MovingtowardVisualLiteracy:PhotographyasaLanguage

ofTeacherInquiry

MaryJaneMoran&DeborahW.Tegano
UniversityofTennessee

Abstract
Thisarticlepresentsoneportrayaloftheroleofphotographyasalanguageofteacherinquiry.Toinformteachers'useof
photography,thefirstpartofthearticlepresentsabriefhistoricalperspectiveofphotography'sroleinthestudyofhuman
behaviorinthefieldsofvisualanthropology,visualsociology,photojournalism,andmedialiteracy.Thesecondpartofthe
articleincludesthreefunctionalapplicationsofphotographyinteacherinquiry:representational,mediational,and
epistemological.Thethreefunctionsaredefined,andclassroomexamplesandindepthanalysesofthesefunctionsare
providedtoillustratehowphotographypromotesinquirybasedclassroompractices.Theseanalysesincludediscussionsof
teachers'intentionalfocusormentallens,theimportanceofcollectivecontextsofteacherstudy,themetacognitiveprocesses
ofteacherinquiry,andtheappropriationofskillsinteacherinquiry.Eachexampledemonstratesaprogressivelydeeper
analysisofhowphotographycanbeusedbyeducatorstomovethefieldofeducationtowardvisualliteracy.Theexamplesare
takenfrompreschoolandearlyelementaryschoolclassrooms,althoughtheapplicationsmaybeextendedtothebroaderfield
ofeducation.

Introduction
DuringthepasttwodecadesintheUnitedStates,teacherinquiryhasbecomeadominantfocus
ofcontemporaryearlychildhoodteachereducationprograms(Hill,Stremmel,&Fu,2004
Hubbard&Power,2003Burnaford,Fischer,&Hobson,2001Moran,2002Fosnot,1989).
Teacherinquiryischaracterizedby"bothnewandexperiencedteachers[who]poseproblems,
identifydiscrepanciesbetweentheoriesandpractices,challengecommonroutines,drawonthe
workofothersforgenerativeframeworks,andattempttomakevisiblemuchofthatwhichis
takenforgrantedaboutteachingandlearning"(CochranSmith&Lytle,2001,p.53).Teacher
inquirersareclassroomresearcherswhoengageincyclicstudiesoflearningincontext,
dependentupontheuseoftools(writingutensils,tapeplayers,computers,andcameras)and
records(audioandvideotapes,transcriptions,fieldnotes,children'sworksamples,and
photographs)tohelpmaketeachingandlearningvisible.Throughimagebasedresearch,"a
contemporaryformofstructuredinvestigation"(Prosser,1998,p.3),teacherscanlearnto
observecarefully,screeningoutnonseminalinformationastheydevelopdiscernment,judgment,
anddecisionmakingskills.Teacherswhoutilizephotographyasanintegralpartoftheir
classroomresearcharepositionedtodevelopcompetenciesforusingthisvisuallanguage,as
Whiting(1979)said,torepresent,examine,andcommunicateemergingunderstandingswith
othersandwithself(p.8).Inotherwords,developingvisualliteracythroughthelanguageof
photographyisapartofcurrentinitiativesonteachinginquiry.
Thestudyofphotographs(andvideo)ofchildren'slearningandclassroomexperiencesisfast
becomingcentraltotheworkofmanynewandexperiencedearlychildhoodteachers(Goldman
Segall,1998ProjectZeroetal.,2003).Inthefirstpartofthisarticle,itisourgoaltoslow
downandstepbackforamomenttoreviewselectedillustrationsfromvisualanthropology,
visualsociology,1photojournalism,andmedialiteracy.Inthesefieldswherephotographyhas
playedanintegralpartinthestudyofhumanbehaviorovertime,wecanlearnhowphotography
hascontributedtotheseresearchers'andpractitioners'thinkingandpracticeandperhapsuse
theirinsightsinourownwork.2Inthesecondpartofthispaper,wedescribethethree
interrelatedfunctionsofphotographythatmaybeusedasananalyticalframeworkforhow
photographycontributestothedevelopmentofteacherinquiry.Thesearerepresentational,
mediational,andepistemologicalfunctions.Inthissecondsection,weincludeexamplesfrom
preserviceteachersandamasterteacherthatillustratehowphotographycanserveasa
languageofteacherinquiryinthefieldofearlychildhoodteachereducation.
 HistoricalPerspective:PhotographyasaVisualLanguageand
ResearchMethod
Fromdecadesofresearchandpracticeinthefieldsofanthropology,sociology,and
photojournalism,theoretical,conceptual,andpracticalunderstandingshaveemergedthatcan
informtheuseofphotographyasalanguageofcontemporaryteacherinquiry.Duringthepast
150years(sincetheinventionofthephotographicprocess),sociopoliticaldevelopmentsand
technicaladvanceshaveexpandedtheuseofphotographyfromstagedfamilyportraitsto
chroniclesofwarsandpostwarhumanism,andfromstudiesofdistantandunfamiliarculturesto
contemporaryeverydaylifeincitiesandruralcommunities(Bateson&Mead,1942Edwards,
1992Whiting,1979).Inthesestudies,photographyhasalsobeenusedtomapgeographic
terrainsandarcheologicaldigschartsocietallifeandrecord,catalogue,andidentify
developmentalmilestonesandemotionalbehaviors(Collier,1995).Moreover,photographshave
beenusedasartifactsthatchroniclebehaviors,places,andexperiences,makingphotographya
partofethnographicmethods(Harper,1998)and"criticalvisualmethodology"(Rose,2001).
Thenotionthatphotographyisavisuallanguage(Kepes,1944Whiting,1979)andaresearch
method(Collier&Collier,1986Prosser,1998)isnotnewandbegantoemergeduringthemid
tolate20thcentury.However,whatisnewistheuseofphotographyasaseminalpartof
teacherdocumentation3inteacherinquiry.Itisanappropriatetime,therefore,totakeabrief
lookatfieldsoutsideeducationandlearnfromthem,becauseteacherdocumentation,as
inspiredinparticularbytheReggioEmiliaapproachtoearlyeducation,continuestodominate
andexemplifythepowerandpromiseofmakingvisiblethelearningandresearchingofteachers
(ProjectZeroetal.,2003ProjectZero&ReggioChildren,2001).

PhotographyasaVisualLanguage

Photographyisavisuallanguagethatsharessomeimportantcharacteristicswithverbal
languagebothcommunicativeandstructural.Typically,teachersdonottreatphotographyasa
language.Rather,theyoftenseeaphotographasatruth,anobviousfact,andthereforea
photographdoesnotrequireinterpretation.Yet,weproposethatteachersreconceptualize
photographsasmorethansimplyclassroomrecords.Instead,photographsholdthesame
subjective,interpretivepotentialaswordswhenteachers"read"photographsfroman
interpretiveview,wherephotographsareimbuedwithmeaning.
Photographyisadynamicrepresentationalsystemthatusessignstoproduceandcommunicate
meaningjustaswedowhenweusewordstospeak.AccordingtotheSwisslinguistSausserre,
asignhastwoelements,thatofsignifierandthesignifiedwithsignifierrepresentingtheform(in
ourcasephotographs)andthesignifiedrepresentingtheassociatedconceptualunderstanding
provokedbyviewingaphotographoritsmeaning(Hall,1997,p.31).Formeaningtobe
constructed,thesetwoelementsmustexistinrelation.Hallnotesthatitistherelationship
betweenformandmeaningthatis"fixedbyourculturalandlinguisticcodes,which[inturn]
sustainsrepresentation"(p.31).
Fromthisperspectivethen,photographsareculturallysituatedandconsequentlyconvey
differentmeaningstodifferentviewersbasedonpersonallifeexperiences,knowledge,and
perspectives.Photographs,likewords,arebothencodedanddecodedwithmeaning.Thecreator
firstencodesaphotographwithmeaningorintentionwhenshetakesthephotograph,andthen
"itisfurtherencodedwhenitisplacedinagivensettingorcontext"(Sturken&Cartwright,
2003,p.56).Forexample,asphotographsareviewed,reviewersdecodeor"read"themeaning.
The"reading"ofphotographsthereforeissubjectiveandpartial(Skinningsrudascitedin
Edwards,1992,p.4Winston,1998)andnaturallyleadstoarangeofinterpretations.Sucha
varietyofinterpretationsareapositiveaspectofphotographyasalanguageofteacherinquiry
becauseitisthroughsharingdiversemeaningsthatnewunderstandingsarecoconstructed.
Therelationshipbetweenthesignifierandthesignified,theideathatphotographsareculturally
situated,andthecoconstructiveprocesswherebyinterpretivemeaningsaretheresultof
subjectiveencodinganddecodingareillustratedinthefollowingexampleofagroupofearly
childhoodteacherresearcherswhocollectivelyexploredvisualliteracy.Inarecentresearch
project,theReggioLuganoResearchCollaborative(RLRC)usedphotographsasaresearchtool
todiscoverthecapacityofvisualimagestouncover,provoke,andcommunicatebeliefsand
practicesrelatedtoteachingandlearning(Fu,Goldhaber,Tegano,&Stremmel,2000).This
multimembercollaborativewascomposedofteachereducatorsandteacherpractitionerswho
spentnearlytwoyearssystematicallyreflectingonselectedphotographsofeachparticipant's
earlychildhoodprograminordertoanswerthequestion:"Howdoesaninterpretativecommunity
findmeaninginthevisualimagesselectedtorepresentouradaptationsoftheReggioEmilia
approach?"Intheanalysesofthedatacollectedinthisproject,onefindingincludedthe
participants'discussionsandquestionsconcerningthecontextofthephotographs:Whosestory
wasbeingtoldthesubject'sstory,thephotographer'sstory,theviewer'sstory,orallthree?The
followingquestionsemerged:
Ifitisthephotographer'sstory,thenisanyonewhoviewstheslideswithoutknowingthe
photographer'sintentatriskforaninauthenticinterpretationofmeaning?
Becauseweareagroupofintersubjectiveviewers(orstrivingtobecomesuchagroup),to
whatdegreecanweunderstandtheauthenticmeaningoftheimageforthechildrenoradults
inthepicture?
Areweevercapableofbeingauthenticinourinterpretation?Doesitmatter?
Towhomdoesmeaningbelong?Canwelosewhatisnotours?

