Stress Ribbon and Cable-supported Pedestrian Bridges

ISBN 978-0-7277-4146-2

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

doi: 10.1680/srcspb.41462.063

Chapter 6
Creep and shrinkage of concrete

During construction, stress ribbon and cable-supported structures
utilise different static systems. Boundary conditions change, new
structural members are added or cast, post-tensioning is applied
and temporary support elements are erected and consequently
removed. Structural elements of various ages are combined
and the concrete is gradually loaded. During both construction
and throughout the service life of concrete structures, account
must be taken of the creep and shrinkage of concrete.
The deformation of concrete due to shrinkage and creep may
vary considerably with the type of cement and aggregate, the
climate (temperature and humidity), the member size and the
time of loading.
Modern creep functions (see Figure 6.1) combine the theory of
the delayed elasticity (the nal value of creep does not depend
on the age of concrete) and rate-of-creep theory (Smerda and
Kristek, 1988).
For nal design, a time-dependent analysis using CEB-FIP
(1993) Model Code 90 (MC90) or specic tests should be
used. Eurocode 2 also employs the MC90 approach. The func-
tion MC90 uses the following function for shrinkage (cs) and
creep (cc) strains:
"cs t; ts "cs;0
s t
ts
fc t0
"cc t; t0 t; t0
Ec
where
s is the coefcient to describe the development of
shrinkage with time, t; t0 is the creep coefcient, fc is
normal stresses, Ec is modulus of elasticity at the age of 28
days, t0 is time of loading (days), ts is the age of concrete
(days) at the beginning of shrinkage or swelling and t is the
age of concrete (days).
For the preliminary considerations, the nal values of shrinkage
and concrete are listed in Tables 6.1 and 6.2 (FIP, 1998). The
tables presents mean values and apply to concrete of grades
2050 MPa subjected to a stress not exceeding 0.4 fc(t0) at age
t0 of loading.
The development of the shrinkage strain and creep coefcient
with age may be estimated from Figure 6.2.
6.1. Time-dependent analysis
For the time-dependent analysis of stress ribbon and cable-
supported structures, specialised software should be used. The
software needs to cover all aspects of the construction needs
in order to take into account the fact that many structures are
assembled from members of different ages. For design and for
the parametric studies performed for this book, the program
TDA was used. This program, which was recently included in
the program system SCIA (ESA PrimaWin, 2000), was developed
6:1
by Dr Navratil of the Technical University of Brno in collabora-
tion with the authors design ofce Strasky, Husty and Partners,
6:2
Ltd. (SHP) in Brno, Czech Republic (Strasky et al., 2001).

Figure 6.1 Creep functions: (a) delayed elasticity; (b) rate-of-creep; and (c) modified rate-of-creep

(a) (b) (c)

ecc ecc ecc

t1 t2 t t1 t2 t t1 t2 t

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 Stress Ribbon and Cable-supported Pedestrian Bridges

Table 6.1 Final value of shrinkage strain "cs (10
3), where Ac is Table 6.2 Final value of the creep coefficient 
the cross-sectional area of concrete and u is the exposed perimeter
of Ac (RH: relative humidity) Age at loading Dry, indoor Humid, outdoors
t0: days (RH 50%) (RH 80%)
Atmospheric conditions Effective member size 2Ac /u: mm
Effective member size 2Ac /u: mm
50 150 600
50 150 600 50 150 600
Dry, indoor (RH 50%)
0.53
0.51
0.36
Humid, outdoors (RH 80%)
0.30
0.29
0.20 1 5.6 4.6 3.7 3.7 3.3 2.8
7 3.9 3.2 2.6 2.6 2.3 2.0
The linear aging viscoelastic theory is applied for the analysis. 28 3.0 2.5 2.0 2.0 1.8 1.5
This means that the creep prediction model is based upon the 90 2.4 2.0 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.2
assumption of linearity between stresses and strains to ensure 365 1.9 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.0
the applicability of linear superposition. The numerical solution

Figure 6.2 Shrinkage strain "cs(t) and creep coefficient (t) at time t (days) divided by the ultimate shrinkage or creep coefficients listed in
Tables 6.1 and 6.2

ecs(t )
1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40
(1)

