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Islam and ChristianMuslim Relations

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(Post) modern Islamic philosophy:

challenges and perspectives
a
Safet Bektovic
a
Centre for European Islamic Thought, University of Copenhagen,
Denmark

Version of record first published: 22 Jun 2012

To cite this article: Safet Bektovic (2012): (Post) modern Islamic philosophy: challenges and
perspectives, Islam and ChristianMuslim Relations, 23:3, 235-246

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 Islam and ChristianMuslim Relations
Vol. 23, No. 3, July 2012, 235246

(Post) modern Islamic philosophy: challenges and perspectives1

Safet Bektovic*

Centre for European Islamic Thought, University of Copenhagen, Denmark

Islamic philosophy emerged and has been developed in a particular political and theological
context, and its historical and present role cannot be examined independently of political and
theological discourse. It is characteristic that some of the same questions that Muslims
discussed in the early Middle Ages the limits of human knowledge, the relationship between
the divine and the human, the relationship between falsafa, kalm and fiqh, the role of political
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philosophy have been taken up again, but in a new context. As in the past, relations between
Muslims and non-Muslims, and especially inter-philosophical relationships, play a crucial
role in present-day discussions too. This article seeks to shed light on the (post) modern
possibilities and perspectives for Islamic philosophy within Islam and relating to contemporary
Islamic discourse. It includes reference to the views of modern Muslim thinkers, including
Arkoun, Soroush, al-Attas and Wadud.
Keywords: theocentrism; humanism; historicity; social engagement; epistemological
extension; methodic corrective

Islamic philosophy in an inter-philosophical context

According to Hegel, understanding the history of philosophy makes possible the understanding of
world development as connected to the development of human (self-)consciousness, from the
lowest stages to the highest forms of being and knowing the absolute truth. Expressing the
human search for a holistic explanation of reality, in which religious, cultural and political
perspectives are interpreted in their mutuality, the philosophical interpretation is of particular
importance to the understanding of the world.
Even though post modern philosophy has abandoned the idea of a holistic explanation, Hegels
view of the development of the world spirit gives cause to discuss the place of Islamic philosophy,
or the place of any other philosophical tradition for that matter, within the development of world
philosophy. In his account of the ways in which the spirit appears, Hegel described Islam as a
simple and abstract form of monotheism and set it in a very early phase of world philosophy.
He acknowledged the incipient Muslim contribution to the communication of science,
philosophy and poetry to the West, but claimed that Islam, because of its rigid dogmatism
which turned the worship of God into the absolute adoration of Allah (it is human nature to
worship God), and which inhibited the development of human subjectivity quickly
disappeared from world history and retreated into the old oriental peace and comfort (Hegel
2001, 3737).
It is not my intention to discuss Hegels presentation of philosophical history, but I wish to call
attention to the necessity for an analysis of historical inter-religious and inter-philosophical
relations as part of an understanding of the development of world philosophy. If understanding
the development of Western philosophy requires an insight into inter-philosophical relations,
and if Greek philosophy is considered to be a key source of inspiration to Western philosophy,

*Email: sbe@teol.ku.dk

ISSN 0959-6410 print/ISSN 1469-9311 online

2012 University of Birmingham
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09596410.2012.676778
http://www.tandfonline.com
 236 S. Bektovic

