COMMUNICATION

PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL

EJJ 210
Prof. JAG Malherbe
15-25, Engineering I
jagm@up.ac.za
 The next Assignments
Assignment 6: Wednesday 13/04. Paraphrase
three of your references. Note that there will
not be enough time to do the paraphrasing
during the tutorial time. Paraphrasing must
be done before the tutorial, and then only
submitted during the tutorial.
Assignment 7: Create a title, an abstract, and
keywords in the final format. Paraphrase the
remaining two references (28/04).
Assignment 8: Write a paper, using the material
of Assignments 5 7 (11/05).
 18-22/04 TEST WEEK

7. Power Points. ASS 7. Paraphrase 1 remaining 2

8. Title, Abstract, Keywords reference, title, key-words &
25-29 Lecture 7
(25/04) abstract.
04 Tutorial 8
(28/04)
9. Structure: Paper. Title, Abstract, ASS 9. PowerPoint file 4
Keywords, Body, Conclusion, Lecture 8
2-6
Referencing style and Lab (04/05)
05
numbering Tutorial 9
(05/05)
10. Logic ASS 8. Final Paper (submission) 4
9-13 Lecture 9 ASS 10. Individual
05 (09/05) Tutorial 10 Presentations
(11/05)
ASS 10. Individual Presentations ASS 10. Individual 4
16-20 Presentatio Presentations
05 (16-05) n
(18/05)
ASS 10. Individual Presentations ASS 10. Individual 4
23-27 Presentatio Presentations
05 (23/05) n
(25/05)
Assignment 8 is a Turnitin assignment.
This means you can work at home, on your
own, and submit via Turnitin which will
evaluate your material for correspondence.
Note the submission date for Assignment 8
Assignment 10 is an oral presentation.
Each student will make an oral presentation
on a topic of his or her choice.
The time will be limited.
The dates for presentations will be made
known on 20 April.
14 WRITING A TECHNICAL PAPER

many variations of technical papers or reports,

most have same basic elements
undergraduate academic situation, the student will
come across a number of different requirements
a) Short laboratory reports
b) Extended laboratory reports
- prescribed format
- logic of text is to a great extent fixed
- fixed procedure
- results obtained & presented
- concise conclusion arrived at
c) Pro-forma scientific paper
- arguably the most difficult
- does not contain a prescribed set of information
- has to be succinct.
I apologise for writing you a long letter, because I did
not have time to write you a short one

d) final year project report
14.1 Elements of a scientific paper
Elements of a paper of specific importance; fulfil
specialized functions

14.1.1 Title. Title is a mini-abstract.

should convey what document deals with.
first element the prospective reader sees
often makes a decision of read/not read

14.1.2 Abstract. very concise summary of the doc.

"The abstract should be limited to 50 200 words and
should concisely state what was done, how it was
done, principal results, and their significance. In the
case of a scientific paper, the abstract will appear
later in various abstracts journals and should contain
the most critical information of the paper."[1]

[1] IEEE information for Authors, IV C, [Online] Available:

http://www.ieee.org/documents/auinfo07.pdf
 What was done How was it done?

Their significance

Principal results

14.1.3 Executive Summary. extended report:
abstract might take the form of executive
summary
not only brief information of abstract is
included;
also data, graphs, even references.
executive summary intended to convey gist
of document without having to work through
all of text and detail.
executive summary could easily be
page or more

14.1.4 Keywords. scientific paper:

document most probably available on
website of journal
order for search engines to identify paper,
searches often done on key words.

14.1.5 Introduction introduction places work in
perspective
gives brief summary of work of others on
which work in the report is based
or to which its results are to be compared.

14.1.6 Body. body of paper presents theory

where necessary
describes experimental procedures
including drawings or circuit diagrams
summarises the results in the form of tables or
graphs
compares results to those of others available
in literature.

14.1.7 Conclusion. conclusion summarises findings
criticises procedures or assumptions
sometimes makes suggestions for further work.

