International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 1287–1300

State of the art electrical discharge machining (EDM)

K.H. Ho, S.T. Newman ∗
Advanced Manufacturing Systems and Technology Centre, Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough
University, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK

Received 5 June 2003; accepted 10 June 2003

Abstract

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a well-established machining option for manufacturing geometrically complex or hard
material parts that are extremely difficult-to-machine by conventional machining processes. The non-contact machining technique
has been continuously evolving from a mere tool and die making process to a micro-scale application machining alternative attracting
a significant amount of research interests.
In recent years, EDM researchers have explored a number of ways to improve the sparking efficiency including some unique
experimental concepts that depart from the EDM traditional sparking phenomenon. Despite a range of different approaches, this
new research shares the same objectives of achieving more efficient metal removal coupled with a reduction in tool wear and
improved surface quality.
This paper reviews the research work carried out from the inception to the development of die-sinking EDM within the past
decade. It reports on the EDM research relating to improving performance measures, optimising the process variables, monitoring
and control the sparking process, simplifying the electrode design and manufacture. A range of EDM applications are highlighted
together with the development of hybrid machining processes. The final part of the paper discusses these developments and outlines
the trends for future EDM research.
 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Electrical discharge machining (EDM)

1. Introduction when English chemist Joseph Priestly discovered the

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is one of the
most extensively used non-conventional material
removal processes. Its unique feature of using thermal
energy to machine electrically conductive parts regard-
less of hardness has been its distinctive advantage in the
manufacture of mould, die, automotive, aerospace and
surgical components. In addition, EDM does not make
direct contact between the electrode and the workpiece
eliminating mechanical stresses, chatter and vibration
problems during machining. Today, an electrode as
small as 0.1 mm can be used to ‘drill’ holes into curved
surfaces at steep angles without drill ‘wander’ [1].
The basis of EDM can be traced as far back as 1770,
∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-1509-227660; fax: +44-1509-
227648.
E-mail address: s.t.newman@lboro.ac.uk (S.T. Newman).
erosive effect of electrical discharges or sparks [2].
However, it was only in 1943 at the Moscow University
where Lazarenko and Lazarenko [3] exploited the
destructive properties of electrical discharges for con-
structive use. They developed a controlled process of
machining difficult-to-machine metals by vapourising
material from the surface of metal. The Lazarenko EDM
system used resistance–capacitance type of power sup-
ply, which was widely used at the EDM machine in the
1950s and later served as the model for successive devel-
opment in EDM [4].
There have been similar claims made at about the
same time when three American employees came up
with the notion of using electrical charges to remove
broken taps and drills from hydraulic valves. Their work
became the basis for the vacuum tube EDM machine
and an electronic-circuit servo system that automatically
provided the proper electrode-to-workpiece spacing
(spark gap) for sparking, without the electrode con-

0890-6955/$ - see front matter  2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0890-6955(03)00162-7
1288 K.H. Ho, S.T. Newman / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 1287–1300
tacting the workpiece [5]. It was only in the 1980s with
the advent of computer numerical control (CNC) in
EDM that brought about tremendous advances in
improving the efficiency of the machining operation.
CNC has facilitated total EDM, which implied an auto-
matic and unattended machining from inserting the elec-
trodes in the tool changer to a finished polished cavity
or cavities [6]. These growing merits of EDM have since
then been intensely sought by the manufacturing indus-
tries yielding enormous economic benefits and generat-
ing keen research interests.
This paper provides a review on the various research
activities carried out in the past decade involving the
EDM (Die-Sinking) process. Although the technique of
material erosion employed in EDM is still arguable [7–
10], the widely accepted principle of the process based
on thermal conduction is presented as a process over-
view together with the applications. The core of the
paper identifies the major EDM academic research area
with the headings of EDM performance measures, EDM
operating parameters along with electrode design and
manufacture. The final part of the paper discusses these
topics and suggests future direction for the EDM
research.
2. EDM
This section provides the basic fundamentals of the
EDM process and the variations of process combining
other material removal methods.
2.1. EDM process
The material erosion mechanism primarily makes use
of electrical energy and turns it into thermal energy
through a series of discrete electrical discharges occur-
ring between the electrode and workpiece immersed in
a dielectric fluid [11]. The thermal energy generates a
channel of plasma between the cathode and anode [12]
at a temperature in the range of 8000 to 12,000 °C [13]
or as high as 20,000 °C [14] initialising a substantial
amount of heating and melting of material at the surface
of each pole. When the pulsating direct current supply
occurring at the rate of approximately 20,000–30,000 Hz
[15] is turned off, the plasma channel breaks down. This
causes a sudden reduction in the temperature allowing
the circulating dielectric fluid to implore the plasma
channel and flush the molten material from the pole sur-
faces in the form of microscopic debris.
This process of melting and evaporating material from
the workpiece surface is in complete contrast to the con-
ventional machining processes, as chips are not mechan-
ically produced. The volume of material removed per
discharge is typically in the range of 10⫺6–10⫺4 mm3
and the material removal rate (MRR) is usually between
2 and 400 mm3/min [1] depending on specific appli-
cation. Since the shaped electrode defines the area in
which the spark erosion will occur, the accuracy of the
part produced after EDM is fairly high. After all, EDM
is a reproductive shaping process in which the form of
the electrode is mirrored in the workpiece [16].
