andsagas,whichentailtheuseofavarietyofgenrespecificstylisticdevices.Historicaltalesalsodifferfrommythsandsagasbyvirtueoftheirbrevity.Whereasmyths
andsagasmaytakehourstocomplete,historicaltalescanusuallybedeliveredinlessthanfiveminutes.WesternApachestorytellerspointoutthatthisisbothfitting
andeffective,because'godzaahstories,likethearrowstheyarecommonlysaidtorepresent,workbestwhentheymoveswiftly.Finally,andmostsignificantlyof
all,historicaltalesaredistinguishedfromallotherformsofApachenarrativebyanopeningandclosinglinethatidentifieswithaplacenamewheretheeventsinthe
narrativeoccurred.Theselinesframethenarrative,markitunmistakablyasbelongingtothe'godzaahgenre,andevokeaparticularphysicalsettinginwhich
listenerscanimaginativelysituateeverythingthathappens.Itishardlysurprising,then,thatwhileApachestorytellersagreethathistoricaltalesare"about"theevents
recountedinthetales,theyalsoemphasizethatthetalesare"about"thesitesatwhichtheeventstookplace.

IfthestyleofWesternApachehistoricaltalesisrelativelyunremarkable,theircontentisjusttheopposite.Withoutexception,andusuallyinverygraphicterms,
historicaltalesfocusonpersonswhosuffermisfortuneastheconsequenceofactionsthatviolateApachestandardsforacceptablesocialbehavior.Morespecifically,
'godzaahstoriestellofpersonswhohaveactedunthinkinglyandimpulsivelyinopendisregardfor'Apachecustom'(ndeebi'at'ee')andwhopayfortheir
transgressionsbybeinghumiliated,ostracized,orkilled.Storiesofthe'godzaahvarietyaremoralitytalespureandsimple,andwhenviewedassuchbythe
Apachesascompactcommentariesonwhatshouldbeavoidedsoastodealsuccessfullyandeffectivelywithotherpeopletheyarehighlyinformative.Forwhat
thesenarrativesassert

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tacitly,perhaps,butwithdozensofcompellingexamplesisthatimmoralbehaviorisirrevocablyacommunityaffairandthatpersonswhobehavebadlywillbe
punishedsoonerorlater.Thus,justas'godzaahstoriesare"about"historicaleventsandtheirgeographicallocations,theyarealso"about"thesystemofrulesand
valuesaccordingtowhichApachesexpecteachothertoorganizeandregulatetheirlives.Inanevenmorefundamentalsense,then,historicaltalesare"about"whatit
meanstobeaWesternApache,or,tomakethepointlessdramatically,whatitisthatbeinganApacheshouldnormallyandproperlyentail.

Toseehowthisisso,letusconsiderthetextsofthreehistoricaltalesandexaminethemannerinwhichtheyhavebeeninterpretedbytheirApachenarrators.

IthappenedatT'iisChoNaasikaad(BigCottonwoodTreesStandHereAndThere).

Longago,thePimasandApacheswerefighting.ThePimaswerecarryinglongclubsmadefrommesquitewoodtheywerealsoheavyandhard.BeforedawnthePimasarrivedat
CibecueandattackedtheApachesthere.ThePimasattackedwhiletheApacheswerestillasleep.ThePimaskilledtheApacheswiththeirclubs.Anoldwomanwokeup.She
heardtheApachescryingout.Theoldwomanthoughtitwashersoninlawbecauseheoftenpickedonherdaughter.Theoldwomancriedout:"Youpickonmychildalot.You
shouldactpleasantlytowardher."Becausetheoldwomancriedout,thePimaslearnedwhereshewas.ThePimascamerunningtotheoldwoman'scampandkilledherwiththeir
clubs.Ayounggirlranawayfromthereandhidbeneathsomebushes.Shealonesurvived.

IthappenedatBigCottonwoodTreesStandHereAndThere.

NarratedbyAnniePeaches,thishistoricaltaledealswiththeharmfulconsequencesthatmaycometopersonswhooversteptraditionalroleboundaries.Duringthe
firstyearofmarriageitiscustomaryforyoungApachecouplestoliveinthecampofthebride'sparents.Atthistime,thebride'smothermayrequestthathersonin
lawperform

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varioustasksandshemayalsoinstructandcriticizehim.Later,however,whenthecoupleestablishesaseparateresidence,thebride'smotherforfeitsthisrightand
mayproperlyinterfereinhersoninlaw'saffairsonlyattherequestofherdaughter.Mrs.Peachesexplainsthatwomenwhodonotabidebythisarrangementimply
thattheirsonsinlawareimmatureandirresponsible,whichisasourceofacuteembarrassmentfortheyoungmenandtheirwives.Thus,evenwhenmeddlingmight
seemtoserveausefulpurpose,itshouldbescrupulouslyavoided.Thewomanonwhomthisstorycentersfailedtorememberthisandwasinstantlykilled.

IthappenedatTsChiizhDahSidil(CoarseTexturedRocksLieAboveInACompactCluster).

Longago,amanbecamesexuallyattractedtohisstepdaughter.HewaslivingbelowCoarseTexturedRocksLieAboveInACompactClusterwithhisstepdaughterandher
mother.Waitinguntilnooneelsewaspresent,andsittingalonewithher,hestartedtomolesther.Thegirl'smaternalunclehappenedtocomebyandhekilledthemanwitharock.
Theman'sskullwascrackedopen.Itwasraining.Thegirl'smaternaluncledraggedtheman'sbodyupabovetoCoarseTexturedRocksLieAboveInACompactClusterand
placeditthereinastoragepit.Thegirl'smothercamehomeandwastoldbyherdaughterofallthathadhappened.Thepeoplewhoownedthestoragepitremovedtheman'sbody
andputitsomewhereelse.Thepeopleneverhadawakeforthedeadman'sbody.

IthappenedatCoarseTexturedRocksLieAboveInACompactCluster.

NarratedbyBensonLewis,thishistoricaltaledealswiththecrimeofincest,forsexualcontactwithstepchildrenisconsideredbyWesternApachestobean
incestuousact.AccordingtoMr.Lewis,thekeylineinthestoryisthepenultimateoneinwhichheobserves,"Thepeopleneverhadawakeforthedeadman'sbody."
Wemayassume,Lewissays,thatbecausethedeadman'scampwaslocatednearthestoragepitinwhichhisbodywasplaced,thepeoplewhoownedthe

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pitwerealsohisrelatives.Thismakestheneglectwithwhichhiscorpsewastreatedallthemoreprofound,sincekinspeopleareboundbythestrongestofobligations
tocareforeachotherwhentheydie.Thatthedeadman'srelativeschosetodispensewithcustomarymortuaryritualshowswithdevastatingclaritythattheywishedto
disownhimcompletely.
IthappenedatNdeeDahNaazin*(MenStandAboveHereAndThere).

Longago,amankilledacowoffthereservation.Thecowbelongedtoawhiteman.ThemanwasarrestedbyapolicemanlivingatCibecueatMenStandAboveHereAndThere.
ThepolicemanwasanApache.ThepolicemantookthemantotheheadarmyofficeratFortApache.There,atFortApache,theheadarmyofficerquestionedhim."Whatdoyou
want?"hesaid.Thepolicemansaid,"Ineedcartridgesandfood."Thepolicemansaidnothingaboutthemanwhohadkilledthewhiteman'scow.Thatnightsomepeoplespoketo
thepoliceman."Itisbesttoreportonhim,"theysaidtohim.Thenextdaythepolicemanreturnedtotheheadarmyofficer."Nowwhatdoyouwant?"hesaid.Thepolicemansaid,
''YesterdayIwasgoingtosayHELLOandGOODBYEbutIforgottodoit."Againhesaidnothingaboutthemanhearrested.Someonewasworkingwithwordsonhismind.The
policemanreturnedwiththemantoCibecue.HereleasedhimatMenStandAboveHereAndThere.

IthappenedatMenStandAboveHereAndThere.

Thisstory,narratedbyNickThompson,describeswhathappenedtoanApachewhoactedtoomuchlikeawhiteman.Between1872and1895,whentheWestern
ApacheswerestrictlyconfinedtotheirreservationsbyU.S.militaryforces,diseaseandmalnutritiontookthelivesofmanypeople.Consequently,Apacheswholisten
tothishistoricaltalefinditperfectlyacceptablethatthemanwholivedatMenStandAboveHereAndThereshouldhavekilledandbutcheredawhiteman'scow.
Whatisnotacceptableisthatthepoliceman,anotherApachefromthesamesettlement,shouldhavearrestedtherus

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tlerandcontemplatedtakinghimtojail.Butthepoliceman'splanswerethwarted.Someoneusedwitchcraftonhimandmadehimstupidandforgetful.Henever
informedthemilitaryofficeratFortApacheoftherealpurposeofhisvisit,andhissecondencounterwiththeofficerinwhichheapologizedforneglectingtosay
"hello"and"goodbye"thepreviousdayrevealedhimtobeanabsurdandlaughablefigure.AlthoughWesternApachesfindportionsofthisstoryamusing,Nick
Thompsonexplainsthattheyunderstanditfirstandforemostasaharshindictmentofpersonswhojoinwithoutsidersagainstmembersoftheirowncommunityand
who,asiftoflaunttheirlackofallegiance,paradetheattitudesandmannerismsofwhitemen.

SofarmyremarksonwhatWesternApachehistoricaltalesare"about"havecenteredonfeaturesoftextualcontent.Thisisafamiliarstrategyandcertainlya
necessaryone,butitisalsoincomplete.Inadditiontoeverythingelseplaces,events,moralstandards,conceptionsofculturalidentityeveryhistoricaltaleisalso
"about"thepersonatwhomitisdirected.Thisisbecausethetellingofahistoricaltaleisalmostalwayspromptedbyanindividual'shavingcommittedoneormore
socialoffensestowhichtheactofnarration,togetherwiththetaleitself,isintendedasacriticalandremedialresponse.Thus,onoccasionswhen'godzaahstories
areactuallytoldbyrealApachestorytellers,inrealinterpersonalcontexts,torealsocialoffendersthesenarrativesareunderstoodtobeaccompaniedbyan
unstatedmessagefromthestorytellerthatmaybephrasedsomethinglikethis:"Iknowthatyouhaveactedinawaysimilaroranalogoustothewayinwhichsomeone
actedinthestoryIamtellingyou.Ifyoucontinuetoactinthisway,somethingsimilaroranalogoustowhathashappenedtothecharacterinthestorymightalso
happentoyou."Thismetacommunicativemessageisjustasimportantasanyconveyedbythetextofthestoryteller'stale.ForApachescontendthatifthemessageis
takentoheartbythepersonatwhomthetaleisaimedandif,inconjunctionwithlessonsdrawnfromthetaleitself,heorsheresolvestoimprovehisorher
behavioralastingbondwillhavebeencreatedbetweenthatindividualandthesiteorsitesatwhicheventsinthetaletookplace.Theculturalpremisesthatinform
this

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powerfulideawillbemadeexplicitpresentlybutfirst,inordertounderstandmoreclearlywhattheideainvolves,letusexaminethecircumstancesthatledtothe
tellingofahistoricaltaleatCibecueandseehowthisnarrativeaffectedthepersonforwhomitwastold.

InearlyJune1977,aseventeenyearoldApachewomanattendedagirls'pubertyceremonialatCibecuewithherhairrolledupinasetofpinkplasticcurlers.She
hadreturnedhometwodaysbeforefromaboardingschoolinUtahwherethissortofornamentationwasconsideredfashionablebyherpeers.Somethingsomundane
wouldhavegoneunnoticedbyotherswereitnotforthefactthatWesternApachewomenofallagesareexpectedtoappearatpubertyceremonialswiththeirhair
wornloose.Thisisoneofseveralwaysthatwomenhaveofshowingrespectfortheceremonialandalso,byimplication,forthepeoplewhohavestagedit.The
practiceofpresentingoneselfwithfreeflowinghairisalsounderstoodtocontributetotheceremonial'seffectiveness,forApachesholdthattheritual'smostbasic
objectives,whicharetoinvestthepubescentgirlwithqualitiesnecessaryforlifeasanadult,cannotbeachievedunlessstandardformsofrespectarefaithfully
observed.OnthisoccasionatCibecue,everyonewasfollowingcustomexcepttheyoungwomanwhoarrivedwearingcurlers.Shesoonbecameanobjectof
attentionandquietexpressionsofdisapproval,butnoonespoketoheraboutthecylindricalobjectsinherhair.

Twoweekslater,thesameyoungwomanmadealargestackoftortillasandbroughtthemtothecampofhermaternalgrandmother,awidowinhermidsixtieswho
hadorganizedasmallpartytocelebratethebirthdayofhereldestgrandson.Eighteenpeoplewereonhand,myselfincluded,andallofusweretreatedtohotcoffee
andadinnerofboiledbeefandpotatoes.Whenthemealwasover,casualconversationbegantoflow,andtheyoungwomanseatedherselfonthegroundnexttoher
youngersister.Andthenquietly,deftly,andquitewithoutwarninghergrandmothernarratedaversionofthehistoricaltaleabouttheforgetfulApachepoliceman
whobehavedtoomuchlikeawhiteman.Shortlyafterthestorywasfinished,theyoungwomanstoodup,turnedawaywordlessly,andwalkedoffinthedirectionof
herhome.Uncertainofwhathadhappened,Iaskedhergrandmotherwhyshehaddeparted.Hadtheyoungwomansuddenlybecomeill?"No,"hergrandmother
replied."Ishotherwithanarrow."

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Approximatelytwoyearsafterthisincidentoccurred,Ifoundmyselfinthecompanyoftheyoungwomanwiththetastefordistinctivehairstyles.Shehadpurchaseda
largecartonofgroceriesatthetradingpostatCibecue,andwhenIofferedtodriveherhomewiththemsheaccepted.Iinquiredonthewayifsherememberedthe
timethathergrandmotherhadtoldusthestoryabouttheforgetfulpoliceman.Shesaidshedidandthenwenton,speakinginEnglish,todescribeherreactionstoit."I
thinkmaybemygrandmotherwasgettingafterme,butthenIthinkmaybenot,maybeshe'sworkingonsomebodyelse.ThenIthinkbackonthatdanceandIknow
it'smeforsure.Isuredon'tlikehowshe'stalkingaboutme,soIquitlookinglikethat.Ithrewthosecurlersaway."Inordertoreachtheyoungwoman'scamp,we
hadtopasswithinafewhundredyardsofMenStandAboveHereAndThere,theplacewherethemanhadlivedwhowasarrestedforrustlinginthestory.Ipointed
itouttomycompanion.Shesaidnothingforseveralmoments.Thenshesmiledandspokesoftlyinherownlanguage:"Iknowthatplace.Itstalksmeeveryday."

ThecommentsofthisWesternApachewomanonherexperienceasthetargetofahistoricaltaleareinstructiveinseveralrespects.Tobeginwith,herstatement
enablesustoimaginesomethingofthesizablepsychologicalimpactthathistoricaltalesmayhaveonthepersonstowhomtheyarepresented.Then,too,wecansee
how'godzaahstoriesmayproducequickandpalpableeffectsonthebehaviorofsuchindividuals,causingthemtomodifytheirsocialconductinquitespecificways.
Last,andmostrevealingofall,theyoungwoman'sremarksprovideaclearillustrationofwhatApacheshaveinmindwhentheyassertthathistoricaltalesmay
establishhighlymeaningfulrelationshipsbetweenindividualsandfeaturesofthenaturallandscape.

Toappreciatefullythesignificanceoftheserelationships,aswellastheirinfluenceonthelivesofWesternApachepeople,wemustexploremorethoroughlythe
mannerinwhichtherelationshipsareconceptualized.ThiscanbeaccomplishedthroughacloserexaminationofApacheideasabouttheactivityofstorytellingandthe
acknowledgedpoweroforalnarratives,especiallyhistoricaltales,topromotebeneficialchangesinpeople'sattitudestowardtheirresponsibilitiesasmembersofa
moralcommunity.Theseideas,whichcombinetoform

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anativemodelofhoworalnarrativesworktoachievetheirintendedeffects,areexpressedintermsofasingledominantmetaphor.Bynowitshouldcomeasno
surprisetolearnthatthemetaphordrawsheavilyontheimageryofhunting.

StalkingwithStories

NickThompsonistired.Wehavebeentalkingabouthuntingwithstoriesfortwodaysnowandtheoldmanhasnothadaneasytimeofit.Yesterday,myuneven
controloftheWesternApachelanguagepreventedhimfromspeakingasrapidlyandeloquentlyashewouldhaveliked,andontoomanyoccasionsIwasforcedto
interrupthimwithquestions.Atonepoint,boredandannoyedwithmyqueries,hetoldmethatIremindedhimofahorseflybuzzingaroundhishead.Later,however,
whenhewassatisfiedthatIcouldfollowatleasttheoutlineofhisthoughts,herecordedontapealengthystatementwhichhesaidcontainedeverythinghewantedme
toknow."Takeitwithyouandlistentoit,"hesaid."TomorrowweputitinEnglish."Forthepastsixhoursthatiswhatwehavebeentryingtodo.Wearefinished
nowandwearyoftalking.IntheweekstocomeIwillworryaboutthedepthandforceofourtranslation,andtwicemoreIwillreturntoNick'scampwithother
questions.Butthehardestworkisoverandbothofusknowit.Nickhastaughtmealreadythathuntingwithstoriesisnotasimplematter,andasIpreparetoleaveI
sayso."Weknow,"hesays,andthatisall.HereisNickThompson'sstatement:
Thisiswhatweknowaboutourstories.Theygotoworkonyourmindandmakeyouthinkaboutyourlife.Maybeyou'venotbeenactingright.Maybeyou'vebeenstingy.
Maybeyou'vebeenchasingafterwomen.Maybeyou'vebeentryingtoactlikeawhiteman.Peopledon'tlikeit!Sosomeonegoeshuntingforyoumaybeyourgrandmother,
yourgrandfather,youruncle.Itdoesn'tmatter.Anyonecandoit.

Sosomeonestalksyouandtellsastoryaboutwhathappenedlongago.Itdoesn'tmatterifotherpeoplearearoundyou'regoingtoknowhe'saimingthatstoryatyou.Allofa
suddenithitsyou!It'slikeanarrow,theysay.Sometimesitjustbouncesoffit'stoosoftandyoudon't

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thinkaboutanything.Butwhenit'sstrongitgoesindeepandstartsworkingonyourmindrightaway.Noonesaysanythingtoyou,onlythatstoryisall,butnowyouknowthat
peoplehavebeenwatchingyouandtalkingaboutyou.Theydon'tlikehowyou'vebeenacting.Soyouhavetothinkaboutyourlife.

Thenyoufeelweak,realweak,likeyouaresick.Youdon'twanttoeatortalktoanyone.Thatstoryisworkingonyounow.Youkeepthinkingaboutit.Thatstoryischangingyou
now,makingyouwanttoliveright.Thatstoryismakingyouwanttoreplaceyourself.Youthinkonlyofwhatyoudidthatwaswrongandyoudon'tlikeit.Soyouwanttolive
better.Afterawhile,youdon'tliketothinkofwhatyoudidwrong.Soyoutrytoforgetthatstory.Youtrytopullthatarrowout.Youthinkitwon'thurtanymorebecausenowyou
wanttoliveright.

It'shardtokeeponlivingright.Manythingsjumpupatyouandblockyourway.Butyouwon'tforgetthatstory.You'regoingtoseetheplacewhereithappened,maybeevery
dayifit'snearbyandclosetoCibecue.Ifyoudon'tseeit,you'regoingtohearitsnameandseeitinyourmind.Itdoesn'tmatterifyougetoldthatplacewillkeeponstalking
youliketheonewhoshotyouwiththestory.Maybethatpersonwilldie.Evenso,thatplacewillkeeponstalkingyou.It'slikethatpersonisstillalive.

Evenifwegofarawayfromheretosomebigcity,placesaroundherekeepstalkingus.Ifyoulivewrong,youwillhearthenamesandseetheplacesinyourmind.Theykeepon
stalkingyou,evenifyougoacrossoceans.Thenamesofalltheseplacesaregood.Theymakeyourememberhowtoliveright,soyouwanttoreplaceyourselfagain.

AWesternApacheHuntingMetaphor

NickThompson'smodelofWesternApachestorytellingisacompellingconstruction.Tobesure,itistheformulationofoneApacheonlybutitisfullyexplicitand
amplydetailed,andIhavebeenabletocorroboratealmosteveryaspectofitwithotherApachesfrom

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Cibecue.ThisisnottoimplythatallApachepeopleinterprettheirhuntingmetaphorforstorytellinginexactlythesamefashion.Onthecontrary,oneoftheproperties
ofanysuccessfulmetaphoristhatitcanberefinedandenlargedindifferentways.Thus,someApachesassertthathistoricaltales,likearrows,leavewoundsmental
andemotionalwoundsandthattheprocessof"replacingoneself"isproperlyunderstoodasaformofhealing.OtherApacheconsultantsstressthatplacenames,
ratherthanthesitestowhichthenamesrefer,arewhatindividualsareunabletoforgetafterhistoricaltaleshavedonetheirwork.Butdifferencesandelaborationsof
thiskindonlydemonstratethescopeandflexibilityofthehuntingmetaphoranddonothingtoalteritsbasiccontoursortodiminishitsconsiderableforce.Neitherdoes
suchvariationreduceinanywaytheutilityofthemetaphorasaneffectiveinstrumentofWesternApachethought.

AlthoughIcannotclaimtounderstandthefullrangeofmeaningsthatthehuntingmodelforstorytellinghasforWesternApachepeople,thegeneralpremisesonwhich
themodelrestsseemcleartome.Historicaltaleshavethecapacitytothrustsociallydelinquentpersonsintoperiodsofintensecriticalselfexaminationfromwhich
(ideally,atleast)theyemergechastened,repentant,anddeterminedto"liveright."Simultaneously,peoplewhohavebeen"shot"withstoriesexperienceaformof
anguishshame,guilt,perhapsonlypervasivechagrinthatmovesthemtoalteraspectsoftheirbehaviorsoastoconformmorecloselytocommunityexpectations.
Inshort,historicaltaleshavethepowertochangepeople'sideasaboutthemselves:toforcethemtoadmittosocialfailings,todwellseriouslyonthesignificanceof
theselapses,andtoresolve,itishopedonceandforall,nottorepeatthem.AsNickThompsonsays,historicaltales"makeyouthinkaboutyourlife."

Afterstoriesandstorytellershaveservedthisbeneficialpurpose,featuresofthephysicallandscapetakeoverandperpetuateit.Mountainsandarroyosstepin
symbolicallyforgrandmothersanduncles.Justasthelatterhave"stalked"delinquentindividualsinthepast,so,too,particularlocationscontinuetostalktheminthe
present.Suchsurveillanceisessential,Apachesmaintain,because"livingright"requiresconstantcareandattention,andthereisalwaysapossibilitythat

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oldstoriesandtheirinitialimpact,likeoldarrowsandtheirwounds,willfadeanddisappear.Inotherwords,thereisalwaysachancethatpersonswhohave"replaced
themselves"onceortwice,orthreetimeswillrelaxtheirguardagainst"badness"andslipbackintoundesirableformsofsocialconduct.Consequently,Apaches
explain,individualsneedtobecontinuouslyremindedofwhytheywere"shot"inthefirstplaceandhowtheyreactedtoitatthetime.Geographicalsites,togetherwith
thecrispmentalpicturesofthempresentedbytheirnames,serveadmirablyinthiscapacity,invitingpeopletorecalltheirearlierfailingsandencouragingthemto
resolve,onceagain,toavoidtheminthefuture.Grandmothersandunclesmustperish,butthelandscapeendures,andforthistheApachepeoplearegrateful.''The
land,"NickThompsonobserves,"looksafterus.Thelandkeepsbadnessaway."

ItshouldnowbepossibleforthereadertointerprettheWesternApachetextsatthebeginningofthisessayinamannerroughlycompatiblewiththeApacheideasthat
haveshapedthem.Moreover,heorsheshouldbeabletoappreciatethattheclaimsputforwardinthetextsarereasonableandappropriate,credibleand"correct,"
theprincipledexpressionsofanunderlyinglogicthatinveststhemwithinternalconsistencyandcoherentconceptualstructure.Aswehaveseen,thisstructureis
suppliedinlargepartbythehuntingmetaphorforWesternApachestorytelling.Itischieflyinaccordancewiththismetaphoror,moreexactly,inaccordancewith
thesymbolicassociationsitordersandmakesexplicitthattheclaimspresentedearlierfinallymakesense.

Thus,AnniePeaches'sclaimthatthelandoccupiedbyWesternApaches"makesthepeopleliveright"becomesunderstandableasapropositionaboutthemoral
significanceofgeographicallocationsasthishasbeenestablishedbyhistoricaltaleswithwhichthelocationsareassociated.Similarly,WilsonLavender'sclaimthat
Apacheswhofailtorememberplacenames"forgethowtobestrong"restsonanassociationofplacenameswithabeliefinthepowerofhistoricaltalesto
discourageformsofsociallyunacceptablebehavior.Apachesalsoassociateplacesandtheirnameswiththenarratorsofhistoricaltales,andBensonLewis'sclaim
thatacertainmountainnearCibecueishismaternalgrandmothercanbeinterpretedonlyinlightofthis

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assumption.ThehuntingmetaphorforstorytellingalsoinformsRonnieLupe'sclaimthatWesternApachechildrenwhoarenotexposedtohistoricaltalestendtohave
interpersonaldifficulties.Asheputsit,"Theydon'tknowthestoriesofwhathappenedattheseplaces.That'swhysomeofthemgetintotrouble."WhatMr.Lupeis
claiming,ofcourse,isthatchildrenwhodonotlearntoassociateplacesandtheirnameswithhistoricaltalescannotappreciatetheutilityofthesenarrativesas
guidelinesfordealingresponsiblyandamicablywithotherpeople.Consequently,hebelieves,suchindividualsaremorelikelythanotherstoactinwaysthatrun
countertoApachesocialnorms,asuresignthattheyare"losingtheland."

LosingthelandissomethingtheWesternApachescanillaffordtodo,forgeographicalfeatureshaveservedthepeopleforcenturiesasindispensablemnemonicpegs
onwhichtohangthemoralteachingsoftheirhistory.Accordingly,suchlocationspresentthemselvesasinstancesofwhatMikhailBakhtinhascalledchronotopes.As
Bakhtin(1981:7)describesthem,chronotopesare

pointsinthegeographyofacommunitywheretimeandspaceintersectandfuse.Timetakesonfleshandbecomesvisibleforhumancontemplationlikewise,spacebecomes
chargedandresponsivetothemovementsoftimeandhistoryandtheenduringcharacterofapeople....Chronotopesthusstandasmonumentstothecommunityitself,as
symbolsofit,asforcesoperatingtoshapeitsmembers'imagesofthemselves.

WhetherornotoneispleasedwithBakhtin'suseofthetermchronotope(itismorewidelyknown,butinaverydifferentsense,asaconceptinAlbertEinstein's
theoryofrelativity),hisobservationsontheculturalimportanceofgeographicallandmarksapplynicelytotheWesternApache.TheApachelandscapeisfullofnamed
locationswheretimeandspacehavefusedandwhere,throughtheagencyofhistoricaltales,theirintersectionis"madevisibleforhumancontemplation."Itisalso
apparentthatsuchlocations,chargedastheyarewithpersonalandsocialsignificance,workinimportantwaystoshapetheimagesthatApacheshaveorshould
haveofthemselves.SpeakingtopeoplelikeNickThompsonandRonnieLupe,toAnniePeachesandBensonLewis,oneformstheimpressionthatApachesview
the

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landscapeasarepositoryofdistilledwisdom,asternbutbenevolentkeeperoftradition,anevervigilantallyintheeffortsofindividualsandwholecommunitiesto
maintainasetofstandardsforsociallivingthatisuniquelyanddistinctlytheirown.IntheworldthattheWesternApacheshaveconstitutedforthemselves,featuresof
thelandscapehavebecomesymbolsofandforthiswayofliving,thesymbolsofacultureandtheenduringmoralcharacterofitspeople.

WemayassumethatthisrelationshipwiththelandhasbeenpervasivethroughoutWesternApachehistory,butintoday'sclimateofsocialchange,itsimportancefor
Apachepeoplemaywellbedeepening.CommunitiessuchasCibecue,formerlyisolatedandverymuchturnedinward,wereopenedupbypavedroadslessthan
twentyfiveyearsago,andtheconsequencesofimprovedaccessandfreertravelincludinggreatlyincreasedcontactwithAngloAmericanshavebeen
pronounced.YoungerApaches,whotodaycomplainfrequentlyaboutthetediumofvillagelife,havestartedtodevelopnewtastesandambitions,andsomeofthem
areeagertoexploretheoutsideworld.Oldermembersofthecommunityunderstandthisdesireanddolittletotrytostifleit,buttheyareconcernedthatasyounger
peoplelearnmoreandmoreofthe"whiteman'sway"theywillalsolosesightofportionsoftheirown.Letthepinkplasticcurlersatthegirls'pubertyceremonialstand
asonecaseinpoint.Whatcanbedonetoguardagainstthisunsettlingpossibility?Perhaps,inthelongrun,nothing.Butfornow,andprobablyforsometimetocome,
thelandscapeisdoingarespectablejob.Itisthere,"stalking"peopleallthetime,andtotheextentthatitremainsnotmerelyaphysicalpresencebutanomnipresent
moralforce,youngApachesarenotlikelytoforgetthatthe''whiteman'sway"belongstoadifferentworld.

HavingpursuedWesternApacheideasaboutthelandthisfar,itisworthinquiringwhethersimilarconceptionsareheldbyothergroupsofAmericanIndianpeople.
Althoughethnographicmaterialsbearingonthisquestionareinshortsupply(Iidentifysomeofthereasonsforthisshortagefurtheron),thereishighlyreliableevidence
fromanothersourcethepublishedworkofmodernIndianwritersthatgeneralsimilaritiesdoexist.Consider,forexample,thefollowingstatementbyLeslieM.
Silko,poetandnovelistfromthepuebloofLaguna

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inNewMexico.Afterexplainingthatstories"functionbasicallyasmakersofouridentity,"Silko(1981:69)goesontodiscussPueblonarrativesinrelationtotheland:
Thestoriescannotbeseparatedfromgeographicallocations,fromactualphysicalplaceswithintheland....Andthestoriesaresomuchapartoftheseplacesthatitisalmost
impossibleforfuturegenerationstolosethestoriesbecausetherearesomanyimposinggeologicalelements...youcannotliveinthatlandwithoutaskingorlookingator
noticingaboulderorrock.Andthere'salwaysastory.

AnumberofotherAmericanIndianauthors,amongthemVineDeloria,Jr.(StandingRockSioux),SimonOrtiz(Acoma),JoyHarjo(Creek),andthecultural
anthropologistAlfonsoOrtiz(SanJuanPueblo),havewrittenwithskillandinsightaboutthemoraldimensionsofNativeAmericanconceptionsoftheland.Noone,
however,hasaddressedthesubjectwithgreatersensitivitythanN.ScottMomaday(Kiowa).Thefollowingpassages,takenfromhisshortessayentitled"Native
AmericanAttitudestotheEnvironment"(1974),showclearlywhatisinvolved,notonlyfortheWesternApachebutforothertribesaswell.
YoucannotunderstandhowtheIndianthinksofhimselfinrelationtotheworldaroundhimunlessyouunderstandhisconceptionofwhatisappropriateparticularlywhatis
morallyappropriatewithinthecontextofthatrelationship....(1974:82)

ThenativeAmericanethicwithrespecttothephysicalworldisamatterofreciprocalappropriation:appropriationsinwhichmaninvestshimselfinthelandscape,andatthesame
timeincorporatesthelandscapeintohisownmostfundamentalexperience....Thisappropriationisprimarilyamatterofimaginationwhichismoralinkind.Imeantosaythatwe
areall,Isuppose,whatweimagineourselvestobe.AndthatiscertainlytrueoftheAmericanIndian....[TheIndian]issomeonewhothinksofhimselfinaparticularwayandhis
ideacomprehendshisrelationshiptothephysicalworld.Heimagineshimselfintermsofthatrelationshipandothers.Anditisthatactofimagination,thatmoralactof

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imagination,whichconstituteshisunderstandingofthephysicalworld.(1974:80)

"GoodnessIsAllAround"

ThenewssweepsthroughCibecuelikebrushfire:NickThompsonmusthavepurchasedawheelchairbecausehewasseenthismorningracinginone,againsthis
fouryearoldgrandson.Thelittleboy,shriekingwithgleeandrunningasfastashecould,wonthecontest,buttheoldmanfinishedclosebehind.Nick'swifewas
horrifiedandhisoldestdaughteryelledtwicetohimtostop.Buthekeptongoing,wheelinghimselfalongwithhisonegoodarmandpayingnoattentionwhatsoever.
Thatoldmanwilldoanything!Hedoesn'tcareatallwhatpeoplethink!Andwhatifhecrashed!