Thesequestionsillustratehowthesignifier(thephotographs)andthesignified(themeaning)
andhowencoding(thephotographer'sintendedstory,incontext)anddecoding(theviewer's
subjectiveinterpretation,alsoinasubjectivecontext)areanaturalpartofthelanguageof
photographyforteacherresearchers.Fortheseresearchers,thegoalwasnotnecessarilytofind
answerstothesequestions.Rather,participantsfocusedonengaginginthediscoursethat
provokedthemtoreflectonthemeaningofcontext,itsrolein"reading"photographs,andtoco
constructadeeperunderstandingofthepositive,richpotentialofsharedsubjective
interpretations.Thequestionslistedaboveweretheresultofajointprocessoffindingmeaning
inphotographsandasharedintersubjectiveunderstandingofthatprocess.Whenphotographs
areusedtostimulatediscourse,uncovermultipleinterpretiveperspectives,andevoke
questions,thenteachersaremovedtoreexamineandreconstructpedagogicalapproaches.
Effectiveverbalcommunicationincludesmeaning(semantics),wordorder(syntax),and
interpretationbasedoncontext(pragmatics).Inotherwords,theorderofourverbalizations
contributestointendedaswellasunderstoodmeaning.Althoughphotographyrepresents
meaning,itlacksthesyntacticalstructureofspokenlanguage.Withoutasimilar,embedded
"order"withinphotography,itisuptothephotographertocreateit.Thelackof"explicit
relationalindicators"(Messaris,1998,p.75)inthisvisuallanguagemeansthattheinquiring
teachermustintentionallypositionphotographs(oftenlinkedtotextualinformation)toconveya
particularmessage.Fromthisperspective,thereisa"doubleprocessofconstruction"(Hamilton,
1997,p.85)thatincludesboththe"choosingandframing"ofaphotographataparticular
momentintimeandtheselectionofphotographs"fromtheiroriginalorderingandnarrative
contexts,tobeplacedalongsidetextualinformationandreportsinpublication"(p.86).Toan
extent,somephotographshaveanimpliedorder(e.g.,achronologyofaclassroomevent,a
sequenceoflearning),especiallywhenateachertakesaphotograph.Inthiscase,sheknows
whatprecededandwhatfollowedtheclickoftheshutter.Later,whenthesameteacherstudies
thephotograph(orasetofphotographs),theorder(syntax)isjuxtaposedagainsthersubjective
meaning(semantics)andcontextualinterpretations(pragmatics).Inotherwords,thesyntax,
semantics,andpragmaticsarenotonlylocatedinthephotographbut,moreso,inthemindof
theteacher.Thisdoesnotmeanthataphotographcannotstandalone,butitdoesmeanthata
singlesnapshotmaynotbeadequatetoportraythecomplexprocessesofteachingandlearning
thatoccureverydayinchildren'sclassrooms.
ThispointisillustratedbyLawrenceLightfoot's(1999)descriptionofphotographerDawoud
Bey's4experienceofcreatingphotographicmeaning,meaningthatisgroundedinhiscuriosity
andhisneedto"godeeper"anddiscovermore(p.119).Asaresearcher,LawrenceLightfoot
describesBey'sprocessofselectingandgroupingphotographicimagestoanswerhisownartistic
inquiryintohowtocapturewhatBeycalleda"morecomplexrepresentationofhuman
experience"(p.136).LawrenceLightfootsays,"hesoondiscoveredthattheimageslookedmore
interestingwhenheputthemtogether,thatwithmultiplepieceshewasabletoevokethe
'complexrelationshipoftimeandpsyche'"(p.136).OnehallmarkofBey'sartistrythenisthe
"ordering"thatpermitstherelationshipamongthephotographstoemergeandthatallowshis
photographytoconveyaparticularmessage.Thelanguageofphotographythenisstructural,
communicative,andalsogenerative.
Justasspeakerssearchfortherightword,teacherswhousephotographyasalanguageof
inquirysearchfortherightangleorhowcloselythecameracomestothechildrenorscenebeing
photographedinordertoconveyaparticularmessage,forexample.Thecameraangleandclose
shots,amongothers,havebeenlabeledbymedialiteracyexpertMeyrowitz(1986)as"para
proxemics"5whentheyareused"as[a]meansofaffectingtheviewer'semotionsorattitudes"
(Messaris,1998,p.74).Paraproxemicdevicesandrelateddecisionsforhowtophotographa
classroomscene,experience,orbehaviorarepartoftheteacher'scomplexconstructionof
meaning,becausetheydeterminewhatshemayintendtoelicitintheviewer.Thesedecisions,
liketheorderingorpositioningofphotographs,aredeliberateactsofselectivity.
Inthefieldofphotojournalism,therearestrategiesforselectingandorganizingphotographsto
create"photostories"(Whiting,1979,p.34).Photographyhasmanyutilities,includingthe
conveyanceof(1)emphasis,(2)differentness,(3)motionoraction,(4)theaffordanceof
editingoutnonseminalinformation,and(5)theportrayaloftime.Whenteachersunderstandand
skillfullyusetheseutilities,theymaximizethecommunicativeandgenerativequalitiesof
photographyasalanguageofteacherinquiry.
First,particularemphasesareportrayedthroughthepositioningofphotographs,suchasplacing
thefirstandlastpicturesinaseriestoconnote"specialprominence,"and/orplacingapicture
"offbalance"toattractattentiontothatonepicture(Whiting,1979,p.84).Additionally,placing
averticallypositionedphotographwithin(ornextto)agroupingofhorizontallypositioned
photographsaffectshowonereadsthephotographicmontage(bygivingspecialimporttoa
singlephotographoverothers).Second,photographsafford"differentness"suchas"closeups,"
"spotlighteffects,"and"startlingdepth"(p.84)thatilluminatedetailsandencodeparticular
meaning.Third,photographyisfluidbecauseithasthepotentialtorevealthedynamicwithin
thestatic(forexample,aphotographthatshowstheexuberanceofchildrenoraseriesof
photographsfromwhichastoryaplot,adevelopingthemecanbecommunicated).In
photography,itispossibletocaptureprocessthroughthecontrolofmotion.Controlofmotion
maybeaccomplishedthroughfreezingactionandthedeliberateselectionofaseriesof
photographssothat"theirfinalusewillhavemotionbetweenpictures,andapattern"(p.83).
Fourth,thedecisionssurroundingtheselectionofagroupingofphotographsinvolvesscreening
outnonseminalinformationandcreatingbreakpointswithinthephotographs.Taketheexample
ofateacherwhowantstomakevisibletherelationshipbetweentwoplayscenarios,oneinthe
morningandoneintheafternoon.Thebreakpointsshecreatesacrossherseriesofphotographs
resultfromherremovalofextraneousinformationthatoccurredbesideandaroundthe
photographicscenes.Inthisway,shecommunicatesherintendedstoryoftherelationship
betweenthetwoplayscenarios.Fifth,suchbreakpoints(thespacebetweenthephotographs)
enablehertomanagethecomplexnatureoftime(across10minutes,2hours,or1day)that
shewantedtorepresentinphotographs.Moreover,breakpointsalsopermitthe"reader"(the
viewer)timetositwiththemeaning(s)inbothcommunicative(Iunderstand)andgenerative(I
havenewunderstandings)ways.Thus,forteachers,photographyispowerfulinitsabilityto
portraycomplexmeaningsandpracticalintheeaseofmanipulationofphotographsasa
languageofinquiry.
Thevalueofphotographyinteacherinquiryistomakevisibleourquestions,ourindepthstudy
ofchildren'slearning,andourchallengetoilluminateandcommunicatediscrepanciesbetween
theoryandpractice.Itisthroughcontinuouscyclesofsystematicallycreating,studying,and
arrangingphotographsandmakingpublicandvisibleintendedandsharedmeaningsthat
teachersengageinclassroomresearch.

