UNIT IV

PARALLELISM
Instruction-level-parallelism Parallel processing challenges Flynn's classification Hardware
multithreading Multicore processors
Explain in detail about Instruction level parallelism
Instruction-Level Parallelism
The parallelism among instructions.
multiple issue
A scheme whereby multiple instructions are launched in one clock cycle.
static multiple issue
An approach to implementing a multiple-issue processor where many decisions are made by the compiler
before execution.
dynamic multiple issue
An approach to implementing a multiple-issue processor where many decisions are made during execution
by the processor.
There are two primary and distinct responsibilities that must be dealt with in a multiple-issue pipeline:
1. Packaging instructions into issue slots:
2. Dealing with data and control hazards: in static issue processors, the compiler handles some or all of
the consequences of data and control hazards statically.
The Concept of Speculation
speculation
An approach whereby the compiler or processor guesses the outcome of an instruction to remove it as a
dependence in executing other instructions.
Static Multiple Issue
issue packet
The set of instructions that issues together in one clock cycle; the packet may be determined statically by
the compiler or dynamically by the processor.
Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW)
A style of instruction set architecture that launches many operations that are defined to be
independent in a single wide instruction, typically with many separate opcode fields.
MIPS with Static Dual Issue
Additional Hardware is required to perform ALU and Data Transfer operation simultaneously.
Additional units with Hazard Detection and Stall Logic
In one clock Cycle
Read two register for ALU Operation
Read two more register for store Operation
One register for write portal for a load
One write port for ALU Operation
Superscalar:

A static two-issue datapath

Loop Unrolling
Dynamic Multiple-Issue Processors
superscalar
An advanced pipelining technique that enables the processor to execute more than one instruction per clock cycle by
selecting them during execution.
dynamic pipeline scheduling
Hardware support for reordering the order of instruction execution so as to avoid stalls.
 In such processors, the pipeline is divided into three major units:
commit unit
The unit in a dynamic or out-of-order execution pipeline that decides when it is safe to release the result of an operation
to programmer-visible registers and memory.
reservation station
A buffer within a functional unit that holds the operands and the operation.
reorder buffer
The buffer that holds results in a dynamically scheduled processor until it is safe to store the results to memory or a
register.
The three primary units of a dynamically scheduled pipeline.

out-of-order execution
A situation in pipelined execution when an instruction blocked from executing does not cause the following instructions
to wait.
in-order commit
A commit in which the results of pipelined execution are written to the programmer visible state in the same order that
instructions are fetched.
Flynns Classification Of Computer Architectures
In 1966, Michael Flynn proposed a classification for computer architectures based on the number of instruction steams and
data streams (Flynns Taxonomy).
Flynn uses the stream concept for describing a machine's structure
A stream simply means a sequence of items (data or instructions).
Flynns Taxonomy uses two basic concepts: Parallelism in instruction stream, and parallelism in data stream.
A n CPU system has n program counter, so there are n instruction stream that can execute in parallel.
A data stream can be used as a sequence of data, and there exist 4 possible combinations.
The classification of computer architectures based on the number of instruction steams and data streams (Flynns
Taxonomy).
Flynns Taxonomy
SISD: Single instruction single data
Classical von Neumann architecture
SIMD: Single instruction multiple data
MISD: Multiple instructions single data
Non existent, just listed for completeness
MIMD: Multiple instructions multiple data
Most common and general parallel machine
SISD (Singe-Instruction stream, Singe-Data stream)
SISD corresponds to the traditional mono-processor (von Neumann computer). A single data stream is being processed by
one instruction stream OR
A single-processor computer (uni-processor) in which a single stream of instructions is generated from the program.

SIMD (Single-Instruction stream, Multiple-Data streams)

Each instruction is executed on a different set of data by different processors i.e multiple processing units of the same type
process on multiple-data streams.
This group is dedicated to array processing machines.
Sometimes, vector processors can also be seen as a part of this group.

MISD (Multiple-Instruction streams, Singe-Data stream)

Each processor executes a different sequence of instructions.
In case of MISD computers, multiple processing units operate on one single-data stream .
In practice, this kind of organization has never been used

MIMD (Multiple-Instruction streams, Multiple-Data streams)

Each processor has a separate program.
 An instruction stream is generated from each program.
Each instruction operates on different data.
This last machine type builds the group for the traditional multi-processors. Several processing units operate on multiple-
data streams.