NickThompsonhasnointentionofcrashing.Seatednowinhisfamiliarplacebeneaththecottonwoodtreenearhishouse,hesaysthatracinghiswheelchairis
perfectlysafe.Hesaysheplanstodoitagainhehasalreadychallengedhissixyearoldgranddaughter.Hesaysheistiredofthewomeninhiscamptellinghimwhat
todo.Heisalsotiredofnotbeingabletomovearoundfreely,whichiswhyheboughtthewheelchairinthefirstplace,andpeopleshouldunderstandthisandstop
makingsuchafuss.Andbesides,theoldmanobserves,thewheelchairhasgoodbrakes.That'swhathelikesbestgettingupspeedandjammingonthebrakes.

Thesummerof1981isalmostgone,andsoonImustleaveCibecue.IhavewalkedtoNick'scamptotellhimgoodbye.Thisisnevereasyforme,andwespend
mostofthetimetalkingaboutotherthings.Eventually,Imovetothankhimforhisgenerosity,hispatience,andthethingshehastaughtme.Nickrespondsbypointing
withhislipstoalowridgethatrunsbehindhishomeinaneasterlydirectionawayfromCibecueCreek."Thatisagoodplace,"hesays."Theseareallgoodplaces.
Goodnessisallaround."

Theoldmanpauses.Thenhereachesbeneaththeseatofhischairandproducesablueandwhitecapwhichheplaces,slightlyaskew,onhishead.Theembossed
embleminfront,whichisintheshapeofacar,reads"FordRacingTeam."Webothbegintolaugh...andlaughandlaugh.

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LanguageandEnvironment

AnthropologistshavelongbeeninterestedintherelationshipsthatlinkAmericanIndiancommunitiestotheirecologicalsettings.Inthegreatmajorityofcases,these
relationshipshavebeendescribedandinterpretedexclusivelyinmaterialisttermsthatis,intermsofdemographicpatterns,subsistencestrategies,andformsofsocial
organizationthatfacilitatetheexploitationofenvironmentalresourcesandfunctioninthiswaytoassurethebiologicalsurvivalofnativepopulations.Whilethis
approachisusefulforcertainpurposes,itisclearthatmaterialistmodelsareonesidedandincomplete.TheyignorethefactthatAmericanIndians,likegroupsof
peopleeverywhere,maintainacomplexarrayofsymbolicrelationshipswiththeirphysicalsurroundingsandthattheserelationships,whichmayhavelittletodowith
thebusinessofmakingaliving,playafundamentalroleinshapingotherformsofsocialactivity.Whathasbeenignored,inotherwords,aretheculturalinstruments
withwhichAmericanIndiansfashionunderstandingsoftheirenvironments,theideationalresourceswithwhichtheyconstitutetheirsurroundingsandinvestthemwith
valueandsignificance.Weneednotgofartoseekthereasonsforthisneglect.Havingcommittedthemselvestoasearchforstatisticalregularitiesandfunctional
interdependencies,humanecologistsareobligedtoregardthesemioticdimensionsofhumanenvironmentsasepiphenomenathatlieoutsidethepropersphereoftheir
concern.Andso,ironically,manyhumanecologistshavebecomelargelyuninterestedinwhathumanbeingstaketheirenvironmentstomean.Thisisunfortunate
because,asMihalyCsikszentmihalyiandEdwardRochbergHalton(1981:1)havewritten,
tounderstandwhatpeopleareandwhattheymightbecome,onemustunderstandwhatgoesonbetweenpeopleandthings.Whatthingsarecherished,andwhy,shouldbecome
partofourknowledgeofhumanbeings.Yetitissurprisinghowlittleweknowaboutwhatthingsmeantopeople.Byandlargesocialscientistshaveneglectedafullinvestigation
oftherelationshipbetweenpeopleandobjects.

Thereisnodoubtinthemindsofmanyanthropologists,includingasubstantialnumberwhohaveworkedwithAmericanIndians,that

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studiesinecologyhavemadeavaluablecontribution.Inparticular,theseinvestigationshaveshownthatindigenouspopulationsmayadaptwithexquisiteintricacyto
thephysicalconditionsoftheirexistence(including,ofcourse,thepresenceofotherhumanpopulations),andthatmodificationsintheseconditionsmayhavearange
ofdynamiceffectsonthestructureandorganizationofsocialinstitutions.Butecologicalmodelshavebeenconsistentlyformulatedata"systemic"levelthatiswell
removedfromtheleveloftheindividualanditisindividuals,notsocialinstitutions,whomakeandactonculturalmeanings.Conventionalecologicalstudiesproceed
onthetacitpremisethatwhatpeoplethinkabouttheenvironmenthowtheyperceiveit,howtheyconceptualizeit,or,toborrowaphrasefromthe
ethnomethodologists,howthey"activelyconstruct"itisbasicallyirrelevanttoanunderstandingofmanlandrelationships.Toacceptthispremiseistoconcludethat
culturalmeaningsaresimilarlyirrelevantandthatthelayersofsignificancewithwhichhumanbeingsblankettheenvironmenthavelittlebearingonhowtheyleadtheir
lives.Butthepremiseisnotcorrect,forAmericanIndiansoranyoneelse,andtosupposeotherwisewouldbeaseriousmistake.

Accordingly,andbywayofillustration,IhaveattemptedtoshowherethatWesternApacheconceptionsofthelandworkinspecificwaystoinfluenceApaches'
conceptionsofthemselves,andviceversa,andthatthetwotogetherworktoinfluencepatternsofsocialaction.Torejectthispossibilityor,asmanyecologists
wouldbeinclinedtodo,toruleitoutaprioriasinconsequentialwouldhavetheeffectof"removing"theApachesfromtheworldastheyhaveconstructedit.This,in
turn,wouldobliterateallaspectsoftheirmoralrelationshipwiththeland.Forreasonsthatshouldnowbeapparent,thisrelationshipiscrucialtoApachesquiteas
crucial,Iexpect,asanythatdealswithsubsistenceoreconomicsandforustolosesightofitcouldonlyhavedamagingconsequences.

Societiesmustsurvive,butsociallifeismorethanjustsurviving.Andculturalmeaningsareepiphenomenalonlyforthosewhochoosetomakethemso.Iwouldliketo
witnessthedevelopmentofaculturalecologythatisculturalinthefullestsense,abroaderandmoreflexibleapproachtothestudyofmanlandrelationshipsinwhich
the

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symbolicpropertiesofenvironmentalphenomenareceivethesamekindofattentionthathastraditionallybeengiventotheirmaterialcounterparts.TheWestern
ApachesofCibecueunderstandtheirland,andactontheirunderstandingsofit,inwaysthatstandardecologicalapproacheswouldoverlook.Doesthismeanthat
suchunderstandingsareunimportantfortheWesternApache?Forastrongerandmoreroundedanthropology?Isuggestthatonbothcountsitdoesnot.

Culturalconstructionsoftheenvironment,whetherthoseofAmericanIndiansorofpeopleselsewhereintheworld,willremainlargelyinaccessibleunlessweare
preparedtositdownandlistentoournativeconsultantstalknotonlyaboutlandscapes,whichofcoursewemustdo,butabouttalkingaboutlandscapesaswell.
Andsincespatialconceptions,liketemporalones,aresooftenfoundexpressedinfigurativelanguage,thisisalmostcertaintoleadtoaconsiderationofmetaphor.
PaulRadin(1916:137),writingsomeyearsagooftheWinnebagoIndiansoftheGreatLakes,describedaparticularcasethatisprobablytypicalofmanyothers:

Ideasaboutthehabitatarefrequentlysetforthinelaboratesimilesandmetaphorswhichequatedisparateobjectsinafashionthatatfirstseemsquiteunfathomable.Yetonce
thesetropesareuncovered,itcanbeseenthattheyrestuponfirmassumptionsabouttheworkingsofnaturewhich,thoughdifferentfromourown,fittogetherintelligibly.

GeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnson(1980:1)havestatedthattheessenceofmetaphoris"understandingandexperiencingonekindofthingintermsofanother."
AlthoughthisdefinitiondepartsrelativelylittlefromtheclassicalonegivenbyAristotle("metaphorimpliesanintuitiveperceptionofthesimilarityindissimilars"),it
pointstoaprobleminthestudyoflanguageandculturethatisdeeplyethnographic.Forwheremetaphorisconcerned,thequestionalwaysarises,Onwhatgrounds
isonekindofthingunderstoodintermsofanother?Inotherwords,whatmustindividualsbelieveaboutthemselvesandtheirsurroundingsfortheirmetaphorsto
''work"?

Thisquestionfocusesattentiononthelargebodyofimplicitculturalassumptionsthatthemembersofanyspeechcommunityrelyontointerpretinstancesofsituated
discourse.Suchassumptions,which

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havebeenvariouslydescribedascomprisingaspeaker's"presuppositions,""backgroundknowledge,"or"beliefsabouttheworld,''presentdifficultiesforalltheories
oflanguagethatseektorestricttheideaoflinguisticcompetencetoaspeaker'stacitknowledgeofgrammaticalrules.Metaphorthreatensboththevalidityofthis
distinctionandtheutilityofmaintainingit,becausetheabilitytointerpreteventhesimplestformsofmetaphoricalspeechcannotbeaccountedforwithgrammatical
rulesalonepresuppositionsarealsofundamentallyinvolved.ThisisclearlyillustratedbyNickThompson'sstatementontheWesternApachehuntingmetaphorfor
storytelling.Asheexplicatesthemetaphor,therebyenablingustointerpretasetofclaimsthatApacheshavemade,hearticulatestheculturalassumptionsthatmake
theseclaimspossibleinthefirstplace.Inotherwords,hemakespresuppositionsexplicit.StorytellersarehuntersfortheWesternApacheandstories,arrowsand
mountains,grandmothersbyvirtueofsharedbeliefsabouttheworld.Culturallywroughtandculturallyspecific,suchbeliefsprovidetheconceptualmaterialswith
whichcompetentApachespeakerslocatethesimilaritiesinmetaphoricaldissimilarsand,indoingso,experienceonekindofthingintermsofanother.Suchbeliefs
maketheirmetaphors"work."

Whatallofthisimplies(obviouslyformanyanthropologists,lesssoformanylinguists)isthatgraspingotherpeoples'metaphorsrequiresethnographyasmuchasit
doeslinguistics.Unlesswepursuethetwotogether,thefullextenttowhichmetaphoricalstructuresinfluencepatternsofthoughtandactionislikelytoeludeus."To
inhabitalanguage,"SamuelJohnsonwrote,"istoinhabitalivinguniverse,andviceversa."That"viceversa"iscriticalbecauseitsuggests,correctlyIbelieve,that
linguisticsandethnographyareintegralpartsofthesamebasicenterprise,oneofwhosepurposesistoconstructprincipledinterpretationsofculturallyconstituted
worldsandtotrytounderstandwhatlivinginthemislike.Ifanthropologystandstobenefitfromanapproachtoculturalecologythatattendsmorecloselytothe
symbolicformswithwhichhumanenvironmentsareperceivedandrenderedsignificant,so,too,thereisaneedforanexpandedviewoflinguisticcompetenceinwhich
beliefsabouttheworldoccupyacentralplace.Ifitisthemeaningofthingsthatweare

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afterthemeaningsofwords,objects,events,andtheclaimspeoplemakeaboutthemselveslanguageandculturemustbestudiedhandinhand.Ourknowledgeof
onecanonlyenhanceourknowledgeoftheother.

"WeKnowItHappened"

Ifthethoughtspresentedherehaveameasureoftheoreticalinterest,recentexperiencepersuadesmethattheycanhavepracticalvalueaswell.Duringthepast
decadeIhavewrittenanumberofdocumentsforuseinlitigationconcerningthesettlementofWesternApachewaterrightsinthestateofArizona.Untilafinal
decisionisreachedinthecase,Iamnotpermittedtodescribethecontentsofthesedocumentsindetail,butoneofmyassignmentshasbeentowriteareportdealing
withApacheconceptionsofthephysicalenvironment.ThatreportcontainssectionsonWesternApacheplacenames,oralnarratives,andcertainmetaphorsthat
Apachepeopleusetoformulateaspectsoftheirrelationshipwiththeland.

PreliminaryhearingsresultedinajudgmentfavorabletoApacheinterestsapparentlymyreportwasuseful,mainlybecauseithelpedtopavethewayfortestimonyby
nativewitnesses.OneofthesewitnesseswasNickThompson,andaccordingtoattorneysonbothsides,theoldman'sappearancehadadecisiveimpact.AfterNick
hadtakenhisplaceonthestand,hewasaskedbyanattorneywhyheconsideredwatertobeimportanttohispeople.Amanofeminentgoodsense,Nickreplied,
"Becausewedrinkit!"Andthen,withoutmissingabeat,helaunchedintoahistoricaltaleaboutalargespringnotfarfromCibecueTNchaaHaln*(MuchWater
FlowsUpAndOut)wherelongagoamanwasmysteriouslydrownedafterbadlymistreatinghiswife.WhenNickfinishedthestoryhewentontosay:"Weknowit
happened,soweknownottoactlikethatmanwhodied.It'sgoodwehavethatwater.Weneedittolive.It'sgoodwehavethatspringtoo.Weneedittoliveright."
Thentheoldmansmiledtohimselfandhiseyesbegantodance.

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3
SpeakingwithNames
Whatwecallthelandscapeisgenerallyconsideredtobesomething"outthere."But,whilesomeaspectsofthelandscapeareclearlyexternaltobothourbodiesandourminds,
whateachofusactuallyexperiencesisselected,shaped,andcoloredbywhatweknow.
BarrieGreenbie,Spaces:DimensionsoftheHumanLandscape

Anunfamiliarlandscape,likeanunfamiliarlanguage,isalwaysalittledaunting,andwhenthetwoareencounteredtogetherastheyare,commonlyenough,inthose
outofthewaycommunitieswhereethnographerstendtocropupthecombinationmaybedownrightunsettling.Fromtheoutset,ofcourse,neitherlandscapenor
languagecanbeignored.Onthecontrary,theshapesandcolorsandcontoursoftheland,togetherwiththeshiftingsoundsandcadencesofnativediscourse,thrust
themselvesuponthenewcomerwithaforcesovividanddirectastobevirtuallyinescapable.Yetforalltheirsensoryimmediacy(andthereareoccasions,asany
ethnographerwillattest,whenthesheerconstancyofitgrowstoformidableproportions)landscapeanddiscourseseemresolutelyoutofreach.Althoughcloseat
handandtangibleintheextreme,eachinitsownwayappearsremoteandinaccessible,anonymousandindistinct,andsomehow,implausibly,ashadelessthanfully
believable.Andneitherlandscapenordiscourse,asifdeterminedtoaccentuatetheseconflictingimpressions,mayseemtheleastbitinterestedinhavingthemresolved.
Emphatically"there"butconspicuouslylackinginaccustomedformsoforderandarrangement,landscapeanddiscourseconfoundthestranger'seffortstoinvestthem
withsignificance,andthisuncommonpredicament,whichproducesnothingifnotuncertainty,canbekeenlydisconcerting.

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Surroundedbyforeigngeographicalobjectsandintractableactsofspeech,eventhemostpracticedethnographerbecomesdiffidentandcautious.Forthemeaningsof
objectsandactsalikecanonlybeguessedat,andoncetheguesseshavebeenrecognizedforthearbitraryconstructionstheyalmostalwaysare,onesensesacutely
thatone'sownexperienceofthingsandevents"outthere"cannotbeusedasareliableguidetotheexperienceofnativepeople.Inotherwords,onemust
acknowledgethatlocalunderstandingsofexternalrealitiesarefashionedfromlocalculturalmaterials,andthat,knowinglittleornothingofthelatter,one'sabilityto
makeappropriatesenseof"whatis"and"whatoccurs''inanother'senvironmentisboundtobedeficient.Forbetterorworse,theethnographersees,landscapeand
speechactsdonotinterprettheirownsignificance.Initiallyatleast,andtypicallyformanymonthstocome,thisisataskthatonlymembersoftheindigenous
communityareadequatelyequippedtoaccomplishandaccomplishittheydo,dayinanddayout,withenviablylittledifficulty.Forwherenativemenandwomenare
concerned,theexternalworldisasitappearstothemtobenaturally,unproblematically,andmoreorlessconsistentlyandrarelydotheyhavereasontoconsider
thatthecoherenceitdisplaysisanintricateproductoftheirowncollectivemanufacture.Culturesrundeep,asthesayinggoes,andallofustakeour"native'spointof
view"verymuchforgranted.

Inthisway,orsomethingroughlylikeit,theethnographercomestoappreciatethatfeaturesofthelocallandscape,nolessthanutterancesexchangedinformsofdaily
discourse,acquirevalueandsignificancebyvirtueoftheideationalsystemswithwhichtheyareapprehendedandconstrued.Symbolicallyconstituted,socially
transmitted,andindividuallyapplied,suchsystemsoperatetoplaceflexibleconstraintsonhowthephysicalenvironmentcan(andshould)beknown,howits
occupantscan(andshould)befoundtoact,andhowthedoingsofbothcan(andshould)bediscernedtoaffecteachother.Accordingly,eachsystemdelineatesa
distinctivewayofbeingintheworld(Ricoeur1979),aninformallogicforengagingtheworldandthinkingabouttheengagement(Geertz1973),anarrayof
conceptualframeworksfororganizingexperienceandrenderingitintelligible(Goffman1974).Inanycommunity,themeaningsassignedtogeographicalfea

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turesandactsofspeechwillbeinfluencedbythesubjectivedeterminationsofthepeoplewhoassignthem,andthesedeterminations,needlesstosay,willexhibit
variation.Butthecharacterofthemeaningstheirsteadierthemes,theirrecurrenttonalities,and,aboveall,theirconventionalizedmodesofexpressionwillbearthe
stampofacommoncastofmind.Constructionsofrealitythatreflectconceptionsofreality,themeaningsoflandscapesandactsofspeecharepersonalized
manifestationsofasharedperspectiveonthehumancondition.

Mullingovertheseapparenttruths,theethnographerislikelytonoticethatmembersofthelocalcommunityinvolvethemselveswiththeirgeographicallandscapeinat
leastthreedistinctways.First,theymaysimplyobservethelandscape,attendingforreasonsoftheirowntoaspectsofitsappearanceandtosundrygoingsonwithin
it.Second,theymayusethelandscape,engaginginabroadrangeofphysicalactivitieswhich,dependingontheirdurationandextent,mayleaveportionsofthe
landscapevisiblymodified.Third,nativepeoplemaycommunicateaboutthelandscape,formulatingdescriptionsandotherrepresentationsofitthattheyshareinthe
courseofsocialgatherings.Onmanyoccasions,communitymemberscanbeobservedtoalternatefreelyamongthesedifferentmodesofinvolvement(theymayalso,
ofcourse,combinethem),butitisobviousthateventsinthelastmodecommunicativeactsoftopographicrepresentationwillbemostrevealingoftheconceptual
instrumentswithwhichnativepeopleinterprettheirnaturalsurroundings.Andthoughsuchrepresentationsmaybefashionedfromavarietyofsemioticmaterials
(gestural,pictorial,musical,andothers),fewaremoreinstructivethanthosewhicharewroughtwithwords.

Ordinarytalk,theethnographersees,providesareadilyavailablewindowontothestructureandsignificanceofotherpeoples'worlds,andso(slowlyatfirst,byfits
andstarts,andneverwithoutprotractedboutsofguessing)heorshebeginstolearntolisten.Andalsotofreshlysee.Forasnativeconceptsandbeliefsfindexternal
purchaseonspecificfeaturesofthelocaltopography,theentirelandscapeacquiresacrispnewdimensionthatseemstomoveitmoresurelyintoview.Whatearlier
appearedasacircularsweepofundifferentiated

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naturalarchitecturenowstartstoemergeasaprecisearrangementofnamedsitesandlocalities,eachdistinguishedbyasetofphysicalattributesandcultural
associationsthatmarkitasunique.Innativediscourse,thelocallandscapefallsneatlyandrepeatedlyintoplacesandplaces,asFranzBoas(1934)emphasized
someyearsago,aresocialconstructionsparexcellence.

Itisexcessivetoclaim,asGeorgeTrager(1968:537)hasdone,that"thewaymantalksaboutthephysicaluniverseishisonlywayofknowinganythingaboutit."
Nonetheless,mostethnographerswouldagreethatTrager'sclaimcontainsalargeamountoftruth,andsomehavesuggestedthatthiscanbeseenwithparticular
claritywherelanguageandlandscapesareconcerned.Forwheneverthemembersofacommunityspeakabouttheirlandscapewhenevertheynameit,orclassifyit,
ortellstoriesaboutittheyunthinkinglyrepresentitinwaysthatarecompatiblewithsharedunderstandingsofhow,inthefullestsense,theyknowthemselvesto
occupyit.Whichissimplytonotethatinconversationalencounters,briefandlengthyalike,individualsexchangeaccountsandobservationsofthelandscapethat
consistentlypresupposemutuallyheldideasofwhatitactuallyis,whyitsconstituentplacesareimportant,andhowitmayintrudeonthepracticalaffairsofits
inhabitants.Thus,iffrequentlybyimplicationandallusiononly,bitsandpiecesofacommonworldviewaregivensituatedrelevanceandmadetemporarilyaccessible.
Intalkaboutthelandscape,asMartinHeidegger(1977:323)soaptlyputit,culturalconceptionsof"dwellingtogether"areplacedonobliquedisplay.

Atthesametime,however,andoftenjustasobliquely,personswhoengageinthissortoftalkalsoexchangemessagesaboutaspectsofthesocialencounterinwhich
theyarejointlyinvolved,includingtheirframingsoftheencounteritself(i.e.,"whatisgoingonhere")andtheirmorallyguidedassessmentsofthecomportmentoffellow
participants.Consequently,thepossibilityarisesthatasspeakerscommunicateaboutthelandscapeandthekindsofdealingstheyhavewithit,theymayalso
communicateaboutthemselvesassocialactorsandthekindsofdealingstheyarehavingwithoneanother.Statedmoreprecisely,statementspertainingtothe
landscapemaybeemployedtoconveytacitmessagesabouttheorganizationoffacetoface

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relationshipsandthenormativefootingsonwhichthoserelationshipsarecurrentlybeingconducted.Indirectlyperhaps,buttellinglyallthesame,participantsinverbal
encountersthusputtheirlandscapestoworkinteractionalworkandhowtheychoosetogoaboutitmayshedinterestinglightonmattersotherthangeography.
Forexample,whenacharacterinashortstorybyPaulGallico(1954:69)saystohischronicallyunfaithfullover,"GomakeanestonFortySecondStreet,"itis
altogetherclearthatheisdrawingupontheculturalmeaningofaplacetocommunicatesomethingimportantabouttheirrelationship.

Fromthestandpointoftheethnographer,then,situatedtalkofgeographicallandscapesismorethanavaluableresourceforexploringlocalconceptionsofthe
surroundingmaterialuniverse.Itmay,inaddition,beusefulforinterpretingformsofsocialactionthatregularlyoccurwithinthatuniverse.Forlandscapesarealways
availabletotheirseasonedinhabitantsinmorethanmaterialterms.Landscapesareavailableinsymbolictermsaswell,andso,chieflythroughthemanifoldagenciesof
speech,theycanbe"detached"fromtheirfixedspatialmooringsandtransformedintoinstrumentsofthoughtandvehiclesofpurposivebehavior.Thustransformed,
landscapesandtheplacesthatfillthembecometoolsfortheimagination,expressivemeansforaccomplishingverbaldeeds,andalso,ofcourse,eminentlyportable
possessionstowhichindividualscanmaintaindeepandabidingattachments,regardlessofwheretheytravel.Intheseways,asN.ScottMomaday(1974)has
observed,menandwomenlearntoappropriatetheirlandscapes,tothinkandact"with"themaswellasaboutanduponthem,andtoweavethemwithspoken
wordsintotheveryfoundationsofsociallife.1 Andintheseways,too,aseveryethnographereventuallycomestoappreciate,geographicallandscapesarenever
culturallyvacant.Theethnographicchallengeistofathomwhatitisthataparticularlandscape,filledtobrimmingwithpastandpresentsignificance,canbecalledupon
to"say,"andwhat,throughthesaying,itcanbecalleduponto''do."

Butwheretobeginandhowtoproceed?How,inanycommunity,toidentifytheconceptualframeworksandverbalpracticeswithwhichmembersappropriatetheir
geography?Onepromisingapproach,asIhavebeensuggesting,istoattendtonativeplacenamesandthefull

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varietyofcommunicativefunctionsservedbyactsofnamingindifferentsocialcontexts.Itmaybenotedinthisregardthatplacenames,ortoponyms,comprisea
distinctsemanticdomaininthelexiconsofallknownlanguages,andthattheformalpropertiesofplacenamesystems,togetherwiththeirspatialcorrelatesand
etymologicalhistories,havelongbeenobjectsofanthropologicalinquiry.Butthecommonactivityofplacenamingtheactualuseoftoponymsinconcreteinstancesof
everydayspeechhasattractedlittleattentionfromlinguistsorethnographers.Lessoftenstillhasplacenamingbeeninvestigatedasauniversalmeansand,itcould
wellturnout,auniversallyprimarymeansforappropriatingphysicalenvironments.

Thereasonsforthisinnocuouspieceofscholarlyneglectareseveral,butthemainonearisesfromawidespreadviewoflanguageinwhichpropernamesareassumed
tohavemeaningsolelyintheircapacitytoreferand,asagentsofreference,toenterintosimpleandcomplexpredications.Manyofthelimitationsimposedbythis
narrowconceptionofmeaninghavebeenexposedandcriticizedinrecentyears,mostablybylinguisticanthropologistsandphilosophersoflanguagewhohaveshown
thatreference,thoughunquestionablyavitallinguisticfunction,isbutoneofmanythatspokenutterancescanbemadetoperform.Butdespitethesesalutary
developments,andunhappilyforstudentswhoseektounderstandlinguisticmeaningasanemergentpropertyofverbalinteraction,theideapersistsinmanyquarters
thatpropernames,includingtoponyms,serveasreferentialvehicleswhoseonlypurposeistodenote,or"pickout,"objectsintheworld.2

Ifacertainmyopiaattachestothisposition,thereisironyaswell,forplacenamesarearguablyamongthemosthighlychargedandrichlyevocativeofalllinguistic
symbols.Becauseoftheirinseparableconnectiontospecificlocalities,placenamesmaybeusedtosummonforthanenormousrangeofmentalandemotional
associationsassociationsoftimeandspace,ofhistoryandevents,ofpersonsandsocialactivities,ofoneselfandstagesinone'slife.Andintheircapacitytoevoke,
intheircompactpowertomusterandconsolidatesomuchofwhatalandscapemaybetakentorepresentinbothpersonalandculturalterms,placenamesacquirea
functionalvaluethateasily

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matchestheirutilityasinstrumentsofreference.Mostnotably,asT.S.Eliot(1932)andSeamusHeaney(1980)haveremarked,placenamesprovidematerialsfor
resonatingellipses,forspeakingandwritinginpotentshorthand,forcommunicatingmuchwhilesayingverylittle.Poetsandsongwritershavelongunderstoodthat
economyofexpressionmayenhancethequalityandforceofaestheticdiscourse,andthatplacenamesstandreadytobeexploitedforthispurpose.Linguistsand
anthropologistswoulddowelltounderstandthatinmanycommunities,similarconsiderationsmayinfluencecommonformsofspokeninteraction,andthatinthisarena
too,placenamesmayoccupyaprivilegedposition.Fortheseandotherreasons,anethnographicapproachtotheactivityofplacenamingseemswellworthpursuing.
Thepresentchapter,whichnowtakesasharpethnographicturn,isofferedasanillustrationofwheresuchanapproachmaylead,andwhy,beyondtheilluminationof
specificcases,itmayalsoshedlightonmattersofgeneralinterest.

SpeakingwithNames

TheWesternApacheresidentsofCibecuearenotaversetotalkingabouteachother,andsomeofthemlikeLolaMachuseseemtoenjoyitimmensely."I'm
intressinevybody!"LolawillexclaiminherdistinctivevarietyofEnglish,andeveryoneinCibecueknowsshespeaksthetruth.Justoversixty,sheisahandsome
womanwithlargebrowneyes,asharplydefinednose,andsplendidlyshapedhandsthatarehardlyeverstill.Themotherofeightchildren,shedivideshertime
betweencaringfortheneedsofherfamily,collectingplantsforuseinherbalmedicines,participatinginceremonialactivities,andfarming.Shealsokeepsfullyinformed
onwhathappensinhervillageand,likeotherApachewomenwhohaveledexemplarylives,isfrequentlyinvitedtocommentoncurrentevents.Andcommenton
themshedoesintelligently,insightfully,usuallysympathetically,andwithalivelyenthusiasmfornuanceanddetailthatissometimesasamusingasitismildly
overwhelming.WesternApachecommunities,likesmallcommunitieseverywhere,operatelargelybywordofmouth,andpeoplefromCibecuehavesuggestedmore
thanoncethatLolaMachuseispracticallyacommunityuntoherself.Unfailinglycheerful

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andcompletelyateasewithherself,sheisacompassionatepersonwithaspiritedzestforlife.

ItisahotafternooninthemiddleofJulyandLolaMachuseisworkingathome.Seatedintheshadeofalargebrushcoveredramada,sheismendingclothesinthe
companyofherhusband,Robert,twoApachewomennamedEmilyandLouise,andanothervisitor,myself,whohascometosettleasmalldebtandgetadrinkof
water.3 Theheatoftheafternoonisheavyandoppressive,andthereislittletodobutgazeatthelandscapethatstretchesoutbeforeus:anarrowvalley,bisectedby
astreamlinedwithstatelycottonwoodtrees,whichrisesabruptlytoembraceabrokenseriesofredsandstonebluffs,and,beyondthebluffs,aflatexpanseofgrassy
plainendinginthedistanceatthebaseofalowrangeofmountains.Fearsomeintheblazingsun,thecountryaroundCibecueliesmotionlessandinert,thinlyshrouded
inpatchesofbluishhaze.NothingstirsexceptforClifford,theMachuses'ancientyellowdog,whoshiftshispositioninthedust,groansfitfully,andsnapsatafly.
Silence.

ThesilenceisbrokenbyLouise,whoreachesintoheroversizedpurseforacanofPepsiCola,jerksitopenwithaloudsnap,andbeginstospeakintheCibecue
dialectofWesternApache.Shespeakssoftly,haltingly,andwithlongpausestoaccentuatetheseriousnessofwhatsheissaying.Latelastnight,shereports,sickness
assailedheryoungerbrother.Painfulcrampsgnawedathisstomach.Numbnesscreptuphislegsandintohisthighs.Hevomitedthreetimesinrapidsuccession.He
lookedextremelypale.Inthemorning,justbeforedawn,hewasdriventothehospitalatWhiteriver.Thepeoplewhohadgatheredathishomewereworriedand
frightenedandtalkedaboutwhathappened.Oneofthem,Louise'scousin,recalledthatseveralmonthsago,whentheyoungmanwasworkingonacattleroundup
nearaplacenamedTsi*Biyi'itin(TrailExtendsIntoAGroveOfSticklikeTrees),hehadinadvertentlysteppedonasnakeskinthatlaywedgedinacrevicebetween
somerocks.Anothermemberoftheroundupcrew,whowitnessedtheincident,cautionedtheyoungmanthatcontactwithsnakesisalwaysdangerousandurgedhim
toimmediatelyseektheservicesofa'snakemedicineperson'(tl'iish*bidiiyin).ButLouise'syoungerbrotherhadonlysmiled,remarkingterselythathewasnot
alarmedandthatnoharmwouldbefallhim.

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Louise,whoisplainlyworriedandupsetbytheseevents,pausesandsipsfromherdrink.Afteraminuteorso,havingregainedhercomposure,shebeginstospeak
again.ButLolaMachusequietlyinterruptsher.EmilyandRobertwillspeakaswell.Whatfollowsisarecordoftheirdiscourse,togetherwithEnglishtranslationsof
theutterances.4

Louise:Shidizh...(Myyoungerbrother...)

Lola:TsHadigaiyy'godzaa.(IthappenedatLineOfWhiteRocksExtendsUpAndOut,atthisveryplace!)

[Pause:3045seconds]

Emily:Ha'aa.Tzhi'*Yaahigaiyy'godzaa.(Yes.IthappenedatWhitenessSpreadsOutDescendingToWater,atthisveryplace!)

[Pause:3045seconds]

Lola:Da'an.K'isDeeschii'Naaditiny'godzaa.

(Truly.IthappenedatTrailExtendsAcrossARedRidgeWithAlderTrees,atthisveryplace!)

Louise:[laughssoftly]

Robert:Gozhoo*doleel*.(Pleasantnessandgoodnesswillbeforthcoming.)

Lola:Gozhoodoleel.(Pleasantnessandgoodnesswillbeforthcoming.)