PhotographyasaResearchMethod

Earlyinthe20thcentury,theuseofphotographyasaresearchmethodbyanthropologistswas
marginalizedbecauseitlackeddepth,descriptive,andexplanatoryvalue(Edwards,1992).Then,
inthe1940s,GregoryBatesonandMargaretMead,following10yearsofstudyingandwriting
aboutBalineseculture,begantointegratephotographyaspartofanindepthprocessof
observation.BatesonandMead's(1942)visualethnographyBalineseCharacter:APhotographic
Analysiswascreatedthroughamethodofsorting,categorizing,andcataloguingthousandsof
photographsinanattempt"topresentseveralperspectivesonasinglesubject,orinsequences
whichshowedhowasocialeventevolvedthroughtime"(Harper,1998,p.26).These
anthropologistsrepositionedandcoupledphotographswithtwotypesoftext(interpretative
essaysandannotateddetails).Byjuxtaposingimagesalongsidedetailed,writtendescriptions
andanalyses,BatesonandMeadusedtheoryandknowledgeofthefieldofanthropologyto
interpret,contextualize,andvalidatetheirphotographicdata.Thismethodmade"photographya
respectedtoolinanthropologicalresearch"(deBrigard,1995,p.26).
Itwasthisintentionallinkingofphotographstotext(informedbykeytheoretical,conceptual,
andcontextualconstructs)thatmarkedanimportantshiftinelevatingthesignificanceof
photographsfrommeretruthvalue6representationstowardthoughtfulrepresentationswith
valuableinformation,albeitdatainfluencedbythesubjectivitiesoftheresearchers.Evenafter
thepublicationofthisinfluentialvisualethnography,photographycontinuedtoremain
secondaryinimportancetothewrittenwordandtofilminthefieldofanthropologyuntil
recently,whenallformsofvisualrepresentationsfromfilmandphotographytovisualforms
producedbythesubjectsofstudy(e.g.,weavings,pottery,andart)arenowhighlyvaluedand
studiedas"visibleculturalforms,regardlessofwhoproducedthemorwhy"(Banks,1998,p.
11).
Theinclusionofculturalartifactsalongwithphotographyhasenabledanthropologistsandmore
recentlysociologists(Harper,1998)tofurtherportraythecomplexityofbehaviorsincontext.
Throughthecreationofthickdescriptions(Geertz,1973)orthelayeringofinterpretations
(GoldmanSegall,1998,p.32),photographyhasemergedasanintegralpartofthestudyof
signsandsymbolsthatconstituteresearchdataandadvancesourunderstandingofevents,
behaviors,andscenesincontext.7Forexample,whendoesaspecificgesturemeansomething,
orinwhatwaysdoparticularclassroomroutinesthatemergewithinagroupofchildrenhave
meaninginthatspace?Thecreationofathickdescriptionthenisanattemptbythe
anthropologist,sociologist,orteachertomovebeyondsurfaceleveldescriptionstoward
interpretations,informedbymorethanonewayofseeingorilluminatingaphenomenon.This
canbeaccomplishedthroughthecreationofaseriesofphotographsand/orthecouplingof
photographswithartifacts,transcriptions,andexplanatorytexttorevealanindepth,full
bodied,andcontextualizedinterpretation.

FunctionalApplication:ThreeInterrelatedFunctionsofPhotography
inTeacherInquiry
Photography,asoneformofteacherdocumentation,functionsinatleastthreeprimaryways:
(1)representational,(2)mediational,and(3)epistemological.Thesethreefunctionsoften
complementoneanotherthroughthemechanical(takingphotographs),themetacognitive
(studyingphotographs),andthecommunicative(systematicallyusingphotographs)aspectsof
photographyasalanguageofteacherinquiry.Thesefunctionsactinconcertwithoneanother
sometimesatthesametimeandsometimesacrosstime.Theyarenotintendedtobeexhaustive
orexclusive,rathertheyconstituteaninterpretiveframeworkthathasthepotentialforassisting
teachersinnavigatingreflectiveprocessesandcommunicatingwithselfandothers.
Inthispartofthepaper,therepresentational,mediational,andepistemologicalfunctionsare
definedandclassroomexamples(frompreschoolandearlyelementary)aregiventoillustrate
each.Althoughthisdiscussionisseparatedbyfunction,thereadershouldkeepinmindthat
takentogetherthesethreeformalarger,broaderconceptualizationofphotographyasa
languageofteacherinquiry.Itisthroughthisconceptualizationandtheabilitytodeconstruct
(understandtheparts)andreconstructthisframework(useindynamic,transactional,personal
ways)thatphotographybecomesalanguage,acommunicativetoolformakingvisibleteacher
inquiry.Thus,thesethreefunctionshavevalueforclassroomteachersasthey(1)respondto
theproblemofmovingawayfromphotographsasdiscrete,prescriptive,factualrecordsthatlimit
classroomdocumentationand(2)meetthechallengeofmovingtowardacommunicative,
transformative,andgenerativeprocessofsystematicandintentionalstudy.