14.1.8 References. In most instances we rely on the

work that has been done by others, and this is
acknowledged in the form of references.

14.2 Format
Standard formats for reports or documents exist.
Companies have a company style which
corresponds to their brand identity, and insist on a
rigorous adherence to such prescribed formats.
The University of Pretoria, has a style in which their
correspondences is done, and even a style for
PowerPoint presentations.
All journals similarly prescribe a style.
In this course, the IEEE style will be employed.
Fully set out in the IEEE guide for Authors
This style will be rigorously enforced in EJJ 210.
Some of the main elements

14.3 IEEE-Format
Page Format:
Top and bottom margins 2.5 cm
Left and Right margins 3 cm
Line spacing: as prescribed, either 1.0 or 1.5

Font:
Title: Arial 14 pt bold, centred
Text and sub-headings: Times New Roman
12 pt.
Fully justified.

The title should then look like this
Y.O.U.R Name and M3E

 The title should then look like this
Y.O.U.R Name and M3E
Abstract: Here we say very briefly what was done, how it was
done, principal results, and their significance. For example: The
effects of human carbon dioxide emissions on global warming were
evaluated by comparing the results of atmospheric carbon
measurements in the highveld region of Mpumalanga to the rise in
winter temperature. It was found that increased coal burning in the
highveld power stations was directly responsible for temperature
increase. This holds serious implications for the ripening properties
of cereal crops.

 The title should then look like this
Y.O.U.R Name and M3E
Abstract: Here we say very briefly what was done, how it was
done, principal results, and their significance. For example: The
effects of human carbon dioxide emissions on global warming were
evaluated by comparing the results of atmospheric carbon
measurements in the highveld region of Mpumalanga to the rise in
winter temperature. It was found that increased coal burning in the
highveld power stations was directly responsible for temperature
increase. This holds serious implications for the ripening properties
of cereal crops.
Keywords: global warming, carbon footprint.

 The title should then look like this
Y.O.U.R Name and M3E
Abstract: Here we say very briefly what was done, how it was
done, principal results, and their significance. For example: The
effects of human carbon dioxide emissions on global warming were
evaluated by comparing the results of atmospheric carbon
measurements in the highveld region of Mpumalanga to the rise in
winter temperature. It was found that increased coal burning in the
highveld power stations was directly responsible for temperature
increase. This holds serious implications for the ripening properties
of cereal crops.
Keywords: global warming, carbon footprint.

I INTRODUCTION
The Introduction title is a Primary Heading and is always done in
capitals, centred. One open line spaced between text blocks; this

goes for all primary headings. The Secondary Headings are in
italics, and run A, B, C, etc. They are flush above the sections above
and below them. Each first letter of each word is capitalized.

goes for all primary headings. The Secondary Headings are in
italics, and run A, B, C, etc. They are flush above the sections above
and below them. Each first letter of each word is capitalized.
A. Secondary Heading
The text of a section in a secondary heading is tabbed, as shown
in this example. Secondary headings can follow each other if there
are a number of sections of the same level. However, each
secondary section can have a number of tertiary sections, structured
as follows.

goes for all primary headings. The Secondary Headings are in
italics, and run A, B, C, etc. They are flush above the sections above
and below them. Each first letter of each word is capitalized.
A. Secondary Heading
The text of a section in a secondary heading is tabbed, as shown
in this example. Secondary headings can follow each other if there
are a number of sections of the same level. However, each
secondary section can have a number of tertiary sections, structured
as follows.
1) Tertiary Heading: The tertiary heading is not followed by a
new paragraph the text is allowed to run on, as is shown in this
case. First letter of each word is capitalized. An even higher level
of subdivision is the quaternary heading, as follows:

goes for all primary headings. The Secondary Headings are in
italics, and run A, B, C, etc. They are flush above the sections above
and below them. Each first letter of each word is capitalized.
A. Secondary Heading
The text of a section in a secondary heading is tabbed, as shown
in this example. Secondary headings can follow each other if there
are a number of sections of the same level. However, each
secondary section can have a number of tertiary sections, structured
as follows.
1) Tertiary Heading: The tertiary heading is not followed by a
new paragraph the text is allowed to run on, as is shown in this
case. First letter of each word is capitalized. An even higher level
of subdivision is the quaternary heading, as follows:
a) Quaternary heading: Here only the first letter of the
heading is capitalized.