Louise:Shidizhbni'shidnegs h?(Myyoungerbrotherisfoolish,isn'the,dog?)

Followingthisbriefexchange,talkceasesunderthebrushcoveredramadaandeveryoneretreatsintotheprivacyofhisorherthoughts.Louisedrinksagainfromher
canofPepsiColaandpassesitontoEmily.LolaMachusereturnstohersewing,whileRobertstudiesahorseinanearbycorral.OnlyClifford,whohaslauncheda
feverishattackonanitchbelowhisear,seemsunaffectedbywhathasbeensaid.Silenceonceagain.

Butwhathasbeensaid?Towhatsetofpersonalandsocialends?Andwhyinsuchaclippedandcrypticfashion?Ifthesequestionscreateproblemsforus(andI
thinkitcanbeassumedthattheydo),itisbecausewearedealingwithaspateofconversationwhoseorganiza

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tioneludesus,astripofWesternApacheverbaldoingswhoseanimatingaimsandpurposesseemobscure.Butwhy?Theproblemisnotthattheliteralmeaningsof
utterancescomprisingtheconversationaredifficulttograsp.Onthecontrary,anyonewithapassingknowledgeofWesternApachegrammarcouldattestthateachof
theutterancesiswellformedinallrespectsandthateachpresentsoneormoresimpleclaimswhosepositivetruthvaluenoApachewouldpresumetodispute.Itis
not,then,onthesurfaceoftheutterancesor,aslinguistsprefertosay,attheleveloftheirpropositionalcontentthatourinterpretivedifficultieslie.

WhatispuzzlingaboutthissnippetofWesternApachetalkisthatweareunabletoaccountforthewaysinwhichitsconstituentutterancesarerelatedtoeachother.
Putmoreexactly,welacktheknowledgerequiredtoestablishsequentialrelationsamongtheutterances,theunstatedpremisesandassumptionsthatorderthe
utterances,justastheyoccur,intoapieceofmeaningfuldiscourse.Itisbynomeansevident,forexample,howLolaMachuse'sstatement("IthappenedatLineOf
WhiteRocksExtendsUpAndOut,atthisveryplace!")shouldberelatedtoLouise'snarrativeaboutherailingbrother.NeitherisitclearhowEmily'sassertion("Yes.
IthappenedatWhitenessSpreadsOutDescendingToWater,atthisveryplace!")shouldbeinterpretedasaresponsetothenarrativeortoLola'spriorstatement.
WhatarewetomakeofLola'sresponsetoEmily("Truly.IthappenedatTrailExtendsAcrossARedRidgeWithAlderTrees,atthisveryplace!")?Andwhyshould
itbe,asthingsarecomingtoaclose,thatLouiseseesfittoaddresstheMachuses'dog?Ourpuzzlementpersiststhroughout,causingustoexperiencethetextofthe
conversationasfragmentedanddisjointed,asoddlyunmotivated,asfailingtocometogetherasawhole.Inshort,weareunabletoplaceaconstructiononthetext
thatinvestsitwithcoherence,andso,intheend,wecannotknowwhattheconversationitselfmayhavebeenabout.LolaMachuseandhercompanionshavesurely
accomplishedsomethingwiththeirtalk.Butwhat?

TheepisodeattheMachuses'homeexemplifiesavenerablepracticewithwhichWesternApachespeakersexploittheevocativepowerofplacenamestocomment
onthemoralconductofpersonswhoareabsentfromthescene.Called"speakingwithnames"(yalti'*bee'zhi),

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thisverbalroutinealsoallowsthosewhoengageinittoregisterclaimsabouttheirownmoralworth,aboutaspectsoftheirsocialrelationshipswithotherpeopleon
hand,andaboutaparticularwayofattendingtothelocallandscapethatisavowedtoproduceabeneficialformofheightenedselfawareness.Andasifthiswerenot
enough,muchofwhatgetssaidanddoneisattributedtounseenApacheancestorswhoarepromptedbythevoicesofconversationalparticipantstocommunicateina
collectivevoicethatnooneactuallyhears.Allinall,thepracticeof"speakingwithnames"isasubtleandsubterraneanaffair.

TogainanunderstandingofthispracticeandthesourcesofitscoherenceforWesternApachepeople,Ishallassumethatspokendiscourseisacooperativeactivityin
whichindividualsseektoaccomplisharangeofcommunicativepurposes.Ishallalsoassumethatparticipantsinmanykindsofdiscourseuselanguagetoexplorewith
eachotherthesignificanceofpastandpotentialevents,drawingfromtheseexaminationscertainconsequencesfortheirpresentandfutureactions.Finally,Ishall
assumethatspeakerspursuesuchobjectivesbyproducingutterancesthatareintendedtoperformseveralspeechactssimultaneously,andthathearers,making
dexteroususeofrelevantbodiesofculturalknowledge,reactandrespondtotheseactsatdifferentlevelsofabstraction.Spokendiscourse,then,ismorethanachain
ofsituatedutterances.Rather,asWilliamLabovandDavidFanshel(1977:2628)haveshown,discourseconsistsinadevelopingmatrixofutterancesandactions,
boundtogetherbyawebofsharedunderstandingspertinenttoboth,whichservesasanexpandingcontextforinterpretingthemeaningsofutterancesandactions
alike.Moreamatteroflinguisticfunctionthanoflinguisticform,coherenceindiscourseisachievedwhenparticipantsputtheirutterancestointerlockingformsof
mutuallyrecognizablework.Moreamatterofimplicitdoingsthanofexplicitsayings,coherenceiswhatparticipantshear(thoughgenerallytheyfailtonoticehearingit)
whentheirworkisgoingwell.

InLolaMachuse'ssomnolentyard,wheretheworkofdiscoursewentoffwithoutahitch,coherencewasneverinquestion.Neitherwasthesmoothimplementationof
aWesternApachetechniqueforappropriatingthenaturallandscape,adistinctiveculturalframeworkforinterpretingthelandscapeandturningitbymeansofspeech
to

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specificsocialends.Neverinquestion,thatis,toanyonebutmyselfasuperfluous,slightlystupefied,androundlyperplexedoutsider.WhatdidLolaMachuseand
thoseotherApachesimaginethemselvestobeuptoastheysataroundswappingplacenames?Howweretheymakingsense,andwhatsortofsensewerethey
making?Whatmannerofthinkinginformedtheirutterancesandtheactionstheirutterancesperformed?What,inshort,wasthecultureoftheirdiscourse?

"WeGaveThatWomanPictures"

IfthediscourseatLolaMachuse'shomeistobeusefullyunderstood,stepsmustbetakentoentertheconceptualworldofthepeoplewhoproducedit.Needlessto
say,wecannotrecovertheirexperienceoftheirdiscourseasitactuallyoccurred,whatMauriceMerleauPonty(1969:89)calledthe"innerexperienceoflanguage
spokennow."Butwecanexplore,retrospectivelyandthereforeinreconstructiveterms,whatparticipantsintheencountertooktheirdiscoursetobeabout,whythey
sawfittocontributetoitastheydid,andhowtheyinterpretedtheutterancesandactionsthatcomposedit.Inaddition,wecanexploretheculturallybased
assumptionsandbeliefsthatmadetheseinterpretationspossible,the"linguisticideology"withwhichpersonsfromCibecuerationalizeforthemselvesandexplainto
otherswhatspokenwordsarecapableofdoingwhenusedincertainways.5 Inshort,wecanconstructanethnographicaccountofthespeecheventitself,an
interpretationofApacheinterpretationsthatrelatestheeventtothebodyofthoughtthatmadeitsoccurrencemeaningfulandtotheparticularsocialcircumstancesthat
madeitsmeaningunique.

Allsuchundertakingsprofitfromtheguidanceofexperiencednativeinstructors,andnoonelivingatCibecueismorecapableorwillinginthisregardthanLola
Machuseherself.Soletusbegin,asinfactIdidshortlyaftertheepisodeathercamptookplace,byconsideringheraccountofwhattranspiredasthewomendrank
theirPepsiandCliffordsnappedatflies.
Wegavethatwoman[Louise]picturestoworkoninhermind.Wedidn'tspeaktoomuchtoher.Wedidn'tholdherdown.Thatwayshecouldtravelinhermind.Shecouldaddon
tothem[thepictures]easily.Wegaveherclearpictures

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withplacenames.Sohermindwenttothoseplaces,standinginfrontofthemasourancestorsdidlongago.Thatwayshecouldseewhathappenedtherelongago.Shecould
hearstoriesinhermind,perhapshearourancestorsspeaking.Shecouldrecalltheknowledgeofourancestors.

Wecallitspeakingwithnames.Placenamesareallweneedforthat,speakingwithnames.Wejustfixthemup.Thatwomanwastoosad.Shewasworriedtoomuchabouther
youngerbrother.Sowetriedtomakeherfeelbetter.Wetriedtomakeherthinkgoodthoughts.Thatwoman'syoungerbrotheractedstupidly.Hewasstupidandcareless.He
failedtoshowrespect.Nogood!Wesaidnothingcriticalabouthimtoher.Wetalkedaroundit.Thoseplacenamesarestrong!Afterawhile,Igaveherafunnystory.Shedidn't
getmad.Shewasfeelingbetter.Shelaughed.Thenshehadenough,Iguess.Shespoketothedogaboutheryoungerbrother,criticizinghim,soweknewwehadhelpedherout.

LolaMachuserecordedthisstatementtwodaysafterthespeecheventatherhometookplace,andfourdayslater,havingdiscussedheraccountwithallparties
involved,Ideterminedtotreatitasaguideforsubsequentinquiries.EveryonetowhomIpresentedLola'saccountagreedthatitwasencompassingandastuteit
touched,theysaid,oneverythingthatwasessentialforgettingapropersenseofwhat"speakingwithnames"mightbeusedtoaccomplish.Buttheyalsoagreedthatit
wasrathertoohighlycondensed,abarebonessortofinterpretation,adequateforpersonsfamiliarwiththepracticebutunderstandablyopaquetoaneophytesuchas
myself,andthatitcouldprofitfromexplicationandfleshingout.Neveronetobeoutdone,LolaMachuseagreedinstantlywiththeagreers,sayingshewaswellaware
oftheproblem,thankyouverymuch,andhadunderstoodallalongthatfurtherinstructionwouldbenecessary.Sometimestalkiscomplicated,sheobserved,andone
mustmoveslowlytogettothebottomofit.SowithallofusscramblingtoagreewithLola,andwithLolaherselffirmlyincharge,thefleshingoutprocessbegan.Our
worktooklongerthanIhadexpected,butnow,withmuchofitdone,LolaMachuse'soriginalaccountseemsbettertomethaneveritprovides,asoneof

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myolderApacheconsultantstoldmeitwould,a"straightpathtoknowing."AndsoIhaveusedLola'sinterpretationhere,partitionedintoconvenientsegments,asa
model,apathofadifferentkind,fororganizingandpresentingmyown.
Wegavethatwomanpicturestoworkoninhermind.Wedidn'tspeaktoomuchtoher.Wedidn'tholdherdown.Thatwayshecouldtravelinhermind.Shecouldaddontothem
easily.

WesternApacheconceptionsoflanguageandthoughtarecastinpervasivelyvisualterms.Everyoccasionof'speaking'(yalti'*)providestangibleevidenceof
'thinking'(natskees*),andthinkingoccursintheformof'pictures'(be'elzaah)thatpersons'see'(yo'ii*)intheirminds.Promptedbyadesireto'display
thinking'(nil'*natskees*),speakinginvolvestheuseoflanguageto'depict'('e'ele')and'convey'(yo'l*)theseimagestothemembersofanaudience,suchthat
they,on'hearing'(yidits'ag)and'holding'(yot*')thespeaker'swords,can'view'(ynel'ii*)theimagesintheirownminds.Thinking,asApachesconceiveofit,
consistsinpicturingtooneselfandattendingprivatelytothepictures.Speakingconsistsindepictingone'spicturesforotherpeople,whoarethusinvitedtopicture
thesedepictionsandrespondtothemwithdepictionsoftheirown.Discourse,or'conversation'('ilch'i'*ydaach'ilti'),consistsinarunningexchangeofdepicted
picturesandpictureddepictions,areciprocalrepresentationandvisualizationoftheongoingthoughtsofparticipatingspeakers.

Butthingsarenotreallysoneatandtidy.AccordingtoconsultantsfromCibecue,thedepictionsofferedbyWesternApachespeakersareinvariablyincomplete.Even
themostgiftedandproficientspeakerscontrivetoleavethingsout,andsmallchildren,whohavenotyetlearnedtoindulgeinsuchcontrivances,leaveoutmanythings.
Consequently,Apachehearersmustalways'addon'('ngodn'aah)todepictionsmadeavailabletotheminconversation,augmentingandsupplementingthese
spokenimageswithimagestheyfashionforthemselves.Thisprocessiscommonlylikenedtoaddingstonestoapartiallyfinishedwall,orlayingbricksuponthe
foundationofahouse,becauseitisunderstoodtoinvolvea'pilingup'(lik'iyitl'ih*)ofnewmaterialsontolikematerialsalreadyinplace.Itisalsosaidtore

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sembletheroundingupoflivestock:the'bringingtogether'(dalahzhi'ch'indl*)ofcattleorhorsesfromscatteredlocationstoacentralplacewhereotheranimals
havebeenpreviouslygathered.Thesemetaphorsallpointtothesamegeneralidea,whichisthatdepictionsprovidedbyApachespeakersaretreatedbyApache
hearersasbasesonwhichtobuild,asprojectstocomplete,asinvitationstoexercisetheimagination.

WesternApachesregardspokenconversationasaformof'voluntarycooperation'(lich'i'*'odaach'idii)inwhichallparticipantsareentitledtodisplaysof
'respect'(yinlsih*).Accordingly,wheneverpeoplespeakincordialandaffabletones,considerationsof'kindnessandpoliteness'(bil*goch'oba')comecentrallyinto
play.SuchconsiderationsmayinfluenceApachespeechinamultitudeofways,butnoneismorebasicthanthecourtesyspeakersdisplaybyrefrainingfrom'speaking
toomuch'(laago*yalti'*).AlthoughtheeffectsofthisinjunctionaremostclearlyevidentinthespareverbalstyleemployedbyApachestorytellers,peoplefrom
Cibecueinsistthatallformsofnarrationbenefitfromitsapplication.Andthereasons,theyexplain,aresimpleenough.

Apersonwhospeakstoomuchsomeonewhodescribestoobusily,whosuppliestoomanydetails,whorepeatsandqualifiestoomanytimespresumeswithout
warrantontherightofhearerstobuildfreelyandcreativelyonthespeaker'sowndepictions.Withtoomanywords,suchaspeakeractsto'smother'(bik'
yinlkaad*)hisorheraudiencebyseemingtosay,arrogantlyandcoercively,''Idemandthatyouseeeverythingthathappened,howithappened,andwhyit
happened,exactlyasIdo."Inotherwords,personswhospeaktoomuchinsulttheimaginativecapabilitiesofotherpeople,"blockingtheirthinking,"asoneofmy
consultantssaidinEnglish,and"holdingdowntheirminds."SoWesternApachenarratorsconsistentlytakeadifferenttack,implyingbytheeconomicalmanneroftheir
speech,"Iwilldepictjustenoughforyoutoseewhathappened,howithappened,andperhapswhyithappened.Addontothesedepictionshoweveryouseefit."An
effectivenarrator,peoplefromCibecuereport,neverspeakstoomuchaneffectivenarratortakesstepsto"openupthinking,"therebyencouraginghisorherlisteners
to"travelintheirminds."6

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Figure5
T'iisBitl'h*T'Oln*(WaterFlowsInwardUnderACottonwoodTree).

Wegaveherclearpictureswithplacenames.Sohermindwenttothoseplaces,standinginfrontofthemasourancestorsdidlongago.Thatwayshecouldseewhathappened
therelongago.Shecouldhearstoriesinhermind,perhapshearourancestorsspeaking.Shecouldrecalltheknowledgeofourancestors.

NothingismorebasictothetellingofaWesternApachestorythanidentifyingthegeographicallocationsatwhicheventsinthestoryunfold.ForunlessApache
listenersareabletopictureaphysicalsettingfornarratedeventsunless,asoneofmyconsultantssaid,"yourmindcantraveltothatplaceandreallyseeit"the
eventsthemselveswillbedifficulttoimagine.Thisisbecauseeventsinthenarrativewillseemtohappennowhere,andsuchanidea,Apachesassert,ispreposterous
anddisquieting.Placelesseventsareanimpossibilityeverythingthathappensmusthappensomewhere.Thelocationofanevent

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Figure6
TsLigai*DahSidil(WhiteRocksLieAboveInACompactCluster).

isanintegralaspectoftheeventitself,andidentifyingtheevent'slocationisthereforeessentialtoproperlydepictingandeffectivelypicturingtheevent's
occurrence.Forthesereasons,placelessstoriessimplydonotgettold.Instead,allApachenarrativesareverballyanchoredtopointsuponthelandwithprecise
depictionsofspecificlocations.AndwhatthesedepictionsareaccomplishedwithwhattheprimaryspatialanchorsofApachenarrativesalmostalwaysturnoutto
beareplacenames.7

SomeappreciationofthedescriptiveprecisionofWesternApacheplacenamescanbegainedbymatchingnameswithphotographsoftheirgeographicalreferents.
Bywayofillustration,considerthethreenameslistedbelow,whichhavebeensegmentedintotheirconstituentmorphemesandwhosereferentsareshowninfigures
57.

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Figure7
TsBik'TYaahiln*(WaterFlowsDownOnASuccessionOfFlatRocks).

T'iisBitlh*T'Oln*:T'iis(cottonwoodtree)+Bitl'ah(underitbeneathit)+T(water)+'O(inward)+li*(itflows)+n(theone).
Translation:WaterFlowsInwardUnderACottonwoodTree

TsLigai*DahSidil:Ts(rockstone)+Ligai(whitewhiteness)+Dah(abovegroundlevel)+Sidil(threeormoreformacompactcluster)+(theone).
Translation:WhiteRocksLieAboveInACompactCluster

TsBik'TYaahiln:Ts(rockstone)+Bik'(ontopofitaflattishobject)+T(water)+Yaa(downward)+hi(linearsuccessionofregularly
repeatedmovements)+l(itflows)+n(theone).
Translation:WaterFlowsDownOnASuccessionOfFlatRocks

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Asthephotographssuggest,WesternApacheplacenamesprovidemorethanprecisedepictionsofthesitestowhichthenamesrefer.Inaddition,placenames
implicitlyidentifypositionsforviewingtheselocations:optimalvantagepoints,sotospeak,fromwhichthesitescanbeobserved,clearlyandunmistakably,justas
theirnamesdepictthem.Topictureasitefromitsname,then,requiresthatoneimagineitasifstandingorsittingataparticularspot,anditistotheseprivileged
positions,Apachessay,thattheimagesevokedbyplacenamescausethemtotravelintheirminds.

Wherevertheoptimalvantagepointforanamedsitemaybelocatedeastofthesiteorwest,aboveitorbelow,nearitoratsomedistanceawaythevantagepoint
isdescribedasbeing'infrontof'(bdny)thesiteanditisthere,centuriesago,thatancestorsoftheWesternApachearebelievedtohavestoodwhentheygavethe
siteitsname.Accordingly,consultantsfromCibecueexplainthatinpositioningpeople'smindstolook'forward'(bidh)intospace,aplacenamealsopositionstheir
mindstolook'backward'(t'aazhi'*)intotime.Foraspersonsimaginethemselvesstandinginfrontofanamedsite,theymayimaginethattheyarestandingintheir
'ancestors'tracks'(nohwiz'y*bik'),andfromthispsychologicalperspective,whichissometimesdescribedasanintenseformof
'daydreaming'(bil*'onaagodah),traditionalaccountsofancestraleventsassociatedwiththesitearesaidtoberecalledwithsingularclarityandforce.

ThecapacityofWesternApacheplacenamestosituatepeople'smindsinhistoricaltimeandspaceisclearlyapparentwhennamesareusedtoanchortraditional
narrativesthatdepictancestrallifeandillustrateaspectsof'ancestralknowledge'(nohwiza'ybikigoya'*).8 Buttheevocativepowerofplacenamesismost
forcefullydisplayedwhenanameisusedtosubstituteforthenarrativeitanchors,'standingupalone'('o'),asApachessay,tosymbolizethenarrativeaswellasthe
knowledgeitcontains.Onsuchoccasions,asingleplacenamemayaccomplishthecommunicativeworkofanentiresagaorhistoricaltale,andsometimes,depending
ontheimmediatesocialcircumstances,itmayaccomplishevenmore.Forwhenplacenamesareemployedinthisisolatedandautonomousfashionwhen,inother
words,Apachepeoplepractice"speakingwithnames"theiractionsarein

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terpretedasarecommendationtorecallancestralstoriesandapplythemdirectlytomattersofpressingpersonalconcern.Andinemotionallychargedcontextslike
these,myconsultantsmaintain,'ancestralvoices'(nohwiza'y*bizh)mayseemtospeakdirectlytotheindividualsinvolved.9

Wecallitspeakingwithnames.Placenamesareallweneedforthat,speakingwithnames.Wejustfixthemup.Thatwomanwastoosad.Shewasworriedtoomuchabouther
youngerbrother.Sowetriedtomakeherfeelbetter.Wetriedtomakeherthinkgoodthoughts.

Speakingwithnamesisconsideredappropriateundercertainconditionsonly,andtheseconditionstendtooccurinfrequently.Consequently,aspeoplefromCibecue
arequicktopointout,placenamesareusuallyputtoothercommunicativeends.Mostofthetime,placenamesarecalledupontoperformsimpleverbalchores:to
indicatewhereoneisgoing,forexample,ortoannouncewhereonehasbeentomakeplansforaforthcominghunt,ortopinpointthelatesthappeningsgleanedfrom
localgossip.Whenplacenamesareusedforordinarypurposessuchasthese,Apachespeakerstypicallyproducethenamesinshortenedorcontractedforms.Thus,
thenameT'iisBitlh*T'Ol'*(WaterFlowsInwardUnderACottonwoodTree)iscommonlyheardasT'iisTlh'Ol'orT'iisT'Ol',thenameTsBik'T
Yaahil*'(WaterFlowsDownOnASuccessionOfFlatRocks)asTsK'Yaahil'orTsTYahili*',andsoforth.Inmarkedcontrasttotheseabbreviated
renderings,placenamesintendedtoevokementalpicturesofthepastareinvariablyspokeninfullandareembellished,or'fixedup'(nyidl),withanoptionalsuffix
thatimpartsanemphaticforceroughlyequivalenttoEnglish"righthere!"or"atthisveryplace!"Accordingly,theplacenameT'iisBitlahT'Ol'isproducedin
traditionalnarrativesasT'iisBitl'ahT'Oln*,thenameTsBik'TYaahilii*'asTsBik'TYaahiln*,andsoforth.Althoughtheoptionalsuffixmaybe
employedforpurposesotherthanhelpingtosummonancestralimagesandvoices,myconsultantsagreethatthisisoneofitsprimaryfunctions.Andatnotimeisthat
functionasreadilyapparentaswhenApachemenandwomen,bentuponspeakingwithnames,dispensewithnarrativescompletely

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anduseplacenamesintheexpressionX'godzaay(IthappenedatX,atthisveryplace!).

Thisexpressionisnormallyreservedforsocialsituationsinwhichspeakingofabsentpartiestopersonscloselyconnectedtothemmustbeaccomplishedwithdelicacy
andtact.Specifically,theexpressionisusedwhenancestralknowledgeseemsapplicabletodifficultiesarisingfromseriouserrorsinsomeoneelse'sjudgment,but
whenvoicingone'sthoughtsonthemattermightbetakenasevidenceofarrogance,criticaldisapproval,orlackofsympatheticunderstanding.Instead,speakingwith
namesenablesthosewhoengageinittoacknowledgearegrettablecircumstancewithoutexplicitlyjudgingit,toexhibitsolicitudewithoutopenlyproclaimingit,andto
offeradvicewithoutappearingtodoso.

Butspeakingwithnamesaccomplishesmorethanthis.AtraditionalApachenarrativeencapsulatedinitsownspatialanchor,theexpressionX'godzaayisalsoa
calltomemoryandimagination.Simultaneously,itisacalltopersonsburdenedbyworryanddespairtotakeremedialactiononbehalfofthemselves."Travelinyour
mind,"theexpressionurgesthosetowhomitisaddressed."Travelinyourmindtoapointfromwhichtoviewtheplacewhosenamehasjustbeenspoken.Imagine
standingthere,asifinthetracksofyourancestors,andrecallstoriesofeventsthatoccurredatthatplacelongago.Picturetheseeventsinyourmindandappreciate,
asiftheancestorswerespeakingtoyoudirectly,theknowledgethestoriescontain.Bringthisknowledgetobearonyourowndisturbingsituation.Allowthepastto
informyourunderstandingofthepresent.Youwillfeelbetterifyoudo."

AndWesternApachepeoplereportthatsometimestheydofeelbetter.Havingpictureddistantplacesanddwelledonancestralevents,theirworriesbecomeless
acute:less'sharp'(ts'ik'ii),less'hard'(ntl'iz*),less'noisy'(gonch'aad*)intheirminds.Feelingsofanxietyandemotionalturbulencemaygivewaytowelcome
sensationsof'smoothness'(dilkooh*),of'softness'(ddi'il),ofgrowinginner'quiet'(doohwaagonch'aada).Andwhenthisactuallyhappenswhenancestral
knowledgeworkstogivebeneficialperspectiveandfreshrecognitionthattryingtimescanbedealtwithsuccessfullyandeventuallyovercome

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personsthusheartenedmayannouncethatrelationshipscharacterizedby'pleasantnessandgoodness'(gozhoo*)havebeenrestoredbetweenthemselvesandtheir
surroundings.Apsychologicalbalancehasbeenreestablished,anoptimisticoutlookbornofstrengthenedconfidenceandrejuvenatedhope,andpeoplemayalso
announcethata'sickness'(nezgai)hasbeen'healed'(nbilziih).'Badthinking'(ncho'go*natskees*)hasbeenreplacedby'goodthinking'(nzhoogo*natskees*),
andatleastforawhiletheexigenciesoflifecanbemetwithreplenishedequanimity.

"ThosePlacenamesAreStrong"

TheforegoingaccountofaspectsofWesternApacheplacenameideologysuppliesthebasicconceptualframeworkwithwhichtointerprettheconversational
encounterattheMachuses'homeinCibecue.ButbecausetheaccounthasbeenformulatedasApachepeoplethemselvesinsistupondoingthatis,inabstract
normativetermsitfailstoelucidatewhatthepracticeofspeakingwithnamesservedtoaccomplishonthatparticularoccasion.Inotherwords,wehaveyetto
identifythesocialactionsthatparticipantsintheencounterusedtheirutterancestoperform,andthus,necessarily,wehaveyettograspthecoherenceoftheirtalk.So
letusbeaboutit.Havingfashionedanaccountoftheculturallogiconwhichspeakingwithnamesisunderstoodtooperate,attentionmaynowbedirectedtoan
interpretationofhow,andwithwhatsortsofinterpersonalconsequences,thisconversationalpracticewasactuallyputtowork.Onceagain,LolaMachuse.

Thatwoman'syoungerbrotheractedstupidly.Hewasstupidandcareless.Hefailedtoshowrespect.Nogood!Wesaidnothingcriticalabouthimtoher.Wetalkedaroundit.

ThesocialgatheringatLolaMachuse'sramadawasuncomfortableforeveryone,butespeciallyforLouise.Troubledbyherbrother'ssuddenillness,shewastroubled
evenmorebyhisapparentlackofcommonsense.Havingcomeintocontactwiththesnakeskinneartheroundupcamp,heshouldhavegonedirectlytoaritual
specialistforassistanceindealingwithhiscontaminatedstate.Thathefailedtodosowasdisturbingenough,butthathetreatedtheincidentinsuchcavalierfashion
wasmoredisturbingstill.Plainly,hewasguiltyofagravelapseinjudgment,andnow,assurelyhecouldhaveantici

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pated,hewassufferingthepainfulconsequences.Whyhadtheyoungmanactedsoirresponsibly?Inadditiontobeingupset,Louisewassorelyperplexed.

Louise'schronicleofherbrother'smisfortunecreatedanopportunityforallonhandtocommentonhisconduct.Butbecauseheraccountportrayedhiminadistinctly
unfavorablelight,italsopresentedhimasatargetforeasycriticism.Ifcriticismweretobeforthcoming,itcouldonlyservetoembarrassLouise,forshewouldhaveno
alternativebuttotrytodefendherbrother'sactionsandthiswouldbeawkwardanddifficultatbest.Yetrefusingtodefendhimcouldbetakentomeanthatshewas
preparedtocondemnhimentirely,andcondemningone'srelatives,especiallyinthepresenceofnonrelatives,isaconspicuousviolationofkinshiployaltiesthat
WesternApachesrarelyseefittoexcuse.10

Forthesereasons,Louise'scandidstatementplacedhercompanionsinadelicatedilemma.Ontheonehand,noonecouldassertthatLouise'sbrotherhadnotacted
wronglywithoutcastingseriousdoubtonhisorherowngoodjudgment.Ontheotherhand,noonecouldopenlycensuretheyoungmanwithoutaddingtoLouise's
discomfort,therebydisplayingalackofconsiderationforherfeelingsandalackofconcernforthecircumstancesthathadproducedthem.How,then,torespond?
Howtospeakthetruthorsomethingthatcouldbeheardasnotdenyingthetruthwithoutexacerbatinganalreadysensitivesituation?

Thoseplacenamesreallyhelpedusout!Wegaveherpictureswithplacenames.Thatwayshestartedfeelingbetter.Thoseplacenamesarestrong!

Afterfinishingheraccount,Louisepaused,tookalongdrinkofPepsiCola,andstartedtospeakagainofherbeleagueredbrother.ButLolaMachuseintervenedat
thispoint,sayingsoftlybutfirmly,"TsHadigaiyy'godzaa"(IthappenedatLineOfWhiteRocksExtendsUpAndOut,atthisveryplace!).Lola'sutterancewas
intendedtoevokeahistoricaltaleforLouisetopictureinhermind,butitwasalsodesignedtochangethetopicoftalkandsettheconversationonanewanddifferent
course.InsteadofLouise'sbrother,whomLolawasshowingshehadnodesiretocriticize,attentionwasshifted

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toLouiseherselfandhertroubledreactionstoherbrother'spredicament.Insteadofdisapproval,LolaMachusewasexhibitingsympathyandconcern.

Aslatertoldbyherself,thehistoricaltalethatLolaMachusewishedtoevokeforLouisewasthefollowing.

IthappenedatLineOfWhiteRocksExtendsUpAndOut.

Longago,agirllivedalonewithhermaternalgrandmother.Hergrandmothersentheroutregularlytocollectfirewood.Shewenttoaplaceabovehercamp.Shecouldgetthere
quicklybyclimbingupthrougharockycanyon.Manysnakeslivedthere.Sohergrandmothertoldheralwaystogoanotherway.

Thenthegirlwenttocollectfirewood.Thedaywashot.Thenthegirlbecamethirsty.Thenshethought,"Thiswoodisheavy.Idon'twanttocarryittoofar."Thenshestartedto
walkdowntherockycanyon.Therewerelooserockswhereshewalked.Thensheslippedandfelldown.Thefirewoodshewascarryingscatteredeverywhere!Thenshestartedto
pickitup.Asnakebitherhand!Thenshegotscared."Mygrandmotherknewthiswouldhappentome,"shethought.

Thenthegirlreturnedtowhereshewaslivingwithhergrandmother.Herarmandhandbecamebadlyswollen.Thentheyworkedoverher[performedacuringceremony].Later,
thegirlwenttohergrandmother."Mylifeisstillmyown,"shesaid.Thenhergrandmothertalkedtoheragain.Nowsheknewhowtoliveright.

IthappenedatLineOfWhiteRocksExtendsUpAndOut.

AsLolaMachusehadreasontosuspect,Louiseknewthisstorywell.Shehadhearditmanytimesandonseveraloccasionshadperformeditforherownchildren.
Consequently,Louisereportedlater,hermindtraveledinstantlytoaspotfromwhichtoviewLineOfWhiteRocksExtendsUpAndOut,andimagesofthegirlwho
wasbittenbythesnakeappearedjustasquickly.AsalengthysilencedescendedontheMachusecampatCibecue,Louise'sthoughtsmovedalongtheselines.
Abadthinghappenedatthatplace.Verybad!Isawthatgirl.Shewasimpulsive.Sheforgottobecareful.Sheceased

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showingrespect.Shewaslikemyyoungerbrother.Sheceasedthinkingproperly,sosomethingbadhappenedtoher.Shebecameveryscaredbutrecoveredfromit.Shealmost
diedbutheldontoherownlife.