one cannot disregard the role of Islam in mediating Greek philosophy. It is primarily the duty of
historians of philosophy to account for Islams contribution to world philosophy, as well as the
philosophical-historical development within Islam. In no circumstance can the importance of
Islamic philosophy be reduced to being a vehicle for translating and mechanically transmitting
Greek philosophy. Rather, it consisted of original contributions. A significant number of
Muslim philosophers were involved in re-thinking Greek philosophical problem formulations,
and their thoughts inspired European philosophers in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
Thus, inter-philosophical relations played an essential role both in the framing of early Islamic
philosophy and in the development of Western philosophy. This is still true with regard to the
current position of Islamic philosophy.
Islamic philosophy was formed by Muslim contact with older philosophical traditions in the
eighth to ninth centuries CE. However, the relationship was not purely philosophical and the
development of Islamic philosophy did not take place in a political and ideological vacuum.
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Rather, it was closely connected with internal Muslim discussions regarding the right
interpretation of Islam. Thus, discussions on predestination and free will as key political and
theological problems were first initiated during Umayyad rule in Damascus, and were followed
by a gradual incorporation of other problem formulations, e.g. concerning the interpretation of
the Gods Being and Will.2
The first Muslim philosophers were concerned with the question of human cognitive
abilities and with defining the relationship between the divine and the human, which
means that Islamic philosophy, from the very beginning, moved in the direction of a
religious-philosophical way of thinking. By insisting both on the general human ability to
understand the world/truth (which was a characteristic of the Mutazila movement) and on
the inaccessibility of God, they mapped out a philosophical-theological foundation which
meant that Islamic philosophy was characterized by negative theology,3 which in turn
affected the development of Islamic philosophy throughout history. This is also evident in
modern and contemporary philosophical discussions, which again revolve around
boundaries and the relationship between the divine and the human. The same questions are
being discussed, albeit within a different context, which means that the focus may be placed
on the relation between religious truth and existence, for example. This is reminiscent of
modern Western philosophical discussions, especially Wittgensteins religious-language
considerations. According to him, the content of religious writings is not to be interpreted as
a story of what has happened or is going to happen, but rather as an actual event that
concerns ones morality. Religion must be of importance in ones personal life before it
makes sense to deal with its content. And when he writes, for example, that life is a word,
but understanding the meaning of life leads to God, it is compatible, according to the Iranian
philosopher Javadi, with Rumis interpretation of the significance of the word in relation to
the human beings existential meaning (Javadi 2003, 15860).
Contemporary Islamic philosophy is characterized by a very clear outlining of the role of the
human. When Abdul-Karim Soroush writes, I am neither for an islamization of knowledge nor
for a scientification of Islam, but rather for a humanization of Religion (1998, 250), he refers to
a central aspect of modern Islamic philosophy, namely the re-thinking of the human role in
relation to religious truth. The same can be said of Mohammed Arkoun and Mohammed Abed
al-Jabri as they, with their analysis of Islamic orthodoxy and Islamic reasoning, seek to
demonstrate how the various ideological discourses have determined the development of Islamic
philosophical thinking and affected the understanding of the relationship between God and man
(Arkoun 2006 and Al-Jabri 1999).
The broadening and humanizing of the space for interpretation, which has been
requested by many Muslim philosophers, means not only incorporating new models and
 Islam and ChristianMuslim Relations 237

methods of interpretation, but also opening up towards other philosophical traditions, not
least Western (post) modern philosophy, which in turn contributes to an inter-
philosophical dialogue.

The inter-Muslim context: the (un)necessity of philosophy

Throughout history, Muslim attitudes towards philosophy have been split between a glorification
of philosophy as the most important scientific discipline and a rejection of philosophy as an alien
element and thus a threat to Islam. A retrospective glance at inter-Muslim discussions about the
status of philosophy shows that Islamic philosophy was often regarded as between being
necessary and being superfluous. Philosophy is considered a necessity in terms of the Qurans
encouragement to Muslims to reflect upon reality (as was pointed out by Ibn Rushd) and as an
incentive for Islams theological and civilizing development (as argued by some Mutazilite
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scholars and al-Farb). However, philosophy understood as critical reflection that questions
religious interpretations and established systems is also regarded as a threat to Islamic
orthodoxy and the Sharia. Thus, in the eyes of many Muslims, Islamic philosophy is a
problematic and, at best, superfluous discipline, since Islam exists to deliver solutions and
none of the Islamic sciences should undermine that role.
It is right to point out that not all Muslim philosophers were critical, progressive and open
to innovative interpretations. Rather, a significant number, especially in the classical period,
were inclined to align themselves with rulers or dogmatic religious circles, whilst a minority
opposed established systems. Nevertheless, it is possible to identify a common feature across
the philosophical outlooks, namely the use of rational argumentation, which may explain
why orthodox theologians and fuqah have never been able to adjust the divine law to
philosophy.
The relationship between philosophy and orthodoxy was a key issue throughout the Middle
Ages. It began with al-Farb, who prioritized logic above religion as he considered logic to be
a precondition for both the mediation and interpretation of the revelation. Consequently,
philosophy was rejected as a threat to orthodoxy and a rejection of the precedence of
revelation.
Those who were sceptical both of the rationalism of philosophy and of mystical explanations,
such as Ibn Hanbal and Ibn Taymiyya, argued that the Quran was clear and self-evident and thus
in no need of philosophical interpretation. Al-Ghazl, who assumed a midway position, did not
regard philosophical logic as dangerous, but only as insufficient for understanding truth.
According to him, rational studies must necessarily be complemented and continued by
Gnostic knowledge (marifa). Ibn Rushd argued entirely differently, namely that the problem
of understanding the reality of truth could only be resolved by methodologically separating
philosophy and religion as two different ways that lead to the same truth.
In modern times, there are still different views on the role of philosophy within Islam. Some
are still inclined to reject philosophy as an alien element, others question the usefulness of
philosophical analysis, and yet others praise philosophy as a precondition for interpreting the
Quran.
The importance of Islamic philosophy is also discussed in relation to humanism, i.e. in terms
of the relationship between universal humanism, Islamic humanism and Western humanism. The
post modern discourse, which many Muslim scholars equate with nihilism and relativism, has
brought a discussion of the actual purpose of philosophy of religion. British-Pakistani Akhtar
discusses philosophy of religion by posing traditional arguments, even though he is not a
tradition-oriented scholar. According to him, orthodox Islam, or for that matter orthodox
Judaism and orthodox Christianity, does not need a philosophy that asserts human reason as a
 238 S. Bektovic

