CHAPTER 2

Recognizing Arguments

Argument : some kind of quarrel or

shouting match???
Fact and Opinion

Fact = Can be proved or

disproved
Opinion = Personal Belief
 Fact

Tell who, what, when, where, or how

much. "A fact is a thing
that is occurred, to
Have a verifiable truth value.
exist, or to be true."
Can be quantified and is specific.
Are supported by evidence.

4
 Opinion

Tend to be vague. An opinion is a view about a particular

Are personal beliefs issue.
or value judgments. It is what the person believes or thinks, and
is not necessarily the truth.

Fact Opinion
Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam Hanoi is the best city in the world.

IU is a University in Vietnam. I love studying at IU.

5
6
 Identifying Statements

A statement is a sentence that can be

viewed as either true or false.

Put otherwise, a statement is a sentence

that makes good grammatical sense when it
is prefaced with the words "It is true that"
or "It is false that.

7
 What is a statement?
Examples:
Red is a color. (physical statement)
Abortion is morally wrong. (moral statement)
The Matrix is a better movie than Titanic. (evaluative statement)
Non-Examples:
What time is it? (question)
Close the window! (command)
Oh, my goodness! (exclamation)
Statement test: Does it make sense to put it is true that
or it is false that in front of it? If so, it is a statement. If
not, its not.

8
 Identifying Statements

Here are some examples of statements:

Paris is the capital of France.
The South won the American Civil War.
Ford makes better trucks than Chevy.
Same-sex marriage should be legalized.

Each of these sentences is a statement, because each

makes an assertion that is either true or false.

9
 Identifying Statements

Not all sentences are statements, i.e., sentences that

assert that something is true or false.
Here are some examples of sentences that are not statements:
How was your summer? (question)
Pick up your room! (command)
Hi! (greeting)
Let's go to the ball game tonight. (proposal)
None of these are statements, because none can sensibly be
preceded by the phrases "It is true that" or "It is false
that"
10
 Identifying Statements

A statement can be expressed by a phrase or a dependent clause

rather than as a complete sentence.
Example: Considering Ian's near-perfect SAT scores, he
should be able to get into an Ivy League college.
In this sentence, the phrase "considering Ian's near-perfect SAT
scores" is a dependent clause that is not capable of standing alone as
a complete sentence. Nevertheless, the intent of the speaker or writer
is clearly to defend one claim ("Ian should be able to get into an Ivy
League college") on the basis of another ("Ian made nearly perfect
SAT scores"). For critical thinking purposes, therefore, it's important
to recognize that there are two statements in this passage, rather than
one.
11
 Identifying Statements
Rhetorical questions should be regarded as statements.
Rhetorical questions are sentences that have the grammatical form of
questions but are meant to be understood as assertions.
Here are some examples of rhetorical questions:
Alyssa, you should quit smoking. Dont you realize how bad
that is for your health?

The point of such "questions" is not to ask for information, but to

make a positive assertion that the speaker or writer expects at least
some of his readers or listeners to agree with. For that reason,
rhetorical questions should be treated as statements rather than as
questions.
12
 Identifying Statements
Ought imperatives should be regarded as statements.
Ought imperatives are sentences that have the grammatical form of
imperatives (i.e., commands) but are intended to be understood as ought
statements, i.e., statements that express a judgment about what ought to be
done.
Here is an example of a passage that contains an ought imperative:
Do not read beauty magazine. They will only make you feel ugly.

You shouldnt read beauty magazine. advice or value judgments

13
 Tricky statements
Rhetorical question: a sentence that has the grammatical
form of a question but is meant to be understood as a
statement.
Dont you know smoking will kill you?
(means: Smoking will kill you.)
How am I supposed to do that?
(means: I cant do that.)
Ought imperative: a sentence that has the form of a
command but is a statement about what ought to be
done.
Do X! really means You should do X.
Dont blow dry your hair in the tub! really means You should not
blow dry your hair in the tub.
14
Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

1. Capital punishment is wrong.

Ans:Statement
Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

2. Can vegetarians eat animal crackers?

(George Carlin)

Ans: Nonstatement (question)

Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

3. Ted Williams is the greatest hitter in baseball

history.
Ans:Statement
Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

4. What do you say we stop at the next rest

stop?

Ans :Nonstatement (suggestion)

Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

5. Abraham Lincoln was the first president of

the United States.
Ans: Statement
Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

6. Lets party!

Ans: Nonstatement (suggestion or exhortation)

Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

7. Great!

Ans :Statement
(This is a brief and emphatic way of
saying, "This is great.")
Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

8. Keep off the grass. (sign)

Ans: Nonstatement
(command)
Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

9. If Sally calls, tell her Im at the

library.
Ans: Nonstatement
(order or request)
Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

10. I hope Peter likes his new job.

Ans: Statement
(You might be lying.)
Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

11. Cant you see that pornography

demeans women?
Ans: Statement
(rhetorical question)
Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

12. Holy cow!

Ans: Nonstatement (exclamation)
Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

13. Please print your name legibly.

Ans: Nonstatement (request)
Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

14. What will it profit a man, if he gains

the whole world and forfeits his life? (Matt.
16:26)

Ans: Statement (rhetorical question)

Exercise 2.1
I. Determine whether, in typical contexts, the
following sentences are or are not statements.