0.20
(2)

0.00
1 10 100 1000 10 000
time (days)
(1): 2Ac /u = 200 mm
(2): 2Ac /u = 600 mm

f(t )
1.00

0.80

(1)
0.60

(2)
0.40

0.20

0.00
1 10 100 1000 10 000
time (days)

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 Creep and shrinkage of concrete

Figure 6.3 Time-dependent modelling of cable-supported structures: (a) partial elevation; (b) cross-section; (c) detail A; and (d) finite-
element degrees of freedom

(a) (b) composite slab

rebars

composite slab

prestressing tendon
A rebars
reference axis prestressing tendon precast segment
precast segment

composite slab
(c) rebars (d)
f1 f2 f3

1 2 3
u2 u3
u1
v3
v1

rebars
prestressing tendon E1 E2
precast segment

reference axis reference axis

is based on the replacement of Stieltjes hereditary integral by a
nite sum. The general creep problem is thus converted into a
series of elasticity problems. The shrinkage and creep of struc-
tural members is predicted through the mean properties of a
given cross-section, taking into account the average relative
humidity and member size. The development of the modulus
of elasticity with time due to aging is also considered.
The method is based on a step-by-step computer procedure in
which the time domain is subdivided by discrete times (time
nodes) into time intervals (Navratil, 1992). The nite element
analysis is performed at each time node. The element stiffness
matrix and load vector terms include the effect of axial,
bending and shear deformations. The centroidal axis of the
element can be placed eccentrically to the reference axis
connecting the nodes. Six external and two internal degrees of
freedom are used. The static condensation of internal node
parameters is used, thus the full compatibility between eccentric
elements is fullled. The elements represent, for example,
precast segments, composite slab, stay cable, prestressing
tendon or reinforcement (Figure 6.3). They can be installed or
removed according to the construction scheme and take into
account the inuence of concrete of different ages in both the
longitudinal and transverse directions of the structure. The
various operations used in the construction such as the addition
or removal of segments and prestressing cables, changes of
boundary conditions, loads and prescribed displacements can
be modelled.
The stress-produced strain consists of an elastic instantaneous
strain "e(t) and a creep strain "c(t). The change of the
modulus of elasticity with time due to ageing is also considered.
The creep prediction model is based on the assumption of line-
arity between stresses and strains to allow the application of a
linear superposition procedure. The numerical solution is
based on the replacement of the Stieltjes hereditary integral
by a nite sum. The general creep problem is thus converted
to a series of elasticity problems:
Xn 

f tj

"m t 1 t; tj 6:3
j0
Etj
where "m(t) is the total strain at time t.
The method used for the time-dependent analysis is based on a
step-by-step computer procedure in which the time domain is
subdivided into time intervals by discrete time nodes ti (i 1,
2, . . . , n). The solution at the time node i is as follows.
1. The increments of normal strains, curvatures and shear
strains caused by creep during the interval hti
1 ; ti i are
calculated using the second summand of Equation (6.3).
The corresponding shrinkage strains are also calculated.

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 Stress Ribbon and Cable-supported Pedestrian Bridges