LolaMachuse'sevocativecommenthadacalmingeffectoneveryonesittingbeneaththeramadaatherhome.HerstatementrelievedLouiseofanyneedtopublicly
defendherbrother'sconductand,atthesametime,chartedaconversationalpaththatotherscouldeasilyfollow.Acknowledgingthefelicityofthatpath,andtaking
stepstopursueit,Emilyproducedasimilarstatementofherown''Ha'aa.Tzhi*'Yaahigaiyy'godzaa."(Yes.IthappenedatWhitenessSpreadsOut
DescendingToWater,atthisveryplace!)andonceagainLouisewasurgedtotravelinhermindandpictureahistoricaltale.

Emily'sversionofthistale,whichshesaidhasbeenslightlyabridged,isasfollows.

IthappenedatWhitenessSpreadsOutDescendingToWater.

Longago,aboywenttohuntdeer.Herodeonhorseback.Prettysoonhesawone[adeer],standingonthesideofacanyon.Thenhewentcloserandshotit.Hekilledit.Then
thedeerrolledallthewaydowntothebottomofthecanyon.

Thentheboywentdownthere.Itwasabuck,fatandmuscular.Thenhebutcheredit.Themeatwasheavy,sohehadtocarryitupinpieces.Hehadahardtimereachingthetop
ofthecanyonwitheachpiece.

Nowitwasgettingdark.Onehindquarterwasstilllyingatthebottomofthecanyon."Ihaveenoughmeatalready,"hethought.Soheleftthehindquarterwhereitwaslying.He
leftitthere.

Thenhepackedhishorseandstartedtoridehome.Thentheboygotdizzyandnearlyfelloffhishorse.Thenhisnosetwitcheduncontrollably,likeDeer'snosedoes.Thenpain
shotupbehindhiseyes.Thenhebecamescared.

Nowhewentbacktothecanyon.Itwasdarkwhenhegotthere.Hewalkeddowntowherethehindquarterwaslyingbutitwasgone!Thenhereturnedtohishorse.Herode
fasttowherehewaslivingwithhisrelatives.

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Theboywassickforalongtime.Thepeopleprayedforhimonfourseparateoccasions.Hegotbetterslowly.

Nodeerwouldpresentthemselvestohim.Hesaidtohischildren:"Lookatmenow.IfailedtobecarefulwhenIwasaboyandnowIhaveahardtimegettingmeatforyoutoeat."

IthappenedatWhitenessSpreadsOutDescendingToWater.

TheactionsperformedbyEmily'sutterancewerereadilyapparenttoLouise.Emily,likeLolaMachusebeforeher,wasattemptingtodistractLouisewithconstructive
thoughtsandcomfortherwithexpressionsofsupport.ButLouisewasnotintimatelyfamiliarwiththestoryoftheboyandthedeer,andthoughhermindwentswiftly
toapointnearWhitenessSpreadsOutDescendingToWater,shehaddifficultypicturingalltheeventsinthestory.Shedid,however,haveonevividimageofthe
painriddenboystrugglingtostayastridehishorseandthiswassufficienttoremindherofherbrother.Inaddition,Louisesaidlater,shecouldheartheboy,nowan
adult,ashespoketohischildrenabouthisfatefulmistake.
ItwaslikeIcouldhearsomeoldmantalking.Hewastalkingtohischildren."Iwasimpatient,soIleftbehindgoodmeatfromthatdeer.ThenIbecameverysickandveryscared.I
failedtoshowrespect."Evenso,thatboylivedonandgrewupandhadchildren.Helearnedtothinkright,sohetalkedtohischildrenaboutit.Maybemybrotherwilllearnto
improvehisthinkinglikethat.

ThehistoricaltaleevokedbyEmilyissimilarinseveralrespectstothetaleevokedbyLolaMachuse,andatthispointintheproceedings,Louiseprobablysensedthat
apatternwasstartingtoform.Inbothofthestories,youngpeoplearedepictedasirresponsibleanddisrespectful,butforreasonshavingsolelytodowiththeir
innocenceandnaivete.Inbothstories,theysufferlifethreateningconsequencesseriousillnessandintensefrightfromwhichtheylearntoavoidcarelessnessand
impatienceinthefuture.Finally,andmostimportantofall,theyregaintheirhealthandcontinueliving,presumablyformanyyears.Thustheunstatedmessagefor
Louise,whichisalsoaprominentaspectofWesternApacheancestralknowledge,wasapositiveone:in

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effect,"Takeheart.Thesethingshappen.Youngpeoplemakefoolishanddangerousmistakes,buttheyusuallyprofitfromthemandthemistakesareseldomfatal.Be
optimistic.Thereisreasontobelieveyourbrotherwillrecover."
Afterawhile,Igaveherafunnystory.Shedidn'tgetmad.Shewasfeelingbetter.Shelaughed.Thenshehadenough,Iguess.Shespoketothedogaboutheryoungerbrother,
criticizinghim,soweknewwehadhelpedherout.

Followinganotherlengthysilenceinsidethebrushramada,LolaMachuseactedtoaffirmandconsolidatethetacitmessagescommunicatedthusfarwithaplacename
intendedtoevokeathirdhistoricaltalewithsimilaritiestotheprevioustwo.Butwiththisutterance"Da'an.K'isDeeschii'Naaditiny'godzaa."(Truly.It
happenedatTrailExtendsAcrossARedRidgeWithAlderTrees,atthisveryplace!)shetookamoderaterisk.Althoughitdealswithseriousmatters,thestory
Lolawasthinkingofpresentsahumorousaspect,andoneofherpurposesinevokingitwastolightenLouise'sspirits(andeveryoneelse's)bystrikinganoteof
reservedgoodcheer.TheriskLolaranwasthatheractionwouldbeperceivedasintemperate,perhapsevenplayful,andthusinappropriatetotheseriousnessand
solemnityofLouise'stroubledcircumstances.

Thisisthehistoricaltale,asnarratedbyherself,thatLolaMachusehadinmind.
IthappenedatTrailExtendsAcrossARedRidgeWithAlderTrees.

Aboyandagirlwerenewlymarried.Hedidn'tknowthatheshouldstayawayfromherwhenhergrandmothercametovisit[whenshewashavinghermenstrualperiod].Thenhe
triedtobotherher."Don't!I'mnogoodforthat,"shesaid.Hewasimpatient.Thenhetriedtobotherheragain.Thenshegavein.

Thentheboygotsick,theysay.Itwashardforhimtositdown.Thenhispenisbecamebadlyswollen.Pissingwaspainfulforhim,too.Hewalkedaroundclutchinghiscrotch.He
wasdeeplyembarrassedinfrontofhiswifeandher

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relatives.Thenhegotscared."IwonderifIwillbethiswayforever,"hethought.

Thensomeonetalkedtohim,saying"Don'tbotheryourwifewhenhergrandmothercomestovisit.Stayawayfromher."Thenthatpersongavetheboysomemedicine,saying
"Drinkthis.Itwillmakeyouwell.Thenyoucanstopbeingembarrassed.Thenyoucanstopwalkingaroundclutchingyourcrotch!"Thatisall.

IthappenedatTrailExtendsAcrossARedRidgeWithAlderTrees.

Fortunately,LolaMachuse'slightheartedgambledidnotmisfire.LouisetraveledinhermindtoavantagepointfromwhichtopictureTrailExtendsAcrossARed
RidgeWithAlderTrees,viewedthecrestfallenladwithhishandwhereitshouldneverbeseeninpublic,andreturnedfromthejourneymildlyamused.Afterwards,
Louisemadethesecomments.

Everyoneknowsthatstory.Mymindwentthere.It'sfunnytoseethatboyinthestoryholdingontohimself.Heshouldhavelefthiswifealone.Hewasimpulsive.Hedidn'tthink
right.Thenhegotscared.Thenhewasmadewellagainwithmedicine....I'veheardthatstoryoften,butit'salwaysfunnytoseethatboyholdingontohimself,soshyand
embarrassed.

AttheMachuses'homeinCibecue,Louiseexpressedheramusementbylaughingsoftly.Thiswasanauspicioussign!Thoughsurelyworriedstill,Louisehadbeen
movedtolevity,andeveryonecouldtellthatherspiritshadbrieflyimproved.HerewasevidencethattheunspokenmessagesconveyedbyLolaMachuseand
Emilymessagesofsympathy,consolation,andencouragementhadbeenusefullyreceived.HerewasanindicationthatancestralknowledgewasprovidingLouise
withameasureofcomfortandhope.Seizingthemoment,RobertMachuseactedtomakeelementsofthesemessagesexplicit,compressingtheirdominantthrustinto
onesuccinctstatement."Gozhoo*doleel*"(Pleasantnessandgoodnesswillbeforthcoming),saidRobertwithquietconviction.Andmomentslater,endorsinghis
sentimentsandaddingconvictionofherown,LolaMachuserepeatedthesamephrase:"Gozhoodoleel."

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Touchedbythisdisplayoffriendlygoodwill,andawarethatsomesortofacknowledgmentofitwasnowinorder,Louiserespondedbytakingadeftandselfeffacing
step.IntheformofamockquestionaddressedtoClifford,theMachuses'dog,shegentlycriticizedherownbrother:"Shidizhbni'shidnegsh?"(Myyounger
brotherisfoolish,isn'the,dog?).Thisutteranceaccomplishedseveralactionsatonce.First,bydrawingattentionawayfromherself,Louisegavenoticethatfurther
evocationsoftraditionalnarrativescouldbepolitelydispensedwithineffect,"Youhavealldoneenough."Also,bydirectingherquestiontoonewhocouldnot
answerit,Louiseindicatedthatadditionaldiscussionofherbrotherandhisdifficultieswouldservenousefulpurposeineffect,''Letthematterrest.Thereisnothing
moretosay."Finally,andmostadroitlyofall,byvoicingthethoughtthathadbeenoneveryone'smindfromthebeginningthatLouise'sbrotherhadindeedacted
foolishlyshecontrivedtothankthemfortheirtactinnothavingvoiceditineffect,"Thisisthediscreditingtruthaboutmyrelative.IknowitandIknowthatyou
knowit.Youwerepoliteandthoughtfultorefrainfromexpressingit."

Ascouldhavebeenpredicted,ClifforddidnotrespondtoLouise'sbogusquery.Neitherdidanyoneelse.Thespeecheventwasover.Afewminuteslater,Louise
andEmilyrosetotheirfeet,complainedtoeachotheraboutasuddenplentitudeofflies,andsetofftogetherinsearchofacoldcanofPepsiCola.LolaMachuse
resumedhersewingandRobertMachusewenttowaterhishorse.Thedaywasbeginningtocool,andthelandscapebeyondCibecue,itsruggedcontourssoftened
nowbypatchesoflengtheningshadow,lookedmorehospitablethanbefore.

Language,Landscape,andtheMoralImagination

Thepossibilitiesofhumanlanguagearevariouslyconceivedandvariouslyunderstood.Everyculture,whetherliterateornot,includesbeliefsabouthowlanguage
worksandwhatitiscapableofdoing.Similarly,everyculturecontainsbeliefsaboutthekindsofsocialcontextsinwhichthesecapabilitiesmayberealizedmost
effectively.ThatsuchbeliefsarepresentincontemporaryWesternApachecultureshouldnowbeobvious,andthattheymayoperateintellingwaysto

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influencepatternsofverbalinteractionshouldlikewisebeapparent.Moreover,itshouldnowbepossibletoappreciatehowaspectsofWesternApachelinguistic
ideologycontributetoperceptionsofcoherenceinoneformofApachediscourse,andalsowhy,whencontextualconditionsareright,thatsameideologymayinvest
thebriefestofutteranceswithamplemeaningandsubstantialexpressiveforce.

TheepisodeatLolaMachuse'shomesuggeststhatwhilecoherenceinWesternApachediscoursecanbeusefullydescribedasaproductofinterlockingutterances
andactions,theexpressiveforceofApachediscoursewhatpeoplefromCibecuecallits'strength'(nalwod)maybeviewedasaproductofmultipleinterlockings
atdifferentlevelsofabstraction.Putmoreexactly,itismyimpressionthatthoseutterancesthatperformthebroadestrangeofmutuallycompatibleactionsatonceare
thosethatApachesexperienceashavingthegreatestcommunicativeimpact.Inotherwords,theexpressiveforceofanApacheutteranceseemstoberoughly
proportionatetothenumberofseparatebutcomplementaryfunctionsitaccomplishessimultaneously,or,asAltonBecker(1982)hasintimated,tothenumberof
distinguishablesubjectmattersitsuccessfullycommunicates"about."

TheWesternApachepracticeof"speakingwithnames"manifestsjustthissortofrangeandversatility.Thus,aswehaveseen,anutterancesuchas"TsHadigaiy
y'godzaa"(IthappenedatLineOfWhiteRocksExtendsUpAndOut,atthisveryplace!)maybeusedtoaccomplishallofthefollowingactions:(1)producea
mentalimageofaparticulargeographicallocation(2)evokepriortexts,suchashistoricaltalesandsagas(3)affirmthevalueandvalidityoftraditionalmoralprecepts
(i.e.,ancestralknowledge)(4)displaytactfulandcourteousattentiontoaspectsofbothpositiveandnegativeface(5)conveysentimentsofcharitableconcernand
personalsupport(6)offerpracticaladvicefordealingwithdisturbingpersonalcircumstances(i.e.,applyancestralknowledge)(7)transformdistressingthoughts
causedbyexcessiveworryintomoreagreeableonesmarkedbyoptimismandhopefulnessand(8)healwoundedspirits.

Thisisasubstantialamountforanyspokenutterancetobeabletoaccomplish,andwhatprovidesforthecapabilitywhattheforcefulactivityofspeakingwithnames
alwayscommunicatesmostbasically

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"about"istheculturalimportanceofnamedlocationswithintheWesternApachelandscape.Namedplaceshavelongbeensymbolsofrichsignificanceforthe
Apachepeople,andplacenamesaffordApachespeakersareadymeansforappropriatingthatsignificanceandturningitwithbriskefficiencytospecializedsocial
ends.ByvirtueoftheirroleasspatialanchorsintraditionalApachenarratives,placenamescanbemadetorepresentthenarrativesthemselves,summarizingthem,as
itwere,andcondensingintocompactformtheiressentialmoraltruths.Asaresult,narrativesandtruthsalikecanbeswiftly"activated"andbroughtintofocused
awarenessthroughtheuseofplacenamesalone.Andsoithappens,ontheseoccasionswhenApachepeopleseefittospeakwithplacenames,thatavitalpartof
theirtribalheritageseemstospeaktothemaswell.Foronsuchoccasions,aswehaveseen,participantsmaybemovedandinstructedbyvoicesotherthantheirown.
Inaddition,personstowhomplacenamesareaddressedmaybeaffectedbythevoicesoftheirancestors,voicesthatcommunicateincompellingsilencewithan
inherentweightdescribedbyMikhailBakhtinasthe"authoritativeword":

Theauthoritativeworddemandsthatweacknowledgeit,thatwemakeitourownitbindsus,quiteindependentofanypoweritmighthavetopersuadeusinternallywe
encounteritwithitsauthorityalreadyfusedonit.Theauthoritativewordislocatedinadistancedzone,organicallyconnectedwithapastthatisfelttobehierarchicallyhigher.Its
authoritywasalreadyacknowledgedinthepast.Itisapriordiscourse....Itisgiven(itsounds)inloftyspheres,notthoseoffamiliarcontact.Itslanguageisaspecial(asitwere,
hieratic)language.(Bakhtin1981:342)

WhenWesternApacheplacenamesarecalledupontoserveasvehiclesofancestralauthority,theknowledgethusimpartedisnotsoloftilygivenastoinhibititsuse
inthemundanespheresofeverydaylife.Onthecontrary,astheepisodeattheMachuses'homeillustratesclearly,suchknowledgeexiststobeapplied,tobethought
aboutandactedupon,tobeincorporated(themoresothebetter,LolaMachusewouldhaveusunderstand)intothesmallestcornersofpersonalandsocial
experience.Andinsofarasthiskindofincorporationoccurs

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insofarasplacesandplacenamesprovideApachepeoplewithsymbolicreferencepointsforthemoralimaginationanditspracticalbearingontheactualitiesoftheir
livesthelandscapeinwhichthepeopledwellcanbesaidtodwellinthem.FortheconstructionsApachesimposeupontheirlandscapehavebeenfashionedfromthe
sameculturalmaterialsasconstructionstheyimposeuponthemselvesasmembersofsociety.Bothgiveexpressiontothesamesetofvalues,standards,andideals
botharemanifestationsofthesamedistinctivecharterforbeingintheworld.Inhabitantsoftheirlandscape,theWesternApachearethusinhabitedbyitaswell,and
inthetimelessdepthofthatabidingreciprocity,thepeopleandtheirlandscapearevirtuallyasone.

Thisreciprocalrelationshiparelationshipinwhichindividualsinvestthemselvesinthelandscapewhileincorporatingitsmeaningsintotheirownmostfundamental
experienceistheultimatesourceoftherichsententiouspotentialandfunctionalversatilityofWesternApacheplacenames.Forwhenplacenamesareusedinthe
mannerexemplifiedbyLolaMachuseandherfriends,thelandscapeisappropriatedinpointedlysocialtermsandtheauthoritativewordofApachetribaltraditionis
broughtsquarelytobearonmattersofsocialconcern.Concomitantly,personsindistressareremindedofwhattheyalreadyknowbutmaysometimesforgetthat
ancestralknowledgeisapowerfulallyintimesofadversity,andthatreflectinguponit,asgenerationsofApacheshavelearned,canproduceexpandedawareness,
feelingsofrelief,andafortifiedabilitytocope.AndbecausehelpingpeopletocopeisregardedbyApachesasagestureofcompassion,theuseofplacenamesfor
thispurposeservesaswelltocommunicatesolicitude,reassurance,andpersonalsolidarity.Theprimaryreasonthatspeakingwithnamescanaccomplishsomuch
thereasonitsexpressiveforceissometimesfeltsostronglyisthatitfacilitatesreverberatingactsofkindnessandcaring.Andtheeffectsofkindnessandcaring,
especiallywhenspiritsareinneedofhealing,canbeverystrongindeed.

Asmustnowbeapparent,theethnographicaccountpresentedinthischapterhasbeenshapedbyaviewofspokencommunicationwhichrestsonthepremisethat
languagesconsistinsharedeconomies

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ofgrammaticalresourceswithwhichlanguageusersacttogetthingsdone.Theresourcesofalanguage,togetherwiththevarietiesofactionfacilitatedbytheiruse,
acquiremeaningandforcefromthesocioculturalcontextsinwhichtheyareembedded,andtherefore,aseverylinguistknows,thediscourseofanyspeechcommunity
exhibitsafundamentalcharacteragenius,aspirit,anunderlyingpersonalitythatisverymuchitsown.Overaperiodofyears,Ihavebecomeconvincedthatone
ofthedistinctivecharacteristicsofWesternApachediscourseisapredilectionforperformingamaximumofsociallyrelevantactionswithaminimumoflinguistic
means.Accordingly,Ihavebeendrawntoinvestigateinstancesoftalk,liketheoneinvolvingLolaandRobertMachuse,inwhichafewspokenwordsaremadeto
accomplishlargeamountsofcommunicativework.11Foritisonjustsuchoccasions,Ibelieve,thatelementsofApachecultureandsocietyfusemostcompletelywith
elementsofgrammarandthesituatedaimsofindividuals,suchthatveryshortutterances,likepolishedcrystalsrefractinglight,canbeseentocontainthemall.On
theseoccasions,theWesternApachelanguageisexploitedtosomethingnearitsfullexpressivepotential,andevenApachesthemselves,struckmomentarilybythe
poweroftheirdiscourse,maycomeawayimpressed.

SuchpowerfulmomentsmaynotbecommonplaceinWesternApachespeechcommunities,buttheyarecertainlycommonenoughandwhentheyoccur,asonthat
hotanddustydayatCibecue,robustworldsofmeaningcomevibrantlyalive.Conveyingtheseworlds,capturingwithwordsboththerichnessoftheircontentandthe
fullnessoftheirspirit,requiresanexactingeffortatlinguisticandculturaltranslationthatcanneverbewhollysuccessful.Theproblem,ofcourse,isthatverbally
mediatedrealitiesaresodenselytexturedandincorrigiblydynamic,andthatone'sownlocutionsforrepresentingthemfailtodojusticetothenumeroussubtleties
involved.Unavoidably,delicateproportionsarealteredanddisturbed,intricatemomentumshaltedandbetrayed,andhowevermuchoneexplicatesthereisalways
more(orsooneistemptedtosuppose)thatmightusefullybedone.Despitethesepersistinguncertainties,however,enoughcanbelearnedandunderstoodsothat
we,likethepeople

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ofCibecue,maycomeawayfromcertainkindsofspeecheventsinstructedandimpressedandsometimesdeeplymoved.Followingitsmoreaccentuatedmoments,
momentsshapedbygraciousnessandtheresonatingechoesofafullypresentpast,theminimalistgeniusofWesternApachediscourseleavesussilentinitswake
travelinginourminds,listeningfortheancestors,andstudyingthelandscapewithanewanddifferenteye.Onthepictorialwingsofplacenames,imaginationssoar.

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4
WisdomSitsinPlaces
Toknowwhoyouare,youhavetohaveaplacetocomefrom.
CarsonMcCullers,TheHeartIsaLonelyHunter

Inthisunsettledage,whenlargeportionsoftheearth'ssurfacearebeingravagedbyindustrialism...whenonseveralcontinentsindigenouspeoplesarebeingforcibly
uprootedbywantonencroachmentsupontheirhomelands...whenAmericanIndiantribesaremountingmajorlegaleffortstosecurepermanentprotectionforsacred
sitesnowcontrolledbyfederalagencies...whenphilosophersandpoetsareassertingthatattachmentstogeographicallocalitiescontributefundamentallytothe
formationofpersonalandsocialidentities...whennewformsof"environmentalawareness"arebeingmoreradicallychartedandurgentlyadvocatedthaneverinthe
pastinthesedisorderedtimes,whencontrastingwaysoflivingintheworldaregeneratingunprecedentedattentiononaworldwidescale,itisunfortunatethat
anthropologistsseldomstudywhatpeoplemakeofplaces.1

Sensitivetothefactthathumanexistenceisirrevocablysituatedintimeandspace,andkeenlyawarethatsociallifeiseverywhereaccomplishedthroughanexchange
ofsymbolicforms,anthropologistsmightbeexpectedtoreportroutinelyonthevarietiesofmeaningconferredbymenandwomenonfeaturesoftheirnatural
surroundings.Yetethnographicinquiryintoculturalconstructionsofgeographicalrealitiesisatbestweaklydeveloped.Willingenoughtoinvestigatethematerialand
organizationalmeansbywhichwholecommunitiesfashionworkableadaptationstothephysicalenvironment,ethnogra

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phershavebeennotablylessinclinedtoexaminetheelaboratearraysofconceptualandexpressiveinstrumentsideas,beliefs,stories,songswithwhichcommunity
membersproduceanddisplaycoherentunderstandingsofit.Consequently,littleisknownofthewaysinwhichculturallydiversepeoplesarealivetotheworldaround
them,ofhowtheycomprehendit,ofthedifferentmodesofawarenesswithwhichtheytakeitinand,inthewordsofEdmundHusserl,"discoverthatitmatters."Nor
canmuchbesaidabouttheeffectsofsuchdiscoveriesonthepersonswhomakethem,aboutwhysomelocalitiesmattermorethanothers,aboutwhyviewinga
favoredsite(ormerelyrecallingaspectsofitsappearance)mayloosenstrongemotionsandkindlethoughtsofarichlycaringkind.Inshort,anthropologistshavepaid
scantattentiontooneofthemostbasicdimensionsofhumanexperiencethatclosecompanionofheartandmind,oftensubduedyetpotentiallyoverwhelming,thatis
knownassenseofplace.Missingfromthedisciplineisathematizedconcernwiththewaysinwhichcitizensoftheearthconstitutetheirlandscapesandtake
themselvestobeconnectedtothem.Missingisadesiretofathomthevariousandvariableperspectivesfromwhichpeopleknowtheirlandscapes,theselfinvested
viewpointsfromwhich(toborrowIsakDinesen'sfelicitousimage)theyembracethecountrysideandfindtheembracereturned.Missingisaninterestinhowmenand
womendwell.2

AsformulatedbyMartinHeidegger(1977),whosegeneralleadIproposetofollowhere,theconceptofdwellingassignsimportancetotheformsofconsciousness
withwhichindividualsperceiveandapprehendgeographicalspace.3 Moreprecisely,dwellingissaidtoconsistinthemultiple"livedrelationships"thatpeoplemaintain
withplaces,foritissolelybyvirtueoftheserelationshipsthatspaceacquiresmeaning.(Thus,asHeidegger[1977:332]himselfputit,"spacesreceivetheiressential
beingfromparticularlocalitiesandnotfrom'space'itself.")Asnumerousastheyarebothsingularandspecific,andfullyrealizableacrossgreatdistances,relationships
withplacesarelivedwheneveraplacebecomestheobjectofawareness.Inmanyinstances,awarenessofplaceisbriefandunselfconscious,afleetingmoment(a
flashofrecognition,atraceofmemory)thatisswiftlyreplacedbyawarenessofsomethingelse.Butnowandagain,andsome

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timeswithoutapparentcause,awarenessisseizedarrestedandtheplaceonwhichitsettlesbecomesanobjectofspontaneousreflectionandresonatingsentiment.
Itisattimessuchasthese,whenindividualsstepbackfromtheflowofeverydayexperienceandattendselfconsciouslytoplaceswhen,wemaysay,theypauseto
activelysensethemthattheirrelationshipstogeographicalspacearemostrichlylivedandsurelyfelt.Foritisontheseoccasionsoffocusedthoughtandquickened
emotionthatplacesareencounteredmostdirectly,experiencedmostrobustly,and,inHeidegger'sview,mostfullybroughtintobeing.Sensingplaces,menand
womenbecomesharplyawareofthecomplexattachmentsthatlinkthemtofeaturesofthephysicalworld.Sensingplaces,theydwell,asitwere,onaspectsof
dwelling.

Personsthusinvolvedmayalsodwellonaspectsofthemselves,onsidesandcornersoftheirownevolvingidentities.Fortheselfconsciousexperienceofplaceis
inevitablyaproductandexpressionoftheselfwhoseexperienceitis,andtherefore,unavoidably,thenatureofthatexperience(itsintentionalthrust,itssubstantive
content,itsaffectivetonesandcolorings)isshapedateveryturnbythepersonalandsocialbiographiesofthosewhosustainit.4 Hence,asnumerouswritershave
noted,placespossessamarkedcapacityfortriggeringactsofselfreflection,inspiringthoughtsaboutwhoonepresentlyis,ormemoriesofwhooneusedtobe,or
musingsonwhoonemightbecome.Andthatisnotall.Placebasedthoughtsabouttheselfleadcommonlytothoughtsofotherthingsotherplaces,otherpeople,
othertimes,wholenetworksofassociationsthatramifyunaccountablywithintheexpandingspheresofawarenessthattheythemselvesengender.Theexperienceof
sensingplaces,then,isthusboththoroughlyreciprocalandincorrigiblydynamic.Asplacesanimatetheideasandfeelingsofpersonswhoattendtothem,thesesame
ideasandfeelingsanimatetheplacesonwhichattentionhasbeenbestowed,andthemovementsofthisprocessinwardtowardfacetsoftheself,outwardtoward
aspectsoftheexternalworld,alternatelybothtogethercannotbeknowninadvance.Whenplacesareactivelysensed,thephysicallandscapebecomesweddedto
thelandscapeofthemind,totherovingimagination,andwherethelattermayleadisanybody'sguess.

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Thisprocessofinteranimationrelatesdirectlytothefactthatfamiliarplacesareexperiencedasinherentlymeaningful,theirsignificanceandvaluebeingfoundtoreside
in(and,itmayseem,toemanatefrom)theformandarrangementoftheirobservablecharacteristics.Aconciseaccountofthisphenomenon,couchedinabroader
discussionofhowpeopleinteractwithmaterialthings,appearsinthephilosophicalwritingsofJeanPaulSartre(1965:8791).Proceedingonthetwinassumptions
that"mancanonlymeanwhatheknows,"andthat"thingscanreflectforindividualsonlytheirownknowledgeofthem,"Sartreconsiderswhathappenswhenattention
isdirectedtowardphysicalobjects.

Whenknowledgeandfeelingareorientedtowardsomethingreal,actuallyperceived,thething,likeareflector,returnsthelightithasreceivedfromit.Asaresultofthiscontinual
interaction,meaningiscontinuallyenrichedatthesametimeastheobjectsoaksupaffectivequalities.Theobjectthusobtainsitsownparticulardepthandrichness.Theaffective
statefollowstheprogressofattention,developingwitheachnewdiscoveryofmeaning...withtheresultthatitsdevelopmentisunpredictable.Ateachmomentperception
overflowsitandsustainsit,anditsdensityanddepthcomefromitsbeingconfusedwiththeperceivedobject.Eachqualityissodeeplyincorporatedintheobjectthatitis
impossibletodistinguishwhatisfeltandwhatisperceived.(Sartre1965:89emphasisadded)

Thus,throughavigorousconflationofattentivesubjectandgeographicalobject,placescometogeneratetheirownfieldsofmeaning.5 So,too,theygiverisetotheir
ownaestheticimmediacies,theirshiftingmoodsandrelevancies,theircharacterandspirit.So,evenintotalstillness,placesmayseemtospeak.ButasSartremakes
clear,suchvoicesasplacespossessshouldnotbemistakenfortheirown.Animatedbythethoughtsandfeelingsofpersonswhoattendtothem,placesexpressonly
whattheiranimatorsenablethemtosaylikethethirstyspongestowhichthephilosopheralludes,theyyieldtoconsciousnessonlywhatconsciousnesshasgiventhem
toabsorb.Yetthismaybequiteconsiderable,andsoitis,aseveryoneknows,thatplacesactivelysensedamounttosubstantiallymorethanpointsinphysical

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space.Asnatural''reflectors"thatreturnawarenesstothesourcefromwhichitsprings,placesalsoprovidepointsfromwhichtolookoutonlife,tograspone's
positionintheorderofthings,tocontemplateeventsfromsomewhereinparticular.Humanconstructionsparexcellence,placesconsistinwhatgetsmadeofthemin
anythingandeverythingtheyaretakentobeandtheirdisembodiedvoices,immanentthoughinaudible,aremerelythoseofpeoplespeakingsilentlytothemselves.

Andonnumerousoccasions,audiblyenough,theirvoicesarethoseofpeoplespeakingtoeachother.Althoughtheselfconsciousexperienceofplacemayatbasebe
aprivateaffair,tangiblerepresentationsofitarecommonlymadeavailableforpublicconsumption.Indeed,asanyseasonedtravelercanreadilyattest,locally
significantplacesgetdepictedandappraisedbyestablishedlocalcitizensalmostasoftenasmaritalupheavals,badweather,andtheregrettableshortcomingsofother
people'schildren.Surroundedbyplaces,andalwaysinoneplaceoranother,menandwomentalkaboutthemconstantly,anditisfromlisteninginonsuchexchanges
andthentryingtoascertainwhathasgottensaidthatinterestedoutsiderscanbegintoappreciatewhattheencompassinglandscapeisreallyallabout.Statedmore
exactly,theoutsidermustattempttocometogripswiththeindigenousculturalformsthatthelandscapeisexperiencedwith,thesharedsymbolicvehiclesthatgive
shapetogeographicalexperienceandfacilitateitscommunicationitsrecreationandrepresentationininterpersonalsettings.Foritissimplynotthecase,assome
phenomenologistsandgrowingnumbersofnaturewriterswouldhaveusbelieve,thatrelationshipstoplacesarelivedexclusivelyorpredominantlyincontemplative
momentsofsocialisolation.Onthecontrary,relationshipstoplacesarelivedmostofteninthecompanyofotherpeople,anditisonthesecommunaloccasions
whenplacesaresensedtogetherthatnativeviewsofthephysicalworldbecomeaccessibletostrangers.Andwhileattendingtoordinarytalkisalwaysauseful
strategyforuncoveringsuchviews,itisusuallyjustabeginning.Relationshipstoplacesmayalsofindexpressionthroughtheagenciesofmyth,prayer,music,dance,
art,architecture,and,inmanycommunities,recurrentformsofreligiousandpoliticalritual.Thusrepresentedandenacted

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daily,monthly,seasonally,annuallyplacesandtheirmeaningsarecontinuallywovenintothefabricofsociallife,anchoringittofeaturesofthelandscapeand
blanketingitwithlayersofsignificancethatfewcanfailtoappreciate.Deliberatelyandotherwise,peopleareforeverpresentingeachotherwithculturallymediated
imagesofwhereandhowtheydwell.Inlargewaysandsmall,theyareforeverperformingactsthatreproduceandexpresstheirownsenseofplaceandalso,
inextricably,theirownunderstandingsofwhoandwhattheyare.