2.2. EDM variations
A number of EDM variations based on this basic con-
figuration have emerged in the industry to cope with the
machining of exotic materials or super hard metal alloys
used exclusively in the manufacture of aeronautical and
aerospace parts. Wire-cut EDM (WEDM) is one of the
most favourable variants owing to its ability to machine
conductive, exotic and high strength and temperature
resistive (HSTR) materials with the scope of generating
intricate shapes and profiles [17]. It uses a thin continu-
ously travelling wire feeding through the workpiece by
a micro-processor eliminating the need for elaborate pre-
shaped electrodes, which are required in the EDM.
There is widespread academic and industrial interest
in the development and use of hybrid machining process
(HMP) involving high-speed machining (HSM), grind-
ing, EDM and laser beam machining (LBM) [18]. It util-
ises both conventional and unconventional material
removal processes making use of the combined advan-
tages and limiting the adverse effects when applied indi-
vidually. Several studies on the combined machining
technology of ultrasonic machining (USM) and EDM
have been carried out [19–21]. Other more specialised
variations include electrical discharge texturing (EDT)
used for the texturing of cold rolled steel and aluminium
sheets [22] and electrical discharge grinding (EDG) used
for the manufacture of polycrystalline diamond cutting
tools [23]. EDG has also been applied in the automatic
removal of cusps and fitting of a pair of dies [24].
3. EDM applications
This section discusses some of the applications of
EDM commonly found in the industry. It also includes
other experimental interests providing a feasible expan-
sion of EDM applications.
3.1. Heat-treated materials
In some applications, EDM has replaced traditional
machining processes such as the milling of heat-treated
tool steels. Milled material has to be within an accept-
able hardness range of less than 30–35 HRC with ordi-
nary cutting tools [25]. However, EDM allows tool steels
to be treated to full hardness before machining, avoiding
the problems of dimensional variability, which are
characteristic of post-treatment [26].
 K.H. Ho, S.T. Newman / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 1287–1300
Since EDM does not induce mechanical stresses dur-
ing machining, it provides an additional advantage in the
manufacture of intricate products. Weng and Her [27]
carried out several successful experiments involving an
electrode of 50 µm diameter and a multi-electrode for
the batch production of micro-parts. The proposed
method significantly reduces the production time and
costs of fabricating both the electrodes and parts.
3.2. Micro-EDM
The recent trend in reducing the size of products has
given micro-EDM a significant amount of research atten-
tion. Micro-EDM is capable of machining not only
micro-holes and micro-shafts as small as 5 µm in diam-
eter but also complex three-dimensional (3D) micro-
cavities [28]. This is unlike mechanical drilling, which
can produce holes just up to 70 µm, or the micro-fabri-
cation process such as laser machining, which can only
create holes of 40 µm [29]. Masuzawa et al. [30–32]
also made several successful attempts producing micro-
parts such as micro-pins, micro-nozzles and micro-cavi-
ties using micro-EDM. In addition, a feasibility study of
applying micro-EDM as an alternative method for pro-
ducing photo-masks used in the integrated circuit (IC)
industry has been conducted [33].
Other applications include the general interest in
developing trajectory EDM to solve the machining prob-
lems of water-cooling channels used in moulds or mani-
folds. Ishida and Takeuchi [34] recently proposed a tra-
jectory EDM technique facilitating the electrode to move
along a smooth trajectory, while performing EDM elimi-
nating the conventional drilling or boring operation
required. Other attempts [35,36] have also been made on
trajectory EDM but special apparatus or complex control
mechanism is needed to develop the trajectory motion
of electrode.
3.3. Ceramic
The EDM of advanced ceramics has been widely
accepted by the metal cutting industry owing to the com-
petitive machining costs and features. There are different
grades of engineering ceramics, which Konig et al. [16]
classified as non-conductor, natural-conductor and con-
ductor (a result of doping non-conductors with conduc-
tive elements). Sanchez et al. [37] provided a literature
survey on the EDM of advanced ceramics, which have
been commonly machined by USM and LBM. In the
same paper, they proved the feasibility of machining
boron carbide (B4C) and silicon infiltrated silicon car-
bide (SiSiC) using EDM and WEDM. A HMP combin-
ing USM and EDM was also experimented to enhance
the dielectric circulation in the spark gap, when machin-
ing engineering ceramics with significant improvement
1289
in the performance measures and reduction in the thick-
ness of the white layer [38].
In recent years, the use of EDM for ceramics has over-
come the technological limitation of the process requir-
ing the electrical resistance of material with threshold
values of approximately 100 [16] or 300 ⍀/cm [39].
Mohri et al. [40] brought a new perspective to this tra-
ditional EDM phenomenon by using an assisting elec-
trode facilitating the sparking of insulating ceramics.