 II CONSIDERATIONS ON REPLICATION
This again shows the format of a paper in IEEE style. It continues
along this pattern with headings, secondary headings, etc., until we
come to the last section.

 II CONSIDERATIONS ON REPLICATION
This again shows the format of a paper in IEEE style. It continues
along this pattern with headings, secondary headings, etc., until we
come to the last section.
VI CONCLUSION
The conclusion summarizes the findings, and where necessary, puts
it into perspective, makes recommendations, etc. Lastly, a summary of
the work of others that this work was based on. It is called

 II CONSIDERATIONS ON REPLICATION
This again shows the format of a paper in IEEE style. It continues
along this pattern with headings, secondary headings, etc., until we
come to the last section.
VI CONCLUSION
The conclusion summarizes the findings, and where necessary, puts
it into perspective, makes recommendations, etc. Lastly, a summary of
the work of others that this work was based on. It is called
REFERENCES
[1] S. Ramo, J.R. Whinnery and T van Duzer, Fields and Waves in
Communication Electronics, New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1965.
[2] K. Chung, S. Pyun, and J. Choi, Design of an ultrawide-band
TEM horn antenna with a microstrip-type balun, IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propagat., vol. 53, no. 10, pp. 3410 3413, Oct. 2005.

14.4 LEGAL Format
Page Format:
Top and bottom margins 2.5 cm
Left and Right margins 3 cm
Line spacing: as prescribed, either 1.0 or 1.5

Font:
Title: Arial 14 pt bold, centred
Text and sub-headings: Times New Roman
12 pt.
Fully justified.

Title is written in Arial 14 Bold, as it is here.
A.U. Thor
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering
University of Pretoria
1 Sections are done in bold, Arial
But then, the text that follows would be in Times New Roman or
some other serif font to improve readability. At the point where
the next secondary heading occurs, the numbering is tabbed, to
get a higher level.
1.1 Depending on the taste of the author, this could be another
heading, or just a continuation of the text. Also, this
section could be flush up against the primary section.
1.2 The secondary headings can be made bold if preferred,
but should usually be in accordance with the text that
follows.
1.2.1 Sub-sections can be lists

 1.2.2 of a number of different aspects
1.2.3 until it is necessary (for instance)

1.3 to return to the secondary headings

2 Or even to primary Headings

Once again, spacing the secondary and tertiary sections is a
question of taste. If it looks good, it is good.

2.1 Note that "tab" raises the text one level; every
time "return" is hit, a new section of the same
level is created.
Shift
2.2 To increase the level, "tab"; to decrease level, +
.

14.5 References
A wide variety of referencing styles exist, and it is once
again a question of what the society or organisation
prescribes.
For the simple reason that the vast majority of
Electrical, Electronic and Computer engineering
journals are published by the IEEE, the full IEEE
numerical referencing style is used here.
Note that some journals use an abbreviated
numerical style
Once again, the IEEE guide for Authors is applied as
the standard. All the different types of information
source are treated there, from books, through
journals, conference proceedings to theses and
reports.
As an example, the reference to a book and a journal
is shown (note the way in which the reference is
numbered):
Books:
[1] S. Ramo, J.R. Whinnery and T van Duzer, Fields and Waves in
Communication Electronics, New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1965.
[2] A.B. Author, Title of Book, City of publication: Publisher, year
of publication.