15. You want mayo on that, right?

Ans: Nonstatement (question)
30
Argument

31 Assoc. Prof. Ho Thanh Phong 10/14/20163 November 2008

 What is an argument?

A Claim Defended with Reasons.

Argument - A form of thinking in which certain statements

(reasons) are offered in support of another statement (a
conclusion).

Arguments are composed of one or more premises and a

conclusion. Premises are statements offered as reasons for
accepting another statement. A conclusion is a statement
supported by reasons.

32
 Argument- Example

Lawyers earn a lot of money. (Premise)

I want to earn a lot of money. (Premise)
I should become a Lawyer. (Conclusion)

33
34
Identifying arguments

35 Assoc. Prof. Ho Thanh Phong 10/14/20163 November 2008

 Identifying Premises and Conclusions

TIPS
Look for premise indicators that provide clues when premises are
being offered.
Examples: because, since, for, given that, as, judging from, and
seeing that.
Look for conclusion indicators that provide clues when
conclusions are being offered.
Examples: therefore, thus, hence, so, as a result, accordingly,
consequently, and which shows that.

36
 Identifying Premises and Conclusions

TIPS
If the passage contains no indicator words, try
these two strategies:
Ask yourself, "What claim is the writer or
speaker trying to prove?" That claim will be
the conclusion.
Try putting the word "therefore" before each of
the statements in turn. The statement it fits best
will be the conclusion.
37
 Identifying Premises and Conclusions

1. No one under eighteen-years-old can vote.

2. Jen is under eighteen-years-old.
3. Therefore, Jen cannot vote.

Arguments are composed of one or more premises and a

conclusion. Premises are statements offered as reasons
for accepting another statement. A conclusion is a
statement supported by reasons.

In this example, statements 1 and 2 are premises, and

statement 3 is the conclusion.

38
 Example

Make a will. Otherwise, the state will determine

who gets your stuff.

(Andrew Tobias, "Isn't It Time You Faced the

Future?" 2001)

Identify the premise(s) and conclusion in this argument.

39
 Example

Premise: If you don't make a will, the state will determine

who gets your stuff.

Conclusion: You ought to make a will.

The word otherwise often functions--as it does here--as

premise indicator. Notice that both the premise and the
conclusion have been rephrased slightly. The premise
has been rephrased in order to make it a complete
sentence. The conclusion has been restated in order to
make clear that it is intended as a statement rather than
as a command.
40
41
 What Is Not an Argument?

An argument is a claim defended with reasons.

More precisely, a passage is an argument if and only if:

It is a group of two or more statements.

One of those statements (the conclusion) is claimed or

intended to be supported by the other(s) (the premises).

42
 What Is Not an Argument?

Notice three important things that follow from this definition:

Arguments consist entirely of statements (sentences that it
makes sense to regard as either true or false). Questions,
commands, and other kinds of non-statements cannot be
parts of arguments (Keep in mind, however, that rhetorical
questions should be treated as statements.).
No single statement is an argument. Arguments always
consist of at least two statements.
Nothing counts as an argument unless it is claimed or intended
that one statement follows from one or more other statements
in the passage. In other words, a passage is an argument only
if the speaker or writer intends to offer evidence or reasons
why another statement should be accepted as true.

43
 What Is Not an Argument?
Five kinds of passages that are sometimes confused with
arguments are:
Reports A statement or group of statements intended simply to
convey information about a subject.
Unsupported Is a statement or set of statements in which the speaker or
statements of belief writer expresses his or her personal opinion, but offers no
or opinions reasons or evidence to back up that opinion.
Illustrations Is a passage intended to provide examples that illustrate
or support a claim, not to provide convincing evidence that
the claim is true.
Conditional Is an if-then statement. It is an assertion that such-and-
Statements such is true if something else is true.
Explanations Is a statement or set of statements that seeks to provide
an account of why something has occurred or why
something is the case.

44
 What are not arguments

Reports: statements made to convey information.