Both EDM and WEDM have been successfully tested
for diffusing conductive particles from assisting elec-
trodes onto the surface of Sialon ceramics or silicon
nitride (Si3N4). Other types of insulating ceramics
materials including oxide ceramics such as zirconia
(ZrO2) and alumina (Al2O3), which have very limiting
electrical conductive properties have also been examined
based on the same technique [41]. On the other hand,
Matsuo and Oshima [42] investigated the EDM of ZrO2
and Al2O3 by doping with carbide (NbC or TiC), thereby
increasing the electrical conductivity of the materials.
3.4. Modern composite materials
The development of different modern composite
materials in the last decade has led to an expansion of
EDM applications. Yan et al. [43] surveyed the various
machining processes performed on metal matrix com-
posites (MMC) and experimented with the machining of
Al2O3/6061Al composite using rotary EDM coupled
with a disc-like electrode. The feasibility of machining
ceramic–metal composite steel plate coated with WC–
Co (tungsten carbide–cobalt) using plasma spraying was
also examined [44]. The coating of WC–Co onto parts
by means of plasma spraying is used extensively in the
automobile and aerospace industry to prevent erosion
and wear. Muller and Monaghan [45] compared the
EDM of particle reinforced metal matrix composite
(PRMMC) with other non-conventional machining pro-
cesses such as LBM and abrasive water jet (AWJ). It
was found that EDM was suitable for machining
PRMMC with a relatively small amount of sub-surface
damage but the MRR was very slow.
4. Major areas of EDM research
In this section, the authors have arranged the research
areas in EDM under three major headings. The first
relates to machining performance measures such as
material removal, tool wear and surface quality (SQ) and
also surveys them. The second area describes the effects
of process parameters including electrical and non-elec-
trical variables, which are required to optimise the stoch-
astic nature of the sparking process on the performance
measures. Finally, research concerning the design and
manufacture of electrodes is reported.
1290 K.H. Ho, S.T. Newman / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 1287–1300
4.1. EDM performance measures
A significant number of papers have been focussed on
ways of yielding optimal EDM performance measures
of high MRR, low tool wear rate (TWR) and satisfactory
SQ. This section provides a study into each of the per-
formance measures and the methods for their improve-
ment.
4.1.1. Material removal
4.1.1.1. Material removal mechanism Several rese-
arches have explained the material removal mechanism
(MRM) in terms of the migration of material elements
between the workpiece and electrode. Soni and Chakrav-
erti [46] showed an appreciable amount of elements
diffusing from the electrode to the workpiece and vice-
versa. These elements are transported in solid, liquid or
gaseous state and alloyed with the contacting surface by
undergoing a solid, molten or gaseous-phase reaction
[47]. The types of eroded electrode and workpiece
elements together with the disintegrated products of
dielectric fluid significantly affect the MRM relating to
the three phases of sparking, namely breakdown, dis-
charge and erosion [48]. In addition, reversing the
polarity of sparking alters the material removal phenom-
enon with an appreciable amount of electrode material
depositing on the workpiece surface [49].
Other ways of explaining the MRM have also been
reported by different authors. Singh and Ghosh [50]
showed that the electrostatic forces and stress distri-
bution acting on the cathode electrode were the major
causes of metal removal for short pulses. Gadalla and
Tsai [51] attributed the material removal of WC–Co
composite to the melting and evaporation of disinte-
grated Co followed by the dislodging of WC gains,
which have a lower electrical conductivity. However,
Lee and Lau [52] argued that thermal spalling also con-
tributes to the MRM during the sparking of composite
ceramics due to the physical and mechanical properties
promoting abrupt temperature gradients from normal
melting and evaporation.
4.1.1.2. Methods of improving material removal rate
The application of CNC to EDM has helped to explore
the possibility of using alternative types of tooling to
improve the MRR. EDM commonly employs 3D profile
electrodes, which are costly and time-consuming to
manufacture for the sparking process. However, experi-
mental work has been performed with a frame electrode
generating linear and circular swept surfaces by means
of controlling the electrode axial motion [53]. A similar
machining technique using a wire frame electrode was
conducted to compare the time taken to machine a cubic
cavity using a 3D solid electrode [54]. These techniques
eliminate the need to utilise the 3D electrode to perform
the roughing operation by replacing the simple electrode
to remove unwanted material in a complete block
improving the machining efficiency and MRR.
EDM has further exploited the capability of CNC in
providing multi-axis movements for simple electrodes
producing complex 3D shape parts. Several authors
[25,55] successfully experimented and investigated the
machining characteristics of contour machining with
simple cylindrical electrodes. Bleys et al. [56] referred
the novel machining technique to milling EDM
(MEDM), which eliminates the need of producing and
storing various types of 3D electrodes for different kinds
of workpiece shapes. Wong and Noble [57] introduced
more complex motions to the cylindrical electrode by
using a micro-computer controlled XY table.
Another promising MRR improvement technique has
also been made recently by modifying the basic principle
of EDM, which only delivers single discharge for each
electrical pulse. Kunieda and Muto [58] experimented a
multi-electrode discharging system delivering additional
discharge simultaneously from a corresponding electrode
connected serially. The design of electrode was based
on the Mohri et al. [59] concept of dividing an electrode
into multiple electrodes, which are electrically insulated.
The TWR and energy efficiency were claimed to be bet-
ter than the conventional EDM without any significant
difference in the surface roughness (SR). An oxygen
assisted EDM system, which greatly improves the MRR
was tested also by supplying oxygen into the discharge
gap [60].