Note a large number of examples in the IEEE Information

for Authors

http://www.ieee.org/documents/info_authors_kit.pdf

References from Journals:

[3] K. Chung, S. Pyun, and J. Choi, Design of an ultrawide-band
TEM horn antenna with a microstrip-type balun, IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propagat., vol. 53, no. 10, pp. 3410 3413, Oct.
2005.
[4] A.B. Author, "Name of Article", Abbreviated title of Journal,
vol. x, no. x, pp. xxx-xxx, Abbrev. Month, year.

14.6 The Effects of Power Lines on Cancer. Format
Example.
Note: This example is not intended to be a complete
scientific evaluation of the topic. The references were
chosen to be readable and the composition is
intended to illustrate the principles of composing a
report in the form of a paper, rather than a rigorous
treatment. Some of the material included comes
from prior knowledge, and is not apparent from the
summaries or the paraphrasing.
 The Effect of Power Lines on Cancer

S.E.C. Year Student

Abstract: Initial epidemiological studies have shown that definite links

between the proximity to power lines and leukaemia in children exist.
These studies examined the effect of the magnetic field strength; it is
now shown that the assumption that the magnetic field strength causes a
weak statistical correlation may be incorrect and that the electric filed
strength would be a better parameter to evaluate.
Keywords: power lines and health, electromagnetic fields and health

I INTRODUCTION
In a landmark paper [1] it was found that a weak statistical
correlation exists between the occurrence of cancer amongst children
who had spent their entire lives in the same location, compared to those
who had not; current in the water pipes or of AC magnetic fields were
suggested as causal. This is supported by many authors [2]. Further
research has shown that the original findings are not necessarily correct
[3] and that the hypothesis on which it was based does not necessarily
hold [3] [6].
In this paper, the opposing theories are evaluated.

II INTERACTION MECHANISMS
A. The Magnetic Field as Cause
The original hypothesis on which the effects of power frequency
fields and cancer, and more specifically leukaemia under children is
based, assumes that the main cause lies in the current that flows in the
body [1], [2]. The current, it is proposed, is caused by the magnetic
field resulting from current flow in high voltage lines, as well as from
currents in the ordinary household environment. Under this theory, it is
assumed that the electric field has no effect, because the body acts as a
shield, causing the electric field to be effectively short circuited at the
skin surface.
In these studies, carried out in various parts of the world [3] [7], field
strengths were not measured, and especially not the electric field
strength.

B. The Electric Field as Cause

The assumption that a causal relationship with magnetic fields
existed, was examined theoretically in terms of electromagnetic theory,
and it was shown that, in fact, the electric field which always exists
together with the magnetic field, causes a much larger current to flow in
the body [4]. It explains the nature of electromagnetic fields
scientifically, and analyzes the properties of the human body in terms of
conductivity, permittivity, permeability, and its behaviour under
conditions of static, slowly varying and AC fields. The errors in
argument when simplified models of the human body are defined are
pointed out, and alternative models are proposed. It is then shown that
field effects could be radically different if the proposed models are
used. In [5], the current caused by the electric field is shown to be at
least 10 times as large as that due to the magnetic field. Taking the
time-average of the fields is also shown to be a serious error [6].
 The basis of all scientific progress is the application of the
scientific method, whereby a question is posed, premises are defined,
and a hypothesis developed. The hypothesis is then tested, and if the
results are found to be true and in agreement with accepted science, the
hypothesis becomes an accepted theory. It is shown [7] that a number
of serious errors have been made in the premises of specific papers.

C. The Aerosol Theory

It is proposed in [7] that carcinogenic (and other) particles,
specifically isotopes of Polonium, can become charged and accumulate
in the vicinity of power lines. Prevailing winds could strip the charged
particles from the lines, and when inhaled could lead to the increase of
leukaemia in children, as well as other forms of cancer.

III CONCLUSION
The original hypothesis that the magnetic field in the proximity
of high voltage power lines was causal to leukaemia in children has
been questioned. It is proposed that the electric field could cause a
current to flow in the human body which is an order of magnitude
larger than that previously assumed. The weak statistical link between
power lines and cancer is also questioned.