2. A load vector dFp, equivalent to the effects of the gener-
alised strains calculated in step 1, is assembled.
3. The element stiffness matrices K are calculated for the
time ti and the global stiffness matrix Kg is assembled.
4. The system of equations Kg d
g dFp is analysed. The
vector of increments of nodal displacements d
g is added
to the vector of total nodal displacements
g.
5. The elements are analysed in the central coordinate
system. The increments of internal forces and increments
of elastic strains are calculated from the increments of
displacements of the element nodes.
6. The increments of the structural conguration at the time
node ti are applied.
7. The increments of generalised strains of the elements that
are prestressed (or loaded with temperature change) at
time node ti are calculated. The losses of prestressing due
to the deformation of the structure are automatically
included in the analysis through the inclusion of these
increments of internal forces.
8. The global load vector dFz is assembled as equivalent to
the internal forces calculated in step 7. The increments of
other types of the long-term load applied at the time
node ti are added to the load vector dFz.
9. The system of equations Kg d
g dFz is analysed. The
vector of increments of nodal displacements d
g is added
to the vector of total nodal displacements
g.
10. The increments of internal forces and of elastic strains
are calculated from the increments of displacements of
the element nodes.
11. The increments of internal forces calculated in steps 5
and 10 are added to the total internal forces. The incre-
ments of elastic strains calculated in steps 5 and 10 are
added together and saved to the history of elastic strains
as the increments for time node ti.
12. Go to step 1 for time node i 1.
Considering the extensive amount of input and output data, a
user-friendly graphic interface for pre- and post-processing
has been developed. The pre-processor guides the user
through the process of preparing and inputting data. Post-
processors allow the user to select and view only the required
data. In a graphical environment, it is possible to lter output
data, switch individual parameters on and off (internal forces,
stresses, deformations), zoom in to the structure, chose the
time node to view and carry out other operations.
A modied numerical procedure was implemented for the time-
dependent geometrically non-linear structural analysis. The
computer procedure for creep and shrinkage analysis described
above was adapted to collaborate with the nite-element soft-
ware package ANSYS used at the Technical University of
Brno, Czech Republic. The effects of creep and shrinkage calcu-
lated in steps 1 and 2, and the external load applied in steps 6
and 7 are converted to equivalent loads for the ANSYS struc-
tural model. After the full geometrical analysis is performed,
the increments of displacements and internal forces are
processed in the same way as described in steps 5, 10 and 11
before the analysis moves onto a new time node.
The importance of the time-dependent analysis will be demon-
strated with the aid of the following examples.
6.2. Redistribution of stresses between
members of different age
It is well known that a signicant redistribution of stresses
occurs in structural members composed of elements of different
ages and in structures formed by steel and concrete. For the 1 m
member depicted in Figure 6.4, the signicance of this phen-
omenon is depicted in Figures 6.56.7 which display the
redistribution of stresses between the two parts of different
concrete ages.
The cross-section of the member is rectangular and of dimen-
sions 5  0.25 m. The analysis was carried out for ve cases
that differ by the proportion of the area of the precast
segment (APS) and composite slab (ACS) part of the member
(Table 6.3).
The precast segment ( rst part) was assumed to have a charac-
teristic strength fc 50 MPa (Ec(28) 38.5 GPa, where Ec(28)
Figure 6.4 Progressively cast concrete member: (a) precast
segment and composite slab; (b) precast segment, composite slab
and prestressing tendon; and (c) precast segment, composite slab,
prestressing and bearing tendons
(a) PS CS
F F
1.00
(b) PS CS
PT
(c) PS CS
PT BT

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 Creep and shrinkage of concrete