More people moved to the south this year.
Oil prices dropped today, thus so did gas prices.
Notice that, even though there is a conclusion indicator, this is still a
report.
Unsupported Assumptions: when someone puts forth
what they believe but does not intend for any of their
statements to support another.
People arent afraid of dying; they are afraid of not living.
People like this course because of the professor.
Notice the presence of a premise indicator, but not a premise.
45 Lecture Notes 2008 McGraw Hill Higher
Education
 What Is Not An Argument

Conditional (if-then) statements:

e.g.,: If it rains, the picnic will be cancelled.
Most common forms: If A then B; B if A.
Antecedent: usually, the part that directly
follows if.
Consequent: Usually, the part that follows
then
But conditionals
46 dont always have if or then
Lecture Notes 2008 McGraw Hill Higher
Education

e.g., In the event of rain, the picnic will be

 More On Conditional
Statements

Conditionals are not arguments, but they can look like them.
Conditional: If I was taller I would play basketball.
Argument: I am tall, so I would make a good basketball player.
If Rhode Island was larger than Ohio, and Ohio was larger than
Texas, then Rhode Island would be larger than Texas.
This is a conditional statement; If the first two things are true, then the
third is true.
If Bob is taller than Chris then Bob is taller than Ann. If Bob is taller
than Ann, then Bob is taller then Lori. Thus, if Bob is taller than Chris
then Bob is taller than Lori.
This is an argument. The latter follows from the two former statements.
Chain arguments: consist of conditional statements.
If A then B. If B then C. Therefore, if A then C.
e.g., If Allen moves I will be all alone. If I am all alone then I will be sad.
So if Allen moves ILecture
will Notes
be sad.
2008 McGraw Hill Higher
47
Education
 What Is Not An Argument

Illustrations: examples of a claim.

Many wildflowers are edible. For example,
daises and day lilies are delicious in salads.
Be careful. Some arguments can look like
illustrations because they use counter
examples.
Many people think that all Star Trek fans are
zit faced nerds. But that is not true. For
example, Christian Slater is a Star Trek fan
48 Lecture Notes 2008 McGraw Hill Higher
Education

and he is not a zit faced nerd.

 What Is Not An Argument

Explanation: tries to show why something is the case (not

argue that it is the case).
Usually offers up a causal explanation for something that is
already accepted as true.
Titanic sank because it struck an iceberg. (explanation)
Capital Punishment is wrong because it is murder. (argument)
Explanandum: what is explained (the event).
Explanans: the explanation (the cause).
Explanadum because Explanans.
I ski because I think it is fun. (explanation)
You
49should ski because it is fun. (argument)
Lecture Notes 2008 McGraw Hill Higher
Education
 Arguments vs. Explanation
(how to tell the difference)

The Common-Knowledge Test

If it points at something that is common knowledge, it is probably
an explanation.
Most people dont present arguments for things people already
believe.
Example: TV is very influential in society because most people
watch it.
The Past-Event Test
If it points at a past event, it is probably an explanation.
Usually people dont argue X occurred.
Example: The US entered WWII because of Japans attack on
Pearl Harbor. Lecture Notes Education
50 2008 McGraw Hill Higher
 Arguments vs. Explanation
(how to tell the difference)

The Authors Intent Test: Ask if the person making the

statement is trying to prove something or explain why
something is true.
You want a college degree because you want a better life.
The Principle of Charity Test:
The Principle of Charity: interpret generously (give the author of
the statement a break). If what he said would be a bad
argument, but it could be interpreted as an example (or
explanation) assume it is not an argument.
The Test: If you have a choice between interpreting a statement
as a bad argument or an unsatisfactory explanation, do the
latter. A bad argument
51 isEducation
a worse mistake.
Lecture Notes 2008 McGraw Hill Higher
Examples

http://vnn.vietnamnet.vn/chinhtri/201006/Cac-
nuoc-co-IQ-cao-deu-lam-duong-sat-cao-toc-
914859/
 Summary
1. Distinguishing Fact = Can be proved or disproved
Fact & Opinion Opinion = Personal Belief
2. What is an An argument is a claim defended with reasons.
Argument?
3. Identifying Look for premise indicators that provide clues when premises
Premises are being offered (e.g. because, since, for).
& Conclusions Look for conclusion indicators that provide clues when
conclusions are being offered (e.g. therefore, thus, hence, so).
If the passage contains no indicator words, try these two
strategies: 1) Ask yourself, "What claim is the writer or speaker
trying to prove?" That claim will be the conclusion. 2)Try putting
the word "therefore" before each of the statements in turn. The
statement it fits best will be the conclusion.

4. What Is Not Five kinds of passages that are sometimes confused with
an Argument? arguments are: Reports, Unsupported statements of belief or
53 opinions, Illustrations, Conditional Statements, and Explanations
Any Questions?