REFERENCES
[1] N. Wertheimer and E. Leeper, " Electrical Wiring Configurations
and Childhood Cancer," A. Jour. Epidemiology, Vol. 109, No. 3,
pp. 273-284, Mar. 1979.
[2] J.E. Moulder and K.R. Foster "Is there a link between power-
frequency electric fields and cancer?" IEEE Eng. Medicine and
Biol. Mag., vol. 18, no2, pp. 109 -116, Mar/Apr 1999.
[3] J.R. Ashley, "Are power lines unsafe?" IEEE Spectrum, vol. 37, no.
7, pp.21-23, Jul. 2000.
[4] R.W.P. King, "The Interaction of Power-Line Electromagnetic
Fields with the Human Body", IEEE Eng. Medicine Biol. Mag.,
vol. 17, no. 6, pp.67-68, June 1998.
[5] J.R. Ashley, R.E. Beatie, and J.F. Heneage, "Power Lines, Cancer
and Erroneous Physics", in Proc. Electro 98, 1998, pp. 171-179.
[6] J.R. Ashley, R.E. Beatie, and J.F. Heneage, "Evaluation of Power
Line Measurements of the Link with Cancer", in Proc. IEEE
Southeastcon '96, 1996, pp. 41-50.
[7] Y. Amemiya, "A Comment on some Epidemiologic Papers related
to Cancer and Magnetic Fields of Power Lines", in 1999 Intl.
Symp.Electromagn. Compat., 1999, pp. 173-176.
[8] D. L. Henshaw and A.P. Fews, "Concentration of pollutant aerosol
particles by power frequency electromagnetic fields", in IEE Coll.
Electromagn. Hazards, Safety & Human Interaction, 1997, pp.5/1-
5/3.
IN ASSIGNMENT 5
You obtained 5 references.
IN ASSIGNMENT 6
You summarised 3 references.
IN ASSIGNMENT 7
You gave the paper that you will write a title.
You wrote an abstract of the paper you shall have written.
You provided keywords.
You summarised the other two papers.
IN ASSIGNMENT 8
YOU WILL BRING IT ALL TOGETHER AS A FINAL PAPER,
INCLUDING TITLE,
ABSTRACT,
KEYWORDS,
INTRODUCTION,
BODY,
CONCLUSION,
REFERENCES.
He who knows not and knows that he knows not, is a student
teach him.

He who knows and knows not that he knows, is asleep

wake him up.

He who knows not that he knows not is a fool

avoid him.

He who knows and knows that he knows is a wise man

follow him.
Preparing for
Assignment 8
Your final Paper
 Format

Justification
IEEE Style
Attention to referencing style!!
Sequence of referencing
Give references in your text!
 Title
Name
Abstract
Keywords
I Introduction 3

II Whatever you are calling it 10

(NOT Body)

III Conclusion 3
16
References
 Losing marks

Not IEEE Text Format: Up to -4

References not used in text : -1
Language: Up to -3
Not IEEE Ref. format: Up to -2
Omission of refs: Up to -5
Title Unacceptable -1
Abstract unacceptable -1
15 LOGIC
15 LOGIC
15.1 Logic in Argumentative writing
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/659/1/
Proposition: anything stated or affirmed for
discussion or illustration.
Premise: Proposition used as evidence in an
argument.
Argument: The assertion of a conclusion based on
logical premises.
Conclusion: Logical result of the relationship
between the premises. Conclusions serve as the
thesis of the argument.
Thesis: proposition stated or put forward for
consideration, especially one to be discussed
and proved or to be maintained against
objections.
Syllogism: The simplest sequence of logical premises
and conclusions, devised by Aristotle.
Premise 1: All men are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Enthymeme: A shortened syllogism which omits the
first premise, allowing the audience to fill it in.
For example, "Socrates is mortal because he is a
human" is an enthymeme which leaves out the
premise "All humans are mortal.
Induction: A process through which the premises
provide some basis for the conclusion.
Deduction: A process through which the premises
provide conclusive proof for the conclusion.
15.2 Using Logic:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/659/02/
Reaching Logical Conclusions
Reaching logical conclusions depends on the proper
analysis of premises. The goal of a syllogism is to
arrange premises so that only one true conclusion is
possible.