Figure 6.5 Redistribution of forces of member depicted in proportional to their stiffness given by the product of the area
Figure 6.4(a) Ac and the modulus of elasticity Ec(t). In the course of time
the stresses (or portion of the force) were redistributed from
N (MN) PS precast segment the younger to the older part of the member.
12.0 1
2
Figure 6.6 shows the redistribution of stresses between the two
10.0 parts of the progressively cast concrete member that was post-
8.0 tensioned by a prestressing tendon (Figure 6.4(b)). The
3
tendon has an area APT 0.01512 m2, with a modulus of
6.0 elasticity Es 195 GPa. The process of casting and loading
4 was the same as in the previous example. The prestressing
4.0
force applied at day 100 was P 12.5 MN. At the time of the
2.0 post-tensioning the tendon had zero stiffness (APTEs 0);
after post-tensioning the tendon is incorporated into the
0.0
100 190 365 730 3650 36 500 structure.
time (days)
Similar to the previous example, the prestressing force was
N (MN) CS composite slab distributed to the components of the member proportional to
12.0 5
their stiffness as given by the product of the area Ac at the
modulus of elasticity Ec(t) at the time of loading. With time,
10.0 the prestressing force was redistributed. Due to the shortening
of the member caused by the creep and shrinkage of the
8.0
4 concrete, the tension force in the tendon was reduced. The
6.0 compression stresses were also redistributed from the younger
to the older concrete.
4.0
3
2.0 Figure 6.7 shows the redistribution of stresses between two
2 parts of a progressively cast concrete member that was post-
0.0 tensioned by a prestressing tendon (PT in Figure 6.4(c)). The
100 190 365 730 3650 36 500
time (days)
tendon has an area APT 0.01512 m2 and a modulus of elasti-
city Es 195 GPa. Additionally, an unstressed tendon of area
ABT 0.02408 m2 and modulus of elasticity Es 195 GPa was
placed in the member before casting the second portion. This
refers to the value of Ec at the age of 28 days) and the composite tendon could represent the bearing tendons (BT) used in
slab (second part) was assumed to have a characteristic strength stress ribbon structures.
of fc 40 MPa (Ec(28) 36.50 GPa). The redistribution of
stresses was determined by the program TDA using the MC90 The prestressing force applied at day 100 was P 12.5 MN. At
rheological functions. the time of post-tensioning the prestressing tendon has zero
stiffness (APTEs 0); after post-tensioning the tendon has
Figure 6.5 shows the redistribution of stresses between the two become a part of the structure.
parts of the progressively cast concrete member that was loaded
by a constant force. The process of casting and loading was as The prestressing force was distributed not only to the two
follows. parts of the concrete member but also to the unstressed
tendon. The stresses were distributed proportionally to the
The rst part of the member was cast, and after three days of stiffness given by the product of the area Ac, the modulus of
curing it was placed on a support that allowed it to shrink. elasticity Ec(t) and the stiffness of the unstressed tendon given
After 87 days (time 90 days) the second part of the member by the product of the area APT and modulus of elasticity Es.
was cast and cured for three days. After an additional seven With time the prestressing force is redistributed. Due to the
days (time 100 days) the element was loaded with a constant shortening of the member due to the creep and shrinkage of
force F 12.5 MN. concrete, the tension force in the tendon is reduced. The
compression stresses are also redistributed from the concrete
From Figure 6.5 it is evident that, at the time of loading, to the steel as well as from the younger concrete to the older
the force was distributed into the two parts of the member concrete.

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 Stress Ribbon and Cable-supported Pedestrian Bridges

Figure 6.6 Redistribution of forces of member depicted in Figure 6.4(b)

N (MN) PS precast segment N (MN) PT prestressing tendon

13.0
12.0
1
10.0
2
12.0
8.0
3
6.0 1
2
4.0 11.0
4 3
4
2.0 5

0.0 10.0
100 190 365 730 3650 36 500 100 190 365 730 3650 36 500
time (days) time (days)
N (MN) CS composite slab
12.0

10.0 5

8.0

6.0 4

4.0
3
2.0
2
0.0
100 190 365 730 3650 36 500
time (days)

Figure 6.7 Redistribution of forces of member depicted in Figure 6.4(c)

N (MN) PS precast segment N (MN) BT bearing tendon

5.0
12.0

10.0 4.0 5
1 4
8.0 2 3.0 3
2
1
6.0 3
2.0
4.0 4
1.0
2.0

0.0 0.0
100 190 365 730 3650 36 500 100 190 365 730 3650 36 500
time (days) time (days)

N (MN) CS composite slab N (MN) PT prestressing tendon

13.0
12.0

10.0
12.0
8.0 5
1
6.0 2
4 3
11.0 4
4.0
5
3
2.0
2
0.0 10.0
100 190 365 730 3650 36 500 100 190 365 730 3650 36 500
time (days) time (days)

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 Creep and shrinkage of concrete

Table 6.3 Area of progressively cast concrete member: m2 A time-dependent analysis was performed for the old Morsch
and CEB-FIP (MC90) creep functions (see Figure 6.1). With
Case Part 1 (PS) Part 2 (CS) Total time, a signicant redistribution of bending moments has
occurred for N 0 and N 2R. The bending moment
1 1.2500 0.0000 1.2500 diagram is changing towards the diagram of a two-span
2 0.9375 0.3125 1.2500 beam. Concrete is a natural material and the structure therefore
3 0.6250 0.6250 1.2500 tries to behave naturally as a continuous beam. In this case, a
4 0.3125 0.9375 1.2500 larger redistribution of stresses is obtained for the old Morsch
5 0.0000 1.2500 1.2500 creep function.