Representational

Therepresentationalfunctionofphotographyisaboutcreatingmeaningtodepictandto
symbolizethroughtheuseofphotographiclanguage.Hall(1997)writes,"representation
connectsmeaningandlanguagetoculture"(p.15)thatistosaythatrepresentation(todepict
ortosymbolize)connectstheinterpretation(meaning)andthephotograph(language)tothe
context(culture).Forinstance,whenateacherusestherepresentationalfunctionof
photographytodepictorsymbolizechildren'sblockconstructions,sheconnectsherphotograph
ofblockconstructionsandherowninterpretation(thatmaybebasedonherintentiontoobserve
oronthemeaningsheassociateswiththeblockconstructions)toherparticularclassroom,ona
particularday,builtbyparticularchildren(context).
Photographsarenotpassiveartifactsbutinsteadrepresentactiveformsofmeaningwithlayers
ofpotentialinterpretations.SturkenandCartwright(2003)remindusthatthereareatleasttwo
elementsthatcontributetotheconstructionofmeaningotherthanthecreatorofthephotograph
andthephotographitself:"(1)howviewersinterpretorexperiencetheimageand(2)the
contextinwhichanimageisseen"(p.45).Fromthetimeateacherfirsttakesaphotograph,it
hasmeaning.Photographsareartifactsthat"suggestmeaningthroughthewayinwhichtheyare
structured"(Edwards,1992,p.8)suchasthechoicesmadetoselectwhatandhowto
photographand,concomitantly,whatwasnotselectedtophotograph.Whenteachersshare
photographswithothers,theoriginalmeaningmaynotalwaysremainwiththephotograph.
Instead,itcanbetransformedorembeddedinlayersofothers'interpretationswhoseviewsare
influencedbytheirdiverseexperiences,knowledge,andthecontextinwhichtheyareviewing
thephotographs.Edwards(1992)describestheprocessofbuildinguponlayersofinterpretation
asgiving"meaning"for"itsoriginalaudienceandforsubsequentgenerationsofinterpreters"(p.
12).Itisintheactionsoftaking,using,andinterpretingphotographs(withselfandothers)that
therangeofmeaningisexpanded,newquestionsconsideredandposed,anddiverse
representationsprovoked.
Thereexists,perhaps,ageneralassumptionthatmultipleperspectivesarepositivehowever,
thisisnotnecessarilytrue.RecalltheearlierexampleoftheReggioLuganoResearch
Collaborative,inwhichteachersandteachereducatorsmetoveratwoyearperiodtoengagein
systematicanalysesofphotographs.Duringearlyexchanges,themembersofthegroupwere
directedtoreviewandrespondtophotographssubmittedbyindividualmembers.Inthesefirst
exchanges,therewereoccasionswhendifferentviewpointswereperceivedasevaluativeand
evennegativebythosewhoseparticularphotographswerebeinganalyzed.Thisnegative
perceptionemergedfromthedissonancebetweenwhatthephotographerintendedtorepresent
andthesubjectiveanalysesofothers.Somemembersofthegroupwereuneasyaboutothers'
perspectivesbeingassociatedwiththeirpictures,becausethesemultipleperspectivesdidnot
matchwhatthephotographermeanttorepresent.Inthisscenario,multipleperspectiveswere
initiallyproblematicbutultimately(becausethegroupstayedinrelationandwerecommittedto
thetask)becameapowerfultoolforgeneratingandcommunicatingnewwaysofknowing.Thus,
whenteachersrecognizethatphotographshavethepotentialtorepresentdifferentperspectives
evengeneratedissonancethentheyrepositionthemselvestoreconstructtheirthinking.This
positionholdsthegreatestpromisefortransformingwaysteachersusetherepresentational
functionofphotography.
Twoexamplesoftherepresentationalfunctionareincludedhere.Thefirstisfromajuniorlevel
preserviceteacher(Elaine8)asshebeginsherjourneytowardvisualliteracyatthesimplelevel
ofmatchingherpicturestoherprestatedintentaboutwhatshewantedtoobserveinatoddler
classroom.Inthisclassassignment,sherepresented,throughtext,photographs,andawork
sample,twochildren'sabilitytolookatabirdandtodrawthebird(Figs.13).Example2
demonstratestherepresentationalfunctionatamorecomplexlevelwhenphotographsofa
masterteacheraresharedanddiscussedwithanoviceteacher.
Example1.Elainewroteherprestatedintenttoobserveandphotograph:

Theintentionofmyobservationistoobservechildreninanenvironmentwherethey
areparticipatinginacurriculardomain(birdlesson),tolistentothechildren's
conversationthatshowscooperation(socialknowledge),towatchthechildrenwork
inacooperativelearningactivity,andtoobservechildrenrepresentingtheir
knowledge..
Elaine'sphotographsweredirectedbyherintenttoobserve.

Figure1.Billeethebird.

Figure2.JasonandDaviddrawBillee.
 Figure3.Jasondrawsthebird'sclaw.

Elaine'sfieldnoteschronicledthechildren'sprocess:
ThechildrenobservedBilleethebirdandthenleanedclosertolookandtouch
thefeathers.
Atmyprompttoexaminethebird'sclaw,Jasoncalledout,"Thereareonly
three."
Iaskedthechildrentodrawthebird,andeachchoseabodyparttodraw.
Jasontookthreeofhisfingersandplacedthemontothepaperandtracedonly
threefingers.Thenhecalledout,"Thisisthebird'sclaw."
JasonandDavidworkedtogether,lookingatthebird,thenlookingdownattheir
paperstodraw,thenlookingateachother'spapers.Whenonewoulddraw
something,theotheraskedwhatitwasandthenwouldpointtothebirdtoshow
whathewasdrawing.

Elaine'swroteananalysisofhowherphotographsrepresentedherintent:
Myimagesdomatchmyintent.Iwantedtoobservechildrenworkingtogetheronan
activityandtoobservechildrenrepresentingtheirknowledge.Thechildrenwere
cooperativewithoneanotherandwerehelpfultoeachotherthroughouttheprocess.
Theywereabletorepresenttheirknowledgetotheirfriends,teachers,andparents.
JasonandDavidhelpedeachotherunderstandwhatpartofthebirdtheywere
drawingbypointingtothebirdwhenone[child]wouldask[questionsaboutthe
otherchild'sdrawings]..TheimagesmatchedmyintentbecauseIknewwhatI
wantedtoobserve..Iwantedtoseechildrenworkingtogether.tolookatchildren's
representationofknowledge,soIpickedalesson[inwhich]Iknewthechildren
wouldhavetorepresenttheirknowledgethatwasvisible.

Example2.Inthisexample,Angie,amasterteacher,andLisa,anoviceteacher,lookat
photographstakenbyAngieof3yearoldchildreninherclassroomdrawingandpaintingamural
ofpaperwhiteflowers(Figs.47).Lisa'schildrenarereadytobeginasimilarproject,andshe
hasaskedAngietomeetwithhertoshowherphotographsandtalkabouthowAngiehelps
childrenmovefromadrawingtowardapaintingphase.AsAngiescrollsthroughherphotographs
onherlaptopcomputer,aphotographofMichaelappears.

Angie:Childrenfirsttracetheshadows[oftheflowers]withpencilandthendrew
overthepencillineswithfinetipmarkerslikeMichaelisdoinghere(Fig.4).
Lisa:Butheisgoingoffthelines!

Figure4.Michaeltracestheflower'sshadow.

Figures5&6.Childrenworkcloselytopaintover
tracedshadowlines.

Angie:That'sokaybecausegoingoffthelinesisnotthemostimportantthingto
me.See,intheseotherphotographs(Figures56),childrenhavetonegotiate
workingalongsideandontopofotherchildren'searlierwork.
So,whatIvalueisnotsomuchthefinalproductofthemuralbutmoreabouthow
thesechildrenlearntoworkcloselytogetherandseekoneanotheroutforhelpas
theyparticipateonajoint,sharedproject.Iammostlyinterestedinhowtheylearn
toworktogether,notwhethertheyoungestinthegroupstaysonaline.
Lisa:Isee.Okay,sostayingonthelineisnotsoimportantbecausehe[Michael]is
just3yearsold.
Angie:Yes,exactly.Itisnotimportanttomethathestayonthelinebutthathe
feelsapartofthewholeproject.andthathedevelopsanabilitytostayfocusedon
atask.

AsAngierecallsthisexchangewithLisa,shethinksaboutbothheroriginalintentaswellasthe
meaningLisaassociatedwiththephotographs.Lisa'squestionsandcommentscauseAngieto
reconsiderandworktostateclearlywhatwasmostimportanttoherwhenveryyoungchildren
joinedwitholderchildreninashared,andsometimesdemanding,project.Angienotes,

Now,Irecognizethatthereisawiderangeofinterpretations(whenIsharemy
photographswithothers),andInowthinkaboutLisa'sunderstandingaswellasmy
own.Forme,thephotographsrepresentchildren'spotentialsandrelationships,not
somuchanarrowskillsuchasstayingonaline.Infact,aswetalked,Lisatoldme
thatshehadthoughtIhadpredrawnthelinesforthechildrenandthenthechildren
weresimplytracingoverthem.Sharingmyphotographsgavemeachancetoclarify
that,no[Ihadnotdonetheworkforthechildren],thechildrenhaddoneallthe
workandtomakeapointthatveryyoungchildrenarecapableofnotonlydrawing
detailsbutnegotiatingrolesandresponsibilitiesforcompletingalargescale
representation.

Inthisfinalphotograph(Fig.7),childrenstopandtakeabreakfrompreparingtopainta
paperwhitemural,toreviewphotographsfromoneoftheirearliermurals.
 Figure7.Childrenrevisitphotographsoftheirearlier
paintings.

AngiedescribesherinteractionwithLisa:

IexplainedwhatthemomentrepresentedformetoLisa.Lisajustthoughtthatthe
childrenwerelookingatthephotographsoutofgeneralinterest.Butthechildren
wereactuallylookingatthephotographstorecallwhattheydidearliertohelpthem
intheircurrentwork[withthepaperwhitedrawing].Lisawasnotthereanddidnot
understandtheimportancetomeofthechildrenusingphotographsasreferentsto
guidetheirnextstepsintheprocessofanewpainting.