truth criteria. Thus, a philosophy of religion within Islam is rendered superfluous as it contains a
basic methodological error. Namely, it twists the relationship between God and humans and
depicts it as if we were the ones judging God and not the other way around, which is to be
regarded as idolatry (Akhtar 1996).

Challenges of modern education

Muslim societies have not been through the same process of secularization as Western societies,
but modernity, and especially the challenges of modern education, has been influential in
changing Muslim perceptions of society and education. During the twentieth century, Muslim
modernists opened up to a discussion on the relationship between religious knowledge and
secular knowledge, between an Islamic knowledge and an education in Islam.4 Alongside
this, reform-oriented movements in several Muslim countries initiated numerous educational
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projects, which were a combination of traditional Islamic and modern humanistic sciences.
These modernist movements were not ideologically unified, but held different positions on
modernity and secularization. Some followed a secular-nationalist line and took Western
education and society models as a point of reference,5 while others sought to formulate an
Islamic alternative to the secular models. Examples of the first line of thought are the pro-
Western educational reforms in Egypt, India and Turkey, whilst an example of the second was
the establishment of the so-called modern Islamic institutes of education, which were to
accommodate the topical needs of Muslims as they were perceived from a purely religious
foundation. Following this, groups arose in several Muslim countries after they gained their
independence, seeking to influence societal development with their Islamically funded
education systems as a point of departure.
In the 1970s the Islamic Education Movement emerged, arguing for an Islamization of
knowledge. The movement was initiated by Muslim intellectuals, with Ismail Furuqi,
Abulhamid Abu Sulayman and Sayid Ali Ashraf at its head, and was inspired by the ideas of
early modernists seeking a cultural and intellectual unfettering from the West. The movement
aimed at establishing a new Islamic educational system, which was to reconcile the classical
disciplines of Islam with the modern natural sciences. In 1977, approximately 350 prominent
Muslim scholars from around the world met to discuss education policies and the possibilities
for an authentic Islamic education. That was the first of seven conferences (Islamic
Educational World Conferences) later held in Pakistan (1980), Bangladesh (1981), Indonesia
(1982), Egypt (1987), South Africa (1996) and Malaysia (2009).
This movement took part in establishing several Islamic universities in Muslim societies, e.g.
in Islamabad, Kuala Lumpur and Dhaka. Although projects aimed at accommodating the
contemporary challenges facing Muslims have had limited success, members of the movement
have contributed to the discussion on the relationship between knowledge and ethics, and have
been engaged in arguing for the necessity of an academic education in Islam.
Educational reforms in Muslim societies after gaining independence have been characterized by
ideological power struggles between those who sought to introduce new methods inspired by the
West and humanistic sciences, and those who thought that the solution was to return to the
classical system and re-Islamize society. At the same time, there was also competition and a
power struggle between the governmental institutes of education (whether they were pro-Islamic
or pro-secular) and the schools administered by the opposition movements. In countries that
have carried out liberal educational reforms, such as Morocco, Egypt, Iran, Turkey and
Indonesia, the humanities and philosophy have been incorporated into the curricula of higher
institutes of education, and have played an important role in the interpretation of Islam. In other
countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan and Pakistan, a traditionally or Islamically
 Islam and ChristianMuslim Relations 239

grounded education system is maintained and the modern humanities and philosophy are still
regarded with suspicion.
For Muslims living outside Muslim societies, especially those living in the West, the
humanities play a vital role. Apart from a practical need to clarify the relation of Islam to
secular society, there is also a growing academic interest among the younger generation of
highly educated Muslims to re-think Islam from a humanistic-philosophical perspective. In
light of this, Muslim academics who live and work in the West play a particular role. Their
contribution is crucial in terms of situating Islamic thought in a Western context, which again
is of importance for further discussions in Muslim parts of the world.