AsIconceiveofit,theethnographer'staskistodeterminewhattheseactsofexpressionpurportedlyinvolve(whytheyareperformed,howtheyareaccomplished,
whattheyareintendedtoachieve)andtodisclosetheirimportancebyrelatingthemtolargerideasabouttheworldanditsinhabitants.Inotherwords,naturally
occurringdepictionsofplacesaretreatedasactualizationsoftheknowledgethatinformsthem,asoutwardmanifestationsofunderlyingsystemsofthought,asnative
constructionswroughtwithnativematerialsthatembodyanddisplayanativecastofmind.Anditisthatcastofmind(orcertainprominentaspectsofit,anyway)that
theethnographermustworktograsp,intelligiblymakeout,andlatersetdowninwriting.Heaven,then,inafewgrainsofcarefullyinspectedsandinstructive
statementsaboutplacesandtheirroleinhumanaffairsthroughtheclosecontextualizationofahandfuloftellingevents.6

Anassignmentofthisdelicacychallengesthetextbuildingpenasmuchasitdoesthetruthseekingmind.Mullingoverimperfectfieldnotes,sortingthroughconflicting
intuitions,andbesetbyahostofunansweredquestions,theethnographermustsomehowfashionawrittenaccountthatadequatelyconveyshisorherunderstandingof
otherpeoples'understandings.Asmustnowbeapparent,myownpreferenceisforchronologicalnarrativesthatmovefrominterpretationsofexperiencerawtothose
ofexperiencedigested,frommomentsofanxiouspuzzlement("Whatthedevilisgoingonhere?")tosubsequentonesofcautiousinsight("IthinkperhapsIsee.").
Becausethat,moreoftenthannot,ishowethnographicfieldworkactuallyunfolds.Itisadiscomfitingbusinessinwhichlooseendsaboundandlittleisevercertain.But
withampletime,adollopofpatience,andsteadyguidancefrominterestednativeinstructors,onedoesmake

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measurableprogress.Toargueotherwise(andthereisabitofthataroundthesedays)istodismissethnographyasavalidsourceofculturalknowledgeandturnitinto
asolipsisticsideshow,anominousprospectonlyslightlylessappealingthantheselfengrossedmeanderingsofthosewhoseektopromoteit.AsIsaiahBerlin
remarkedsomewhere,itisbettertowriteofthingsonebelievesoneknowssomethingaboutthantoanguishinhighdespairoverthemanifolddifficultiesofknowing
thingsatall.Andbetteraswell,havingtakentheplunge,toallowoneselftoenjoyit.Doingethnographycanbeagreatdealoffun,anddisguisingthefactonpaper,as
thoughitweresomethingtobeashamedof,islessthantotallyhonest.Itmayalsobelessthaneffective.Currentfashionsnotwithstanding,clenchedteethandfurrowed
browarenoguaranteeofliterarysuccess.Incraftingone'sprose,asingoingaboutone'sfieldwork,itisalwayspermissibleandsometimeshighlyinformativeto
smileandeventolaugh.

Itispermissible,too,tobepleasedandsometimesdownrightimpressedwiththingsonehappenstolearn.Fromtimetotime,whenluckisontheirside,
ethnographersstumbleontoculturallygivenideaswhosestrikingnoveltyandevidentscopeseemtocryoutforthoughtfulconsiderationbeyondtheiraccustomed
boundaries.Makingtheseideasavailableinperusableformisaworthyendeavorongeneralprinciples,butwhereplacesareconcerneditisapttoproveespecially
illuminating.Forwhereplacesareinvolved,attendantmodesofdwellingareneverfarbehind,andinthisdimlylitregionoftheanthropologicalworldcallit,ifyou
like,theethnographyoflivedtopographiesmuchremainstobelearned.Placesandtheirsensingsdeserveourcloseattention.Tocontinuetoneglectthemwouldbe
foolishandshortsighted.Intriguingdiscoveriesawaitus,andtheneedtoconsiderthemthoughtfullygrowsstrongereveryday.

"TheTrailofWisdom"

June7,1982.TheforegoingthoughtswouldhavematteredlittletoDudleyPattersonorthetwootherhorsemen,SamEndfieldandCharlesCromwell,withwhomhe
wasspeakingonalatespringdaysomefifteenyearsago.Havingspentnearlytenhourssortingsteersandbrandingcalves,thehorsemenwererestinginagroveof
junipertrees

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severalmilesfromtheirhomesatCibecue.Theheatoftheafternoonwasstillintense,andasthemenwaitedforittosubside,theirtalkwasoftheirtrade:thehabits
andfoiblesofhorsesandthedozensofthingsoneneedstokeepinmindwhenworkingexcitablecattleinroughandrockycountry.Expertridersall,andintimately
familiarwiththeruggedlandstheyhadexploredtogetherformorethanfortyyears,theyspokequietlyofsuchmatters,exchangingobservationsaboutDudley'sbay
mare(strongandquickbutreluctanttotrotthroughheavystandsofbrush),Sam'sroangelding(gentleandcooperativebutapttobitewhenhastilybridled),andthe
spottedmaverickbullwithcurledhornsandfaultyvisioninoneeyewhocouldbesafelyapproachedfromtheleftsidebutnotfromtheright.WesternApacheshop
talk:relaxed,confident,endlesslyinformative,risingandfallingonthesoftphonemictonesoftheAthapaskanlanguagethehorsemenspeakwithtotalfluency.Asan
aspiringspeakerofthelanguageandawouldbehorsemanmyself,Iamcompletelyabsorbed.7

Afewminuteslater,thegroupbeneaththetreesisjoinedbyanothermanonhorseback,TalbertPaxton,whoishighlyregardedasanaccomplishedroperanda
fearlessriderinpursuitofboltingcattle.ConsiderablyyoungerthanDudleyPattersonandhiscompanions,Talberthasworkedwiththemmanytimesbefore,butfor
thepastthreeweeks,painfullyupsetoverthecollapseofamonthlongloveaffair,hehasthrownhimselfintoothersortsofactivitiessuchasdrinkingprodigious
quantitiesofbeer,spreadingunfoundedrumorsaboutthewomanwhorejectedhim,andproposingsextoseveralotherwomenwhoeitherlaughedinhisfaceor
promisedtodamagehistesticlesifhetookonemorestepintheirdirection.Normallyrestrainedandunquestionablyintelligent,Talberthadlostcontrolofhimself.He
hadbecomeanuisanceofthefirstorder,anunrulybotherandanirritatingbore,andtheresidentsofCibecueweremorethanalittleannoyed.

NothingissaidofthisoranythingelseasTalbertdismounts,tethershishorsetoatree,andseatshimselfonthegroundatarespectabledistancefromhissenior
associates.Charlesnodshimawordlessgreeting,Samdoesthesame,andDudleyannouncestonooneinparticularthatitcertainlyishot.Talbertremainssilent,his
eyesfixedintently

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onthepointedtoesofhishighheeledboots.Charlesdisposesofawellchewedplugoftobacco,Samattacksahangnailwithhispocketknife,andDudleyobserves
thatthegrassiscertainlydry.AlongmomentpassesbeforeTalbertfinallyspeaks.Whathesaysdealswithneithertheelevatedtemperaturenortheparchedcondition
oftheCibecuerange.Inasoftandhaltingvoicehereportsthathehasbeensoberforthreedaysandwouldliketoreturntowork.Headdsthatheisanxioustoget
awayfromthevillagebecausepeopletherehavebeengossipingabouthim.Worsethanthat,hesays,theyhavebeenlaughingathimbehindhisback.

Itisacandidandtouchingmoment,andIexpectfromthesmilesthatappearonthefacesoftheseniorhorsementhattheywillrespondtoTalbert'sdisclosureswith
accommodatingexpressionsofempathyandapproval.ButwhathappensnextashortsequenceofemphaticallydeliveredassertionstowhichTalbertrepliesin
kindleavesmeconfused.Mybewildermentstemsnotfromafailuretounderstandthelinguisticmeaningsoftheutterancescomprisingtheinterchangeindeed,their
overtsemanticcontentissimpleandstraightforward.Whatisperplexingisthattheutterancesarriveastotalnonsequiturs,asstatementsIcannotrelatetoanythingthat
haspreviouslybeensaidordone.Verbalactswithoutapparentpurposeorinteractionaldesign,theyseemtotallyunconnectedtothesocialcontextinwhichtheyare
occurring,andwhatevermessagestheyareintendedtoconveyeludemeentirely.

AgrinningDudleyspeaksfirst:

Hela!Gizhyaa'itindi*'nandzaan.

(So!You'vereturnedfromTrailGoesDownBetweenTwoHills!)

FollowedbyabrightlyanimatedCharles:

Hela!'ilts'*nadaahinilhiyeeg*n.

(So!Yougottiredwalkingbackandforth!)

FollowedbySam,onthevergeoflaughter:

Hela!'Ilizhdiltlii*daho'higobil*hindziin.

(So!You'vesmelledenoughburningpiss!)

FollowedbyTalbert,whoissmilingnowhimself:

Dit'ii*dogosh'iida*.(ForawhileIcouldn'tsee!)

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FollowedoncemorebyDudley:

D'andii!Gizhyaa'itingoygo*'nil*'doleel*.'Iskaa*dalaa*naildzig*.(Truly!TrailGoesDownBetweenTwoHillswillmakeyouwise.We'llwork
togethertomorrow.)

Thesuddenburstoftalkendsasabruptlyasitbegan,andsilenceagainprevailsintheshadygroveofjunipertrees.Nothingmorewillbesaid.Stillchuckling,Sam
Endfieldrisesfromtheground,walkstohishorse,andswingssmoothlyintohissaddle.Momentslater,therestofusfollowsuit.Talbertdepartsonatrailleading
northtothehomeofoneofhissisters.SamandCharlesandDudleyheadnorthwesttoasmallpasturewheretheykeeptheirextramounts.Iridealonetowardthe
tradingpostatCibecue,wonderingwhattohaveforsupperandtryingtomakesenseoftheeventsIhavejustwitnessed.Buttonoavail.WhattheplacenamedTrail
GoesDownBetweenTwoHillshastodowithtoomuchwalkingbackandforth,burningurine,andmakingyoungmenwisearethingsIdonotknow.Andwhy
mentioningthemsucceededinliftingeveryone'sspirits,includingthoseofthetroubledTalbertPaxton,remainsapuzzlingquestion.

June12,1982.Threedayslater,DudleyPattersonwouldbegintosupplytheanswer.Shortofstatureandtrimofbuild,the54yearoldhorsemanpresentsa
handsomefigureasheemergesfromthesmallwoodenhousewherehehaslivedbyhimselfsincethedeathofhiswifein1963.DressedinfreshlylaunderedLevis,a
redcheckedshirt,andacreamcoloredstrawhat,hemoveswiththegraceofanaturalathlete,anditstrikesmeasheapproachesthatnothingabouthimis
superfluous.Justashisactionsareinstinctuallymeasuredandprecise,soisthemannerinwhichhespeaks,sings,anddanceswithfriendsandrelativesatreligious
ceremonials.Butheisalsogiventojokingandlaughter,andwheneverhesmiles,whichismuchofthetime,hisangularcountenancelightsupwithanabundanceof
irrepressiblegoodwill.Expertcattleman,possessorofhorsepower,dutifulkinsmanwithoutpeer,nooneinCibecueismorethoroughlylikedthanDudleyPatterson.
Andfewaremorerespected.Foralongwitheverythingelse,Dudleyisknowntobewise.

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Figure8
ThegreatcottonwoodtreeatGizhyaa'itin(TrailGoesDownBetweenTwoHills).

Itwasthemeritsofwisdom,Dudleyinformsmeoveracupofboiledcoffee,thatTalbertPaxtonneededtoberemindedofearlierintheweek.Butbeforediscussing
that,DudleyinquireswhetherIhavelatelyvisitedTrailGoesDownBetweenTwoHills,theplacewhosenameisGizhyaa'itin.ItellhimIhave.Locatedafewmiles
northofCibecue,itsApachenamedescribesitwelltwowoodedknollsofsimilarsizeandshapewithafootpathpassingbetweenthemthatdescendstoagrassyflat
onthewestbankofCibecueCreek.AnddidInoticethebigcottonwoodtreethatstandsafewyardsbackfromthestream?Ididagigantictree,gnarledand
ancient,withonehugelimbthatdipstotouchthegroundbeforetwistingupwardandreachingtowardthesky(fig.8).AndhadanyonefromCibecuetoldmewhat
happenedlongagoatTrailGoesDownBetweenTwoHills?

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No,onlythatthewidowofamannamedBlisterBoyonceplantedcornnearby.HadIneverheardthestoriesaboutOldManOwl,theonecalledMhhastiin?No,
never.Wellthen,listen.

Longago,rightthereatthatplace,thereweretwobeautifulgirls.Theyweresisters.Theyweretalkingtogether.

ThentheysawOldManOwlwalkingtowardsthem.Theyknewwhathewaslike.Hethoughtallthetimeaboutdoingthingswithwomen.Thentheysaid,"Let'sdosomethingto
him."

Thenoneofthosegirlswenttothetopofoneofthehills.Hersisterwenttothetopoftheotherone.AsOldManOwlwaswalkingbetweenthem,thefirstgirlcalledouttohim.
"OldManOwl,comehere!Iwantyoutorubmebetweenmylegs!"Hestopped.Hegotexcited!Sohestartedtoclimbthehillwherethegirlwassitting.

Then,afterOldManOwlgothalfwaytothetop,thesecondgirlcalledouttohim."OldManOwl,Iwantyoutorubmegentlybetweenmylegs!"Hestopped!Hegotevenmore
excited!Soheturnedaround,walkeddownthehill,andbegantoclimbtheotherone.

Then,afterhegothalfwaytothetop,thefirstgirlcalledouttohimagaininthesameway.Hestopped!Nowhewasveryexcited!SoOldManOwldidthesamethingagain.He
forgotaboutthesecondgirl,walkeddownthehill,andbeganclimbingtheotherone.

Ithappenedthatwayfourtimes.OldManOwlwentbackandforth,backandforth,climbingupanddownthosehills.

Thenthosebeautifulgirlsjustlaughedathim.

Fairlybeamingwithamusementanddelight,DudleywasteslittletimebeginningasecondstoryaboutOldManOwlatTrailGoesDownBetweenTwoHills.

Thosesametwosisterswerethereagain.Idon'tknowwhy,maybetheywentthereoftentogetwater.

ThenOldManOwlwaswalkingtowardsthem.Theydecidedtheywoulddosomethingtohim.

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Thenoneofthegirlsclimbedintothebranchesofabigcottonwoodtreethatwasgrowingthere.Theothergirlwenttothetopofoneofthosehills.

Thenthegirlinthetreeliftedherskirtandspreadherlegsslightlyapart.SheremainedmotionlessasOldManOwlwalkedbeneathher.Suddenly,helookedup!Hehadnoticed
something!

Nowhegotveryexcited!"Hmm,"hethought,"thattreelooksalotlikeawoman.Ireallylikethewayitlooks!I'dbestbringithome.IthinkI'llburnitdown."Hiseyesightwasvery
poor.OldManOwlwasverynearlyblind.

Then,havingpiledsomegrassatthebaseofthetree,OldManOwlsetfiretoit.Thegirlinthetreepissedonitandquicklyputitout.OldManOwllookedallaround."Where's
thatraincomingfrom?"hesaid."Idon'tseeanyclouds."Sohestartedanotherfireatthebaseofthetreeandthegirlpissedonitagainandquicklyputitout.Nowhewasvery
confused.Theothergirl,theoneontopofthehill,couldhearallthatOldManOwlwassayingtohimself.Shewasreallylaughing!

ThenOldManOwldidthesamethingagain.Hestartedanotherfireandthegirlinthetreepissedonitandputitout.Hewaslookingaroundagain."Where'sthatraincoming
from?Where'sthatraincomingfrom?Idon'tseeanyclouds!Therearenocloudsanywhere!Somethingmustbewrong!"

Thenhetriedonemoretimeandthegirlinthetreedidthesamethingagain.OldManOwlstoodthereshakinghishead."Somethingmustbeverywrong!"hesaid."I'dbettergo
home."Hewalkedawaywithhisheadhangingdown.

Thenthosetwobeautifulgirlsjoinedeachotherandlaughedandlaughed.TheywerereallylaughingatOldManOwl.

AsDudleyPattersoncloseshisnarrative,heislaughinghimself.ItisobviousthatherelishesthestoriesofOldManOwl.Momentslater,afterpouringusanothercup
ofcoffee,heasmuchassayssothestoriesareveryold,hehasheardthemmanytimes,andtheyalwaysgivehimpleasure.Besidesbeinghumorous,hesays,they
make

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himthinkoftheancestorsthewiseones,hecallsthemthepeoplewhofirsttoldthestoriesatatimewhenhumansandanimalscommunicatedwithoutdifficulty.
ThesearethoughtsIhaveheardexpressedbefore,byDudleyandotherApachepeoplelivingatCibecue,andIknowtheyarestronglyfelt.ButIhaveyettolearn
howthetalesofOldManOwlplayedintotheepisodeinvolvingTalbertPaxton.IfthepointwastoinformTalbertthatbeautifulwomencanbedeceiving,orperhaps
shouldnotbetrusted,orsometimesenjoytoyingwiththeemotionsofunsuspectingmen,whyhadn'tthehorsemenjustcomeoutandsaidso?Whyhadtheybeat
aroundthebush?

UncertainofhowtoaskthisquestioninApache,IattempttoconveyitinEnglish,whichDudleyunderstandswithmorethanfairsuccess.Hecatchesonquicklytothe
thrustofmyqueryandproceedstoansweritwithgratifyingthoroughness.SpeakingforCharlesandSamaswellashimself,heexplainsthattherewereseveral
reasonsfordealingwithTalbertastheydid.TohavecriticizedTalbertexplicitlytohavetoldhiminsomanywordsthathisrecentbehaviorwasfoolish,offensive,
anddisruptivewouldhavebeeninsultingandcondescending.AsjudgedfromTalbert'sapologeticdemeanor,hehadreachedtheseconclusionshimself,andto
informhimopenlyofwhathealreadyknewwouldbetotreathimlikeachild.Inaddition,becauseTalbertwasunrelatedbytiesofkinshiptoeitherDudleyorSam,
andbecausehewasrelatedonlydistantlytoCharles,noneofthempossessedtherequisiteauthoritytoinstructhimdirectlyonmatterspertainingtohispersonallife
thiswastheproperresponsibilityofhisoldermatrilinealkinsmen.Moreover,thehorsemenwerefondofTalbert.Hewasafriendlyyoungman,quietandcongenial,
whoseundemandingcompanyandpropensityforhardworktheyverymuchappreciated.Last,andbeyondallthis,DudleyandhiscompanionswantedTalbertto
rememberwhattheywouldurgeuponhimbyattachingittosomethingconcrete,somethingfixedandpermanent,somethinghehadseenandcouldgotoseeagaina
placeupontheland.

Sothehorsementookacircuitoustackrespectful,tactful,andfullyinkeepingwiththeirstatusasnonrelativeswithDudleyleadingtheway.Hisopeningstatement
toTalbert"So!You'vereturnedfromTrailGoesDownBetweenTwoHills"wasintendedtofocus

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theyoungman'sattentionontheplacewhereOldManOwlencounteredthetwoApachesistersandtosummonthoughtsofwhattranspiredthere.Dudley'scomment
wasalsomeanttosuggestthatTalbert,havingactedincertainrespectslikeOldManOwlhimself,wouldbewelladvisedtoalterhisconduct.Butinpresupposingthat
TalbertwasalreadyawareofthisinannouncingthathehadreturnedfromTrailGoesDownBetweenTwoHillsDudley'scommentalsoaffirmedhisfriend's
decisiontorefrainfromdrinkingandresumeanormallife.Thus,inasidelongbutdeftlypointedway,DudleywascriticizingTalbert'smisguidedbehaviorandatthe
sametimecommendinghimforrejectingitasunacceptable.

TheensuingstatementsbyCharlesandSam''So!Yougottiredwalkingbackandforth!"and"So!You'vesmelledenoughburningpiss!"sharpenedand
consolidatedthesethemes,furtherlikeningTalberttoOldManOwlbyalludingtokeyeventsinthestoriesthatrecounthismisadventureswiththepairofbeautiful
girls.Buttheseassertions,likeDudley'sbeforethem,werecouchedinthepasttense,therebyimplyingthatTalbert'sresolvetobehavedifferentlyinthefuturewasa
goodandwelcomedevelopment.Thehorsemen'sstrategymusthaveworkedsuccessfullybecauseTalbertrespondedbytacitlyadmittingthathisactionshadindeed
resembledthoseofOldManOwlsimultaneously,however,heregisteredhisbeliefthattheresemblancehadcometoanend.Ineffect,hisreplytothehorsemen
"ForawhileIcouldn'tsee!"conveyedaveiledconfessionofimproperconductandanimplicitdeclarationnottorepeatit.Butmorewasconveyedthanthis.Atone
level,Talbert'sstatementintimatedaforcefullysimpletruth:hehadbeencoldsoberforthreedaysandnow,havingrecoveredhisphysicalsenses,couldagainsee
clearly.Butatanotherlevel,andperhapsmoreforcefullystill,thetruthwasallegorical.UnlikethemyopicOldManOwl,whonevercurbedhissexualappetitesand
remainedhopelesslyatoddswitheveryonearoundhim,Talbertwasintimatingthathehadregainedhissocialsensesaswell.Obliquelybutsincerely,hewasinforming
thehorsementhathismoralvisionhadbeenrestored.

WhichwasjustwhatDudleyPattersonwantedtohear.AsDudleytoldTalbertbeforehelefttogohome,hisimaginaryvisittoTrail

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GoesDownBetweenTwoHillswouldhelpmakehimwise.Andmaybeitwould.WithassistancefromOldManOwlandhistwoalluringtormentors,Talberthad
beenfirmlychastisedandgenerouslypardoned,allinthespaceofaminuteinwhichnooneutteredaharshordemeaningword.Inaveryrealsense,involvingatbase
avividlyanimatedsenseofplace,TalberthadbeentakenbackintoanimportantsegmentoftheCibecuecommunity.Hewouldreturntoworktomorrow,andthat
waswhythehorsemen,includingTalberthimself,werestillsmilingbroadlywhentheyleftthegroveofjunipertreesandwenttheirseparateways.

BackathishouseinCibecue,DudleyPattersondrainshiscupofcoffeeandleansforwardinhischair.Onthegroundnearhisfeetabandofredantsisdismantlingthe
corpseofalargegrasshopper,andwithinsecondstheintricatepatternsoftheirfuriousactivityhavecapturedhisattention.Thisdoesnotsurpriseme.Ihaveknown
Dudleyfortwelveyearsandonotheroccasionshaveseenhimwithdrawfromsocialencounterstokeepcounselwithhimself.Ialsoknowthatheismightilyinterested
inredantsandholdstheminhighesteem.Iwouldliketoaskhimafewmorequestions,butunlessheinvitesmetodoso(andbynow,Isuspect,hemayhavehad
enough)itwouldberudetodisturbhim.Hehasmadeitclearthathewantstobeleftalone.

Wesitquietlytogetherformorethantenminutes,smokingcigarettesandenjoyingthemorningair,andItrytopicturethecottonwoodtreethattowersbesidethe
streamatTrailGoesDownBetweenTwoHills.Iamkeenlyawarethatmyperceptionofthetreehaschanged.ThestoriesofOldManOwlmakeitsimpressivesize
seemdecidedlylessimportant,andwhatstrikesmeasneverbeforeisitsstandingintheCibecuecommunityasavisibleembodimentofmyth,aleafymonumentto
Apacheancestralwisdom.Iamalsoawarethattheplacenameidentifyingthetree'slocationGizhyaa'itinhastakenonavibrantnewdimension.Formerlynothing
morethananicelydescriptivetoponym,ithasacquiredthestampofhumanevents,ofconsequentialhappenings,ofmemorabletimesinthelifeofapeople.Asa
result,thenameseemssuddenlyfuller,somehowlarger,endowedwithaddedforce.Becausenow,besidesevokingimagesof

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apieceoflocalcountryside,itcallsupthoughtsoffableddeedsandthesingularcastofactorswhothereplayedthemout.Gizhyaa'itin.Repeatingtheplacename
silentlytomyself,IdecidethatDudleyPatterson'snarrativeshavetransformeditsreferentfromageographicalsiteintosomethingresemblingatheater,anaturalstage
upontheland(vacantnowbutwithpropsstillfullyintact)wheresignificantmoraldramasunfoldedinthepast.Gizhyaa'itin.Inmymind'seye,Icanalmostseethe
beautifulApachesisters...reallylaughingatOldManOwl.

Stillengrossedinhisants,Dudleyremainsoblivioustothesightsandsoundsaroundhimapairofravensperchedonhistoolshed,thedistantwailingofadistressed
child,aviciousdogfightthateruptswithoutwarninginthetallgrassbehindhishouse.Itisonlywhenhisoldersisterarrivesonfootwithadishpanfilledwithfreshly
madetortillasthatheglancesupandsetshisthoughtsaside.HeexplainstoRuthPattersonthathehasbeentalkingtomeaboutthelandandhowitcanmakepeople
wise."Wisdom,"RuthsaysfirmlyinApache."It'sdifficult!"Andthen,afterinvitingmetostayandeatwiththem,sheentersDudley'shousetoprepareasimplemeal.
Ruth'sremarkpromptsasurgeofethnographicgloom,forcingmetoacknowledgethatIknownexttonothingaboutApacheconceptionsofwisdom.Inwhatis
wisdomthoughttoconsist?Howdoesonedetectitspresenceorabsence?Howisitacquired?Dopersonsreceiveinstructioninwisdomorisitsomethingtheyarrive
at,orfailtoarriveat,entirelyontheirown?Andwhyisit,asRuthhadsaid,thatwisdomis"difficult"?IfIamtounderstandsomethingofhowplacesworktomake
peoplewise,anarrestingideaIfindinstantlycompelling,thesearemattersImusttrytoexplore.

AndwhobettertoexplorethemwiththanDudleyPatterson?HeisknowntobewisemanypeoplehavesaidsoandIhavetobeginsomewhere.Sowithout
furtheradoIputthequestiontohim:"Whatiswisdom?"DudleygreetsmyquerywithafaintlystartledlookthatrecedesintoaquizzicalexpressionIhavenotseen
before."It'sintheseplaces,"hesays."Wisdomsitsinplaces."Hesitantbutunenlightened,Ipresentthequeryagain."Yes,butwhatisit?"NowitisDudley'sturnto
hesitate.Removinghishat,herestsitonhislapandgazesintothedistance.Ashecontinuestolookaway,thesuspicion

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growsthatIhaveoffendedhim,thatmyquestionaboutwisdomhasexceededthelimitsofproprietyandtaste.Increasinglyapprehensive,Ifeelallthumbs,clumsyand
embarrassed,animpulsivedoltwhoactedwithoutthinking.WhatDudleyisfeelingIcannottell,butinlessthanaminuteherescuesthesituationandIammuch
relieved."Wisdomsitsinplaces,"hesaysagain.Andthen,unbidden,hebeginstotellmewhy.
Longago,thepeoplemovedaroundallthetime.Theywenteverywherelookingforfoodandwatchingoutforenemies.Itwashardforthem.Theywerepoor.Theywereoften
hungry.Thewomenwentoutwiththeirdaughterstogatheracorns,maybewalnuts.Theywentinsearchofallkindsofplants.Somemanwitharifleandbulletsalwayswentwith
them.Helookedoutfordanger.

Thentheygottoagoodplaceandcampedthere.Alldaytheygatheredacorns.Thewomenshowedtheirdaughtershowtodoit.Nowtheystoppedworkingforalittlewhileto
eatanddrink.

Thenoneofthewomentalkedtothegirls."Doyouseethatmountainoverthere?Iwantyoutolookatit.ItsnameisDzil*Ndeez(LongMountain).Rememberit!Doyouknow
whathappenedlongagoclosetothatmountain?Well,nowI'mgoingtotellyouaboutit."Thenshetoldthemastoryaboutwhathappenedthere.Aftershehadfinishedshesaid,
"Well,nowyouknowwhathappenedatLongMountain.WhatIhavetoldyouistrue.Ididn'tmakeitup.Ilearneditfrommygrandmother.Lookatthatmountainandthinkabout
it!Itwillhelpmakeyouwise."

Thenshepointedtoanotherplaceanddidthesamewayagain."Doyouseethatspringoverthere?Lookatit!ItsnameisD*'Bigowan*(Fly'sCamp)."Nowshetoldthema
storyaboutthatplace,too."Thinkaboutit,"shesaid."Someday,afteryouhavegrownup,youwillbewise,"shesaid.Everywheretheywenttheydidlikethat.Theygavetheir
daughtersplacenamesandstories."Youshouldthinkaboutthis,"theysaid.

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Thesamewasdonewithboys.Theywenthuntingfordeerwiththeirfathersanduncles.Theydidn'tcomehomeuntiltheyhadkilledmanydeer.Everyonewashappywhenthey
cameback.Nowtheyhadmeattoeat.

Then,whentheywereouthunting,oneofthemenwouldtalktotheboys."Doyouseewherethetrailcrossesthewash?Lookatit!ItsnameisMa'Thilizh*(CoyotePissesIn
TheWater).Somethinghappenedtherelongago.I'mgoingtotellyouaboutit."Nowhetoldthestorytothem."Don'tforgetit,"hesaid."Iwantyoutothinkaboutit.Someday
it'sgoingtomakeyouwise."

Thentheywouldstopatsomeotherplace."ThisplaceisnamedTsDeeschii'Ts's*(SlenderRedRockRidge).Somethinghappenedhere,also,"hesaid.Hetoldthemthat
story."RememberwhatIhavetoldyou,"hesaid.

Itwaslikethat.Thepeoplewhowentmanyplaceswerewise.Theyknewallaboutthem.Theythoughtaboutthem.I'vebeenalloverthiscountry.Iwentwithmygrandfather
whenIwasaboy.Ialsotraveledwithmyuncles.Theytaughtmethenamesofalltheseplaces.Theytoldmestoriesaboutallofthem.I'vethoughtaboutallofthemforalong
time.Istillremembereverything.

SittingwithmybacktoDudley'shouse,IcannotseethatRuthPattersonhascometothedoorandislisteningtoherbrotherashespeaksofplacesandwisdom.I
senseherpresence,however,andwhenIturnaroundsheislookingatme,hercomelyfacearrangedinwhatIinterpretasasympatheticsmile."It'strue,"shesaysina
brighttoneofvoice."Everythinghesaysistrue.Ithappenedthatwaytome."

OnetimeIwasayounggirlthenIwentwithmymothertoNadahNch''(BitterAgave).Thatwasin1931.Wewenttheretoroastagave.Therewereotherpeoplewithus,
quiteafewofthem.Theywereallmyrelatives.

Thenwemadecamp,rightbelowthatpointatthenorthendofthemountain.Wecampedbythespringthere.Mymotherwasinchargeofeverything.Shetolduswhattodo.

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Thenwedugupalotofagaveandbroughtitbacktocamp.Itwashardwork.Itwashot.Wewereyounggirlsthen.Weweren'tyetstrongandgottiredeasily.Wereallywanted
torest.

Thenmymothertalkedtous."Youshouldonlyrestalittlewhile.Don'tbelazy.Don'tthinkaboutgettingtired.Ifyoudo,you'llgetcarelessandsomethingmighthappentoyou."

Thenshetoldastory."Maybeyou'veheardthisstorybeforebutI'mgoingtotellittoyouanyway."ShepointedtothatmountainnamedTzhi*'Yaahigaiy(WhitenessSpreads
OutDescendingToWater)."Ithappenedoverthere,"shesaidtous.

"Longago,ontheeastsideofthatmountain,therewerelotsofdeadoaktrees.Therewasawomanlivingwithherfamilynotfaraway.'We'realmostoutoffirewood,'shesaidto
oneofherdaughters.'Goupthereandbringbacksomeofthatoak.'

"Thenthatgirlwentupthere.Shestartedtogatherfirewood.Itwasveryhotandshegottiredfast.'I'mgettingtired,'shethought.'I'vealreadygotenoughfirewood.I'llgoback
home.'

"Thenshepickedupasmuchfirewoodasshecouldcarry.Shestartedwalkingdowntohercamp.Shegotcareless.Shesteppedonathinflatrock.Itlookedstrongbutsheforgot
shewascarryingallthatheavyoak.Therockbrokewhenshesteppedonit.Shestumbledandfelldown.Shehitherheadontheground.Forawhileshewasunconscious.

"Thenshecametoandnoticedthatshewasbleedingfromcutsonhercheekandchin.Shewalkedunsteadilybacktohercamp.Shetoldhermotherwhathadhappened.

"Thenhermothertalkedtoher.'Youactedfoolishlybutyou'regoingtobeallright.Youfailedtoseedangerbeforeithappened.Youcouldhavefallenoffthetrailandgotten
killedonthosesharprocksbelowit.Youwerethinkingonlyofyourself.That'swhythishappenedtoyou.'"