Mediational

Themediationalfunctionofphotographyservestolinkthoughttoaction.Itissituatedintheact
oftakingaphotograph.Theactofbringingthecameratotheeyelinkswhatisinthemindto
whatishappeningoutside,suchthatthecameraisatoolthatconnectswhatoneaimstorecord
towhatisactuallyrecordedinaphotograph.Moreover,thecameraalsoprovidesalenstofocus
theteacher'sattentionthelensmediatesbetweenthemind'seyeoftheteacherandtheessence
oftheteacher'sintention.Forinstance,whenateacherseessomethingthathewantstorecord,
hesetsanintention.Consequently,thecamerabecomesa"mindguided"(Whiting,1979,p.28)
toolthatmediatesbetween(1)hisintentionandhisactionoftakingaphotographand(2)his
focus.Inthefieldofphotojournalism,thegestaltofthismindsetisreferredtoas"picture
thinking""thephotographer,then,firstlearnstoseewithhiscameraandthinkwithhiseyes"
(p.34).
Duringthisprocess,therearetworelatedandconcurrentactionsunderway.Thefirstisthe
nonvisibleyetdeliberatedecisiontoact.Thisactionisinformedbywhatissometimescalledthe
photographer's"gaze"(Cruickshank&Mason,2003,p.7Sturken&Cartwright,2003,pp.7677)
orintent,suchashisorientationtothestudyofchildren'slearning,hisinterest,orhismental
lens.Weeachhaveagazeshapedbybiases,interests,andperspectivesthatinfluenceswhat
wemostwanttophotographaswellaswhatwehaveinmindtoprojecttoviewersofthe
photograph.Second,thismentalorientationdirectsthemechanicalresponseoftakinga
photograph.Thephysicalactofholdingandaimingacameraononespotratherthanon
another,forexample,linkstheheadandeyetoaparticularplaceoranactionintheclassroom
followedbyyetanotherdecisiontotakeone,three,oraevenaseriesofshots.
Inthisfirstexample(Figs.811),Angieisinterestedinlearninghowonechildteachesasecond
childtotracetheprojectedshadowofaleafinpreparationtopaintit.Theteacher'sgazeor
intentisclearinhermind.Angiedirectsthecameralensonthefacesandhandsofthechildren
whileincludingenoughcontext(theprojectedshadowoftheleaf)tosituatetheimage.
 Figure8.Achildpointsouttheshadowlinesofthe
flowertoherpeer.

Figures911.Achildassistsherpeerintracing
shadowsinpreparationtopaint.

Thedeliberatenesswithwhichshetakesthisseriesofphotographsisanexampleofhowthe
cameraactsashertool,themediator,betweenherdesiretorecordthisclassroominteraction
suchthatshemaystudyitlater,andherfocusedattentioninthemoment.Angielaterstudies
thephotographsandrevisitsherunderstandingofhow3yearoldchildrenappropriatedskillsin
teachingtheirpeerstofirsttrace(withtheirfingers)thelinesthattheywouldlaterpaintwitha
paintbrush.Indoingso,Angiehasmadevisiblethecapacityandthepotentialofyoungchildren
to"teach"theirpeerstheskillsandprocessesofsymbolicrepresentationforherownandthe
children'smetacognitiveanalyses,aswellastocommunicatethiscapacityandpotentialto
parentsandotherteachers.
Forexample,aseniorlevelpreserviceteacherreflectedonherearliercourseworkand
experiencesinusingthecameratodevelopfocusedclassroomobservationalskills.Shetoldher
classmates,"Idon'tjusttake[random]pictures.IwaituntilIseethemomentoflearningthatI
havebeenwaitingfor.IplanalessonandwhenIdocumentit,IknowwhatlearningI'mtryingto
seewiththecamera."Thisstudentdescribesherabilitytoanticipatethemomentoflearningon
whichsheintendstofocus.Herdescriptionrevealsthatshemaybebetter"preparedtoengage
insubsequentsimilaractivities"(Rogoff,1995,p.150),evenwithoutacameratoalways
mediateherfocus.Inthisexample,thestudentisevidencingamoveawayfromherdependence
onthecameraandisbeginningtoappropriate9boththetool(thecamera)andtheprocessof
discernmentaboutwheretofocusherattention.
Themediationalfunctionofphotographyismaximizedwhenteachersparticipateincollective
contextsofstudy.Whengroupsofteacherscritiquephotographs,diverseperspectivesareoften
voicedastheytalkoutloudandthinkabouttheintentionofthephotographerinrelationtohis
orherownmeaningmaking.Themediatorsareboththephotographsandtheconversation.In
thesecontexts,teacherssearchforcongruencyamongwhatisintheirheads,whatisbeingco
constructedwithothers,andwhatisrepresentedandmadevisiblebytheteacherphotographer.
Inthissecondexampleofthemediationalfunction,webeginwithanexcerptfromawritten
reflectionbyseniorlevelpreserviceteachingpartnersLynnandKaitlin:

Ourintenttoobservewasfocusedaroundthesocialconstructionofknowledge.As
wereviewedanddiscussedourphotographs,wecollaboratedaboutthedifferent
typesoflearningthatweredisplayedthroughourdocumentation.Lynnnoticed[that]
manyofthepicturesshowedcooperativelearningbetweenthechildren.Kaitlin
sharedherrealizationthattheexpressionsonthechildren'sfacesshowedtheirhigh
levelofengagement.Asshelookedthroughthephotos,LynnrealizedthatKaitlin
wasrightallofthechildrenwereactivelyparticipatinginthegame.Thisshared
understandinghelpedushypothesizethatthistypeofactivityresultedinincreased
engagementaswellascooperativelearning..Bycollaboratingasteachingpartners,
westrivedtoconnectwitheachotherandunderstandourdifferentviewpoints..This
resultedina"meetingoftheminds"orintersubjectivity.

Figure12.Preserviceteachersrevisitandanalyze
classroomphotographs.

Figures13&14.Childrenlearntoplayaboard
game.

Vision(alongwithspeech)hasthedistinctionofbeingthemostimportantmeansbywhichwe
apprehendreality(Hayakawa,1944,p.10),orinthiscase,realities,suchthatforeach
photographthereisnotasinglereality.Thelanguageofphotographyiscontextual,and
thereforethe"view"ispartial.Themeaningofphotographsisfilteredthroughtheparticular
beliefs,values,andexperiencesoftheviewer,resultinginanumberofinterpretations.The
objectiveisnottoholdontoouroldwaysofknowing,simplyagreeingwiththeperceptionsof
others,includingthatofthecreatorofthephotograph.Rather,"toperceiveavisualimage
impliesthebeholder'sparticipationinaprocessof[mental]organization.Theexperienceofan
imageisthusacreativeactofintegration"(Kepes,1944,p.13).Toexperienceanimagewith
othersmeansthatwewilllikelychangeourmindsaboutwhatweoriginallysawinaphotograph
andconsequentlyreturntoourownclassroomswithnewmentallensesthatwillinturndirectand
focustheverylenseslocatedinourcameras.
Thus,oncetaken,photographsareusedbyteachersnotonlytomakechildren'slearningvisible
butalsotoinquireabouttheirowngaze.Thismediationalfunctionisametacognitiveprocess
becauseteachershaveaccesstorecordscreatedbythemthatinturnhelpthemthinkabout
theirownthinking.Inthiscase,photographsprovokequestionsandobservationssuchas,"How
doesonechildteachanotherthestrategyoffirsttracingashadowedlineinpreparationtolater
drawandthenpaintit?"or"Whatarethedifferenttypesoflearningthatweredisplayedinour
images?"or"HowmightIdoabetterjobframingmyphotographstorecordchildren'shanduse,
theirfacialexpressions,ornuancesoftheircontemplativeglances?"Theanswerstothese
questionsmediateorguideteachers'inquiry.Here,theaimistousethelanguageof
photographyreflexivelytodiscernwhatmatterstoeachofusinourstudyofchildren'slearning,
whatwearelearning,andhowwecanmoredeliberatelyusephotographytocommunicateour
interests,ourquestions,andourevolvingunderstandingswithselfandothers.

Epistemological

Theepistemologicalfunctionofphotographyistheuseofphotographsasasourceofnew
knowledge.Throughindividualandcollectivestudy,reflection,andanalysesofphotographs,
teachersaccesstheepistemicpotentialinnatetousingphotographyaspartoftheprocessof
teaching.Thisepistemologicalprocessispropelledthroughteachers'participationincreating
andusingphotographs.Assuch,teacherswhousephotographyasalanguageofinquiryhavea
chancetocontinuallyconstructnewunderstandingsaboutchildren'slearningandtobetter
understandwhattheywanttoknowand"howtheycometoknowit."Forexample,photographs
freezeframemomentsintimesothatteacherscanlaterstudythemmoreclosely,pondertheir
originalintentions,andconstructnewknowledgeastheyreturnagainandagaintochallengeold
waysofknowing.
Inthisfirstoftwoexamples,thephotographsandreflectivewritingsofaseniorlevelpreservice
teacherdyaddemonstratetheseteachers'epistemologicalunderstandings(Figs.1519).