Example A: Consider the following premises:

Premise 1: Non-renewable resources do not exist in
infinite supply.
Premise 2: Coal is a non-renewable resource.
From these two premises, only one logical conclusion
is available:
Conclusion: Coal does not exist in infinite supply.
Example B: Often logic requires several premises to
reach a conclusion.
Premise 1: All monkeys are primates.
Premise 2: All primates are mammals.
Premise 3: All mammals are vertebrate animals.
Conclusion: Monkeys are vertebrate animals.
Example C: Logic allows specific conclusions to be
drawn from general premises. Consider the following
premises:
Premise 1: All squares are rectangles.
Premise 2: Figure 1 is a square.
Conclusion: Figure 1 is also a rectangle.
Example D: Notice that logic requires decisive
statements in order to work. Therefore, this syllogism is
false:
Premise 1: Some quadrilaterals are squares.
Premise 2: Figure 1 is a quadrilateral.
Conclusion: Figure 1 is a square.
This syllogism is false because not enough
information is provided to allow a verifiable
conclusion. Figure 1 could just as likely be a
rectangle, which is also a quadrilateral.
Example E: Logic can also mislead when it is based on
premises that an audience does not accept. For
instance:
Premise 1: People with red hair are not good at
checkers.
Premise 2: Bill has red hair.
Conclusion: Bill is not good at checkers.
Within the syllogism, the conclusion is logically valid.
However, it is only true if an audience accepts
Premise 1, which is very unlikely. This is an example of
how logical statements can appear accurate while
being completely false.
Example F: Logical conclusions also depend on which
factors are recognized and ignored by the premises.
Therefore, different premises could lead to very
different conclusions about the same subject. For
instance, these two syllogisms about the platypus
reveal the limits of logic for handling ambiguous
cases:
Premise 1: All birds lay eggs.
Premise 2: Platypuses lay eggs.
Conclusion: Platypuses are birds.
Premise 3: All mammals have fur.
Premise 4: Platypuses have fur.
Conclusion: Platypuses are mammals.
Though logic is a very powerful argumentative tool
and is far preferable to a disorganized argument,
logic does have limitations. It must also be effectively
developed from a syllogism into a written piece.
15.3 Logical Fallacies
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/659/3/
Slippery Slope: This is a conclusion based on the premise
that if A happens, then eventually through a series of
small steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z will happen, too,
basically equating A and Z. So, if we don't want Z to
occur, A must not be allowed to occur either.
Example:
If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the
environment eventually the government will ban all
cars, so we should not ban Hummers.
15.3 Logical Fallacies
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/659/3/
Slippery Slope: This is a conclusion based on the premise
that if A happens, then eventually through a series of
small steps, through B, C,..., X, Y, Z will happen, too, in
effect equating A and Z. So, if we don't want Z to
occur, A must not be allowed to occur either.
Example:
If we ban Hummers because they are bad for the
environment eventually the government will ban all
cars, so we should not ban Hummers.
In this example, the author is equating banning
Hummers with banning all cars, which is not the same
thing.
Hasty Generalization: This is a conclusion based on
insufficient or biased evidence. In other words, you
are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the
relevant facts.
Example:
Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going
to be a boring course.
In this example, the author is basing his evaluation of
the entire course on only the first day, which is
notoriously boring and full of housekeeping tasks for
most courses.
To make a fair and reasonable evaluation the author
must attend not one but several classes, and possibly
even examine the textbook, talk to the professor, or
talk to others who have previously finished the course
in order to have sufficient evidence to base a
conclusion on.
Post hoc ergo propter hoc: This is a conclusion that
assumes that if 'A' occurred after 'B' then 'B' must have
caused 'A.'
Example:
I drank bottled water and now I am sick, so the water
must have made me sick.
(After this, therefore because of this) In this example,
the author assumes that if one event chronologically
follows another the first event must have caused the
second.
But the illness could have been caused by the burrito
the night before, a flu bug that had been working on