Philosophy and societal engagement

Clearly, the historical development of Islamic thought cannot be considered independently of
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societal development. This is particularly true for Islamic philosophy, precisely because it has
gained its legitimacy by being a philosophy of society. In the classical era, Muslim
philosophers were involved in defining the Islamic society model, whereas today they play a
key role in defining the relationship between Islam and modern, secular society.
The issue of the ideological significance of philosophy is still relevant. This is evident in,
for example, contemporary Muslim discussions on the role of religion in society and on
theories of science that focus on Islams answer to modern societal challenges. Some argue
for a dynamic interpretation of ijtihd as expressing a continuous demand for innovative
thinking, while others are proponents of breaking with the traditional, religiously based
perception of society.
A distinct group is made of intellectuals who focus on the link between theology and political
philosophy. Among these are numerous socially engaged intellectuals, such as Nurcholish,
Madjid, Hasan, Hanafi, Soroush and Amina Wadud, whose political considerations emanate
from their philosophical-theological interpretations of Islam; they argue that there must be a
connection between an innovative re-thinking of Islamic theology and the shaping of a modern
Islamic political theory. The point of departure for their reflections is a re-thinking of the key
terms within Islam, namely khilfa, umma and sharia, which have direct political implications.
The establishment of the caliphate in Damascus and Baghdad in the seventh and eighth
centuries, respectively, and the discussions that followed on the relationship between the
religious and the political, challenged the classical political philosophy of Islam. In the
same way, one may say that the cessation of the caliphate in 1924/25 (when Atatrk
established the Turkish state on the ruins of the Ottoman caliphate) presented a challenge
and initiated the formulation of a new Islamic political theory. Many Muslims regarded the
caliphate as a symbol of the continuity of Islams political power, and hence the cessation
of the caliphate was synonymous with the annulment of the international political relevance
of Islam. The new situation opened up the possibility of discussions on the establishment
of a modern Islamic state; some (fundamentalists and Islamists) saw a solution in the
renewal of the classical societal model, others (traditionalists) were politically undecided,
but considered traditional Islamic values to be the necessary foundation of society, and yet
others sought to formulate a new theory of a nation state inspired by Western secular
theories. The first to argue for a decidedly secular model was the Egyptian Abdelraziq,
who, in an essay in 1925, questioned whether the Quran favoured a specific societal
model, and whether Muhammad was a statesman or just the founder of a religion
(Abdelraziq 2010).
It is interesting to point out that major societal and cultural crises have not been a hindrance to
philosophical thought, but rather have stimulated its renewal, as is evident, for example, in
 240 S. Bektovic

discussions on the interpretation of normative Islam and the socio-political implications of the
doctrine of tawh.d, as well as through more specific thematic discussions which differ from
country to country; in Egypt, Turkey and Morocco, for example, the focus has been on
education and the position of women, while the countries in the Middle East have directed
their attention to the relation between religion and politics.

The tension between theo-centrism and humanism

A continuous subject of discussion throughout the history of Islamic philosophy has been the
notion of tawh.d. The question of the cognitive, ethical and political implications of this
doctrine have influenced the general interpretation of Islam and had a determining influence
on the understanding of Islams role in society. Muslim scholars have maintained tawh.d as a
key reference in interpreting society, but their tawh.d readings have not always and necessarily
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resulted in a theocratic understanding of society. They have placed different emphases on the
political importance of tawh.d and drawn different conclusions from their analyses. There were
also those, such as Ibn Khaldn, who formulated a theory of society without substantiating it
with the doctrine of tawh.d. Ibn Khaldn characterized societal development, and hence also
the consciousness of the people, as a process determined by external sociological elements,
rather than by monotheism.
As in the classical period, modern Muslim philosophers and theologians are divided when it
comes to the interpretation of tawh.d. Some interpret it as a metaphysical framework for general
Islamic thought, including the conception of society, while others use tawh.d as a paradigm and as
an inspiration for the shaping of a modern social theory.
A contemporary example of the first approach is the Malaysian philosopher Muhammad
Naquib al-Attas (1931), who associates tawh.d with a universal method of knowledge, valid
independently of time and place. According to al-Attas, Islamic metaphysics does not depend
on cultural traditions and it knows of no historical development, since Islam has always been
the same regarding essential matters (contents of faith, rituals and practice, and belief systems).
Hence, there is no classical, medieval, modern or post modern Islam, only individual
interpretations of Islam, all of which have revelation and tawh.d as their point of departure
(Al-Attas 2005, 1143).
Al-Attas represents a trend in modern Islamic philosophy that was elaborated in the second
half of the twentieth century and which argues for the unity of philosophical and religious truth.
It further states that the world has an original divine structure, which is to be revealed through the
interpretation of its symbols and phenomena, in the same way as one interprets revelation by
reading Holy Scripture. This is a basically metaphysical approach, which can be identified by
two characteristic modes of expression: the first is distinguished by a universalistic
interpretation of Islamic monotheism,6 and the second emphasizes the relationship between
universal epistemology and Islamic consciousness.7
Contrary to this understanding of the interpretation of reality as a deciphering of its divine
structure, taking the metaphysics of tawh.d as its point of departure, another group of Muslim
philosophers argues for the de-ontologization of the tawh.d doctrine and its interpretation in light
of social justice. Wadud, for example, adheres to the theological significance of tawh.d, but
emphasizes the variety of its epistemological implications when it comes to understanding
society and culture. In contrast to a theo-centric epistemology focused on the vertical dimension
of the relationship between God and man, she argues for an inclusive epistemology that accounts
for both the vertical, theological dimension of tawh.d and its horizontal, social dimension, which
relates to inter-personal relations. In this connection, she introduces the term the tawhidian
paradigm to express a theological-sociological reading of monotheism, in which the equality of
 Islam and ChristianMuslim Relations 241