That'stheendofthestory.Aftermymothertoldittous,shespoketousagain."Well,nowyouknowwhathappened

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overthereatWhitenessSpreadsOutDescendingToWater.Thatcarelessgirlalmostlostherlife.Eachofyoushouldtrytorememberthis.Don'tforgetit.Ifyourememberwhat
happenedoverthere,itwillhelpmakeyouwise."

Thenwewentbacktowork,diggingupmoreofagave.IgottiredagainitwasstillveryhotbutthistimeIdidn'tthinkaboutit.Ijusttriednottobecareless.

Nowadays,hardlyanyonegoesouttogetagave.Veryfewofusdothatanymore.Theyoungeronesareafraidofhardwork.Evenso,I'vetoldthatstorytoallmychildren.I've
toldthemtorememberit.

IthankRuthfortellingmeherstory.Shesmilesbuthereyeshavefilledwithtears.Unabletostemtherushofheremotion,sheturnsawayandgoesbackinsidethe
house.Dudleyisnotvisiblyconcerned.HeexplainsthatRuthisrecallingheryouth.Thatwasduringthe1920sand1930swhenRuthandhersisterswerestill
unmarriedandworkedalmostdailyundertheclosesupervisionoftheirmotherandtwomaternalaunts.Backthen,Dudleysays,Cibecuewasdifferent.Therewere
fewerpeopleandlifewaslesscenteredonthevillageitself.WholeApachefamilies,includingDudley'sown,spentweeksandmonthsawayuponthelandtending
cornfields,roastingagave,huntingdeer,andjourneyingtoremotecattlecampswheretheyhelpedthehorsemenbuildfencesandcorrals.Thefamiliestraveledlong
distancesoldpeopleandchildrenalike,onfootandhorseback,throughallkindsofweather,carryingtheirpossessionsinheavycanvaspacksovernarrowtrailsthat
nowhaveallbutvanished.Itwasahardwaytolivethereweretimeswhenitgotveryhardbutthepeoplewerestrongandhardlyevercomplained.Theyhadable
leaderswhotoldthemwhattodo,anddespitethehardshipsinvolvedtheytookpleasureintheirjourneys.Andwherevertheywenttheygaveplacenamesandstories
totheirchildren.Theywantedtheirchildrentoknowabouttheancestors.Theywantedtheirchildrentobewise.Ruthisrememberingallofthis,Dudleyreports,andit
makesheralittlesad.

Theaginghorsemanleansbackinhischair,crossingabootoverhisknee,andspinstherowelofhisspur.Vrnnnn!Hedoesthisfrom

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timetotimewhenheisthinkingseriousthoughts.HerollsacigaretteandlightsitwithabatteredZippohehascarriedforyears.Vrnnnn!Spinningandsmokingatthe
sametimehisthoughtsmustbeseriousindeed.Severalminutespassbeforehespeaks.Whenhedoes,hetellsmethathehasnotforgottenmyquestion:"Whatis
wisdom?"Henowintendstoaddressit.Hewillusehisownlanguage,andtohelpmeunderstandhewilltrytokeepthingssimple.Hestubsouthiscigarette,rollsand
lightsanotherone,andthengoestowork.Vrnnnn!Whatfollowsispoetryandagreatdealmoreaboutwisdom.
ThetrailofwisdomthatiswhatI'mgoingtotalkabout.I'mgoingtospeakastheoldpeopledo,asmygrandmotherspoketomewhenIwasstillaboy.Wewerelivingthenat
Tk'ehGodzig(RottenField).

"Doyouwantalonglife?"shesaid."Well,youwillneedtohavewisdom.Youwillneedtothinkaboutyourownmind.Youwillneedtoworkonit.Youshouldstartdoingthis
now.Youmustmakeyourmindsmooth.Youmustmakeyourmindsteady.Youmustmakeyourmindresilient.

"Yourlifeislikeatrail.Youmustbewatchfulasyougo.Whereveryougothereissomekindofdangerwaitingtohappen.Youmustbeabletoseeitbeforeithappens.Youmust
alwaysbewatchfulandalert.Youmustseedangerinyourmindbeforeithappens.

"Ifyourmindisnotsmoothyouwillfailtoseedanger.Youwilltrustyoureyesbuttheywilldeceiveyou.Youwillbeeasilytrickedandfooled.Thentherewillbenothingbut
troubleforyou.Youmustmakeyourmindsmooth.

"Ifyourmindisnotresilientyouwillbeeasilystartled.Youwillbeeasilyfrightened.Youwilltrytothinkquicklybutyouwon'tthinkclearly.Youyourselfwillstandinthewayof
yourownmind.Youyourselfwillblockit.Thentherewillbetroubleforyou.Youmustmakeyourmindresilient.

"Ifyourmindisnotsteadyyouwillbeeasilyangeredandupset.Youwillbearrogantandproud.Youwilllookdownonotherpeople.Youwillenvythemanddesiretheir
possessions.Youwillspeakaboutthemwithoutthinking.

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Youwillcomplainaboutthem,gossipaboutthem,criticizethem.Youwilllustaftertheirwomen.Peoplewillcometodespiseyou.Theywillpaysomeonetousehispoweronyou.
Theywillwanttokillyou.Thentherewillbenothingbuttroubleforyou.Youmustmakeyourmindsteady.Youmustlearntoforgetaboutyourself.

"Ifyoumakeyourmindsmooth,youwillhavealonglife.Yourtrailwillextendalongway.Youwillbepreparedfordangerwhereveryougo.Youwillseeitinyourmindbeforeit
happens.

"Howwillyouwalkalongthistrailofwisdom?Well,youwillgotomanyplaces.Youmustlookatthemclosely.Youmustrememberallofthem.Yourrelativeswilltalktoyou
aboutthem.Youmustremembereverythingtheytellyou.Youmustthinkaboutit,andkeeponthinkingaboutit,andkeeponthinkingaboutit.Youmustdothisbecausenoone
canhelpyoubutyourself.Ifyoudothisyourmindwillbecomesmooth.Itwillbecomesteadyandresilient.Youwillstayawayfromtrouble.Youwillwalkalongwayandlivea
longtime.

"Wisdomsitsinplaces.It'slikewaterthatneverdriesup.Youneedtodrinkwatertostayalive,don'tyou?Well,youalsoneedtodrinkfromplaces.Youmustremember
everythingaboutthem.Youmustlearntheirnames.Youmustrememberwhathappenedatthemlongago.Youmustthinkaboutitandkeeponthinkingaboutit.Thenyourmind
willbecomesmootherandsmoother.Thenyouwillseedangerbeforeithappens.Youwillwalkalongwayandlivealongtime.Youwillbewise.Peoplewillrespectyou."

Vrnnnn!Risingtohisfeetwithoutanotherword,Dudleywalksawayinthedirectionofhisouthouse.HissuspicionswerecorrectIhavehadtroublegraspinghis
statementonwisdom.NoonefromCibecuehasbroachedthissubjectwithmebefore,andfewhavespokenwithsucheloquenceandgrace.IammovedbywhatI
haveheardbutuncertainofwhattomakeofit.Andunderstandablyso.Dudleydeliveredhiscommentsinadistinctiveverbalregistercharacterized

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byconspicuousgrammaticalparallelism,markedlexicalredundancy,andthemeasuredrepetitionofseveraldominantmetaphors.Thisresemblesthelanguageof
WesternApacheprayer,andthereinliesoneofmyproblems.WhiletheeconomyofDudley'sspeechrenderedportionsofhisstatementreadilyaccessible,the
metaphorsthatanchoreditboldlyfigured,denselycompressed,andprobablyveryoldstoodwellbeyondmyreach.What,forexample,isa"smoothmind"?A
"resilientmind"?A"steadymind"?Thereisanotherproblemaswell.IcansafelyassumethatDudley'saccountwassupportedthroughoutbyacovertculturallogicthat
imbueditsclaimswithvalidityandtruth.Yetitisuncleartomewhatthatlogicis.Whatsortofreasoningsupportstheassertionthat"wisdomsitsinplaces"?Orthat
"wisdomislikewater''?Orthat"drinkingfromplaces,"whateverthatis,requiresknowledgeofplacenamesandstoriesofpastevents?MaybeIhavegotteninover
myhead.Dudley'sstatementcaughtmeoffguardandhasleftmefeelingunmoored.ForasplitsecondIimaginemyselfasmalluprootedplantbouncingcrazilythrough
theaironawhirlwindmadeofancientApachetropes.

WhenDudleyreturnsheissmiling."Didyouunderstand?"Ishakemyhead."No,notmuch."Ruthisalsosmiling.Sheisstandinginthedoorwayandlooksfully
recoveredfromherboutwithnostalgia.Shehascombedherhairandissportingthetriumphantlookofonewhoknewallalong."Itoldyou!"shesayssharply."It's
difficult!Nowmybrotherhasmadeyouthinktoomuch.Nowyourbrainisreallytired!Nowyoulookkindofsick!"Ruth'sassessmentofmymentalandphysical
conditiondoeslittletoimproveit,andIlooktoDudleyforhelp."Igaveyoutoomuchatonce,"hesays."Youjustneedtothinkaboutit."Ruthagrees."That'sright!
Youreallyneedtothinkaboutit!"Thensheflashesherbroadestsmileandtellsusourfoodisready.

ButbeforewegoinsideRuthpresentsuswithasuggestion.Onthecomingweekend,whenthehorsemenwillbeoffwork,DudleyandIwillcatchupourhorsesand
goforaride.Itmightlastallday,sowewillneedtotakefood.Ruthwillprovidethefreshtortillas.Iwillcontributetwocansofsardines,aboxofRitzcrackers,aslab
oflonghorncheese,andfourbottlesofBarg'srootbeer.Dudleywilltakemetodifferentplaces,teachmetheirnames,andtellmewhathappened

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atthemlongago.Then,maybe,Iwillunderstandsomething.WhenwegetbackhomeDudleywillspeaktomeinEnglish"BoyKeez,I'llseeyousometime."Then
hewillleavemealonetothink.Inreturnfortheseservices,hewillreceivetwosacksofflour,twocansofMJBcoffee,onesackofsugar,apailofCrisco,andtwenty
dollarscash.Now,whataboutit?ForallherendearingqualitiesandshehastheminabundanceRuthPattersonisnotapersontochallengewhenhermindis
madeup,andDudley,whoonprioroccasionshaspointedthisouthimself,wastesnotimeinendorsingherplan.NeitherdoI."Good!"saysRuth,whosereputation
alsoembracesanunswervingwillingnesstocapitalizeonpromisingbusinessopportunitieswhenevertheyarise."Good!''shesaysagain."Mybrotherwillhelpyouout.
Ithinkyou'llreallylikeit."

"WisdomSitsinPlaces"

June15,1982.Eventhemostexperiencedhorsemenoccasionallygethurt.ThatiswhatpeoplesayasnewsofDudley'smishapcirculatesthroughCibecue.
Yesterday,trailingthespottedmaverickbullwithpooreyesightatthebaseofarockyslopednamedTsDeesch'(LongRedRidge),Dudley'smarelosther
footing,wentdownhard,andabandonedherridertowalkhomewithbruisedribs,adislocatedshoulder,andabadlyswollenlip.Dudley'sfirstconcernwasforthe
welfareofthemare,whoreturnedtoherpasturelaterinthedaywithnothingmorethanafewminorscrapesandaglassylookinhereye.Thismorning,wrappedina
homemadeslingthatkeepsslippingoff,Dudleyisstiffandsoreandinexcellentspirits.Wesitontheporchofhishouseasvisitorscomeandgo.Ruthhaslauncheda
getwellcampaignwhosemainobjectivesaretoaccumulategiftsofthickbeefbrothandtosurroundherbrotherwithasmanychildrenaspossible.Thechildrencome
inshiftstostandbesidehischair.Hetellsthemthestoryofhismishap,andtheireyesgrowwidewithexcitement,andhesmileshiswarmestsmileandtellsthemtobe
carefularoundhorsesandcattle.AlittlegirlstepsforwardandgiveshimherorangePopsicle.AsIstandtoleave,Dudleytellsmetocomebacktomorrowthings
willbelessbusyandwecanspeakagainofmattersraisedbefore.Iaccepthisinvitation.Asmallboyapproacheshischairandhandshim

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apieceofbubblegum.Dudleyisdelighted.Ruth'scampaignisalreadyasuccess.Dudleywillrejointhehorsemeninlessthanaweek.Ourridetogetherhasbeen
postponed.

June1619,1982.Forthenextfourdaysdrinkingcoffee,watchingants,andpausingnowandthentospeakofotherthingsDudleyandIengagedinaseriesof
conversationsabouthisearlierstatementonwisdomandplaces.Atmyrequest,webeganbyexaminingsomeofthestatement'slinguisticfeatures,focusingattention
onthemorphologyandsemanticsofitsseveralprimarytropes.WethenmovedontoconsidertheinternallogicofDudley'saccount,exploringinsomedetailthe
culturallybasedassumptionsthatinvestitsclaimswithcoherenceandcrediblesense.Ourdiscussionsdealtwithfairlyabstractmatters,andnowandagain,when
Dudleysensedhispupilwasgettingmuddled,herespondedbytellingstoriesthatlinkedhisgeneralizationstoillustrativesetsofparticulars.Itsoonbecameapparent
thatApacheconceptionsofwisdomdiffermarkedlyfromthosecontainedinWesternideologies.Moreinterestingwasthediscoverythattheformeraregroundedin
aninformaltheoryofmindwhichassertsthatwisdomarisesfromasmallsetofantecedentconditions.Becausetheseconditionsarealsoqualitiesofmind,andbecause
theyvaryfrommindtomind,thetheoryexplainswhysomepeoplearewiserthanothers.

Statedingeneralterms,theApachetheoryholdsthat'wisdom''igoy'*consistsinaheightenedmentalcapacitythatfacilitatestheavoidanceofharmfuleventsby
detectingthreateningcircumstanceswhennoneareapparent.8 Thiscapacityforprescientthinkingisproducedandsustainedbythreementalconditions,describedin
Apacheasbni'godilkooh*(smoothnessofmind),bni'gontl'iz*(resilienceofmind),andbni'goldzil*(steadinessofmind).Becausenoneoftheseconditionsis
givenatbirth,eachmustbecultivatedinaconscientiousmannerbyacquiringrelevantbodiesofknowledgeandapplyingthemcriticallytotheworkingsofone'smind.
Knowledgeofplacesandtheirculturalsignificanceiscrucialinthisregardbecauseitillustrateswithnumerousexamplesthementalconditionsneededforwisdomas
wellasthepracticaladvantagesthatwisdomconfersonpersonswhopossessit.Containedinstoriesattributedtotheancestors,knowl

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edgeofplacesthusembodiesanunformalizedmodeloff'igoy'*andanauthoritativerationaleforseekingtoattainit.AlthoughsomeApachepeopleembracethis
knowledgeeagerlyandcommitittomemoryinexhaustivedetail,othersarelesssuccessfulandwhilesomeareabletoapplyitproductivelytotheirminds,many
experiencedifficulty.Consequently,inanyApachecommunityatanypointintime,wisdomispresentinvaryingdegrees,andonlyafewpersonsareevercompletely
wise.Byvirtueoftheirunusualmentalpowers,wisemenandwomenareabletoforeseedisaster,fendoffmisfortune,andavoidexplosiveconflictswithotherpersons.
Fortheseandotherreasons,theyarehighlyrespectedandoftenlivetobeveryold.Likenedtowaterbecauseofitslifesustainingproperties,wisdomisviewedfirst
andforemostasaninstrumentofsurvival.

AlthoughWesternApachesdistinguishclearlybetweenanindividual's'mind'(bni')andhisorher'brain'(bitsighaa*),botharedescribedwithaclassificatoryverb
stem(*)thatdesignatesportableobjectswhoseshapeisroundishandcompact.However,onlybni'canbemodifiedwithadjectivalconstructionsbeginningwith
theprefixgo(spacearea),aninstructivebitofmorphologywhichindicatesthatthemindisconceivedofasaregionwithinthebrain.Thisnotionisillustratedbythe
expressionbni'godilkooh*(smoothnessofmind),whichidentifiestheprimarymentalconditionrequiredforwisdom.Whentheadjectivedilkooh*isusedwithout
prefixes,itservestodescribethetextureofsmoothandevensurfaces,suchasapaneofglassorapieceofvarnishedwood.Butwhendilkoohiscombinedwithgo,
itconveysthesenseof"clearedspace"or"areafreeofobstructions,"suchasanagriculturalfieldfromwhichallvegetationhasbeencarefullyremoved.Thisisthe
senseinwhichgodilkoohisusedintheApachemetaphorofthesmoothmind.Likeclearedplotsofground,smoothmindsareunobstructedunclutteredand
unfetteredaqualitywhichpermitsthemtoobserveandreasonwithpenetratingclarity.Skepticalofoutwardappearances,smoothmindsareabletolookthrough
themandbeyondthemtodetectobscuredrealitiesandhiddenpossibilities.Unencumberedbyobstaclestoinsightfulthinking,smoothminds"seedangerbeforeit
happens''and"troublebeforeitcomes."Thusdoeswisdomflourish.

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MentalsmoothnessisbelievedbyApachestobetheproductoftwosubsidiaryconditionsmentalresilienceandmentalsteadinesswhichwardoffdistractionsthat
interferewithcalmandfocusedthought.Thesedistractionsaregroupedintotwobroadclassesaccordingtowhethertheirsourcesareexternalorinternaltothe
individual.'Resilienceofmind'(bni'gontl'iz*)combatsthoseoftheexternalvariety,while'steadinessofmind'(bni'goldzil)workstoeliminatetheinternalkind.
Turningtothefirstoftheseexpressions,itshouldbenotedthattheadjectiventl'iz*isusedaloneinthefamiliarsenseof'hard',thusdescribingawidearrayofobjects
whoserigidsurfacesresistdamageanddestructionfromoutsideforces.Butwhenntl'iziscombinedwiththespatialprefixgo,theresultingconstruction,gontl'iz,
takesonameaningequivalenttoan'enclosedspacethatholdsitsshape'.Atightlywovenbasket,yieldingbutstrong,isproperlydescribedasgontl'iz,asisaninflated
vinylballoraflexiblecardboardboxthatwithstandstheweightofachild.Andso,too,isaresilienthumanmind.Resistanttotheunnervingeffectsofjarringexternal
events,resilientmindsprotecttheirinteriorspacesbyshieldingthemagainstoutsidedisruptionsthatthreatenquiescentthinking.Mentalsmoothnessisthereby
promotedandpreserved.AccordingtoDudleyPatterson,fearandalarmpresentthegreatestthreatstomaintainingmentalresilience.Beingawareofthis,resilient
mindsguardthemselvesagainstshockandconsternation,keepingthesereactionsatbaybycenteringthemselvesonwhatmustbedonetodealwiththeproblemat
hand.Resilientmindsdonotgiveintopanicorfallpreytospasmsofanxietyorsuccumbtospellsofcripplingworry.Largelyimmunetoemotionalturbulence,theydo
notbecomeagitatedordisoriented.Eveninterrifyingcircumstances,resilientmindsmaintaintheirabilitytoreasonclearlyandthusneither"blockthemselves"nor
"standintheirownway."

Whileresilienceofmindcontributestomentalsmoothnessbybluntingtheeffectsofexternaldistractions,'steadinessofmind'bni'gontl'izaccomplishesthis
objectivebyremovingthesourcesofinternalones.Thesenseof'steady'conveyedbytheadjectivenldzil*isthatwhichoneassociateswithapostdrivenfirmlyinto
theground.Thepostisstable,itdoesnotwobble,andthereforeitisreliable.Butthe

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postitselfisnotresponsibleforthesedesirableattributes.AsinterpretedbyApaches,thepost'ssteadinessisimpartedbytheholeinwhichitislodged,andthisisthe
notiona'supportiveandaccommodatingspace'thatisevokedbytheformgontl'iz*.Conceivedofanddescribedinanalogousterms,steadyhumanminds
maintainthemselvesinamannerthatensurestheirownstabilityandreliability.Thisisachievedbyrelinquishingallthoughtsofpersonalsuperiorityandbyeliminating
aggressivefeelingstowardfellowhumanbeings.Asaresult,steadymindsareunhamperedbyfeelingsofarroganceorpride,angerorvindictiveness,jealousyorlust
allofwhichpresentserioushindrancestocalmandmeasuredthinking.Becausetheessenceofmentalsteadinessliesinacapacitytodoawaywithselfserving
emotionsthatexploitordemeantheworthofotherpeople,wisemenandwomenrarelyencounterseriousinterpersonalproblems.Freeofconceitandhostile
ambitions,steadyminds"forgetaboutthemselves"andconducttheirsocialaffairsinharmonyandpeace.

Exceptforthementallyimpaired,everyApachewhoenterstheworldcanlegitimatelyaspiretowisdom.Yetnoneisbornwiththethreeconditionsofmindrequired
forwisdomtoflourish.Cultivatingtheseconditions,alongandunevenprocessinvolvingmuchintrospectionandmanydishearteningsetbacks,hasbothprivateand
publicaspects.Ontheonehand,itistheresponsibilityofindividualstocriticallyassesstheirownmindsandpreparethemforwisdombycultivatingthequalitiesof
smoothness,resilience,andsteadiness.Ontheotherhand,instructionisneededfrompersonssympathetictotheendeavorwhohavepursueditthemselveswitha
measureofsuccess.Althoughinstructionmaybeginatanyage,itusuallycommenceswhenpreadolescentchildrenbecomeawarethatadultlifeentailsanendlessflow
ofdemandsthatneedtobemetwithspecialskillsandabilities.Youngpeoplewhohavereachedthislevelofunderstandingaretoldtobeconstantlyalerttowhatgoes
onaroundthem,toremembereverythingtheyobserve,andtoreportonanythingoutoftheordinary.Theyarealsourgedtopaycloseattentiontothewordsand
actionsofolderpeoplewhosegeneraldemeanorisdeemedworthyofemulation.Andtheyareregularlyinvitedtotravel,especiallyinthecompanyofpersonswho
willspeaktothemabouttheplacestheysee

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andvisit.Itisontheseexcursionsthattherelationshipbetweenplacesandwisdomisfirstmadeexplicit."Drinkfromplaces,"Apacheboysandgirlsaretold."Then
youcanworkonyourmind."

Thisviewofmentaldevelopmentrestsonthepremisethatknowledgeisusefultotheextentthatitcanbeswiftlyrecalledandturnedwithoutefforttopracticalends.A
relatedpremiseisthatobjectswhoseappearanceisuniquearemoreeasilyrecalledthanthosethatlookalike.Itfollowsfromtheseassumptionsthatbecauseplaces
arevisuallyunique(afactbothmarkedandaffirmedbytheirpossessionofseparatenames)theyserveasexcellentvehiclesforrecallingusefulknowledge.And
becausetheknowledgeneededforwisdomisnothingifnotuseful,theadagethat"wisdomsitsinplaces"igoy'*goz'*sik*isseentomakeperfectsense.
Butthereismoretotheadagethantruthandlogicalconsistency.Theverbsik(itsits)incorporatesaclassificatorystem(k*)thatappliesexclusivelytorigid
containersandtheircontents.Theprototypeofthiscategoryisawatertightvessel,andthustheadagecreatesanimageofplacesasdurablereceptaclesandthe
knowledgerequiredforwisdomasalastingsupplyofwaterrestingsecurelywithinthem.Thissameimagesupportstheassertionsthatpreparingone'smindfor
wisdomisakintoaformofdrinkingandthatwisdom,likewater,isbasictosurvival.AsDudleyPattersonremarkedduringoneofourconversations,"Youcan'tlive
longwithoutwaterandyoucan'tlivealongtimewithoutwisdom.Youneedtodrinkboth."

Theknowledgeonwhichwisdomdependsisgainedfromobservingdifferentplaces(thustorecallthemquicklyandclearly),learningtheirApachenames(thusto
identifytheminspokendiscourseandinsong),andreflectingontraditionalnarrativesthatunderscorethevirtuesofwisdombyshowingwhatcanhappenwhenits
facilitatingconditionsareabsent.Drawnfromdifferentstorygenres,thesenarrativesjuxtaposeacharacterwhosemindisinsightfullysmoothwithoneormore
characterswhosemindsarenot.Distractedbytroublingeventsorexcitedattheprospectofachievingselfishgains,charactersofthelattertypefailtounderstandthe
truenatureoftheirsituationandperformimpulsiveactsthatbringthemandotherstothebrinkofdisaster.Insharpcontrast,charactersoftheformertyperemaincalm

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andunperturbed,graspthesituationforwhatitreallyis,andavertmisfortunebyexercisingtheclearandwaryvisionthatisthehallmarkofwisdom.Thesocialgroup
survives,shakenbutwhole,andthequalitiesofmindresponsibleforitscontinuationaremadeclearforalltosee.Wisdomhastriumphedoverstupidityand
foolishness,andthedifferencebetweenthemadifferencesometimesaslargeaslifeanddeathitselfcannotbeignored.

ThetwostoriesthatfollowwereofferedbyDudleyPattersontoillustratethesethemes.Thefirststorydealswithseriousproblemsstemmingfromalackofmental
resiliencetheseconddepictsanearcatastrophebroughtonbyalackofmentalsteadiness.Inbothstories,alarmandconfusionrunrampantuntilmentalsmoothness,
accompaniedbywisdom,comestotherescueintheverynickoftime.
Longago,somepeoplewenttogatheracorns.TheycampedatTsNzt'i'(LineofRocksCirclesAround).TheygatheredlotsofacornsnearTsDitl'ige*Naaditin(Trail
ExtendsAcrossScorchedRocks).Theyalmosthadenoughbuttheywentonanyway.TheyweregoingtoK'aiCho'O'h(BigWillowStandsAlone).Theystoppedontheirway
wherethetrailcrossedashallowstream.Theyhadbeenwalkingfastandwereverythirsty.Theywantedtodrink.Itwashot.

Thentheirleadersaidtothem,"Don'tdrinkuntilItellyouto.Iwanttolookaroundherefirst."Hewentoff.Theirleaderwaswise.Hesawdangerinhismind.

Then,assoonashewasgone,ayoungwomansaid,"Mychildrenareverythirsty.Theyneedtodrink.Thiswaterlookssafetome.I'mgoingtodrinkit."Theothersagreedwith
her."Yes,"theysaid,"wemustdrink.Thiswaterlooksgood."Sotheystarteddrinking.

Then,prettysoon,theybegantogetsick.Theygotdizzyandbegantovomitviolently.Allofthemgotsick,includingthechildren.Theygotsicker.Theyvomitedandvomited.
Theywerescaredthattheyweredying.Theywerecryingoutinpain,cryingoutinfear.

Theirleaderwastheonlyonewhodidn'tdrink.Hewalkedupstreamandlookedontheground.Therewerefreshtracks

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bythestreamandhesawwhereCoyotehadpissedonaflatrockthatslantedintothewater.DropsofCoyote'spisswerestillrunningofftherockintothewater.

Thenhewentbacktothepeople."Stop!"hetoldthem."Don'tdrinkthatwater!It'snogood!Coyotehaspissedinit!That'swhyallofyouaresick."

Thenoneofthosepeoplesaid,"Wedidn'tknow.Wewerethirsty.Thewaterlookedsafe.Wewereinahurryanditdidn'tlookdangerous."Thosepeopletrustedtheireyes.They
shouldhavewaiteduntiltheirleaderhadfinishedlookingaround.Oneofthosechildrennearlydied.

That'showthatcrossinggotitsname.Afterthat,theycalleditMa'Thilizh*(CoyotePissesInTheWater).

Andagain:

Longago,hereatCibecue,justwhenthecornwascomingup,anoldmansawablackcloudinthesky.Itwasmovingtowardshim.Hewatchedthecloudcomecloserandcloser.
Itwasmadeupofgrasshoppers,ahugeswarmofgrasshoppers!Soontheywereeatingthecornshoots.Ch'iziid!Ch'iziid!Itsoundedlikethat.

Thenthatoldmangotworried."Ifthisisallowedtocontinuewewillhavenothingtoeat.Allofourmedicinemenshouldworktogetheronthisforus."Thatoldmanwaswise.He
hadseendangerinhismind.Hismindwassmooth.Heknewwhathadtobedone.

Thenhespoketosomepeopleandtheywenttothecampofamedicinemanwithstrongpower.Theoldmanspoketohim."Somethingterribleishappeningtous.Allofour
medicinemenshouldworktogetheronthisforus."

Thenthemedicinemansaidtothem,"WhatyousayistruebutIwillworkalone.Iwillprayandsing.Iwillhelpyou.Iwillbringagreatrainstormtokillthesegrasshoppers."

Then,thatsameevening,hestartedtosing.Hesangthroughoutthenightbutnothinghappened!Therewasnorain!Inthemorning,therewerenocloudsinthesky.The
grasshopperswerestilleatingthecorn.Ch'iziid!Ch'iziid!

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Thenthatmedicinemansangaloneagain.Hesangallnight."Iwillbringlotsofheavyrain,"hetoldthepeople.Butstilltherewasnothing!Inthemorningtherewerestillno
cloudsinthesky.Ch'iziid!Ch'iziid!

Thenanothermedicinemanwenttohimandsaid,"Weshouldworktogetheronthis.Somethingverybadishappening.Iffourofussingtogetherwecanbringheavyrainsand
destroythesegrasshoppers."

Thenthefirstmedicinemanthoughtaboutit."No,"hesaid."Thepeoplecamefirsttome.IwillbringheavyrainifIsingfourtimesalone."Sohestartedtosingagain.Hesangall
night.Itwasthesameasbeforenothinghappened.Thosegrasshopperswerestilleatingthecorn.Ch'iziid!

Nowthepeoplewereveryfrightened.Somewerecryingoutinfear.Theysawwhatwashappeningtotheircorn.

Thenthatmedicinemansangonemoretimealoneandstilltherewasnorain!

Thenfourmedicinemengottogether."Thatoldmanwasright.Weshouldhaveworkedonthistogether.Let'sgetready,we'llstarttonight.Thatmanwhosingsaloneisfartoo
proud.Hismindisnotsmooth.Hethinksonlyofhimself."

Thenthosefourmedicinemenstartedsinging.Theysangtogetherthroughoutthenight.Theydidn'tstoptorest!Theydidn'tstoptodrink!Theykeptsinging,singing,singing
allthroughthenight.

Then,earlyinthemorning,therewasaloudclapofthunder!Itstartedtorain.Itrainedhard.Itrainedharderandharder.Itrainedstillharder!Itrainedforfourdaysandfour
nights.Thepeoplewereafraid.Theythoughttheirhomesmightbesweptaway.

Thenitstoppedraining.Anoldwomanwentoutsideandlookedaround.Everywherethereweredeadgrasshoppers.Theirbodiescoveredtheground.Thegroundwasdarkwith
them.Thenthatoldwomanstartedtowalktohercornfield.Togetthereshehadtocrossawidearroyo.Whenshegotthereshesawalongpileofdeadgrasshoppersreaching
fromonesidetotheother."Grasshopperspiledupacross,"shesaid.

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Thenthatoldwomanknewthesefourmedicinemenhadworkedtogetherwell.

Thenthatoldwomanwentbackandtoldthepeoplewhatshehadseen."Wehaveverylittlecornleft,"theysaid."Mostofithasbeeneaten.Wewillsurelygetweakfromhunger.
Allofuswillsufferbecauseofoneproudman."

Afterwards,theycalledthatplaceNa'ischagiNaadeez'h(GrasshoppersPiledUpAcross).

WhilecautionarynarrativesliketheseareappreciatedbyApachesfortheiraestheticmerits(theirhardedgedterseness,steadyforwardmotion,andmounting
suspensecanbeexploitedbygiftedstorytellerstogrippingeffect),theyarevaluedprimarilyasinstrumentsofedification.Forpersonsseekingwisdom,suchstories
providetimehonoredstandardsforidentifyingmentalflawsandweaknesses,therebyrevealingwhereremedialworkisneededandofteninstillingadesiretoperform
it.Thiskindofselfreflexiveactivity,whichisdescribedinApacheasbni'naayik'e'iziig(workingonone'smind),isunderstoodtobeadrawnoutaffairthat
becomeslessandlessdifficultasitbecomesincreasinglyhabitual.Foritonlystandstoreasonthatthemoreonescrutinizesone'smindandthemoreoneactsto
improveitbyreflectingonnarrativesthatexemplifytheconditionsnecessaryforwisdomthegreaterthelikelihoodthatwisdomwilldevelop.Disciplinedmentaleffort,
diligentlysustained,willeventuallygiverisetoapermanentstateofmind.