Webelievethatourimagesclearlyevidenceboththeteachingandlearningthat
occurredduringthisactivity.10Wewerepurposefulinthemannerinwhichwe
presentedthematerialstothechildreninordertoencourageautonomyintheir
selectionofmaterials.Ourimagesrevealmanyofthechildrenmovingimmediately
tosolvetheproblemwithoutcomprehendingthequestionthatwasbeingasked..
Theimageswehaveselectedareconnectedtooneanotherbecausetheyportray
onechild'sthoughtprocessasheworkedtowardasolution.[Thesolutionistofigure
outhowmanypeopleoranimalslivedinGrandpa'shousetoequal12feetand1
tail.]Theimagesillustrate:thepresentationoftheproblemthechild'sinitial
drawinghissecondmorelogicalrepresentationtheuseofUnifixcubestoprove
thesolutioninthedrawingwascorrectandtheculminationofthelessoninwhich
eachchild'ssolutionwaspresentedanddiscussed.

Figure15.Theteacherpresentstheproblemtothe
children.

 Figures16&17.Onechildrepresentsapossible
solutionthroughdrawing.

Figure18.Onechildverifieshisdrawnsolutionwith
manipulatives.

Figure19.Childrenmeettorevisittheirsolutionsto
theproblem.

Asateachingteam,wedifferinwhatwemightadaptifweweregoingtoteachthis
lessonagaininthefuture.Oneofusfeelsthatwemightallowmoretimetoexplore
othersolutionsthatwerenotgeneratedbythegroup.Theotherwouldprefertointroduce
additionalmaterialstothechildrenwithwhichtosolvetheproblemsuchasfigurinesof
peopleandanimals.Thisadaptationmightassistthechildrenwhowerehavingproblems
solvingtheprobleminmoreabstractways.

Throughthelanguageofphotography,adispositionofinquiryisdevelopedtoobserve,tosee
andseeagainwithdiscernment,andtoconstructmeaning.Theseepistemicprocessesare
initiallyandintermittentlydependentupontheaidoftools(cameras,lenses)andsigns
(photographs).Yetthelanguageofphotographydoesnotremainsolelyontheexternalplane.
Instead,overtime,itislikewiseappropriatedandusedmentallyonone'spersonalorinternal
plane.Fromthisperspective,theconstructionofmeaningdevelopsbothintheheadofthe
teacheraswellasinherhandsthatis,inthemanipulationofthecameraandintheadjustment
ofherlensaswellasinherrationaleforwhattorecord.Atthesetimes,theteacher's
conceptualconstructsdevelopedfromsomanyphotographstaken,somanyconversations
shared,andsomanynewunderstandingsinformherdecisionsandbeliefsaboutwhatis
importanttophotographtoher.Sheisnotonlyphotographingforthemomentbutalsofor
broaderpurposes:herparticularinterests,herneedtoknowmore,herdevelopingfocusof
inquiry.Andthesepurposesaresimultaneouslyreinformedbyanindividualteacher's
conceptualconstructs.
Inthissecondandfinalexampleoftheepistemologicalfunction,weonceagainconsidera
masterteacher'suseofphotographyasshesetshersightsonaquestionaboutchildren's
understandingofmeasurementforwhichshedoesnothaveareadyanswer.Itisspring,and
outsidethemultiagepreschoolclassroom,Angieandthechildrenhaveplantedaflowergarden.
Onthisday,sixchildrengoouttogethertoexploretheflowers.Angie'sgoalwastodetermine
whatthechildrenweremostcuriousaboutsothatshecouldplanrelevantfollowupactivitiesto
helpthemexploretheirquestionsandobservations.Shedocumentedtheirinterestsnotonlyby
whattheysaidbut"howlongtheystayedfocusedandhowtheyexploredanaspectofaflower
andhowtheyorientedtheirbodiestotheplants"(Figs.2030).
Angierecallstheday,
 Atfirst,Itookmanyphotographstostudytheirpureexplorations.Ithenbeganto
focusontheirquestions,andIaudiotapedtheirconversations.Iwonderedwhatthey
wantedtoknowandhowtohelptheminvestigateitthroughtheirexperiencesand
laterthroughtheirstudyofphotographsoftheirexperiences.Ilistenedfortheir
questions.

Figures2023.Childrenexploreflowersinthe
garden.

Thatmorning,amongtheobservationsposedbythechildren,SusanandDaniellenoted,"it'stoo
little,"meaningthattheycouldnotmeasuretheheightofthetalllilieswiththeir12inchruler.
Itwasthisproblem,firstposedbySusanandlaterexploredbyDanielle,thatmostcaught
Angie'sattention.Angiewantedtoknow,"WhatdoesDanielleunderstandaboutmeasuring?"and
"DoIgiveheralongermeasuringtoolor,instead,waitandencouragehertocontinuetofigure
outherownsolutionstotheproblem?"

Figures2426.Danielleextendstherulerwithher
handandarmtomeasurethelily.

Teacher:Whatdoyoumeanitistoolittle?
Danielle:Becausetheflower'stall.
Teacher:Howdoyouthinkwecanmeasuretheflower?
Danielle:I'lldoitwithmyhand.
Teacher:Howareyougoingtousetherulertomeasure?
Danielle:Here,I'llshowyou.It's20:1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10buds.I'llmakemy
handgoup.
Teacher:Oh,Iseeyouareconnectingyourhandtotherulerfortherestofthe
flower'sheight.Whatcanweconnect?Yourhanddoesn'thavenumbers,sohowwill
wemeasure?
Danielle:I'llcount.(countingontheruler):1,2,.12(toendofruler,thenonarm)
.24.
Teacher:Howcanwetellhowlongyourarmis?
Danielle:MymommysaidIcan'tdrawonmyarm.
Teacher:Ok,howcanweknowhowlongyourarmis?
Angiereflectsonherprocess:

Istudiedthephotographsandtranscriptionsoverandover.Iwasconfused.Atfirst,
Ididn'tknowwhatDaniellemeantabouthowshewasusingherarmtohelpher
measure.Ikeptphotographingherasshetalkedtomeabouthowshewouldextend
therulerwithherarmtomakealongenoughtooltomeasurethelilies.

Angiewasnotonlyphotographingforthemomentbutalsoforbroaderpurposes.Inthemoment,
AngieusedthephotographstohelpDaniellerevisitherstrategiesofinquiryfordetermininghow
tomeasureatallflowerwitharulerthatwasshorterthantheflower.Onabroaderlevel,Angie
furtherdevelopedherownfocusofinquirythroughherstudyandguidanceofDanielle'scycleof
inquiry.
Angiecontinues:

AsDanielletalkedtome,sheusedtwowords(muchandold)thataren'tusually
usedtodescribeheight.Ikeptaskingher[clarifying]questionsbecausewhileI
believedsheunderstoodwhatshemeant,Iwasstillconfused.
Danielle:Let'scountagain.Whentheflowercomestomyhand,thenwe'llcountthe
numbers:1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12(beginsusinghandandarmas
measuringdevicewhenrulerrunsout),13,14,15,16.It's16much.
Teacher:Whatismuch?
Danielle:Muchmeans16.
Teacher:Butwhatismuch?
Danielle:Muchmeans20:20yearsold.
Teacher:Arewetalkingabouthowtallorhowold?
Danielle:Itisjustthistall,okay?Let'smeasurethetallone.Ihopeitgoesupto
myarmuphere(pointingtotheedgeofhershoulderagain).Ihavetogodownfor
1.andupto16.That's16muchold.

Figures2729.Daniellestudiestheheightofthe
plant.

Angiegoesontosay:

Later,Ireadoverthetranscriptionsandlookedagainandagainatthephotographs,
orderingandreorderingthem,arrangingthemalongsidehertranscribedwords.Ibegan
tounderstandthatsheusedthewords"old"and"much"interchangeablytodescribe
unitsoflength.WhatImeanisthatwhenDaniellefirstusedthewordsoldand
much,sheunderstoodhermeaningbutIdidn't,untilIstudiedmyphotographsandher
wordswithher.