all human beings in relation to God (the vertical dimension) is interpreted in the light of social
equality and justice as it is reflected in an IGodyou relationship (Wadud 2006, 2832).
In recent decades an increasing number of Muslim philosophers have questioned the
metaphysics of tawh.d. Some, including Arkoun, Hanafi and Soroush, have argued for
historicity as an interpretational perspective. According to them, the religious text does not have
a metaphysical meaning of its own that exists independently of the human, and the interpretation
of reality must not be tied to a specific paradigm. However, even if they disregard the idea of a
metaphysical explanation, they do not preclude the significance of religion. They maintain the
transcendent as a part of the interpretation, and their epistemological considerations can be
related to the post modern line of thought, which does not exclude the transcendent from
philosophy either. An example is the Italian philosopher Gianni Vattimo (1936), known, among
other things, for his concept of weak thinking. According to him, weak thinking expresses a
middle position between nihilism and emancipation, as one gives up the idea of a definite
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explanation, but still maintains that moral imperatives are of relevance for ethics and politics.
Hence, even if all answers are uncertain (weak), one should not remain in nihilism. Instead of
accepting cognitive relativism and ethical indifference, one should still seek the truth and insist
on the relevance of religious-moral imperatives. Thus, philosophy must not cease to navigate
by, for example, opening up new emancipatory perspectives. One should only relinquish the
strong metaphysics that demands an unconditional interpretation (Vattimo 2005).

Possible perspectives for Islamic philosophy today

Muslim philosophers today are concerned with two different types of problem. The first type
deals with theoretical and philosophical questions in general, regarding, for example, the
question of epistemology and of the relationship between philosophy and religion, whereas the
other type of problem is more concrete and relates to some specific Islamic questions, such as,
for example, the interpretation of Sharia, Islamic ethics and attitudes towards democracy. At
the same time, they also face two types of philosophical challenges, concerned with: a) the re-
definition of Islamic philosophy in the post-colonial and post modern period, taking into
account globalization as well as the position of Islamic philosophy within world philosophy,
and b) re-thinking the relationship between Islamic philosophy and the other Islamic sciences
in the light of innovative interpretations of Islam in the (post) modern context.
The positioning of Islamic philosophy in this new context also involves some strategic-
methodological considerations that could serve the role of philosophy within Islam and also
help clarify its role in terms of Islamic interpretations. In my opinion, there are two key
methodological bases for these considerations, namely a methodological-hermeneutic extension
and a methodological-existential focus. Hence, the aim is to create a broader understanding of
the relevance of philosophy for Islam and Muslims, given that the task of philosophy is not
only realized through a questioning of reality, but also has a practical significance. It is in light
of its primary purpose, i.e. the necessary clarification of the problem, that possible solution
models are frequently revealed.

An epistemological-hermeneutic extension
The foundations of legitimacy within philosophy have been altered by post modernism. This is true
not only for the Western world, but also in other areas where new ways of arguing for philosophical
thought have been sought. It is, among other factors, the new methods of interpretation developed
within the social and human sciences in the mid-twentieth century that have influenced
philosophys perception of itself. The discussion of religious-philosophical and ethical
 242 S. Bektovic