4.1.2. Tool wear
4.1.2.1. Tool wear process The tool wear process
(TWP) is quite similar to the MRM as the tool and work-
piece are considered as a set of electrodes in EDM.
Mohri et al. [61] claimed that tool wear is affected by
the precipitation of carbon from the hydrocarbon dielec-
tric onto the electrode surface during sparking. They also
argued that the rapid wear on the electrode edge was due
to the failure of carbon to precipitate at difficult-to-reach
regions of the electrode.
From this simple understanding of TWP, some useful
applications exploiting both the advantages and disad-
vantages of electrode wear have been developed. Mar-
afona and Wykes [62] introduced a wear inhibitor carbon
layer on the electrode surface by adjusting the settings of
the process parameters prior to normal EDM conditions.
Although the thickness of the carbon inhibitor layer
made a significant improvement on the TWR, it has little
effect on the MRR. On the other hand, for applications
requiring material accretion, a large pulse current is
encouraged to increase electrode wear implanting elec-
trode material onto the workpiece [63].
4.1.2.2. Methods of improving tool wear rate The
orbiting of the electrode relative to the workpiece is the
most common machining strategy of compensating the
 K.H. Ho, S.T. Newman / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 1287–1300
tool wear. It involves the electrode making a planetary
motion producing an effective flushing action, which
improves the part accuracy and process efficiency [64].
The orbiting technique also reduces the number of differ-
ent electrodes required for initial roughing and final fin-
ishing operations. In order to optimise the electrode tra-
jectory in real-time, a computer integrated planetary
machining strategy based on continuous adaptation of
machining parameters was developed [65].
Similar tool wear compensation strategies have also
been applied to MEDM, which is commonly executed
in thin layers using simple cylindrical or tubular elec-
trodes. Yu et al. [32] introduced a uniform tool wear
machining method compensating the longitudinal tool
wear by applying an overlapping to-and-fro machining
motion. Bleys et al. [56] initially evaluated the reduction
of tool length based on pulse analysis and subsequently
compensated the tool wear by controlling the machining
downward feeding movement in real-time. Other authors
[66] derived the measurement of tool wear from the
study of pulse characteristics based on discharge voltage
fall time. On the other hand, Kunieda et al. [67] reduced
the tool wear ratio by performing MEDM using high-
velocity gas as the dielectric medium.
The different methods of simulating the EDM process
also provide a good opportunity of understanding and
compensating the tool wear. Dauw [68] developed a geo-
metrical simulation of EDM illustrating the development
of tool wear and part geometry. It is also considered as
an off-line process planning technique as the simulation
algorithm is largely based on MRR, TWR and spark gap.
However, the simulation of discharge location and spark
gap, which are dependent on the distribution of debris
concentration, was reported to yield a more realistic rep-
resentation of the sparking phenomenon [69]. Other
methods include a reverse simulation of EDM obtaining
the shape of the electrode based on the desired work-
piece shape [70].
4.1.3. Surface quality
4.1.3.1. Surface quality analysis The electrical dis-
charge machined (EDMed) surface is made up of three
distinctive layers consisting of white layer/recast layer,
heat affected zone (HAZ) and unaffected parent metal
[71,72]. Lim et al. [73] provided a review on the metal-
lurgy of EDMed surface, which is dependent on the sol-
idification behaviour of molten metal after the discharge
cessation and subsequent phase transformation. The
thickness of the recast layer formed on the workpiece
surface and the level of thermal damage suffered by the
electrode can be determined by analysing the growth of
the plasma channel during sparking [74].
Since the white layer is the topmost layer exposed to
the environment, it exerts a great influence on the surface
properties of the workpiece. Several authors discovered
the presence of micro-cracks and high tensile residual
1291
stresses on the EDMed surface caused by the high tem-
perature gradient [75]. The adverse effect of discharge
energy also provided some insights on the fatigue
strength of the workpiece, which propagates from the
multiple surface imperfections within the recast layer
[76].
In addition, the EDMed surface has a relatively high
micro-hardness, which can be explained by the emi-
gration of carbon from the oil dielectrics to the work-
piece surface forming iron carbides in the white layer
[77]. The concentration of carbides, both as surface layer
on the workpiece and as fine powder debris, is dependent
on the frequency and polarity of the applied current
together with other processing parameters such as pulse
shape, gap spacing and dielectrics temperature [78].
However, Thomson [10] argued that the pulse duration
and type of electrode material under a paraffin dielectric
has little effect on the amount of carbon contamination.
Thomson also suggested that the number and size of
micro-cracks increase with pulse duration when machin-
ing with copper electrode.
4.1.3.2. Methods of improving surface quality
(i) Surface alloying: The surface alloying method using
the composite electrode to improve the surface
properties of the workpiece has been reported by a
number of authors [11,79–82]. The composite elec-
trode is also referred to as the green compact, sin-
tered or powder metallurgy (PM) electrode. It has
low thermal conductivity allowing the composite
material to disintegrate from the electrode and alloy
onto the workpiece surface producing less cracks,
high corrosion and wear resistance. Simao et al. [83]
provided a review on the PM electrode and identified
the effect of various operating parameters on achiev-
ing the desired workpiece surface characteristics.