Despitethisencouragingpremise,whichformanyApachesisasourceofearlyconfidence,thetrailofwisdomisknowntobefraughtwithpitfalls.Thehumanmindis
avulnerablespace,andprotectingitagainstobstaclesthatthreatenincisivethinkingisaformidabletask.Lifeisfullofalarmingeventsdeaths,fights,illnesses,
frighteningdreams,thenefariousdoingsofghostsandwitchesandtheforcesoffeararehardtoovercome.Onetriestosurmountthem,andlateronetriesagain,but
repeatedfailurestaketheirtoll,andattainingthegoalofmentalresiliencebeginstolookunlikely.Justasdifficultisthechallengeofriddingone'smindofselfcentered
thoughtsthatfindexpressioninharshandheatedways,antagonizingotherpeopleandcausingthemtoretaliatewithaggressionsoftheirown.Againone

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makesdeterminedefforts,andagaintheyfallshort,andagainonemustdealwithuncertaintyanddoubtmentalsteadinessjoinsmentalresilienceinseemingoutof
reach.Andthenthereistheneverendingproblemofeverythingelse.Whenoneiscaughtupinthedemandingswirlofdailylifecaringforchildren,keepingpeace
withrelatives,tryingtogetbyonverylittlemoneypursuingthetrailofwisdomcanbecomejustanotherburden.Thereisenoughtodoalreadywithoutthinkingabout
placesandworkingonone'smind!Andsoithappens,oftenwithreluctancebutalsowithawelcomesenseofrelief,thattheworkisabandoned.Atdifferentpointson
thetrailofwisdomApachemenandwomensimplydecidetostop.Theyhavetraveledasfarastheyareableorwillingtogo.Wisdom,theyhavelearned,ismore
easilyimaginedthanachieved.

Butahandfulofpersonsresolvetopersevere.Undauntedbytheshortcomingsoftheirminds,theykeepstrivingtorefinethemcommittingtomemorymoreand
morecautionarynarratives,dwellingontheirimplicationsatdeeperanddeeperlevels,andvisitingtheplaceswithwhichtheyareassociatedasopportunitiesarise.
Littleissaidoftheseactivities,andprogressreportsareneitherofferednorrequested.Butprogressreports,asDudleyPattersonwasquicktopointout,areusually
unnecessary.Aspeoplemoveforwardonthetrailofwisdom,theirbehaviorbeginstochange,andthesealterations,whichbecomesteadilymoreapparentastime
goeson,canbereadilyobservedbyrelativesandfriends.Mostnoticeably,innerstridestowardmentalsmoothnessarereflectedinouterdisplaysofpoiseand
equanimitysignsofnervousnessfade,irritabilitysubsides,outburstsoftemperdecline.Thereisalsotobedetectedagrowingconsistencyamongattitudesadopted,
opinionsexpressed,andjudgmentsprofferedpersonalpointsofview,builtuponconsonantthemes,cohereandtakedefiniteshape.Andthereisincreasing
correspondencebetweenspokenwordsandsubsequentdeedspromisesmadearepromiseskept,pledgesextendedarepledgesfulfilled,projectsproposedare
projectsundertaken.AsApachemenandwomenadvancefartheralongthetrailofwisdom,theircomposurecontinuestodeepen.Increasinglyquietandself
possessed,theyrarelyshowsignsoffearoralarm.Moreandmoremagnanimous,theyseldom

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getangryorupset.Andmorethanevertheyarewatchfulandobservant.Theirminds,resilientandsteadyatlast,areverynearlysmooth,anditshowsinobvious
ways.

Andalwaysthesepeoplearethinkingthinkingofplacecenterednarratives,thinkingoftheancestorswhofirstgavethemvoice,andthinkingofhowtoapplythemto
circumstancesintheirownlives.Havingpassedthepointwherecautionarynarrativesaremainlyusefulfordisclosingmentalweaknesses,thesepeoplenowconsultthe
storiesasguidesforwhattodoandwhatnottodoinspecificsituations.AsdescribedbyDudleyPatterson,whattypicallyhappensisthis.Somethingunusual
occursaneventoraseriesofeventsthatisjudgedtobesimilaroranalogoustoincidentsdescribedinoneofthestories.Unlessthesesimilaritiescanbedismissed
assuperficial,theystimulatefurtherthought,leadingthethinkertotreatthestoryasapossibleaidforplanninghisorherowncourseofaction.Thisisaccomplishedby
picturinginone'smindtheexactlocationwherethenarratedeventsunfoldedandimaginingoneselfasactuallytakingpartinthem,alwaysintheroleofastory
characterwhoisshowntobewise.Ifapowerfulsenseofidentificationwiththatcharacterensuesif,assomeApachesputit,thinkerandcharacter'flowswiftly
together'(ndoohgo*leednl*')theexperienceistakentoconfirmthatthenarrativeinquestionwillbehelpfulindealingwiththesituationathand.9 Ifthissortof
identificationfailstooccur,thenarrativeisdiscardedandotherstories,potentiallymoreinstructive,areconsultedinsimilarfashion.Itisimportanttounderstandthat
wisemenandwomenareabletoconsultdozensofcautionarynarrativesinveryshortperiodsoftime.Suchconcentratedeffortisnotrequiredofthemunderordinary
circumstances,butwhenacrisisappearstobeloomingtheysetaboutitimmediately.Sereneandundistracted,theystartdrinkingfromplaces(intimesofemergency
theyaresaidto"gulp"fromthem),andsoonenough,oftenwithinminutes,theyhaveseenintheirmindswhatneedstobedone.Wisdomhasfinallyshownitshand.
Andwhenitdoes,asDudleyPattersonremarkedinEnglishthedayhecastoffhisslingandpreparedtorejointhehorsemen,"It'ssureprettygoodallright.""Yes,"he
saidthoughtfully.''That'ssureprettygoodallright."

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"OurAncestorsDidThat!"

August10,1982.Butforagateleftcarelesslyopenandsomethirtyheadofcattlethatsoonpassedthroughittolosethemselvesinatumbledmazeofrockstrewn
buttes,meanderingarroyos,anddryboxcanyonsmyinstructionalridewithDudleyPattersonmighthaveproceededasplanned.Thedaybeganonacalmand
peacefulnote.Wemountedourhorsesshortlyafterdawn,rodeoutofCibecueonatrailleadingnorth,andthenturnedeastastherisingsun,abrilliantcrimsonball,
movedintoviewaboveatreecoveredridge.Themorningairwascrispandcool,andallonecouldhearwasthecomfortingsqueakofsaddleleatherandthehooves
ofthehorsesstrikingsoftlyintotheearth.Aredtailedhawkbankedonthewindinavastbluesky.

AfterlightingacigarettewithhisantiqueZippo,Dudleybrokethesilence."Doyouseethatridgeoverthere?WecallitTsDotl'izhi*Deez'h(TurquoiseRidge).
Mygrandmothertookherfamilytherewhenthesmallpoxcamein1922.Somanypeopledieditwasterrible.Mygrandmotherwasamedicinewomanandknew
whattodo.Sheprayedeachmorningasthesuncameup.Dayafterdaysheprayed.Allofherchildrensurvivedthesickness.

"Andthatravineoverthere,theonewithlongwhitebouldersonthefarside?ItsnameisNaagosch'idTHayigeed(BadgerScoopsUpWater).Badgerlivedtherea
longtimeago,nexttoaspringwherehewenttodrink.Therewasnodaylightthenandthepeoplewerehavingahardtime.BadgerandBearwantedtokeepitthat
waytheylikedthedarknessbutCoyoteoutsmartedthem.Hegambledwiththemandwondaylightforthepeople.Theygambledupaheadwherethosefour
roundhillssitinarow.ThosehillsarenamedDa'iltn*(TheMounds).

"Andwayoverthere,thatlittleclumpoftrees?WecallitT'iisSikaad(GroveofCottonwoodTrees).There'saspringthere,too.Itusedtogivelotsofwaterbutnow
it'salmostdry.NickThompson'smothercampedtherewithherparentswhenshewasayounggirl.Onetimeanairplanewentshootingby.Shedidn'tknowwhatit
was.Shecrawledunderabushandcoveredherfacewithherhands.Herbodywastremblingallover.Shestayedunderthebushfortwodays,trembling.

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"Andthatredbluffoverthere...."

Dudleystopsspeaking.Tworidershaveappearedinthedistanceandaremovingtowardusatafasttrot.Minuteslater,SamEndfieldandCharlesCromwellreinin
theirmountsanddeliverthetroublingnews.SomeoneforgottoclosethegatenearthetopofHayaagokizh(SpottedSlope),andalargebunchofcattlecows,
calves,andthespottedmaverickbullwithonebadeyehasmovedintothetortuouscountrybehindKih*Dotl'izh*(BlueHouse).Judgingfromtheirtracks,the
cattlecrossedoveryesterdayafternoon.Theyshouldberoundedupwithoutdelayotherwisetheywillscatteroverawiderareaandmakethejobmoredifficult.

Dudleylistensquietly,pointsoncewithhislipsinthedirectionofBlueHouse,andoffwegotospendthenextsevenhourssearchingforwilycreatureskeenly
uninterestedinlettingthemselvesbefound.Adayofquietlearningturnsintoapunishinggameofhideandgoseek,andnoonefindsittheleastbitenjoyable.But
slowlytheworkgetsdone,theopengateiswiredshut,andbytwoo'clockintheafternoonmostofthecattlearebackwheretheybelong.Onlythespottedmaverick
bullismissing.Histracksdisappearattheheadofanarrowcanyon.Dudleyisunconcerned.Thebullisstrongandsmart.Hewillrejointheherdwhenitsuitshim.
Onedayhewillreappear.Thatishisway.

Wehavebeenworkinginlandwithoutwaterandtheheatofthedayisharduponus.Horsesandmenareedgywiththirst,soinsteadofreturningdirectlytothevillage
weridesoutheasttothenearestaccessiblepointofCibecueCreek.Asithappens,thisisTrailGoesDownBetweenTwoHills,theplacewhereOldManOwlwas
showntobeafoolbythetwoApachesisters.Itiswonderfullycoolbesidethestreamandeveryonedrinkshisfill.SamEndfield,wearinghispantsandhat,decidesto
goforadip.CharlesCromwell,whosetendermodestiesprecludedisplaysofuncladflesh,amblesoffbehindathickstandofwillowbushes.AndDudley,having
twicebathedhisfaceandneckwithhishandkerchief,sitsdownbeneaththecottonwoodtreewhosemassivelowerlimbdipstotouchtheground.Joininghimunder
thetree,Iglanceupwardintoitsshadefilledbranches,awhollyspontaneousacttowhichherespondsbyslappingtheground

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andburstingintopealsofhighpitchedlaughter.Samstopssplashinginthewater,andCharles,lookingmildlyalarmed,comesstumblingoutofthewillowstryingto
buttonhisfly.Whatisgoingon?

"Ourancestorsdidthat!"Dudleyexclaimswithundisguisedglee."Wealldothat,eventhewomenandchildren.Wealllookuptoseeherwithherlegsspreadslightly
apart.Theseplacesarereallyverygood!Nowyou'vedrunkfromone!Nowyoucanworkonyourmind."Stilllaughing,thewearyhorsemantakesoffhissweat
soakedhatandplacesitonthegroundbesidehim.Thenheliesdown,cradleshisheadinthecrookofhisarm,andgoessoundlytosleep.Beneaththeancient
cottonwoodtreetheairisalivewithhumminginsects.

SensingPlaces

Ifnothingelse,thistruncatedtaleofcongenialWesternApaches,adistinctivebrandofwisdom,andalocallyinfamouscottonwoodtreeshouldlendsubstancetothe
claimthatsenseofplaceor,asIwouldprefertosay,sensingofplaceisaformofculturalactivity.Thoughcommonlyviewedindifferenttermsasinstinctual
needbyhumanethologists,asbeneficialpersonalitycomponentbydevelopmentalpsychologists,asmechanismofsocialintegrationbytheoreticalsociologistssense
ofplace,asIhavemadeitout,isneitherbiologicalimperative,aidtoemotionalstability,normeanstogroupcohesiveness.Whatitis,asN.ScottMomaday(1976)
hassuggested,isakindofimaginativeexperience,aspeciesofinvolvementwiththenaturalandsocialenvironment,awayofappropriatingportionsoftheearth.
Whilethisperspectiverenderssenseofplacenolesschallengingtofathomordescribe,itdemystifiesthenotionbyassigningittothefamiliarprovinceofeveryday
events.Removedfromthespectralrealmofscholasticreificationsneeds,attributes,mechanisms,andthelikesenseofplacecanbeseenasacommonplace
occurrence,asanordinarywayofengagingone'ssurroundingsandfindingthemsignificant.AlbertCamusmayhavesaiditbest."Senseofplace,"hewrote,"isnotjust
somethingthatpeopleknowandfeel,itissomethingpeopledo"(Camus1955:88emphasisadded).Andthatrealizationbringsthewholeidearatherfirmlydownto
earth,whichisplainly,Ithink,whereasenseofplacebelongs.

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Avarietyofexperience,senseofplacealsorepresentsacullingofexperience.Itiswhathasaccruedandneverstopsaccruingfromlivesspentsensingplaces.
Vaguelyrealizedmostofthetime,andrarelybroughtforthforconsciousscrutiny,itsurfacesinanattitudeofenduringaffinitywithknownlocalitiesandthewaysoflife
theysponsor.Assuch,itisgreetedasnatural,normal,and,despitetheambivalentfeelingsitsometimesproduces,entirelyunremarkable.Experiencedeliveredneat
(thoughnot,asIsay,alwaysveryneatly),senseofplaceisacceptedasasimplefactoflife,asaregularaspectofhowthingsareandifoneweretemptedtochange
it,whichnooneeveris,theeffortwouldcertainlyfail.Itisprobable,ofcourse,thatyoursenseofplacewillcenteronlocalitiesdifferentfrommine,justasours
togetherwillcenteronlocalitiesdifferentfromRuthandDudleyPatterson's.Butthateachofusshouldbedrawntoparticularpiecesofterritory,andforreasonswe
taketoberelativelyuncomplicated,isradicallyexpectable.Asenseofplace,everyonepresumes,iseveryone'spossession.

Butsenseofplaceisnotpossessedbyeveryoneinsimilarmannerorlikeconfiguration,andthatpervasivefactispartofwhatmakesitinteresting.Likealltheother
"senses"wehaveinventedformankind(theaestheticsense,theeroticsense,commonsense,etc.),senseofplaceisinseparablefromtheideasthatinformit,andjust
forthatreason,asLawrenceDurrellremarkedinalettertoafriend,itis"everywhereparochialandeverywherespecific"(Durrell1969:283).Lockedwithinthe
mentalhorizonsofthosewhogiveitlife,senseofplaceissuesinastreamofsymbolicallydrawnparticularsthevisibleparticularsoflocaltopographies,thepersonal
particularsofbiographicalassociations,andthenotionalparticularsofsociallygivensystemsofthought.Itisthelatter,ofcourse,thatareleastavailabletoconscious
awareness,andperhapsforthisreasonwritersonplacerarelyseefittoexaminethem.Yetitisjustthesesystemsofthoughtthatmoldandorganizetheexperience
itself,andtocasuallyignorethem,assooftenhappens,istosupposethatmattersaremuchsimplerthaninfacttheyreallyare.YoucannomoreimagineanApache
senseofplacewithoutsomenotionofOldManOwl,smoothminds,andwhatoccurredatGrasshoppersPiledUpAcrossthanyoucanfancyanativeNewYorker's
senseofplacewithoutcomparableideasofWoodyAllen,

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contendingwithsubwayrushhours,andCentralParkonthefirstwarmdayofspring.Everything,oralmosteverything,hingesontheparticulars,andbecauseitdoes,
ethnographyisessential.10

Forwithanysenseofplacethepivotalquestionisnotwhereitcomesfrom,orevenhowitgetsformed,butwhat,sotospeak,itismadewith.Likeagoodpotof
steworacomplexmusicalchord,thecharacterofthethingemergesfromthequalitiesofitsingredients.Andwhiledescribingthatcharactermayprovetroublesome
indeed(always,itseems,thereissomethingineffableaboutit),theelementsthatcomposeitcanbeselectivelysampledandseparatelyassessed.Whichiswhat,ina
roundaboutway,Ihavetriedtodohere.Transformativespatialprefixes,disquisitionsonwisdom,andcautionarystoriesofthirstcrazedwomenandpuffedup
medicinemendonot"addup"toaWesternApachesenseofplace.Buttheycanbeusedtoconstructone,andthus,takentogether,theyhavesomethingrevealingto
sayaboutthequalityofitstoneandthesubstanceofitsstyle.Theygiveus,inshort,asenseoftheApachesense,anappreciationofwhatgoesintoit,aninformed
perspectiveontheangleofitsthrust.

Andalso,Iwouldadd,apurchaseofsortsonthewellspringsofitsforce.Asvibrantlyfeltasitisvividlyimagined,senseofplaceassertsitselfatvaryinglevelsof
mentalandemotionalintensity.Whetheritislivedinmemoryorexperiencedonthespot,thestrengthofitsimpactiscommensuratewiththerichnessofitscontents,
withtherangeanddiversityofsymbolicassociationsthatswimwithinitsreachandmoveitonitscourse.Initsmoreordinarymoments,asSeamusHeaney(1980)has
observed,senseofplacestayswithinthesphereofitsownfamiliarattractions,promptingindividualstodwellonthemselvesintermsofthemselves,asprivatepersons
withprivatelivestoponder.Butinitsfullermanifestationsthisseparatiststancegiveswaytothoughtsofmembershipinsocialgroups,ofparticipationinactivitiesthat
transcendtheconcernsofparticularpeople,ofcloseinvolvementswithwholecommunitiesandtheirenduringhistoricaltraditions.Experiencedinthiswayaswhat
Heaney(1980:133)termsa"modeofcommunionwithatotalwayofliving"senseofplacemaygatheruntoitselfapotentreligiousforce,especiallyifoneconsiders
therootofthewordinreligare,whichis"tobindorfastenfast."Fueledbysenti

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mentsofinclusion,belonging,andconnectednesstothepast,senseofplacerootsindividualsinthesocialandculturalsoilsfromwhichtheyhavesprungtogether,
holdingthemthereinthegripofasharedidentity,alocalizedversionofselfhood.

"Selfandmind,"BaruchSpinoza(1949:84)wrote,"areessentiallyoneandthesame."Assumingthisclaimtobetrue,itishardtoconceiveofaculturalconstruct
whosebearingonplacecouldbemoreintimatelyrelatedtoideasofselfhoodthantheWesternApachetheoryofwisdomanditssources.Incorporatingplacesand
theirmeaningsintoacompactmodelofmentalandsocialdevelopment,thetheoryof'igoy'*proposesthatthemostestimablequalitiesofhumanmindskeenand
unhurriedreasoning,resistancetofearandanxiety,andsuppressionofemotionsbornofhostilityandpridecomeintobeingthroughextendedreflectiononsymbolic
dimensionsofthephysicalenvironment.11Accordingly,featuresoftheApachelandscape,theirrichlyevocativenames,andthemanytribalnarrativesthatrecalltheir
mythicalimportanceareviewedasresourceswithwhichdeterminedmenandwomencanmodifyaspectsofthemselves,including,mostbasically,theirownwaysof
thinking.Andbecausechangesinwaysofthinkingaremirroredbychangesinpatternsofconduct,thesesameindividualsactuallycanbeseentoalterwhotheyare.
AsApachemenandwomensetaboutdrinkingfromplacesastheyacquireknowledgeoftheirnaturalsurroundings,commitittopermanentmemory,andapplyit
productivelytotheworkingsoftheirmindstheyshowbytheiractionsthattheirsurroundingsliveinthem.Liketheirancestorsbeforethem,theydisplaybywordand
deedthatbeyondthevisiblerealityofplaceliesamoralrealitywhichtheythemselveshavecometoembody.Andwhetherornottheyfinallysucceedinbecomingfully
wise,itisthisinteriorlandscapethislandscapeofthemoralimaginationthatmostdeeplyinfluencestheirvitalsenseofplace,andalso,Ibelieve,theirunshakable
senseofself.ForwherethelikesofDudleyPattersonareconcernedandSamEndfield,andCharlesCromwell,andthestalwartTalbertPaxtonselfhoodand
placehoodarecompletelyintertwined.Havingdevelopedapacetogether,theyarepositiveexpressionsofeachother,oppositesidesofthesamerarecoin,andtheir
powerto"bindandfastenfast"isnothingshortofenormous.

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Atnotime,Isuspect,isthispowermoresurelyfeltbyWesternApachepeoplethanduringthosesuddenflashesofacuteintuitiveinsightthatmarkthepresenceof
wisdom.Intheseclairvoyantmoments,whenwisemenandwomenconsulttraditionalstoriesandseektoidentifywithsagaciousstorycharacters,theirsenseofplace
(andwithit,perhaps,theirsenseofselfaswell)mayreachakindofzenith.Yetsuchculminationsofmindseemdestinedtooccurwithdecreasingfrequencyintimes
thatlieahead.IncommunitiesthroughouttheFortApacheReservationandCibecueisprominentamongthemfewerandfeweryoungpeoplearecurrently
embarkingontheancestraltrailofwisdom.Caughtupwithotherconcernsandreluctanttoappearoldfashionedbeforetheirwatchfulpeers,theytravelless
extensively,learnsmallerbodiesofcautionarynarratives,andsubscribewithmountingconvictiontotheimportedbeliefthatusefulknowledgecomesmainlyfrom
formalschooling.ThisisnottoimplythatyoungApachesfailtodeveloparobustsenseofplaceonthecontrary,theydobutitdoesgetfashionedfromnewand
differentmaterialsandpointsinfreshdirections.Andthatmaybealltothegood,forasmoderntriballeaderspointoutrepeatedly,survivinginthecontemporary
worldrequirestheacquisitionofcontemporaryskills.Itisdoubtful,however,thatfuturegenerationsofApachepeoplewilleverdeviseamorestrikingwaytothink
aboutplacesandbymeansofplacestothinkaboutthinkingitselfthantheonemadeknowntomebythehorsemanDudleyPatterson.Tohim,ofcourse,the
Apachetheoryofwisdomwasasfamiliarasthelandheknewsowell,asfamiliartohimashimself.Buttome,aperipheraloutsider,themodelof''igoy'*wasa
wonderfuldiscovery,anabsorbingculturalformoflargeandsubtledimensions.Andsoithasremained,asmovinginitswayandeverybitasgrippingasthelargely
unspoiledcountrysidefromwhichitdrawsitsstrength.Myownsenseofplace,whichisnotinconsiderable,restsinpartuponit.

Timewilltellwhatotherculturalconstructionsawaittheethnographerbentonaninterestinplace.Butthatsuchconstructionsareeverywheretobefoundindeserts
andsavannas,mountainsandrain

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forests,citiesandruraltownsisaltogethercertain.Weshouldbegintoexplorethemwithalldeliberatespeed,andnot,Iwouldemphasize,solelyforthepurposeof
enlargingourknowledgeofparticularsocialgroups.Forassurelyasplaceisanelementalexistentialfact,senseofplaceisauniversalgenreofexperience,and
therefore,asmoreandmoreworkgetsdone,itmaybefoundtoexhibittransculturalqualities.Inthisconnection,Ihavealreadytouchedonafewpossibilities.
Ubiquitouslyacceptedasnatural,normal,andunexceptional,senseofplaceisvariouslytrained,variablyintense,and,havinggrowntomatureproportions,stoutly
resistanttochange.Itscomplexaffinitiesaremoreanexpressionofcommunityinvolvementthantheyareofpuregeography,anditssocialandmoralforcemayreach
sacramentalproportions,especiallywhenfusedwithprominentelementsofpersonalandethnicidentity.Requiringneitherextendedanalysisnorrationaljustification,
senseofplacerestsitscaseontheunexaminedpremisethatbeingfromsomewhereisalwayspreferabletobeingfromnowhere.Allofus,itasserts,aregenerally
betteroffwithaplacetocallourown.Places,itremindsus,arereallyverygood.

"ThatWasHisWay."

November7,1992.DudleyPattersonjoinedtheancestorsinthespringof1983.Hiswakeandfuneralwereattendedbyhundredsofpeople,someofwhomcameto
Cibecuefrommanymilesaway.SamEndfield,whonolongerspeaksofhisabsentfriendandcomrade,continuestoworkasahorseman.CharlesCromwell,
hamperedbyarthritisandtiredofherdingcattle,recentlycalleditquitsattheageofsixtysix.Aftertwoorthreemoredrinkingsprees,TalbertPaxtonsettleddown
andbecameamodelofsobriety.Helatermarriedadistantcousinandnowisthefatherofthreeexuberantchildren.RuthPatterson,invincibleasever,remainsfirmly
andfullyincharge.

OntheeveningDudleywasburied,notfarfromaplacenamedSoo*Ch'hi'ool*(FlakesOfMicaFloatOut),thespottedmaverickbullappearedonthepointofa
sandstonebluffoverlookingthecem

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etery.Hestayedthere,grazinglightlyandoccasionallylookingdown,forthenexttwodaysandnights.Thenhewentaway.Hehasnotbeenseenagain.Mostpeople
fromCibecuethinkthebullisdead.RuthPattersonisnotsosure."Noonefoundhisbones,"shetoldmenotlongagooveracupofboiledcoffee."Thehorsemen
lookedalloverandnoonefoundhisbones.Ithinkthatspottedbullcouldstillbealive.Therearemanyplaceshecouldbe,manyplaces."Agentlesmilecrossedher
face."Heknewthemall,youknow.Thatwashisway."12

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Epilogue
ThevillageofCibecuehaschangedinmanywayssincethedayIsawitfirstin1959.Thevalleyinwhichitsitsisaslovelyasevertheearthisstillasred,towering
cottonwoodtreesstilllinethecreek,andthevaultingskyabovethemisstillimmenseanddeep.Theairiscrystalclearandthelandformilesaroundempty,
implacable,majesticallyserenelooksverymuchthesame.Butexperthorsemennolongertesttheirskillsonherdsofhalfwildcattle,fewerandfewercornfieldsare
plantedeveryyear,andtheroadtothehighwaytwelvemilesawayhastwicebeenwidenedandpaved.Carsandpickups,onwhicheveryonehascometodepend,
arecommon.Cibecuehasasawmillnow,ahandsomeschool,asupermarketandafirestation,andawellstaffedmedicalclinicthattendstotheneedsofburgeoning
numbersofchildren.Andtherearenewhouseseverywhere:HUDhouses,groupedintocomplexes,whichtheirownershavefurnishedwithwidescreenTvs,
expensiveVCRs,andotherconveniencesofafullymodernsort.ThevillageofCibecue,opentotheworldafterdecadesofseclusion,isfastbecomingatown.

AvisitortoCibecuetodaywoulddiscoverthatallofitshousingcomplexeshavebeengivenEnglishplacenamesfancifulnameslikeRainbowCity,TooFarAway,
DesertStorm,andHollywoodandthateachnamehasastorybehindit,amusingandlighthearted,whichprovidesanaccountofitsorigin.Duringthe1991conflict
withIraq,

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forexample,thecomplexatDesertStormwasengulfedinasummersquall.Atitsheight,aninspiredApachematron,havingproclaimedshewas''GeneralShortstuff,"
barkedmilitarystyleordersfromtheporchofherhousetoalittleboyacrossthestreetwhorefusedtogetinfromtherain."Gotoyourtanks,men!Gotoyourtanks!
GetoutofDesertStorm!"Thusthenamewasborn.Andthus,understandably,thevisitormightsupposethatthebusinessofnamingplacesisnolongertakenseriously
byApaches,thatithasfallenbytheculturalandlinguisticwayside,acasualtyofmoderntimesandacceleratedexposuretononApacheways.Butsuchisnotthe
case.Traditionalplacenameshaverecentlybeenmade,andwillsurelybemadeagain,wherevereventsofpervasivemoralsignificancehappentooccur.Andnoone
livinginCibecuedoubtsforamomentthatthisisasitshouldbe.

Onalatespringdayafewyearsago,anApacheyouthfromCibecuespentthemorningfishingontheupperreachesofCibecueCreek.Hecaughtseveraltrout,
whichhestrungonastickbytheirgillsandcarriedtoaspotwhereheplannedtofishsomemore.Thereheplacedhiscatchonatinyspitofsand.Suddenly,amature
baldeagleboltedfromtheskyandsacredbirdandimpulsiveyouthfoughtforthetroutlyingbesidethestream.Theeaglewon,theyoungmanwasbadlyraked,anda
yearorsolateroneofhismaternalunclesbestowedacommemorativeplacenameonthesmallpatchofsand.HenameditItsCh'iyaa'iltool*(EagleHurtles
Down).AnotherApacheplacecameintobeingthatday,andanotherhistoricaltalewhichadvisesnevertochallengeeaglesnowhintsterselyatsomeofthe
reasonswhy.Thosewho"speakwithnames"haveonemorenametoworkwith,andthosewhoimagineplaceworldsinthefuturewillhaveonemoreworldto
construct.TheWesternApacheyouth,nowgrowntomanhood,ispresentlyintrainingtobecomeaceremonialsinger.EveryoneinCibecuewhohasheardhim
performcommentsontheclarityandintentionofhisvoice.Somepeoplesayhemayonedaybewise.Theancestors,nodoubt,arewatching.

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Notes

Preface

1.ReaderswhomightbeinterestedinmyfirstimpressionsofCibecuemayconsultBasso(1990a).

2.SomeoftheseotherwritingshavebeencollectedinBasso(1990b)forabriefgeneralethnographyofCibecuecirca1965,seeBasso(1970).

3.Theessaysthatformthechaptersofthisbookdonotappearinthesequenceinwhichtheywerewritten,andeachhassincebeenmodified."StalkingwithStories"
appearedfirstasachapterinText,PlayandStory:TheReconstructionofSelfandSociety,editedbyEdwardBruner(1984)."SpeakingwithNames"camenext,
in1988,andwaspublishedinCulturalAnthropology."WisdomSitsinPlaces"wasoriginallypreparedforthe1993SchoolofAmericanResearchAdvanced
Seminar"Place,Expression,andExperience''aslightlyalteredversionwillappearintheSchoolofAmericanResearchAdvancedSeminarvolumeSensesofPlace,
editedbyStevenFeldandmyself."QuotingtheAncestors,"thelastoftheessaystobewritten,wascompletedin1995andispublishedhereforthefirsttime.Ihad
toyedwiththeideaofabookonWesternApacheconceptionsofplacesince1992,butitwasnotuntilayearlaterthanksinparttoconversationswithKarenBlu,
DanFrank,StevenFeld,RonnieLupe,andGaylePotterBassothatIresolvedtoproceedinearnest.Ihopethatthosewhoencouragedtheprojectarepleased
withthefinalresult.

4.Forinformativediscussionsofwhyplaceandspacehavereceivedlittleattentioninthesocialsciences,seeAgnew(1993),Gregory(1993),andSoja(1989).Iam
notconvinced,astheseculturalgeographersare,thatadoptingpostmodernistinterpretiveframeworkswillremedythesituation,inpartbecauseethnographyand
ethnographicfieldworkareconsideredperipheral.Oneoftheaimsofthepresentworkistoshow,onthecontrary,thatethnography(postmodernistorotherwise)is
essential,andforreasonsthatculturalgeographersshouldeagerlyendorse.

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Chapter1.QuotingtheAncestors

1.Bohr'scommentstoHeisenbergarepresentedonpage45ofJeromeBruner'sActualWorlds,PossibleWorlds,publishedin1986,andareusedbyBrunerto
launchadiscussionofsomeofthewaysinwhich"productsofthemind"arecreated.Lucidandarticulate,Bruner'sdiscussioniswellworthattendingto,inpart
becauseitbearsininterestingwaysonplacemaking.

2.Mythoughtsonworldbuildinggenerally,andonplacemakingspecifically,havebeenstronglyinfluencedbytheworkofNelsonGoodman,especiallyhisWaysof
Worldmaking(1978),andbythewritingsofEdwardJ.Casey,includingImagining:APhenomenologicalStudy(1976),Remembering:APhenomenological
Study(1987),andGettingBackintoPlace:TowardaRenewedUnderstandingofthePlaceWorld(1993).Althoughmyownnotionof"placeworld"is
narrowerthanCasey's,thetwo,Ibelieve,arephilosophicallyquitecompatible.

3.Placeworlds,ofcourse,arenotrestrictedtoconstructionsofthepasttheymayalsobeimaginedaspertainingtothefuture(i.e.,"whatwillhappenhere?"),as
writersofsciencefictionarewellaware.

4.ConsistentwiththedefinitionproposedbytheanthropologistGrenvilleGoodwin(1942:55),theterm"WesternApache"isusedtodesignate"thoseApachean
peopleslivingwithinthepresentboundariesofthestateofArizonaduringhistorictimes,withtheexceptionoftheChiricahuaApacheandasmallbandofApaches,
knownastheApacheMansos,wholivedinthevicinityofTucson."Goodwin'sTheSocialOrganizationoftheWesternApache(1942),togetherwithhisMyths
andTalesoftheWhiteMountainApache(1939),providesdefinitivestatementsonthesepeopleduringprereservationtimes.