questions is no longer focused within the classical metaphysical and modern rationalistic frames,
but rather is concerned with historicity, hermeneutics and deconstruction as new perspectives for
interpretation.
Within Islam, too, intellectuals are arguing against the fettering of philosophy to the
metaphysics of enlightenment and to logo-centric thought.8 One of these intellectuals is
Arkoun, who argues for a new, open and pluralistic epistemology and depicts this as the path
to the emancipation of the (post) modern human being from reductive and triumphal
positivistic reason, which he refers to as tele-techno-scientific reason (Arkoun 2006, 37).
Arkoun takes as his point of departure the post modern criticism of modernity, but he does not
align himself with Western post-modernism. He calls for the inclusion of marginal and peripheral
interpretations, and he upholds the relevance of the transcendent as part of the new epistemology.
In this, he is in accord with Derrida in his deconstruction of the imaginary, but he also
acknowledges the transcendent signifier as a reference in the actual deconstruction. In this
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respect, his approach can be considered neither religious nor secular, modern nor post modern
in the strict meaning of these terms. Rather, his approach is an all-inclusive humanism,
consistent with his thought on meta-modernity as transcending both modernity and post-
modernity.9
According to Arkoun, only an open epistemology enables an understanding of the universality
and diversity of Islam. Existing theories on what is universal and diverse in Islam have, according
to him, emerged as the result of a dialectic between two contradictory tendencies: one that has
constantly sought to unify and sacralize Islam, and another that has sought to uncover the
sacred and mark the human. In order to get an understanding of Islam in its entirety, as
maintaining the tension between the sacred and the human, the orthodox and the heterodox, it is
necessary to be open to a re-thinking of all the interpretative traditions (the approved as well as
the non-approved) and to make room for other potential interpretations. Herein lies the
epistemological inclusiveness.
Arkouns epistemological inclusiveness can be supplemented by Waduds hermeneutic project,
which includes female voices. According to Wadud, the inclusion of feminist theology is a key
precondition for an epistemological-hermeneutic extension of Islamic thought. Like Arkoun,
who suggests a radical subversion of the dominant logo-centric epistemology, Wadud calls for a
gender jihad as a common and urgent task for Muslims today. According to her, any attempt to
re-interpret Islam presupposes a preceding struggle (jihd) for the inclusion of women in the
interpretation. This is also the way towards a holistic understanding of Islam, and not just the
establishment of equality among the sexes.
Wadud argues for a women-inclusive epistemology, as a way to rectify the historical
situation in which men used to speak on behalf of women, and when the issue of women was
limited to a set of verses and rules from the Quran. A women-inclusive epistemology should
have a part in changing the traditional Islamic framework for the interpretation of theological,
ethical and political questions (Wadud 2006, 53).
The important thing is to move the focus from a linguistic, ahistorical interpretation of the
Quran to a hermeneutic interpretation. This would allow an understanding of the difference
between the universal and the particular and would relate to specific socio-historic conditions,
including consideration of gender issues.10 In this regard, Wadud puts greatest emphasis on the
quranic appeal to establish an ethical society with an emancipatory message, which also
includes women as part of the interpretation.
Another advocate for an epistemological-hermeneutic expansion of Islamic thought is Soroush.
He is concerned with involving new theories and methods in the interpretation of Islams key
concepts, as a precondition for the necessary translation of Islams religious language in a
modern context and for the re-thinking of the relationship between religion and non-religion.
 Islam and ChristianMuslim Relations 243