(ii) Ball burnish machining: In addition, the feasibility
studies of using EDM with ball burnish machining
(BEDM) have been experimented to improve the
workpiece surface integrity. BEDM uses hard
smooth balls attached to the electrode to form a plas-
tic deformation layer on the workpiece surface dur-
ing sparking yielding a hardened and modified sur-
face micro-structure [84,85]. It also improves the
corrosion resistance, fatigue strength and SR of the
workpiece surface [86,87]. The influence of process
parameters on obtaining optimal MRR, TWR and
SR using BEDM was studied by some authors [75].
Yan et al. [88] applied rotary motion to BEDM
which further improves the MRR and SR when com-
pared to conventional EDM.
(iii) Powder addictives: Lately, powders are suspended
in the dielectric fluid as another means of improving
the surface properties. The powder particles facili-
tate the ignition process by creating a higher dis-
1292 K.H. Ho, S.T. Newman / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 1287–1300
charge probability and lowering the breakdown
strength of the insulating dielectric fluid [89]. As a
result, it increases the MRR, reduces the TWR and
improves the sparking efficiency producing a strong
corrosion resistant EDMed surface [90–92]. More-
over, the presence of powders in the dielectric fluid
increases the micro-hardness and reduces the
micro-cracks on the EDMed surface due to a
reduction of losing alloying elements residing onto
the workpiece [93]. Luo [94] reported an improve-
ment in machining stability and discharge transitiv-
ity during EDM due to a decline in arcing frequency
contributed by the even distribution of gap debris.
(iv) Surface finish simulation: In the past few decades,
a few EDM modelling tools correlating the process
variables and surface finish have been developed.
Tsai and Wang [7] established several surface finish
models based on various neural-networks taking the
effects of electrode polarity into account. They sub-
sequently developed a semi-empirical model, which
is dependent on the thermal, physical and electrical
properties of the workpiece and electrode together
with pertinent process parameters. It was noted that
the later model produces a more reliable surface
finish prediction for a given work under different
process conditions [8]. Jeswani et al. [9,71] studied
the effects of workpiece and electrode materials on
SR and suggested an empirical model, which
focussed solely on pulse energy, whereas Zhang et
al. [95] proposed an empirical model, built on both
peak current and pulse duration, for the machining
of ceramics. It was realised that the discharge cur-
rent has a greater effect on the MRR while the
pulse-on time has more influence on the SR and
white layer.
4.2. EDM process parameters
This section focusses on the effects of process para-
meters such as electrical and non-electrical parameters
on the various performance measures.
4.2.1. Effect of electrical parameters
The stochastic thermal nature of the EDM process
makes it difficult to explain experimentally all the effects
of electrical parameters on the individual performance
measures. Thus, this section describes research in the
areas of optimisation, monitoring and control of the vari-
ous electrical parameters on the performance measures.
4.2.1.1. Parameter optimisation Traditionally, the
selection of the most favourable process parameters was
based on experience or handbook values, which pro-
duced inconsistent machining performance. However,
the optimisation of parameters now relies on process
analysis to identify the effect of operating variables on
achieving the desired machining characteristics. Lin et
al. [96] employed grey relational analysis for solving the
complicated interrelationships between process para-
meters and the multiple performance measures of the
EDM process.
Other works have applied the Taguchi approach to
analyse and design the ideal EDM process. Marafona
and Wykes [62] used the Taguchi method to improve the
TWR by introducing high carbon content to the electrode
prior to the normal sparking process. Lin et al. [97]
employed it with a set of fuzzy logic to optimise the
process parameters taking the various performance mea-
sures into consideration. Tzeng and Chen [98] optimised
the high-speed EDM process by making use of dynamic
signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio to classify the process vari-
ables into input signal, control and noise factors generat-
ing a dynamic range of output responses.
4.2.1.2. Process monitoring and control
(i) Pulse parameters: The real-time monitoring and con-
trol of EDM process has often been built on the
identification of different pulses. EDM pulses can be
classified into open, spark, arc, off or short pulses,
which are dependent on the ignition delay time, and
have a direct influence on the MRR, SR and accuracy
of the part [99]. Therefore, the recognition and classi-
fication of the different pulses provide a viable option
of monitoring and controlling the sparking process
by measuring the related gap voltage and current.
Kao and Tarng [100] proposed a neutral-network
method, while Liu and Tarng [101] suggested an
abductive network method of classifying and reg-
ulating the EDM pulses occurring at varying machin-
ing conditions. Weck and Dehmer [102] studied the
effect of different pulses on MRR together with
TWR and developed an adaptive gap controller,
which reduces the number of undesirable pulses.
(ii) Time domain: However, several authors [103–105]
argued that the gap voltage is not a good indicator
of the dynamic responses taking place at the spark
gap largely due to the high frequency (HF) noise
component. These authors instead suggested moni-
toring the time ratio of transient arc measured by
the pulse-on time, which shows the trend towards
undesirable arcing. Yu et al. [106] also studied the
time domain of different pulses and presented a
wavelet transform serving as an input signal for an
online monitoring and control systems. Wang et al.