Thenextday,AngieinvitedDanielletorevisittheseriesofphotographsinordertohelpAngie
clarifyexactlyhowDanielleconceptualizedextendingtheruler(usingherarm)tomeasurethe
lily.Inthesephotographs,AngierechecksherinterpretationofDanielle'sthinkingabout
measurement(Figs.3032).Astheylookedatthephotographstogether,AngiereadDanielle's
wordstoher.DaniellewasabletorestateherthinkingtoAngieandconfirmAngie'soriginal
hypothesis.Angiesays,"Ilearnedthatshehadafarmoresophisticatedunderstandingof
measurementthanIknew,andIusedthistoplanothermeasuringactivitiesforher."

Figures3032.AngieandDaniellerevisitphotographs
ofmeasuringthelily.

Fromhere,Angiewasabletocreatesubsequentclassroomtasksusingmanipulativestocontinue
totestDanielle'sthinkingstrategyinanothercontext(Fig.3335).

Figures3335.AngiepresentsDaniellewithanew
countingtaskbackintheclassroom.

ThroughthecouplingoftranscriptionswithphotographsandbysharingthesewithDanielle,
AngiedecodedtheinformationandconstructednewunderstandingsaboutDanielle'sproblem
solving.Concurrently,Angieappropriatedthisstrategy(studyingphotographswithtextand
sharingitwithothers)torefineandexpandherrepertoireofinquirypracticesevenasshe
engagedinthemetacognitiveprocessofrecognizingwhatshewantedtoknowandhowshe
cametoknowit.Thatis,therecomesatimewhenfocusingthecameralens,manipulating
photographs,andreadingtranscriptionsbecomeamentalgestaltofactionsthatoccurinthe
headoftheteacher,withincreasinglylessrelianceontheactualtoolsoractionsthemselves.
Thus,theepistemologicalfunctionofphotographycontributestoteachers'knowledgeaboutand
processesoflearningthroughinquiry.Photographymakesvisiblethemetacognitiveprocessesof
teachingandlearning.Theactsoffocusingattentiontocaptureimagesofclassroommoments,
manipulatingphotographs,studyingtranscripts,anddevelopinginterpretivemeaningsandtext
areprocessesthatencouragethedevelopmentofmetacognitioninteachers.Theseprocesses
aremadevisiblethroughtheactofdocumentationandareappropriatedbyteacherswhen
inquirybecomesahabitofmind,evenwithoutthepresenceandmanipulationoftoolsand
documents.

ConcludingRemarks
Photographyasalanguageofinquiryisthereforegenerativeandcommunicativegenerative
becausethroughphotographyteachersconstructnewunderstandingsandaremorepreparedto
engageinsubsequentsimilaractivitiesandcommunicativebecausephotographyconveysand
provokesmeaning.Thus,photographycanbeapowerfulresearchtoolforeducatingstudents
andteachersintheconstructionandcoconstructionofknowledgeabouttheprocessesof
teachingandlearningandaswell,photographyisonewaytomakevisiblethesesame
processes.
Inthisarticle,weattempttosituatephotographyinteachereducationwithinthebroader
frameworksofvisualanthropology,visualsociology,photojournalism,andmedialiteracy.For
educatorsinthedigitalage,photographyisaneffectiveandrichresourcethatexpandsboththe
tools(writingutensils,computers,taperecorders)andtherecords(fieldnotes,worksamples,
transcriptions)thatweuseinourclassroomstoincludecamerasandphotographs.Wepresent
descriptionsandexamplesofthreefunctionalapplicationsofphotographyinclassroom
investigations.Therepresentational,mediational,andepistemologicalfunctionsofphotography
areusefulinexplaininghowteachersusephotographyasalanguageofteacherinquiry.Theuse
ofphotographyasafunctionallanguageofinquiryineducationisportrayedasameansfor
movingthefieldofeducationtowardvisualliteracy.
Finally,earlychildhoodeducationisafieldinwhichvisualdocumentationtechniquesare
emerging,andassuch,thefunctionalcategoriesofphotographypresentedhereareonemeans
togivesubstanceandclaritytoourburgeoningunderstandingofpraxisinavisuallyliterate
world.Inthisarticle,wechosespecificexamplesfrompreschoolsandearlyelementaryschools
toillustrateeachofthesefunctions.Althoughtheexamplesaretakenfromearlychildhood
classrooms,webelievethattheinformationpresentedherehasapplicationtothebroaderfield
ofeducation,preciselybecauseofitsinherentadaptabilitytoculturalcontexts.Aseducators
learntousephotographytoconstructnewunderstandingsandtoconveymeaninginclassroom
contexts,itisourhopethatthisarticleprovidesonemeansbywhichtheymaybeginto
articulatetheiruseofphotographyasbothagenerativeandacommunicativelanguageof
teacherinquiry.

Notes
1.Visualanthropologyandvisualsociologyaremorerecent,secondaryvariationsofthelargerfields.
2.Whiledocumentaryfilm,morethanphotography,hasdominatedtheabovementionedfields(Hall,1997Sturken&
Cartwright,2003),itisbeyondthescopeofthisarticletodiscussbothfilmandphotography.Therefore,thefocusofthis
articleisontheuseofstillphotographyinteacherinquiry.
3.Documentationisthepurposefulgathering,systematicorganization,anduseofdiversesymbolicrepresentationsthatdepict
multipleperspectivesofchildrenandteachers'constructionsofknowledge(Tegano&Moran,2005)."Itis.aninstrumentof
exchangeandsharing.Theseactsofrecording,ofdocumenting,arenotpassive.Theycontinuallypropeltheeducatortoa
fullerunderstandingofwhathappensinthelearningprocess"(Tarini,1993).

4.InformationaboutBeymaybefoundonthisWebsite: http://www.dia.org/dawoud_bey_site/introduction.html.
5.Paraproxemicsreferstothe"framingvariable,"thatisthe"choiceofcloseups,mediumshotsorlongshots"usedto
frametheportrayedscenethatinfluencestheviewers'perceptionandresponsetotheimage(Meyrowitz,1986,p.256).
6.Thisnotioninfersthatadocumentaryphotographisa"simplerecord.itsfactualorobjectivebasisseemsatfirstglance
quiteunexceptional.awayofpresenting'facts'aboutitssubjectinapurelyinformationalway"(Hamilton,1997,p.81).
7.Thereisanargumentamongsomecontemporaryresearchersinthefieldsofvisualanthropologyandvisualsociology,in
particular,thattheuseofphotographsasacentralformofdataisproblematic(Harper,1998).Someofthearguments
reviewedbyProsser(1998)include(1)photographsaretoocomplexandambiguous,(2)theactoftakingphotographs
"alterstheobjectivecontentandsubjectivemeaningoftheimage."(p.98),and(3)thesocialconstructionandmediational
naturecentraltocreatingand"reading"photographsdistortstheirmeaninganddiminishestheirusefulnessasdata.Ifthegoal
ofteacherinquiryistoposehypothesesandgenerate/analyzedata,thentheseargumentsmayalsoholdtrueforteachers
engagedinclassroomresearch.However,teacherinquirydoesnottypicallyaimtoproveordisproveatheoryortoensurethat
thereisonlyonetruthrepresentedinaphotograph.Rather,inquiryorientedpracticeisacyclicalprocessfromwhichteachers
poseproblems,questions,reflections,andchallengepriorwaysofthinkingandpracticing,astheyrepresentandrerepresent
theextraordinaryintheordinarylearninglivesofteachersandchildren.
8.Allparticipants'nameshavebeenreplacedwithpseudonyms.
9.Participatoryappropriationisa"processbywhichindividualstransformtheirunderstandingofandresponsibilityfor
activitiesthroughtheirownparticipation.."Asaresult,theyarethenbetterpreparedtoengageinsimilartypesofactivitiesin
thefuture(Rogoff,1995,p.150).
10.Grandpasaidthathegrewupinahousewheretherewere12feetand1tail.WhocouldhavelivedwithGrandpa?This
activitywastakenfromYoungChildrenReinventArithmetic:ImplicationsofPiaget'sTheorybyConstanceKamii(2000).
 Acknowledgment
TheauthorswishtoacknowledgethevaluablecontributionofdocumentationbymasterteacherphotographerAngeliaBethJenkins,
B.S.AngieisateacherandcurriculumcoordinatorinaprivatepreschoolinGeorgia.SherecentlypresentedherworkattheNational
AssociationfortheEducationofYoungChildren2004annualconferenceinAnaheim,California.

