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CMPN 370 - Handout 3.

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Ref: Pg 69 Protocol Suites - TCP/IP

The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP reference model because it
wanted a network that could survive any conditions, even a nuclear war. To illustrate
further, imagine a world at war, criss-crossed by different kinds of connections - wires,
microwaves, optical fibers, and satellite links. Then imagine that you need
information/data (in the form of packets) to flow, regardless of the condition of any
particular node or network on the internetwork (which in this case may have been
destroyed by the war). The DoD wants its packets to get through every time, under any
conditions, from any one point to any other point. It was this very difficult design problem
that brought about the creation of the TCP/IP model, and which has since become the
standard on which the Internet has grown.

The TCP/IP model has four layers: the application layer, the transport layer, the Internet layer, and the network access
layer. It is important to note that some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the same name as layers in the OSI
model. The application layer has different functions in each model.

Application Layer
The designers of TCP/IP felt that the higher level protocols should include the session and presentation layer details.
They simply created an application layer that handles high-level protocols, issues of representation, encoding, and
dialog control. The TCP/IP combines all application-related issues into one layer, and assures this data is properly
packaged for the next layer.

Transport Layer
The transport layer deals with the quality-of-service issues of reliability, flow control, and error correction. One of its
protocols, the transmission control protocol (TCP), provides excellent and flexible ways to create reliable, well-flowing,
low-error network communications. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. It dialogues between source and
destination while packaging application layer information into units called segments. Connection-oriented does not
mean that a circuit exists between the communicating computers (that would be circuit switching). It does mean that
Layer 4 segments travel back and forth between two hosts to acknowledge the connection exists logically for some
period. This is known as packet switching.

Internet Layer
The purpose of the Internet layer is to send source packets from any network on the internetwork and have them
arrive at the destination independent of the path and networks they took to get there. The specific protocol that
governs this layer is called the Internet protocol (IP). Best path determination and packet switching occur at this layer.
Think of it in terms of the postal system. When you mail a letter, you do not know how it gets there (there are various
possible routes), but you do care that it arrives.

Network Access Layer


The name of this layer is very broad and somewhat confusing. It is also called the host-to-network layer. It is the layer
that is concerned with all of the issues that an IP packet requires to actually make a physical link, and then to make
another physical link. It includes the LAN and WAN technology details, and all the details in the OSI physical and data
link layers.

The diagram shown in the Figure is called a protocol graph. It illustrates some of the
common protocols that are specified by the TCP/IP reference model. At the
application layer, you will see different network tasks you may not recognize, but as
a user of the Internet, probably use every day. These applications include the
following:
FTP - File Transfer Protocol
HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol
SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer protocol
DNS - Domain Name System
TFTP - Trivial File Transfer Protocol

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CMPN 370 - Handout 3.5
Protocol Suites - TCP/IP

The TCP/IP model emphasizes maximum flexibility, at the application layer, for developers of software. The transport
layer involves two protocols - transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram protocol (UDP). The lowest
layer, the network access layer, refers to the particular LAN or WAN technology that is being used.

In the TCP/IP model, regardless of which application requests network services, and regardless of which transport
protocol is used, there is only one network protocol - internet protocol, or IP. This is a deliberate design decision. IP
serves as a universal protocol that allows any computer, anywhere, to communicate at any time.

Similarities

both have layers


both have application layers, though they include very different services
both have comparable transport and network layers
packet-switched (not circuit-switched) technology is assumed
networking professionals need to know both

Differences

TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer
TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer
TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers
TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the TCP/IP model gains
credibility just because of its protocols. In contrast, typically networks aren't built on the OSI protocol, even
though the OSI model is used as a guide.

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CMPN 370 - Handout 3.5
Protocol Suites - TCP/IP

TCP/IP in relation to the OSI model

Application protocols belong to the application layer, the topmost layer of the TCP/IP architecture. Sitting below that is
the transport layer, responsible for the end-to-end delivery of data.
Data is delivered either reliably (that is, guaranteed) by TCP, or unreliably (as in "best effort," when you don't care if
the data actually gets there) by User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
Below the transport layer is the Internet layer, which is used to package, address and route data using the Internet
Protocol. The other important protocol in the Internet layer is the Internet Control Message Protocol (NW, June 21,
page 54 </archive/1999b/0621gearhead.html>).