[107] measured the various transient pulses and
regulated the cycle time of periodical retraction
(auto-jumping) of electrode avoiding arcing damage
and machining instability during sparking process.
A self-tuning regulator for an EDM servo control
system, which directly adjusts the servo feed rate
 K.H. Ho, S.T. Newman / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 1287–1300
based on the discharge time ratios from the gap has
also been reported [108].
(iii) Fuzzy logic: The application of fuzzy logic to the
adaptive control system provides a reliable pulse
discriminating role during the EDM process. Sev-
eral authors claimed that the fuzzy logic control
implements a control strategy that is adopted by a
skilled operator to maintain the desired machining
process [109]. Tarng et al. [110] suggested a fuzzy
pulse discriminator established on the linguistic
rules acquired from the knowledge of experts and
expressed mathematically through the theory of
fuzzy sets. However, the definition of membership
functions for each fuzzy set is not straightforward
and is based on exploratory means to classify vari-
ous discharge pulses. Tarng and Jang [111] shortly
proposed the use of genetic algorithms (GAs) to
synthesise the required membership functions auto-
matically.
(iv) Radio frequency: In addition, the emitted radio fre-
quency (RF) or HF signal generated during EDM
has been used to monitor and control the sparking
process. Bhattacharyya and El-Menshawy
[112,113] developed an RF monitoring system pro-
viding a pulse control to the machine power gener-
ator by examining the RF signal created from the
spark gap. The RF monitoring system detects any
drop in the intensity of signals to a threshold value
whenever the discharge changes from sparking to
arcing. Rajurkar and Wang [114] provided a good
review on the research and development of
advanced monitoring and control systems.
4.2.2. Effect of non-electrical parameters
Besides electrical parameters, non-electrical para-
meters such as the flushing of dielectric fluid together
with the rotational movement of the workpiece and elec-
trode also play a critical role in delivering optimal per-
formance measures. This section discusses the effects of
non-electrical parameters on the various performance
measures.
4.2.2.1. Flushing of dielectric fluid The flushing of
the dielectric during the sparking process has an adverse
effect on the EDM performance measures. Lonardo and
Bruzzone [115] revealed that flushing during the rough-
ing operation affected the MRR and TWR, while in the
finishing operation, it influenced the SR. The flushing
rate also influences the crack density and recast layer,
which can be minimised by obtaining an optimal flush-
ing rate [116]. In addition, the different properties of the
dielectric fluid also play a vital role in flushing away the
debris from the machining gap. Tool wear and MRR are
dependent on the breakdown resistance, conductivity,
viscosity, flash point, health and safety factors of dielec-
tric fluids [117]. The possibility of using water instead of
1293
kerosene as the working fluid for micro-EDM has been
experimented [118]. The result revealed a high MRR and
low TWR without any metal carbides forming on the
workpiece surface.
Benedict [119] broadly classified the most common
flushing methods delivered under constant pressure into
five main categories. The dielectrics can be delivered
down or up through the electrode, by means of vacuum
flow, vibration or jet flushing. A dynamic jet flushing
with moving nozzles that sweep along the sparking gap
providing an even distribution of debris concentration
has been reported recently [120]. Other alternative ways
of improving the flushing condition involve making rela-
tive motion between tool and workpiece. These include
making an electrode planetary movement at the lateral
gap allowing dielectrics to flow in from one side and
leave at the other side of workpiece [121]. Several
authors [122] applied magnetic fields to transport mag-
netic debris through the gap while, others [123] used
controlled forced vibration to evacuate debris effectively
from the sparking gap. The application of ultrasonic
vibration on both electrodes facilitating an induced
flushing within the gap has also been evaluated [124].
4.2.2.2. Rotating the workpiece Besides the flushing
of the dielectric, the techniques of applying rotational
motion to the sparking process also affect the EDM per-
formance. Guu and Hocheng [125] provided a workpiece
rotary motion to improve the circulation of the dielectric
fluid in the spark gap and temperature distribution of the
workpiece yielding better MRR and SR. On the other
hand, Kunieda and Masuzawa [126] proposed a horizon-
tal EDM (HEDM) process in which the main machining
axis is horizontal instead of the conventional vertical
axis. The change in the basic construction in addition to
the rotary motion of the workpiece offered an accessible
evacuation of debris improving the erosion efficiency
and accuracy of the sparking process. HEDM has also
been experimented in the micro-machining of small parts
[127,128]. Moreover, an electrode fabrication system
using wire electro-discharge grinding (WEDG) [28,30]
was installed in these prototype machines making it
possible to fabricate the complex micro-electrode at the
same machine and maintain the concentricity of the
parts produced.
4.2.2.3. Rotating the electrode Similarly, the rotary
motion has been introduced to the electrode to improve
the performance measures of the EDM process. It serves
as an effective gap flushing technique, which signifi-
cantly improves the MRR and SR [43,118,129]. The
same alloying effect of migrating material elements from
the workpiece and tool is also observed, in relation to
the morphology, chemical composition and size distri-
bution of debris, when using rotating electrodes [130].