It is important to realise that for the force N R there is no

6.3. Redistribution of stresses in structures
with changing static systems
It is also known that a signicant redistribution of stresses can
occur in structures that change their static system during
construction. The signicance of this phenomenon is illustrated
with the example of a simple cable-supported structure.
Figure 6.8 shows a simple beam of 12 m span which, after 14
days of curing, is suspended at mid-span on a very stiff stay
cable (EsAs 1). Before suspending, a force N was introduced
in the cable. The values of N were 0, R and 2R, where R is a
reaction at the intermediate support of a two-span continuous
beam under uniform loading.
Figure 6.8 Redistribution of bending moments in a two-span beam
N demonstrated by Favre and Markey (1994).
redistribution for both creep functions. The structure keeps its
shape and the stresses are constant in time. Their values do
not depend on the adopted creep function.
Since it is difcult to design a structure in which the stresses are
changing with time, it is very important to design an initial stage
such that the redistribution of stresses is minimal.
This means that the geometry and forces in the internal pre-
stressing tendons or external cables (situated inside or outside
the perimeter of the deck) have to be determined in such a
way that their effects in conjunction with a dead load create
zero deection at the deviators (Figure 6.9). This means that
the dead load should be balanced by prestressing. Such a
structure loaded only by normal force keeps its shape in time.
This approach, which was developed by Leonhardt (1964)
and Lin and Burns (1981), directs us to use partial, limited or
full prestressing. The importance of load balancing was also

Figure 6.9 Dead-load balancing at a two-span beam: (a) by

internal tendons; (b) by external tendons situated within the depth
of the cross-section; and (c) by external tendons situated outside the
M (MN m) depth of the cross-section

3.6 (a) g

N = 2R 14 days
2.4 P
N = 2R CEB-FIP-10 years P RP
N = 2R Mrsch-10 years r
1.2 g
(b)
N = R CEB-FIP,
Mrsch 14 days G G G G
P P
0 R R R R
RP

1.2 N = 0 Mrsch-10 years

(c) g
N = 0 CEB-FIP-10 years
P G G RP G G P
N = 0 14 days
2.4

R R R R
0 6 12 m

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 Stress Ribbon and Cable-supported Pedestrian Bridges

Figure 6.10 Dead-load balancing: (a) arch structure; REFERENCES

(b) cable-stayed structure; (c) suspension structure; and CEB-FIP (1993) CEB-FIP Model Code 1990. Comite Euro-
(d) equivalent continuous beam International du Beton. Thomas Telford, London.
ESA PrimaWin (2000) Reference Manual, SCIA Software.
(a)
Scientic Application Group, Belgium.
N b Favre R and Markey I (1994) Generalization of the load
balancing method. Prestressed Concrete in Switzerland
G N = G/sin b 19901994. Proceedings of 12th FIP Congress, Washing-
HL HP ton, DC.
(b)
FIP Recommendations (1998) Practical Design of Structural
Concrete. FIP Congress, Amsterdam.
N
b Leonhardt F (1964) Prestressed Concrete: Design and Con-
struction. Wilhelm Ernst & Sons, Berlin.
G N = G/sin b
Lin TY and Burns NH (1981) Design of Prestressed Concrete
(c) HL HP
Structures. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Navratil J (1992) Time-dependent analysis of concrete frame
N
structures. Building Research Journal (Stavebnicky
casopis) 40(7) (in Czech).
G Smerda Z and Kristek V (1988) Creep and Shrinkage of
Concrete Elements and Structures. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
(d)
Strasky J, Navratil J and Susky S (2001) Applications of
time-dependent analysis in the design of hybrid bridge
N=G structures. PCI Journal 46(4): 5674.

In case the deck is suspended on arches or pylons, the initial

forces in the stay- or suspension cables have to be determined
from the condition of zero deck deection at the anchor
points (Figure 6.10).

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