5.WesternApacheplacenamesaredistinguishedfromotherwiseidenticalexpressionsbythepresenceofaphrasefinalnominalizingenclitic.Theenclitictakes
differentshapesaccordingtothephonologicalenvironmentprecedingit:followingconsonants'oryfollowingallunnasalizedvowelsexceptahfollowinga
andnfollowingallnasalizedvowels.

6.Tomyknowledge,thereisnowordinWesternApachethatcorrespondsexactlytotheEnglishword"history"whenusedinthesenseofeverythinginthepastor
"thetotalaccumulationofpastevents"(ConciseOxfordEnglishDictionary,eighthedition,1990).Thereis,however,acloseequivalent,whichisdoo'anna'
'godzaah,or'thatwhichhappenedlongago'.Theexpressionndeebinagodi'(thepeople'sstories)isusedbyApachesinthesenseofhistoryasitisknownor
"accountsofpastevents"(ibid.),andthisincludesnarratedplaceworldsofthekindpresentedinthisessay.

7.ThathistoryissomethingimaginedhasrecentlybeenacknowledgedbyJohnandJeanComaroffinacollectionoftheiressaysentitledEthnographyandthe
HistoricalImagination(1992).WhatisstrikingabouttheComaroffs'approach(andthatofanumberofotheranthropologistswhoseworkresemblestheirs)isthatit
neveraddressesthequestion,"Whosehistoricalimagination?"Asthepresentessayisintendedtoshow,imagininghistoryisanactivityasvariableanddiverseasthe
culturalassumptionsandmaterialswithwhichitisaccomplished.Ethnographers,tobesure,mustworrylongandhardabouthowtheyimaginehistory(andthisthe

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Comaroffsdowithincisiveerudition),buttheymustalsotrytodiscernhowhistorygetsimaginedbythepeoplewhomtheystudy(andthistheComeroffsdonot
do).Thetrick,inotherwords,istolookcarefullyintoboth,andtoallowforthepossibilitywhichtheApachecaseaffirmsthatthetwomaydifferinfar
reachingwaysandperhapsbeincompatibleandevenirreconcilable.

8.Iamawarethataspectsofthisessaytouchdirectlyoncurrentcharacterizationsofdifferencesbetween"oral"and"literate"cultures,particularlyasthosedifferences
havebeenformulatedbyGoody(1977),GoodyandWatt(1968),andOng(1971,1982).InthecaseoftheWesternApache,whosecultureisstillpredominantly
"oral,"someoftheseformulationssimplydonotapplyandaresharplyinsultingtoboot.Iamconvinced,forexample,thatstatementssuchasthefollowingarepatently
falsewhereApachesareconcernedandmaythusbeofdubiousvaluewhenappliedtoother"oral"cultures.FromGoodyandWatt(1968:34):"[T]hepastnessofthe
pastdependsuponahistoricalsensibilitythatcanhardlybegintooperatewithoutpermanentwrittenrecords.''AndfromOng(1982:98):"[Thepastinmostcultures]
isnotfeltasanitemizedterrain,pepperedwith...'facts'orbitsofinformation.Itisthedomainoftheancestors,aresonantsourceforrenewingawarenessofpresent
existence,whichisitselfnotanitemizedterraineither."CharlesHenry,Ibelieve,wouldnotbepleasedtohearthis.Butneither,alas,doIthinkhewouldbesurprised.

9.AlthoughCharlesHenrywasnothimselfareaderofWesternApachehistoryaswrittenbyAngloAmericans,hehaddiscusseditatlengthwithotherApacheswho
were,includingMorleyCromwell.MyownviewsonitsreceptionamongApachepeoplearebasedondiscussionswithMorleyandotherliteratepersonsfrom
Cibecue.Inoneofthesediscussions,involvingfourindividualswhomIknewwell,ApachehistoryoftheAngloAmericansortwasdescribedas'silent'or
'speechless'(dooyalti'da*):'lifeless'(doobi'ihi'da)'incorrect'(dooda'yeeda)'impossible'(doobnal'aada*)'overlyconfident'(laago*ya'ol*)
'condescending'('adilkaa*)'hazy'or'unclear'(laagoyaak'osliterally'manyclouds)'slowmoving'(dlaadgo*)and'placeless'(doonagoz'*daliterally,
'withoutplaces).Morleyhimself,whotookalesscriticalview,observedthatwrittenhistorycouldbeinformative(inthesenseofbringingnewfactstolight),andthat
historicalphotographs,especiallyofApachepeopleandplaces,werefrequentlyveryinteresting.Healsoonceobservedandthis,Ithink,isrevealingthatAnglo
Americanhistoriansalwaysseemedtobe"workingtoohard"andto"nothavetoomuchfun"inshort,theytendedtoberelentlesslyserious.WorksonApache
historybyAngloAmericanhistorianswithwhichreadersfromCibecuearefamiliarincludeHaley(1991),Spicer(1962),Thrapp(1967),andWorcester(1979).

SomeofthecriticismsjustmentionedmaybeleveledbyApachesagainstthepresentwork,anicebitofironyandasourceofconcerntome.ByApache
standards,mybookiscertainlysilentandlifeless,probablyslowmoving,andperhaps,inspots,hazyandunclear.Ihopeitisnotregardedasincorrect,overly
confident,orcondescending.Onethingitisnotisplaceless.

10.Deloria'sformulationofspatialconceptionsofhistory,whichheopposestomoretemporallybasedconceptionsofthepast,ispresentedinhisGodIsRed:A
NativeViewofReligion(1992,secondedition).InterestedreadersshouldalsoconsultDeloria(1994).

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11.Muchhasbeenmadeoflate,insideandoutsideofacademicanthropology,ofthe"sacredness"ofAmericanIndianlands,the"spiritualnature"ofhuman
relationshipswiththem,andhow,givenboth,Indianpeopleareabletoliveinaperpetualstateof"harmonywithnature."Atsomevagueandgenerallevel,Isuppose
thismaybetrue.Ialsobelieve(andwiththis,Iknow,manyApachepeoplewouldconcur)thatmattersaremuchmorecomplexandthatoutsidersseldomdojustice
tothesubtletyorsophisticationofnativesystemsofthought.Consider,forexample,thattheWesternApachelanguagecontainsthreedistinctwordsformarking
kindsof"sacredness,"thatatleastthreeApachetermscouldbetranslated(allofthemimprecisely)asmeaning''spiritual"or"holy,"andthatnoApachewordcomes
evenclosetoourownunderstandingof"nature."Inviewofsuchintricacies,Ihaveavoidedheretheuseofcontemporaryslogansandthesimplisticclichstowhich
theyhavegivenrise.Ifitistrueanditisthatoldstereotypesof"Indians"areconstantlybeingreplacedbynewones,itseemsonlyprudenttoeschewthem
altogether,oratleasttoqualifythemincareful,informed,andfullylocalways.

Chapter2.StalkingwithStories

1.AprominentfigureinWesternApacheoralliterature,SlimCoyoteisappreciatedbyApachepeopleforhiskeenandcraftyintelligence,hiscomplexand
unpredictablepersonality,andhispenchantforgettinghimselfintodifficultsituationsfromwhichhealwaysmanagestoextricatehimself,usuallywithhumorousand
embarrassingresults.ShortcollectionsofWesternApacheCoyotetalesmaybefoundinGoddard(1919)andGoodwin(1939).

2.OneconsequenceofthisneglectisthatfewNorthAmericanIndiangroupstodaypossessmapsrepresentingthelandsthatformerlybelongedtothem.Thishas
becomeasourceofmajorconcerntoIndianpeople,especiallyintheirdealingswithstateandfederalgovernments.AsVineDeloria,Jr.(personalcommunication,
1981),hasobserved,"tonamethelandwasformanyIndiansawayofclaimingit,awaythatprovedmorethanadequateuntilEuropeansarrivedandstartedtoclaim
thelandforthemselveswithconsiderablyharshermethods.Now,inlitigationovertheland,Indianclaimscanbedisputed(andsometimesrejected)becausemanyof
theoldnamesthatmarkedtribalboundarieshavebeenforgottenandlost."

3.TherehasbeenarecentrevivalofscholarlyinterestinAmericanIndianplacenames,includingexcellentstudiesbyJulieCruikshank(1981,1990),EugeneHunn
(1991,1994,1995),JamesKari(1989),JamesKariandJamesFall(1987),andAlanWilsonandGeneDennison(1994).SeealsoKlaraKelleyandHarrisFrancis
(1994),astudyofNavajoplacesinwhich,oddly,Navajoplacenamesarealmostentirelyabsent.

4.OtheraspectsoftheWesternApacheplacenamesystemaretreatedinBasso(1983).

5.JokesofthistypeareintendedtopokefunatthebuttofthejokeandatthesametimetocommentnegativelyontheinteractionalpracticesofAngloAmericans.An
extendeddiscussionofthisformofWesternApachehumorispresentedinBasso(1979).

Chapter3.SpeakingwithNames

1.CompatibleviewsonenvironmentalappropriationareexpressedinDeloria(1975)andSilko(1986).

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2.Silverstein(1976,1979)arguesthatapreoccupationwiththe"semanticoreferential"functionoflanguagehasprovidedthebasisforauniquelybiasedWestern
linguisticideologyinwhichotherfunctions,especiallyindexicalones,areaccordedsecondaryimportance.Inthisregard,theviewsexpressedinTyler(1978,1984)
arealsohighlyinstructive.

3."Emily"and"Louise"arepseudonymsLolaMachuse,RobertMachuse,andCliffordarenot.

4.Thisverbalexchangewasnotrecordedontape.Iamsatisfied,however,asaretheApachepersonswhoparticipatedintheexchange,thatthetextgivenhereis
essentiallyaccurate.Whatismissing,ofcourse,isinformationpertainingtoprosodicphenomena,butnoneoftheparticipantscouldrecallanythinginthisregardthat
theyconsideredoutoftheordinary.LolaMachuseofferedthefollowinggeneralization:"Whenwetalklikethat[speakingwithnames]wejusttalksoftandslow,so
thatpeopleknowtolistenrealgood."

5.IfollowhereSilverstein's(1979:195)definitionoflinguisticideologiesas"anysetsofbeliefsaboutlanguageasarationalizationorjustificationofperceivedlanguage
structureanduse."Foraninformativediscussionofsomeoftheperceptualandcognitivelimitsthatmaybeinherentinlinguisticideologies,seeSilverstein(1981).

6.RefrainingfromspeakingtoomuchhaspleasingaestheticconsequencesthatApachepeoplefromCibecuevalueandappreciate.Itproducesaleannarrativestyle,
conciseandsomewhatstark,thatisnotablyfreeofcursoryembellishmentsakindofnarrativeminimalisminwhichlessisheldtobemore.Butitisanarrativestyle
withdefinitemoralunderpinnings.Refrainingfromspeakingtoomuchresultsineffectivedepictions,andthis,Apachessay,isalltothegood.Buteconomicalspeech
alsoshowsrespectfortheamplepicturingabilitiesofotherpeople,andthisisbetterstill.

7.ThepictorialcharacterofWesternApacheplacenamesisfrequentlyremarkeduponwhenApachepeopleareaskedtocomparetheirownplacenameswith
familiarplacenamesinEnglish.Onsuchoccasions,EnglishnamessuchasGlobe,ShowLow,McNary,Phoenix,andothersareregularlyfounddeficientfor"not
showingwhatthoseplaceslooklike"orfor"notlettingyouseethoseplacesinyourmind."Alternatively,WesternApacheplacenamesareconsistentlypraisedfor
"makingyouseethoseplacesliketheyreallyare''orfor"puttingthoseplacesinyourmindsoyoucanseethemafteryougoaway."OneApachefromCibecueputthe
differencesuccinctly:"Thewhiteman'snames[are]nogood.Theydon'tgivepicturestoyourmind."Andalocalwitsaidthis:"Apachesdon'tneedPolaroids.We've
gotgoodnames!"

8.ThedistinguishingfeaturesoftraditionalnarrativegenresasarticulatedbyWesternApachepeoplethemselvesarediscussedinchapter2.

9.WesternApachesreadilyacknowledgethat"speakingwithnames"ispossibleonlyamongpersonswhoshareknowledgeofthesametraditionalnarratives
otherwise,placenameswouldevokestoriesforhearersthatweredifferentfromthoseintendedbyspeakers.Butthis,itseems,israrelyaproblemamongolder
people.MostadultslivinginCibecuemaintainthattheyarefamiliarwiththesamecorpusofnarratives,andwhileanynarrativeisunderstoodtohaveseveralversions
(anddifferentstorytellershavedifferentwaysofperformingthem),thereislittleconfusionastowhereeventsinthenarrativearebelievedtohavetakenplace.
Consequently,theplace

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name(ornames)thatanchoranarrativecanfunctionreliablytoevokecomparableimagesofancestraleventsandcorrespondingappreciationsofancestral
wisdom.YoungerApachepeople,Iwastold,areincreasinglyignorantofbothplacenamesandtraditionalnarratives,sothatforsomeofthem,speakingwith
nameshasbecomedifficultorimpossible.Althoughtheinstanceofspeakingwithnamesdiscussedinthepresentessayfeatureswomenconversingwithwomen,I
havebeenassuredbyconsultantsfromCibecuethattheuseofthisverbalpracticehasneverbeen,andisnottoday,restrictedtofemaleinterlocutors.Apache
men,Iwasinformed,employthepracticewhenspeakingtomen,andpersonsofoppositesexmayemployitwhenspeakingtoeachother.

10.Louise,whoisdistantlyrelatedtoEmily,isnotrelatedtoLolaMachuseorRobertMachuse.

11.ThisviewoflanguageanditssuitabilityforanethnographicapproachtothestudyofdiscoursehasbeenmostfullyarticulatedbyHymes(e.g.,1974).For
extendedapplicationsofthisapproach,togetherwithusefultheoreticaldiscussion,seeSherzer(1983)andBauman(1984).Hymes'smorerecentwork(e.g.,1981)is
alsoillustrativeinthisregard,asaretreatmentsbyBauman(1986),Feld(1982),andFriedrich(1986).Tyler(1978)presentsasweepingphilosophicalcritiqueof
formalisminmodernlinguistictheoryand,ongroundssomewhatdifferentfromHymes's,arguespersuasivelyforamoresensitiveandsensibleapproachtothestudyof
languageuseinitsculturalandsocialcontexts.

Chapter4.WisdomSitsinPlaces

1.Forinformationonbattlesnowbeingwagedbyindigenouspeoplestocontrolancestralterritories,seeanyrecentissueofCulturalSurvivalQuarterly.Onefforts
byAmericanIndiangroupstoprotectandpreservetraditionalreligioussites,seeVineDeloria'sessay"SacredLandsandReligiousFreedom"(1991).Onthe
importanceofplaceasformulatedbycontemporarypoets,sociologists,andphilosophers,seethewritingsofSeamusHeaney(1980)andN.ScottMomaday(1974,
1976)EdwardShils(1981)andPeterBerger,BrigitteBerger,andHansfriedKellner(1983)andEdwardCasey(1976,1987,1993),respectively.

2.Iwouldnotwishtoimplybytheseremarksthatallmodernanthropologistsareuninterestedinculturalconstructionsofplace.Onthecontrary,exemplaryworksby
NancyMunn(1973),CliffordGeertz(1980),StevenFeld(1982),RenatoRosaldo(1980),JamesWeiner(1991),FredMyers(1986),andothershave
demonstratedthatsomeethnographersconsiderthetopicworthyofcloseattention.Thefactremains,however,thatplaceisusuallytreatedasanancillary
phenomenon,assomethingtodealwithdescriptivelyandanalyticallyonlywhenotherconcernsmakethisunavoidable.Myownpointofview,whichowesmuchto
thephilosophyofHeidegger(1977),Sartre(1965),andCasey(1987),isthatplaceisacrucialelementinmanyformsofsocialexperienceandwarrantscareful
ethnographicstudyinitsownright.AcollectionofessaystobepublishedbytheSchoolofAmericanResearchPress,SantaFe,titledSensesofPlaceandeditedby
StevenFeldandmyself,takeswhatweconsideratimelyandusefulstepinthisdirection.SodoesTheAnthropologyofLandscape,editedbyEricHirschand
MichaelO'Hanlon,whichappearedjustasthisbookwasgoingtopress.

 Page159

3.Heidegger'sconceptionofdwellingproceedsfromthefundamentalpremise,articulatedfirstbyHusserl(1958),thatallconsciousnessisconsciousnessof
something.

4.Anydoubtthatthisissoisdispelledwhenoneconsidersthatthesamelocalitymaybeperceivedandapprehendedinverydifferentwaysaccordingtothe
immediateintentionsofthosewhoobserveit.Describedbysomewritersastheindividual's"currentproject,"thesesituatedaimsandpurposesguideawarenessin
specificdirections,determiningastheydowhatsortsofknowledgearerelevantandapplicable,andalso,thoughperhapslessdirectly,whatkindsofsentimentare
suitableandappropriate.Thus,aprofessionaloceanographerengrossedinastudyofwavemechanicswillmakeofthesamesecludedcovesomethingquitedifferent
thanwillarejectedsuitorwhorecallsitasthesiteofafarewellwalkonthebeach,andthiswillbetrueevenifoceanographerandsuitorareoneandthesameperson.

5.AvividaccountofthiskindofsubjectobjectconflationisgivenbySartre(1965:5967),whodescribesinclosedetailhisencounterwithachestnuttree.

6.ThisapproachtoethnographicresearchisdiscussedandillustratedatgreaterlengthinBasso(1990b).

7.Mostoftheempiricalmaterialsonwhichthisessayisbasedwererecordedontape,withthepriorconsentofallApacheparties.Eventsdescribedunderthe
headings"June7,1982"and"August10,1982"weredocumentedinwritingandlatercheckedforaccuracywithDudleyPatterson,SamEndfield,andCharles
Cromwell."TalbertPaxton"isapseudonym.

8.StudentsofApacheancultureswillrecognizethatconceptionsof'wisdom'('igoy'*)bearsomeresemblancetothoseof'supernaturalpower'(diiyi').According
tosomeconsultantsfromCibecue,theresemblanceisonlyapparent.Whereaswisdomiswithinthereachofeveryoneandresultsfrommentaldiscipline,supernatural
powerisgiventoveryfewpeopleandcomesmainlyfromdreamsandvisions.Itshouldalsobenotedthatpossessionofsupernaturalpowerdoesnotnecessarily
implythepresenceofwisdom.AsDudleyPatterson'supcomingstoryofthegrasshopperplagueatCibecueillustratesclearly,personswithsupernaturalpower
sometimesactunwisely.

9.Theideathatsmoothmindedthinkerandwisestorycharacter'flowswiftlytogether'isnicelyconsistentwithotherdimensionsofthewaterimagerythatpervades
theApachemodelofwisdom.ThatwisdomislikenedbyApachestowaterandthatusingwisdom,ordrinkingit,isconsideredbasictosurvivalseemsmorethan
appropriateforapeoplewhohavelivedforcenturiesinadryanddemandingclimate.

10.Itisjustforthisreason,Ibelieve,thatnovelistsandjournalistsareoftenmoresuccessfulthanacademicwritersinconveyingtoreadersanunfamiliarsenseof
place.Ratherthantryingtodescribesenseofplaceorattemptingsomehowtocharacterizeit,novelistsandjournalistsseektoevokeitbypresentingahostoflocal
detailsandtakingnoteoftheirownandothers'reactionstothem.Animplicitaimofthisessayistosuggestthatsimilarstrategies,suitablymodified,canbeusefully
employedbyculturalanthropologistsandothersocialscientistsinterestedintheproblem.

11.Foranyculturalsystem,whatcountsasa"place"isanempiricalquestionthatmustbeansweredethnographically.Inthisessay,Ihaverestrictedthenotionof
placeto'localitiesonthesurfaceoftheearth,'orwhatApachestermgoz'*nigost'nbik'y.AfullertreatmentofApacheconceptionsofplacewouldexplore
thefactthatplaces

 Page160

areknowntoexistinthesky(goz'*y*biyi'y),underlargebodiesofwater(goz'tbitlah*y),anddeepwithintheearth(goz'ni'gost'nbitlah
y).Thatplacesinthesecategoriesareseldomseenbyhumanbeingsmakesthemnolessreal,andcertainlynolessimportant,thanplacesontheearth'ssurface.
Andinthis,ofcourse,theApachesarenotalone.HowmanyofuscanvolunteereyewitnessaccountsoftheNorthPole,orthethirteenthmeridian,orheavenor
hell?

12.ForseveralyearsafterDudleyPatterson'suntimelydeath,IsoughtwithoutsuccesstodiscussthesubjectofwisdomwithothermembersoftheCibecue
community.EveryoneIapproachedgavethesamereasonforresistingmyovertures,namely,thatheorshecouldaddnothingtowhatDudleyhadalreadytaughtme.
"Buthowcanyoubesosure?"IaskedoneofmyApachefriendsinthesummerof1985."I'msure,"NickThompsonreplied."Youhadagoodteacher.Youknow
whatyou'resupposedtoknow.Don'tgetgreedy.It'snotwise."Onthatunequivocalnote,Iletthematterdropandfoundotherthingstodo.

 Page161

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 Page167

Index

Agnew,J.,153

Ancestors,xvii,3,8,16,17,23,118,125,130,141,143,146,148,152,155

andplacenames,1014,1922,2935

Ancestralknowledge,81,83,86,89,91,98,100102,104.SeealsoWisdom

Anderson,N.,xviii

Anthropology,xiv,xvi,37,43,44,66,68,69,76,77,105,106,154,156,158,159

BadgerScoopsUpWater,141

Bakhtin,M.,62,101

Bauman,R.,xvii,158

Becker,A.,100

Berger,P.,B.Berger,andH.Kellner,158

BigCottonwoodTreesStandHereAndThere,52

BigWillowStandsAlone,135

Birds'Water,15

BitterAgave,123

BitterAgavePlain,8,13

BlueHouse,142

Boas,F.,43,44,74

Bohr,N.,xvi,48,154

Boni,D.,xviii

Bruner,E.,153

Bruner,J.,5,154

Camus,A.,143

Case,J.,xviii

Casey,E.,xvi,xvii,5,154,158

Cassadore,M.,xviii

Cassadore,O.,xviii

Cassadore,P.,xviii

Chaa*BiDalt'oh*,24

ChaghshBik',29

Chapman,W.,xvi,4

Children'sFootprints,29

Chronotopes,62

CibecueCreek,45,65,115,142,152

CircularClearingWithSlenderCottonwoodTrees,23

Clan,18,22

Classificatoryverbstems,xiv,131,134

CoarseTexturedRocksLieAboveInACompactCluster,53

Cole,W.,andF.Cole,xviii

Comaroff,J.,andJ.Comaroff,154,155

Cooley,D.,xviii

CoyotePissesInTheWater,123,136

Cromwell,C.,xviii,111,142,146,148,159

Cromwell,M.,xvii,8,32,34,45,155

Cruikshank,J.,156

Csikszentmihalyi,M.,andE.RochbergHalton,66

Culturalgeography,8,43,44,153

Da'iltn*,141

deLaguna,F.,44

 Page168

Deeschii'Bikoh,44

Dehose,F.andS.,xviii

Dehose,L.andL.,xviii

Dehose,V.andJ.,xviii

Deloria,V.,Jr.,xvi,xvii,34,37,64,155,156,158

Dinesen,I.,106

Dl*'BiT',15

D*'Bigowan*29,122

Durrell,L.,144

Dzil*Ndeez,122

EagleHurtlesDown,152

Ecology,67,69

Eliot,T.S.,xvi,77

Endfield,S.,xviii,111,114,142,146,148,159

Endfield,S.andB.,xviii

Environment,64,72,105,143

ancestral,1317

culturalconstructionsof,6668,70,146.

SeealsoLandLandscape

Ethnography,xiv,xvi,7,37,38,41,43,44,63,68,69,7177,82,102,105,110,111,145,153,154,158,159

FeldS.,xvii,153,158

FlakesOfMicaFloatOut,148

Fly'sCamp,29,122

FortApacheIndianReservation,9,147

FoulWater,15

Friedrich,P.,158

Gad'O'h,19,21

Gallico,P.,75

Geertz,C.,xiv,xvi,xvii,72,158

Gizhyaa'itin,11315,120,121

Goddard,P.,156

Goffman,E.,xvi,72

Goodman,N.,xvi,154

Goodwin,G.,154,156

Goody,J.,155

Goody,J.,andI.Watt,155

Goshtlish*TBil*Sikane*11,12

GrasshoppersPiledUpAcross,137,138,144

GrayWillowsCurveAroundABend,23

GreenRocksSideBySideJutDownIntoWater,23

Greenbie,B.,71

Gregory,D.,153

GroveOfCottonwoodTrees,16,141

Haley,J.,155

Harrington,J.P.,44

Hartley,L.,xvi,3,8

Hayaagokizh,142

Healing,60,102

Heaney,S.,xvi,77,145,158

Heidegger,M.,xvi,74,106,107,158,159

Henry,C.xvii,8,3032,34,45,155

Hirsch,E.,andM.O'Hanlon,158

Historicalevents,24,33,39,52

Historicaltales,4852,55,57,6062,100

placenamesin.

SeePlacenames,commemorativesocialfunctionsof.

SeeHuntingmetaphorNarratives

History,WesternApacheconstructionof,3035,63,155

Humanecologists,66

Hunn,E.,xvii,156

Huntingmetaphor(''Stalking"),5862,69

Husserl,E.,106,159

Hymes,D.,xvi,xvii,158

'Ihi'na'Ha'itin,29

'Ilk'eejijeed*,28

'IstaaHadaanyol*,28

'ItsCh'iyaa'iltool*,152

Imagination,useof,inplacemaking,3,5,64,65,75,85,91,99,102,104,107,143,146,154

Johnson,S.andL.,xviii

JuniperTreeStandsAlone,17,1922

JuniperTreeStandsAlonePeople,21,22

K'aiCho'O'h,135

K'isDeeschii'Naaditin,79,97

Kailby*Bil*Naagozwod,23

Kari,J.,xvii

Kari,J.,andJ.Fall,156

Kelley,K.,andH.Francis,156

Kih*Dotl'izh*,142

Kluckhohn,C.,37,38

KolahDahch'ewoole*,29

 Page169

Labov,W.,andD.Fanshel,81

Lakoff,G.,andM.Johnson,68

Land,12,19,28,30,47,71,87,118,121,125,142,147,151,156

conceptsabout,3841,6164,67,68,70,156.

SeealsoEnvironmentLandscape

Landscape,4,13,24,33,40,57,6064,7176,78,81,99,101,102,104,107,109,110,146,158

Lavender,W.,39,61

Lewis,B.,38,39,46,53,61,62

LineOfBlueBelowRocks,23

LineOfRocksCirclesAround,135

LineOfWhiteRocksExtendsUpAndOut,46,79,80,93,94,100

LizardsDartAwayInFront,29

LongMountain,122

LongRedRidge,129

Lounsbury,F.,44

Lupe,E.,xviii

Lupe,N.,Sr.,xviii

Lupe,R.,xv,xvi,xviii,38,39,62,153

Ma'Thilizh*,123

Machuse,L.,xviii,7783,92,93,95102,157,158

Machuse,R.xvii,78,79,9799,102,157,158

Maps,xv,xvi,8,9,23,43,156

McCullers,C.,105

Memory,3,91,106,131,139,145,146

MenStandAboveHereAndThere,54,57

MerleauPonty,M.,xvi,82

Metaphor5862,68,69,131.SeealsoHuntingmetaphor

Momaday,S.,xvi,xvii,34,35,64,75,143,158

Morality,xv,51

MuchWaterFlowsUpAndOut,70

Munn,N.,xvii,158

Murphy,E.,xviii

Myers,F.,158

Myths,4851,154

Na'ischagiNaadeez'h,138

Na'isho*Bitsit'iiy,29

Naagosch'idTHayigeed,141

NadahNch''Golgaiy,13

NadahNch'',123

Narratives,32,33,40,62,64,70,80,86,87,99,110,117,121,134,13840,146,147,157,158

WesternApacheclassificationof,40,4858,8991

NavajosAreComing!,28

NdeeDahNaazin*,54

Ong,W.,155

Patterson,D.xvi,xvii,111,112,114,117,11921,132,134,135,13941,144,14648,159,160

Patterson,R.xviii,121,123,129,148,149

Peaches,A.,xviii,38,39,52,61,62

Peaches,T.,xviii

Placemaking,58,32,33,76,77,154

Placenames,xv,10,11,13,16,31,39,48,60,61,70,7577,80,82,83,86,87,8993,97,101,102,104,12022,125,128,151,152,154,156,157

commemorative,23,28,30,51,152

descriptive,23,2830,45,47,73,87,120

linguisticstructureof,4347,8891

Placeworld,6,11,13,14,19,32,154

Quay,A.,xviii

Quay,E.,xviii

Quay,I.,xviii

Quay,R.andN.,xviii

Radin,P.,68

Randall,V.,xviii

Ricoeur,P.,72

Rodman,M.,xiv

Rosaldo,R.,158

RottenField,29,126

Sa*Sil*Sidh,29

SanLeezhiteezhe*,29

Sapir,E.,43,44

Sartre,J.P.,xvi,108,158,159

ScatteredRocksStandErect,13

Senseofplace,xiii,xvi,35,106,110,120,14348,159

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Sensingplaces,107,143,144

ShadesOfShit,23,24,27,28

SheBecameOldSitting,29

SheCarriesHerBrotherOnHerBack,8,29

Sherzer,J.,xvii,158

Shils,E.,158

Silko,L.,xvi,63,64,156

Silverstein,M.,xvii,157

SlenderRedRockRidge,123

Snakes'Water,1315,17,31

Socialbehavior,enforcingcompliancewithstandardsof,41,5052,55,57,6062,118,119,139

Soja,E.,153

Soo*Ch'hi'ool*,148

Spicer,E.,30,31,155

Spinoza,B.,146

SpottedSlope,142

StandOfArrowCane,16

Storytelling,40,47,48,57,5962,69.SeealsoHuntingmetaphorNarratives

StuntedRisingUp,23

Symbols,useofplacesas,xiv,7,34,41,48,6063,68,69,72,75,76,89,100,101,105,109,14446

T'iisBitla'ah*T'Olne*,46,86,88,90

T'iisChoNaasikaad,52

T'iisSikaad,16,141

T'iisTs'sBil*Naagolgaiy,23

Tk'ehGodzig,29,126

Tessay,C.,andD.Tessay,xviii

Tessay,E.,22

Tessay,N.,Sr.,xviii

TheMounds,141

TheyAreGratefulForWater,29

TheyPiledOnTopOfEachOther,28

Thompson,N.xvii,3842,44,47,54,55,5862,65,69,70,141,160

Thompson,R.xviii

Thrapp,D.,155

Tl'ohk'aa*Sikaad,16

Tliish*BiT',14

Toponyms.SeePlacenames

Trager,G.,74

TrailExtendsAcrossARedRidgeWithAlderTrees,79,80,97,98

TrailExtendsAcrossScorchedRocks,23,135

TrailExtendsIntoAGroveOfSticklikeTrees,78

TrailGoesDownBetweenTwoHills,11316,11820,142

TrailToLifeGoesUp,29

TsBik'TYaahiln*46,88,90

TsChiizhDahSidil,53

TsDeeschii'Ts's*,123

TsDeesch',129

TsDitl'ige*Naaditin,23,135

TsDotl'izh*Tenaahijaaha*,23

TsDotl'izhi*Deez'h,141

TsHadigaiy,46,79,93,100

TsLigai*DahSidil38,87,88

TsLitsog*Deez'h,29

TsNaadadn'h,13

TsNzt'i',135

TsYaaditl'ishe*,23

Tsi*Biyi'itin,78

T'Ahiyi'eeNzine*,29

TNchaaHaln*,70

TNlcho'e*,15

TurquoiseRidge,141

Tzhi*'Yaahigaiy,23,79,95,124

TwoOldWomenAreBurried,29

Tyler,S.,xvii,157,158

ValleyWithLongRedBluffs,44

WaterFlowsDownOnASuccessionOfFlatRocks,46,88,90

WaterFlowsInwardUnderACottonwoodTree,46,86,88,90

WaterLiesWithMudInAnOpenContainer,8,11,12

Weiner,J.,158

WesternApachehistory,3035,63,155

WhiteMountainApacheTribalCouncil,8

WhiteRocksLieAboveInACompactCluster,38,87,88

WhitenessSpreadsOutDescendingToWater,23,79,80,95,96,124,125

Whiteriver,xv,19,78

WidowsPauseForBreath,8,28

Wilson,A.,andG.Dennison,156

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Wisdom,xv,28,63,105,111,115,12023,12631,13335,13840,143,14547,153,15860

Apacheconceptionsof,13040.

SeealsoAncestralknowledge

Worcester,D.,155

Worldview,40

Yaahilbige*,23

YellowRocksJutOut,29

Yudaha*Kaikaiy,28