A modest role: being a corrective to the existing interpretations

The position of philosophy in relation to other disciplines has changed. The important thing now
is to understand how a philosophical analysis can be in dialogue with other interpretations and
contribute to a new multidisciplinary approach to and understanding of the reality.
In light of this, Islamic philosophy cannot be regarded as a superior or competing discipline
alongside the classical Islamic disciplines (kalm, Sufism and fiqh). Rather, it should be regarded
as an opponent that can challenge the existing scientific and religious discourses, and also as a
team player that can emphasize the need for self-reflection and the existential aspect of
religiousness. Thus, Islamic philosophy can be an integrated part of Islamic thought and a key
element in Islamic discourses (if it is acknowledged), as well as being an outsider (if it is not
acknowledged) that tends to provoke and motivate self-criticism.
Even without having an officially acknowledged status, philosophy can play an important role
as a corrective. However, this does not imply that it should rectify other disciplines (corrective role)
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and be an unauthorized judge of what is right and wrong, but rather that it should call attention
to neglected problems and possible inconsistencies in other disciplines. In light of this, one
could argue that the task of philosophy is to safeguard complexity, because if problems are
presented in a simplified manner, room is allowed for simplified explanations.
In relation to this, Sren Kierkegaard, and in particular his reflections on the role of philosophy
in relation to religion, can be of inspiration. He characterized his own philosophical contribution
to Christianity as an existential corrective. He did not consider himself to be a reformer, but
rather an existential thinker who had a modest role in relation to the prevailing interpretation of
religion. It was a corrective role, which consisted in pointing out the individual-existential
challenges to being religious/Christian as opposed to the narrow focus on the dogmatic, and in
making religious truth understandable and acceptable.
Kierkegaard rose against the system and called attention to the individuals responsibility in
relation to Gods truth, which he characterized as an existential message and a challenge, to which
one should relate personally. He explained that the Christian faith includes both cognitive and
existential problems that each individual must acknowledge and confront, in order to avoid
ending up with an ideological or populist form of religion.11
He also aimed at pointing out the consistency between the human search for the truth and its
existential change. The truth is of an upbuilding nature, and it is not only the truth but also the
search for truth that has an improving role in terms of ones existential attitude towards the
world. According to him, the Christian truth is not only concerned with the objective what in
terms of identifying the object of faith and the definition of Christianity in the dogmatic sense,
but also with a subjective how related to the religious existence and the establishment of the
personal relationship to God. The latter (i.e. being a believer) does not come about as a result
of ones interpretation of the dogmatic, but rather is due to the maintaining of the tension
between objective certainty of God and personal passionate interest in Gods truth.
Kierkegaards reflections on the individuals relationship to God in relation to his existential
analysis of Christianity could be relevant for Islam. Certainly, by following Kierkegaards call to
be a single individual, or as Kierkegaard would say in Danish, hin enkelte (instead of being part
of a religious community), a re-thinking of the existential questions raised by, among others,
Rbia, al-H.allj, al-Ghazl and Ibn Arab within Islam is possible. The existential questions
are concerned with the Muslim faith seen in the light of the individuals personal interest in
God and its spiritual transformation. It is in this respect that a modern Islamic philosophy of
religion can contribute to the analysis of the relationship between a systematic interpretation of
Islam, in the form of theology and law, and a Sufi-mystical interpretation of Islam that
emphasizes the existential dimension of the Islamic testimony (shahda).12
 244 S. Bektovic

Another way in which Islamic philosophy can function as a corrective in relation to

established interpretation is of a methodological nature. Here, the focus is not an existential
interpretation of Islam, but rather a methodological corrective to other Islamic disciplines. One
of those who call for such a philosophy is the Swiss Catholic theologian, Hans Kng. He sees
opportunities for Islamic philosophy if it is granted a corrective role in relation to the classical
disciplines. It could function as an analytic-methodological corrective to fiqh (against its
formalism), kalm (against its speculation) and Sufism (against its populism) (Kng 2007, 387).
An epistemological-hermeneutic extension of Islamic philosophy combined with a
methodological-existential focus as a corrective role in relation to the other disciplines could also
make possible a re-thinking of the concept of ilm. Such a re-thinking would define ilm as a
universal and inclusive concept and would thus also permit a re-examination of those traditions
that have reduced ilm to religious knowledge and interpretation to religious interpretation.
By being part of an open Islamic discourse, Islamic philosophy would again play a decisive
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key role in relation to the interpretation of Islam and the Muslim self-perception, as it did in the
first centuries of its history. Just as discussions about knowledge and the human possibilities of
understanding its position in the world were of crucial significance for the framing of Islamic
philosophy then, so they are today.

Notes
1. This article is the last chapter of Bektovic 2012. An earlier version was presented at the seminar:
Modern Islamic thought at the Faculty of Islamic Studies in Sarajevo, 2425 May 2011.
2. An example of this is the theological-philosophical debate on free will and predestination which was a
result of the caliphs need to legitimize their power. Whilst the Umayyads referred to themselves as
khalfat Allh (viceroy of Allah), rather than khalfat rasl Allh (viceroy of the Messenger of
Allah), and were proponents of the idea of predestination as it protected them against any form of
criticism, the opposition developed a theory of free will in order to be able to criticize Umayyad rule.
3. Negative theology expresses the idea that it is not possible to describe God using positive terms, or that
one can only say what God is not (that is, by using negative terminology to refer to God). This is
consistent with Islamic understandings of Allah as an absolute transcendent that cannot be compared
to anything, as his being and characteristics are completely different from what one knows in this world.
4. However, the idea of separating religious knowledge from secular knowledge dates back to the Middle
Ages, when al-Ghazl, among others, argued for two distinct forms of knowledge: one that concerns the
divine revelation (wah.y) and is to be accepted without questioning, and another that concerns acquired
(iktisb) knowledge, which is to be discussed. Furthermore, Ibn Rushd defined a methodological
separation of religious and philosophical knowledge as being based on two different epistemological
foundations. However, these thoughts although they were formulated by great authorities were
never put into operation within the traditional educational system.
5. An early example of this is the establishment of a secular university in Egypt (Al-Jmia al-Ahliyya) in
1906, which aimed at promoting knowledge and scientific research free from the traditional restraints of
religion. However, the university experienced a financial crisis in 1925 and was taken over by the state
under the new name Fuad University. In 1952, it changed its name again to Cairo University, which is
today known as the National University of Cairo.
6. Apart from al-Attas, representatives of this line of thought are, amongst others, S.H. Nasr, Alparslan
Acikgenc and Ibrahim Kalin (Turkey), M. Suheyl Umar (Pakistan) and N. Kahteran (Bosnia).
7. Representatives of this line of thought are the Iranian philosophers Jalal al-Ahmad, Ahmad Fardid, Ali
Shariati and Daryus Shayegan (in his earlier work). They are inspired by Heideggers thought on
authenticity, and they seek to reconstruct Iranian tradition and re-establish an Iranian cultural
authenticity, taking pre-modern Persian culture as their point of departure. It is especially
Heideggers critique of Western technological civilization and his emphasis on ontology rather than
epistemology that they find inspiring. Furthermore, they regard Heideggers understanding of the
human as Being-there (Dasein) and as a being capable of revealing the ontology of reality, as
compatible with the Suhrawardiyya line of thinking regarding the human beings revealing of the
hidden (kashf al-mah.jb) (Mirsepassi 2006)
 Islam and ChristianMuslim Relations 245