54
 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

1.When the universe has crushed him man will still be

nobler than that which kills him, because he knows
that he is dying, and of its victory the universe knows
nothing.
(Blaise Pascal, Penses)
 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises
and conclusions.
Premise 1: Man knows that he is dying.
Premise 2: Of its victory the universe knows nothing.
Conclusion: When the universe has crushed him
man will still be nobler than that which kills him.
 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

2. Rights are either God-given or evolve out of the

democratic process. Most rights are based on the ability of
people to agree on a social contract, the
ability to make and keep agreements. Animals cannot
possibly reach such an agreement with other creatures.
They cannot respect anyone elses rights. Therefore they
cannot be said to have rights.
(Rush Limbaugh, The Way Things Ought to Be)
 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

Premise 1: Rights are either God-given or evolve out of the

democratic process.
Premise 2: Most rights are based on the ability of people to agree
on a social contract, the ability to make and keep agreements.
Premise 3: Animals cannot possibly reach such an agreement
with other creatures.
Premise 4: Animals cannot respect anyone else's rights.
Conclusion: Animals cannot be said to have rights.
EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

3. Youd better shape up, cuz I need a

man, and my heart is set on you.
(Olivia Newton-John, Grease)
EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

Premise 1: I need a man.

Premise 2: My heart is set on you.
Conclusion: Youd better shape up.
 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

4. Since moral responsibility presupposes free-will, since

this freedom is not compatible with universal causal
determinism, and since universal causal determinism
appears to be the case, it seems evident thatcontrary to
what most people believehuman beings are not morally
responsible.
(stated but not endorsed in William H. Halverson, A Concise
Introduction to Philosophy, 4th ed. [adapted])
 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

Premise 1: Moral responsibility presupposes free-will.

Premise 2: This freedom is not compatible with universal
causal determinism.
Premise 3: Universal causal determinism appears to be
the case.
Conclusion: Contrary to what most people believe, human
beings are not morally responsible.
 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

5. Our faith comes in moments; our vice is habitual. Yet

there is a depth in those brief moments which
constrains us to ascribe more reality to them than to all
other experiences. For this reason the argument which
is always forthcoming to silence those who conceive
extraordinary hopes of man, namely the appeal to
experience, is forever invalid and vain.
(Ralph Waldo Emerson, The Over-Soul)
 EXERCISE 2.2
II. Identifying premises and conclusions.

Premise 1: Our faith comes in moments.

Premise 2: Our vice is habitual.
Premise 3: There is a depth in those brief moments which
constrains us to ascribe more reality to them than to all
other experiences.
Conclusion: The argument which is always forthcoming to
silence those who conceive extraordinary hopes of man,
namely the appeal to experience, is forever invalid and
vain.
EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain
arguments and which do not.

1. I ate because I was hungry.

2. He must be home. His cars in the driveway.

3. Im trading in my Ford Explorer for a Toyota

Corolla because theyre more reliable and get
better gas mileage.
EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain
arguments and which do not.

4. If Christmas is on a Friday, the day after

Christmas must be a Saturday.

5. Dinosaurs became extinct sixty-five million

years ago, probably as a result of dramatic
global cooling that resulted from the impact of a
large asteroid.

6. Dogs make better pets than cats because

theyre more intelligent and obedient.
EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain
arguments and which do not.

7. According to baseball statistician Bill James,

Stan Musial was a better allaround baseball
player than Ted Williams because Musial was,
in addition to
being a great hitter, a better fielder and base-
runner than Williams was.

8. The rich and famous tend not to be happy, well-

adjusted personalities. Look at Britney Spears.
EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain
arguments and which do not.

9. I stayed home from school because I was sick.

10. The Cascades mountain range contains many

majestic peaks. Mt. Rainier and Mt. Hood, for
instance, are both more than ten thousand feet.
EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain
arguments and which do not.

11. The death penalty costs too much. Allowing

our government to kill citizens compromises the
deepest moral values upon which this country was
conceived: the inviolable dignity of human persons.
(Helen Prejean, CSJ, Dead Man Walking)

12. If there were no maldistribution, if everyone

shared equally, and if no grain were fed to animals,
all of humanity could be adequately nourished
today.
(Paul Ehrlich and Anne Ehrlich, Betrayal of
Science and Reason)
EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain
arguments and which do not.

13. The British statesman William Gladstone

thought that we would all be
healthier if we chewed each bite of food precisely
32 times. Why else, he
argued, did nature endow us with exactly 32 teeth?
(Thomas Gilovich, How
We Know What Isnt So)
EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain
arguments and which do not.

14. Guys are extremely reluctant to make

commitments, or even to take any steps that might
lead to commitments. That is why, when a guy
goes out
on a date with a woman and finds himself really
liking her, he often will demonstrate his affection by
avoiding her for the rest of his life.
(Dave Barry, Dave Barrys Complete Guide to
Guys)
EXERCISE 2.4
I. Determine which of the following passages contain
arguments and which do not.

15. You can fool all of the people some of the time,
and some of the people all the time, but you
cannot fool all the people all the time.
(Abraham Lincoln)