Soni and Chakraverti [131] compared the various per-
1294 K.H. Ho, S.T. Newman / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 1287–1300
formance measures of rotating electrode with the station-
ary electrode. The results showed an improvement in
MRR due to the better flushing action and sparking
efficiency with little tool wear but the SR was high. On
the other hand, Enache et al. [123,132] studied the
effects of the controlled force vibration introduced to the
electrode on the various performance measures. It was
found that the vibratory motion yields comparable
effects as the rotary motion of electrode improving the
MRR, enhancing the SQ of workpiece and increasing
the stability of machining process.
4.3. Electrode design and manufacture
This section describes the different computer-aided
systems that have been experimentally implemented in
the design of the electrode. The major research interest
in the production of electrodes using the rapid prototyp-
ing technique is also included in the section.
4.3.1. Computer assisted electrode design
The design and manufacture of an electrode has pro-
gressed along with the technological advancement made
in the various computer-aided systems. A CAD system
is capable of creating the electrode and holder designs
from the workpiece 3D geometry and identifying any
undesirable sharp corners on the designs, which are dif-
ficult to produce, by measuring the surface angle along
the edges [133]. The recent development in CAD/CAM
systems and communications controls has also provided
a thorough integration towards the design and manufac-
ture of electrodes by selecting essential machining para-
meters prior to the machining operation [134]. A com-
puter-aided process planning (CAPP) system for
electrode design has also been built using feature-based
workpiece description [135].
In view of the growing concern for green manufactur-
ing, Yeo and New [136] developed an environmentally
friendly process planning system using a multi-objective
analysis for the EDM process. The system takes both the
environment impact, such as process energy and waste,
and traditional manufacturing measures, such as pro-
duction rate and quality, into account when performing
the process planning. DeVries et al. [137] suggested the
integration of EDM within the computer integrated
manufacturing (CIM) environment. However, DeVries
stated that the large inconsistencies in the way the EDM
process parameters and generator settings were pro-
grammed have hindered the standardisation and inte-
gration within the CIM environment.
4.3.2. Rapid tooling manufacture
A number of research works have explored the appli-
cation of rapid prototyping (RP) techniques in the pro-
duction of electrode. The various routes of manufactur-
ing the rapid tooling (RT) electrode are classified as
either the direct or indirect approach [26]. The direct
manufacturing route uses a PR (positive/male) model,
while the indirect route uses RP (negative/female) cavity
as an immediate step to machine the RT electrode. The
direct laser sintering of metal powders for the manufac-
ture of the RT electrode, which is subsequently electro-
less copper and copper electroplated to improve the sur-
face finish and conductivity of the sintered electrode has
been studied [138]. The performance of sintered copper
electrodes is comparable to that of solid copper electrode
but the dimensional accuracy of the former electrode
during electroplating was inconsistent affecting the accu-
racy of the part produced. Yang and Leu [139] experi-
mented the indirect technique of generating mould cavi-
ties and RT electrodes by electroforming of RP masters.
However, the thermal deformations caused by the
removal of metal shell from RP master and backfilling
of electroformed metal shell with molten metal are the
major sources of inaccuracy in producing the RT elec-
trode.
Despite the unsatisfactory performance of the RT
electrode, the potential of manufacturing it using RP
technology can still be proven to be a viable option when
a better understanding of the various failure modes is
recognised. Arthur and Dickens [140] noted that the RT
electrodes generate greater heat at higher MRR resulting
in a combination of delamination, thinning and distortion
of electrodes. They suggested measuring the thermal
condition within the electrode so that the machining pro-
cess could be optimised thereby improving the perform-
ance of PR electrode. On the other hand, Durr et al. [141]
studied the effects of porosity on the wear and erosion
behaviour of RT electrodes. They proposed a subsequent
treatment of RT electrodes by infiltration with silver-
containing brazing metal minimising the porosity and
improving the performance of the sintered electrode.
5. Discussion and future EDM research direction
The authors have classified the numerous EDM
research interests referred in the paper into four different
major areas. Fig. 1 shows the classification, which is
used in this section to discuss the various research areas
and possible future research directions.
5.1. Optimising the process variables
The EDM process has a very strong stochastic nature
due to the complicated discharge mechanisms [142]
making it difficult to optimise the sparking process. The
optimisation of the process often involves relating the
various process variables with the performance measures
maximising the MRR, while minimising the TWR and
yielding the desired SR. In several cases, S/N ratio
together with the analysis of variance (ANOVA) tech-
 K.H. Ho, S.T. Newman / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 1287–1300 1295

Fig. 1. Classification of major EDM research areas (correspondung section numbers are in brackets).

niques are used to measure the amount of deviation from
the desired performance measures and identify the cru-
cial process variables affecting the process responses.
The process variables include not only the electrical
but also non-electrical parameters, which have received
quite a substantial amount of research interest. As dis-
cussed in Section 4.1, these research works explored new
and different ways of delivering a more efficient and
stabilised sparking process improving the commonly
observed performance measures. In addition, the feasi-
bility of manufacturing the electrode using the RP tech-
nique has been extensively studied to improve the per-
formance of tools and sparking. Therefore, with the
continuous research effort made in understanding the
initialisation and development of sparking process, the
different means of optimising the various process vari-
ables will continue to be a major area of further develop-
ment reducing the stochastic sparking characteristic.
adaptive control system will continue to receive a defi-
nite amount of research attention. Such a move will in
turn create considerable economic benefits for EDM in
terms of training and operating costs.