References
Banks,Marcus.(1998).Visualanthropology:Image,objectandinterpretation.InJonProsser
(Ed.),Imagebasedresearch:Asourcebookforqualitativeresearchers(pp.923).NewYork:
RoutledgeFalmer.
Bateson,Gregory,&Mead,Margaret.(1942).Balinesecharacter:Aphotographicanalysis(Vol.
2).NewYork:NewYorkAcademyofSciences.
Burnaford,GailFischer,Joseph&Hobson,David(Eds.).(2001).Teachersdoingresearch:The
powerofactionthroughinquiry(2nded.).Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.ED454170.
CochranSmith,Marilyn,&Lytle,SusanL.(2001).Beyondcertainty:Takinganinquirystancein
practice.InAnnLieberman&LynneMiller(Eds.),Teacherscaughtintheaction:Professional
developmentthatmatters(pp.4560).NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.ED454205.
Collier,John,Jr.(1995).Photographyandvisualanthropology.InPaulHockings(Ed.),Principles
ofvisualanthropology(2nded.,pp.235254).NewYork:MoutondeGruyter.
Collier,John,Jr.,&Collier,Malcolm.(1986).Visualanthropology:Photographyasaresearch
method(Rev.ed.).Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress.
Cruickshank,Iona,&Mason,Rachel.(2003).Usingphotographyinarteducationresearch:A
reflexiveinquiry.InternationalJournalofArtandDesignEducation,22(1),521.
deBrigard,Emilie.(1995).Thehistoryofethnographicfilm.InPaulHockings(Ed.),Principlesof
visualanthropology(2nded.,pp.1343).NewYork:MoutondeGruyter.
Edwards,Elizabeth(Ed.).(1992).Anthropologyandphotography18601920.NewHaven,CT:
YaleUniversityPress.
Fosnot,CatherineT.(1989).Enquiringteachers,enquiringlearners:Aconstructivistapproachfor
teaching.NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.
Fu,VictoriaR.Goldhaber,JeanneTegano,DeborahW.&Stremmel,Andrew.(2000,
November).RecastingtheReggioEmiliaapproach:Definingourselvesthroughvisualimagesand
themultiplevoicesofcollaborativeresearch.Paperpresentedattheannualconferenceofthe
NationalAssociationfortheEducationofYoungChildren,Atlanta,GA.
Geertz,Clifford.(1973).Theinterpretationofcultures.NewYork:BasicBooks.
GoldmanSegall,Ricki.(1998).Pointsofviewingchildren'sthinking:Adigitalethnographer's
journey.Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
Hall,Stuart(Ed.).(1997).Representation:Culturalrepresentationsandsignifyingpractices.
ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.
Hamilton,Peter.(1997).Representingthesocial:FranceandFrenchnessinpostwarhumanist
photography.InStuartHall(Ed.),Representation:Culturalrepresentationsandsignifying
practices(pp.7687).ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.
Harper,Douglas.(1998).Anargumentforvisualsociology.InJonProsser(Ed.),Imagebased
research:Asourcebookforqualitativeresearchers(pp.2441).NewYork:RoutledgeFalmer.
Hayakawa,S.I.(1944).Therevisionofvision.InGyorgyKepes,Languageofvision.Chicago:
PaulTheobald.
Hill,LynnT.Stremmel,AndrewJ.&Fu,VictoriaR.(2004).Teachingasinquiry:Rethinking
curriculuminearlychildhoodeducation.NewYork:Allyn&Bacon.
Hubbard,RuthShagoury,&Power,BrendaMiller.(2003).Theartofclassroominquiry:A
handbookforteacherresearchers(Rev.ed.).Portsmouth,NH:Heinemann.
Kamii,Constance.(2000).Youngchildrenreinventarithmetic:ImplicationsofPiaget's
theory(2nded).NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.ED458123.
Kepes,Gyorgy.(1944).Languageofvision.Chicago:PaulTheobald.
LawrenceLightfoot,Sara.(1999).Respect:Anexploration.Reading,MA:PerseusBooks.
Messaris,Paul.(1998).Visualaspectsofmedialiteracy.JournalofCommunication,48(1),70
80.
Meyrowitz,Joshua.(1986).Televisionandinterpersonalbehavior:Codesofperceptionand
response.InGaryGumpert&RobertCathcart(Eds.),Inter/media:Interpersonalcommunication
inamediaworld(3rded.,pp.253272).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Moran,MaryJane.(2002).Implicationsforthestudyanddevelopmentofinquiryamongearly
childhoodpreserviceteachers:Areportfromonestudy.JournalofEarlyChildhoodTeacher
Education,23(1),3944.
ProjectZero,CambridgeportChildren'sCenter,CambridgeportSchool,EzraH.BakerSchool,&
JohnSimpkinsSchool.(2003).Makingteachingvisible:Documentingindividualandgroup
learningasprofessionaldevelopment.Cambridge,MA:ProjectZero.
ProjectZeroandReggioChildren,Italy.(2001).Makinglearningvisible:Childrenasindividual
andgrouplearners.ReggioEmilia,Italy:ReggioChildrenS.r.l.andReggioChildren/USA.
Prosser,Jon(Ed.).(1998).Imagebasedresearch:Asourcebookforqualitativeresearchers.New
York:RoutledgeFalmer.
Rogoff,Barbara.(1995).Observingsocioculturalactivityonthreeplanes:Participatory
appropriation,guidedparticipation,andapprenticeship.InJamesV.Wertsch,PablodelRio,&
AmeliaAlvarez(Eds.),Socioculturalstudiesofmind(pp.139164).Cambridge,UK:Cambridge
UniversityPress.
Rose,Gillian.(2001).Visualmethodologies:Anintroductiontotheinterpretationofvisual
materials.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.
Sturken,Marita,&Cartwright,Lisa.(2003).Practicesoflooking:Anintroductiontovisual
culture.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Tarini,Eva.(1993).Whatisdocumentation?InnovationsinEarlyEducation:TheInternational
ReggioExchange,1(4),45.
Tegano,DeborahW.,&Moran,MaryJane.(2005).Conditionsandcontextsforteacherinquiry:
Systematicapproachestopreserviceteachercollaborativeexperiences.Manuscriptsubmittedfor
publication.
Whiting,JohnR.(1946/1979).Photographyisalanguage.NewYork:ArnoPress.
Winston,Brian.(1998)."Thecameraneverlies":Thepartialityofphotographicevidence.InJon
Prosser(Ed.),Imagebasedresearch:Asourcebookforqualitativeresearchers(pp.6068).New
York:RoutledgeFalmer.

AuthorInformation
Dr.MaryJaneMoranisanassistantprofessorofearlychildhoodeducationattheUniversityofTennessee,Knoxville,inthe
DepartmentofChildandFamilyStudies.Sheteachesundergraduateandgraduatecoursesonearlychildhoodeducation,action
research,andearlylearningenvironmentsandcurriculum.Herresearchinterestsincludethestudyanddevelopmentof
teachersengagedincollaborativeactionresearch,theuseofdocumentationasatoolfordevelopingcriticalthinkingamong
teachers,andtheroleofphotographyandfilmaslanguagesofteacherinquiry.SheandDr.DeborahW.Teganohave
developedWebbasedapproachesforhelpingpreserviceteachersdevelopcriticalthinkingthroughvisualliteracy.
MaryJaneMoran,Ph.D.
TheUniversityofTennessee
DepartmentofChildandFamilyStudies
1215WestCumberlandAvenue,Room115
Knoxville,TN379961912
Telephone:8659744538
Email:mjmoran@utk.edu
Dr.DeborahW.TeganoisanassociateprofessorofearlychildhoodeducationattheUniversityofTennessee,Knoxville,inthe
DepartmentofChildandFamilyStudies.Sheteachesundergraduateandgraduatecoursesonearlychildhoodeducation,action
research,andchildren'splay.Herresearchinterestsincludeinquirybasedcurriculumdevelopment,teachers'rolesin
promotingproblemsolvingthroughplay,andtheroleofphotographyandfilmaslanguagesofteacherinquiry.SheandDr.
MaryJaneMoranhavedevelopedWebbasedapproachesforhelpingpreserviceteachersdevelopcriticalthinkingthrough
visualliteracy.
DeborahW.Tegano,Ph.D.
TheUniversityofTennessee
DepartmentofChildandFamilyStudies
1215WestCumberlandAvenue,Room115
Knoxville,TN379961912
Telephone:8659744538
Email:dwtegano@utk.edu