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CMPN 370 - Handout 3.5
Protocol Suites - TCP/IP

Below the Internet layer is the link layer. This layer handles the transmission of IP data over network hardware
(Ethernet, token ring).
Now the reason for describing the layers is to clarify how application protocols are built: Application protocol data is
wrapped in a TCP or UDP packet that, in turn, is wrapped in an IP packet. So where is the data that specifies the
source and destination sockets (the combination of IP address and port) located?
Remember that the Internet layer is responsible for addressing, so source and destination IP address data is stored in
the IP packet. Inside that packet is TCP or UDP data, and that is what contains the destination and source port
values.
When an application wants to send a message to another application, it needs to know the destination address and
socket. The destination address is determined by either an explicit numeric IP address or by the target machine's fully
qualified domain name (FQDN). In the latter case, the FQDN is sent to the Domain Name System to (hopefully) be
resolved into a numeric IP address.
The port that will be used will depend on the protocol being used, as well on the target system's configuration.
For example, if the source application is a Web browser and it wants to talk to a Web server, then Port 80 will be the
destination port. If the machine is hosting multiple Web servers, the destination port for the second server will often be
set to 8080.
The sender's source port will be a randomly selected value usually between 1,024 and 5,000. Because these ports
are usually short-lived (the client normally stops using the port when the transaction is completed), they are called
"ephemeral ports."
Note that when Web browsers talk to FTP servers they become, for all intents and purposes, FTP clients. The same
applies when browsers talk to Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP), gopher or any other type of server.
The structure of FTP, LDAP and other protocols - that is, the sequence of commands and responses - is arbitrary. If
you have the energy to read the standards documentation for protocols such as FTP and HTTP, you'll find that some
of them are well-designed while others are horribly cobbled together.
The beauty of the TCP/IP protocol architecture is that implementing new protocols is straightforward. All a designer
needs to do is define the commands and ensure that the client and server software agree on and understand the
commands, responses and error messages, and their correct sequencing.

The TCP/IP protocol suite (also known as the Internet protocol suite), provides services that function on all layers
above the Data Link layer on the OSI model. There are a myriad of different protocols each designed to provide a
specific service for a host of environment. Some of these were originally developed in the late 70s. Others have been
added by third-party vendors more recently.

The IP Packet

Very similar to NetWare's IPX packet type is the IP packet (that's the IP part of TCP/IP). This packet type simply
moves data from point A to point B and does not provide any special relationship between the sender and receiver.
Nor does it guarantee delivery of data from sender to receiver with acknowledgments. For this reason, the IP packet
type is referred to as an unacknowledged, connectionless protocol.

Information placed into an IP packet is known as a datagram. Datagrams carry data that has filtered down from the
network layer. This data along with transport layer information comprises what is called a Transport Protocol Data Unit
(TPDU). The TPDU is routed across the network, visiting routers that determine the best path on which to send the
packet.

Sometimes, proper routing requires that the TPDU be downsized and broken apart. The IP protocols allow for this
process and the subsequent reconstruction of the TPDUs at the receiver. Reconstruction is accomplished via
sequence numbers.

The IP packet is composed of several fields. Instead of referring to the length of IP packets according to bits and
bytes, the IP frame uses a length measurement of 32 bits referring to that grouping as a word. Consequently, any
diagrams used to illustrate IP frame construction will divide the frame into 32-bit words.

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CMPN 370 - Handout 3.5
Protocol Suites - TCP/IP

Additional TCP/IP-Related Protocols

There are several additional protocols designed to assist TCP and IP. Since routing is so important on a packet-
switched network like the Internet, specialized protocols have been designed to assist in this function. Special
protocols for determining addressing on the Internet have also been devised. Additionally, some additional protocols
may be involved in error-checking and flow control, just to name a few. Let's explore some of these additional
protocols that are included in the TCP/IP suite of protocols.

FTP File Transfer Protocol allows the transfer of copies of files between one node and another. FTP is not
hardware-dependent so its services can function just about anywhere. Using this utility to copy data is
typically referred to as "FTPing" a file.

NFS Network Filing System was developed by Sun Microsystems Inc. It provides shared access to files in a
very transparent and integrated way. This protocol is discussed in more detail a little later.

TELNET Remote Terminal Emulation allows users to communicate with diverse hosts. The TELNET
application provides terminal-type access to PCs.

UDP User Datagram Protocol is a bare-bones rapid transmission protocol that uses IP packets to deliver
data with no reliability features like connections and ACKs. The forte of UDP is speed, not reliability. It is used
in NFS.

SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is the middle-man that uses UDP to move data around from one
internetwork host to another. Applications run on both hosts that make use of SMTP.

ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol offers flow control and error-detection to the unreliable delivery
method of IP. It provides a facility for routers and gateways on the net to communicate with a source if there is
a problem. It also provides a mechanism for determining if a destination can not be reached.

RIP Routing Information Protocol provides information for routing devices about pathways and number of
hops to achieve them. RIP was popularized by its use in a Berkeley UNIX application called "Routed". RIP is
ideal for smaller networks, but considered impractical for larger internetworks.

ARP & RARP Address Resolution Protocol & Reverse Address Resolution Protocol are special
protocols to allow TCP/IP to interact in environments such as Ethernet. ARP maps TCP/IP addresses to
Ethernet Data Link layer addresses. RARP maps the Ethernet Data Link layer address to the TCP/IP address.

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