8. Logo-centric philosophy denotes a specific understanding of truth, characteristic of, amongst others,
the Western philosophical tradition, which is based on the idea of an original truth that corresponds
with logos and that can be reached through reason. One of the first to be known for a radical
criticism of this epistemology was Jacques Derrida. He held that logo-centric metaphysics reduced
the perception of truth to reason and system categories, and he sought to subvert it by deconstructing
it (that is, subverting the existing model of thought without offering an alternative). He also criticized
Western thought for its focus on the centrality of text, which disregarded those elements that have a
secondary role in relation to the text as a whole. His deconstructive methods consist of moving the
focus to the marginalized elements of the text. It is exactly this line of thinking that Arkoun proposes
when he criticizes Islamic logo-centrism and the traditional interpretation of Islam, and argues for the
inclusions of marginal voices in interpretation.
9. In a similar way, the Argentinean-Mexican philosopher Enrique Dussel calls for an extension of Western
post-modernity to a trans-modernity and for a unified commitment to the liberation of philosophical
thought from any geographical, geo-political and ideological power centre. According to him, the
greatest challenge for philosophy in the twenty-first century is to acknowledge and accept regional
philosophical traditions (the European, North American, Chinese, Indian, Arabic, African, Latin
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American etc.) and be open to a plurivesal global philosophy (Dussel 2009, 514). This is related to his
criticism of the monolithic and Euro-centric understanding of modernity that does not take into
consideration the regional differences within the Western world and the geo-political background of
modernity, as well as the fact that the development of modernity as a concept in the West has taken place
in connection with the hegemonic relations of the West to the rest of the world (ibid, 499516).
10. Wadud compares the interpretation of gender within Islam with the interpretation of slavery. If one reads
the Quran literally and out of context, one can conclude that slavery is legitimate and that men have
some advantages over women. However, both cases should be related to the socio-political
conditions in Arabia in the seventh century. Muslims have agreed to abolish slavery for the sake of
humanizing society (even though the Quran does not forbid it), but have not done enough to include
women in the interpretation of Islam for the sake of humanizing knowledge. Even modern,
progressive Muslim male interpreters are prone to speak on behalf of women (Wadud 2006, 21754).
11. In referring to himself as an existential corrective to the existing, Kierkegaard writes the following: I
have only provided, poetically, what may be called an existential-corrective to the established order,
oriented toward inward deepening in the single individual that is, I am positive that I have never
directed one word against the teaching and the organization of the established order, but I have
worked to make this teaching more and more the truth in the single individual. And in order to
prevent any misunderstanding, I have aimed polemically throughout this whole undertaking at the
crowd, the numerical, also at the besetting sin of our time, self-appointed reformation and the
falsification along this line (Kierkegaard 1964, 478).
12. With a Sufi interpretation of the testimony as a point of reference, the term shahda is understood as the
greatest existential challenge for a Muslim. Unlike the orthodox reading, in which shahda denotes
confession of Islam in the form of a formal acknowledgement of the unity of God and of the
prophethood of Muhammad, shahda, according to some Sufis, expresses an existential bidding that
involves the acquisition of Islams religious truth, given that the testimony has as its precondition a
consciousness of that to which one testifies. Thus, shahda is not the first step, but voices a lifes
mission that cannot be accomplished without inner discipline and an existential transformation
(Bektovic 1999, 779).

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