5.3. Improving the performance measures
As shown in Fig. 2, a vast majority of research work
have been concerned with the improvement made to the
performance indices, such as MRR, TWR and SR. Much
of this research has departed from the traditional spark-
ing phenomenon yielding higher machining efficiency
and better performance measures. This is partly due to
the application of CNC to EDM facilitating the MRM
and improving the tool wear compensation techniques.

5.2. Monitoring and control of the process

The monitoring and control of the EDM process are

often based on the identification and regulation of
adverse arcing occurring during the sparking process.
Most of the approaches measure pulse and time domain
parameters to differentiate the arc pulses from the rest
of EDM pulses. The option of using emitted RF has also
been experimented but generates very little research
interest. As for the adaptive control system, it mainly
relies on the application of fuzzy logic to maintain the
machining process. As mentioned in Section 4.2.1.2, the
fuzzy logic provides a control strategy that is equivalent
to the expertise and experience of a skilled operator.
However, it is not easy to establish the pulse discriminat-
ing function, which is based on trail-and-error means of
differentiating the various EDM pulses.
Therefore, there is a need to develop a highly stable
EDM servo control system either to improve the current
machining performance or to meet the future needs of
machining advanced materials [16]. Moreover, with the
perpetual push towards unattended EDM operation, Fig. 2. Distribution of the collected EDM research publications.
1296 K.H. Ho, S.T. Newman / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 1287–1300
Fig. 3. Classification of Die-Sinking EDM machine.
As a result, the potential of using simple tooling to gen-
erate complex 3D cavity without employing a costly 3D
profile electrode was reported and mentioned in Section
4.1.1.2. Such a technique greatly benefits the EDM pro-
cess by reducing the large proportion of cost and the
time factor of producing the electrode, which accounts
for over 50% of the total machining cost [143]. In
addition, the SQ of the EDMed part has been the main
research focus generating a huge number of improve-
ment methods varying from surface alloying and modi-
fication techniques to the addition of powder additives.
Hence, a constant drive towards appreciating the
MRM, TWP and metallurgy of the EDMed surface will
continue to grow with the intention of offering a more
effective means of improving the performance measures.
Furthermore, the traditional EDM will gradually evolve
towards MEDM by further manipulating the capability
of CNC but the MRR will remain a prime concern in
fulfilling the demand of machining part in a shorter lead-
time.
5.4. EDM developments
The different advances made at the EDM machine
have jointly progressed with the growing applications of
EDM process. EDM has long been employed in the auto-
motive, aerospace, mould, tool and die making indus-
tries. It has also made a significant inroad in the medical,
optical, dental and jewellery industries, and in automo-
tive and aerospace R&D areas [144]. These applications
demand stringent machining requirements, such as the
machining of HSTR materials, which generate strong
research interests and prompt EDM machine manufac-
turers to improve the machining characteristics. The
authors have classified the EDM machine into the vari-
ous physical characteristics as shown in Fig. 3, which
clearly distinguishes the different types of machine fea-
tures affecting performance measures, machining
capacity and auxiliary facilities of EDM machine.
In addition, the short product development cycles and
growing cost pressures have forced the die and mould
making industries to increase the EDM efficiency [98].
One of the unique options of improving the machining
performance involves the HMP combining EDM process
with other material removal processes. The most popular
and highly effective arrangement includes the USM
delivering ultrasonic vibration to the electrode, which
assists the sparking and flushing operations. However,
Taylan et al. [145] noted that the current trend in tool
and die manufacturing is towards replacing the EDM
process with new machining techniques such as HSM.
HSM process is just as capable as the EDM process in
machining hardened materials with 40–60 HRC. There-
fore, HMP involving EDM will continue to draw intense
research interests seeking innovative ways of improving
the machining performance and expanding the EDM
applications.
6. Concluding remarks
The introduction of EDM to the metal cutting has
been a viable machining option of producing highly
 K.H. Ho, S.T. Newman / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 1287–1300
complex parts, independent of the mechanical properties
of workpiece material. This is by virtue of the capability
of EDM to economically machine parts, which are diffi-
cult to be carried out by conventional material removal
processes. With continuous improvement in the metal
removal efficiency and the incorporation of numerical
control, the viability of the EDM process in terms of the
type of applications can be considerably extended.
The basis of controlling the EDM process mostly
relies on empirical methods largely due to the stochastic
nature of the sparking phenomenon involving both elec-
trical and non-electrical process parameters. The compli-
cated interrelationship between the different optimised
process parameters is therefore a major factor contribu-
ting to the overall machining efficiency. However, sev-
eral means of improving the machining performance
commonly measured in terms of MRR, TWR and SR
have been made with an overwhelming research interest
being paid to the metallurgical properties of EDMed
part. Thus, the EDM process needs to be constantly
revitalised to remain competitive in providing an essen-
tial and valuable role in the tool room manufacturing of
part with difficult-to-machine materials and geometries.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of
Loughborough University, in particular Wolfson School
of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering for fund-
ing the current research studentship.
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