the body for days, or a chemical spill across campus.
There is no reason, without more evidence, to assume
the water caused the person to be sick.
Begging the Claim: The conclusion that the writer should
prove is validated within the claim.
Example:
Filthy and polluting coal should be banned.
Arguing that coal pollutes the earth and thus should
be banned would be logical.
But the very conclusion that should be proved, that
coal causes enough pollution to warrant banning its
use, is already assumed in the claim by referring to it
as "filthy and polluting."
Circular Argument: This restates the argument rather than
actually proving it.
Example:
George Bush is a good communicator because he
speaks effectively.
In this example, the conclusion that Bush is a "good
communicator" and the evidence used to prove it
"he speaks effectively" are basically the same idea.
Specific evidence such as using everyday language,
breaking down complex problems, or illustrating his
points with humorous stories would be needed to
prove either half of the sentence.
Either/or: This is a conclusion that oversimplifies the
argument by reducing it to only two sides or choices.
Example:
We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth.
In this example, the two choices are presented as the
only options, yet the author ignores a range of
choices in between such as developing cleaner
technology, car sharing systems for necessities and
emergencies, or better community planning to
discourage daily driving.
Ad hominem: This is an attack on the character of a
person rather than her/his opinions or arguments.
Example:
Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because
they are all dirty, lazy hippies.
In this example, the author doesn't even name
particular strategies Green Peace has suggested,
much less evaluate those strategies on their merits.
Instead, the author attacks the characters of the
individuals in the group.
15.4 Using logic in writing
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/659/4/
Understanding how to create logical syllogisms does
not automatically mean that writers understand how
to use logic to build an argument. Crafting a logical
sequence into a written argument can be a very
difficult task.
Don't assume that an audience will easily follow the
logic that seems clear to you. When converting
logical syllogisms into written arguments, remember
to:
lay out each premise clearly
provide evidence for each premise
draw a clear connection to the conclusion
Example 1
Say a writer was crafting an editorial to argue
against using taxpayer dollars for the construction of
a new stadium in the town of Mill Creek. The author's
logic may look like this:
Premise 1: Projects funded by taxpayer dollars should
benefit a majority of the public.
Premise 2: The proposed stadium construction
benefits very few members of the public.
Conclusion: Therefore, the stadium construction
should not be funded by taxpayer dollars.
Understanding how to create logical syllogisms does
not automatically mean that writers understand how
to use logic to build an argument. Crafting a logical
sequence into a written argument can be a very
difficult task.
This is a logical conclusion, but without elaboration it
may not persuade the writer's opposition, or even
people on the fence. Therefore, the writer will want to
expand her argument like this:
Historically, Mill Creek has only funded public projects
that benefit the population as a whole. Recent initiatives to
build a light rail system and a new courthouse were
approved because of their importance to the city.
Last election, Mayor West reaffirmed this commitment in
his inauguration speech by promising "I am determined to
return public funds to the public." This is a sound
commitment and a worthy pledge.
(Projects funded by taxpayer dollars should benefit a
majority of the public.)
However, the new initiative to construct a stadium for the
local baseball team, the Bears, does not follow this
commitment.
While baseball is an enjoyable pastime, it does not receive
enough public support to justify spending $210 million in
public funds for an improved stadium.
Attendance in the past five years has been declining, and
last year only an average of 400 people attended each
home game, meaning that less than 1% of the population
attends the stadium.
The Bears have a dismal record at 0-43 which generates
little public interest in the team.
(The proposed stadium construction benefits very few
members of the public.)
The population of Mill Creek is plagued by many
problems that affect the majority of the public, including
its decrepit high school and decaying water filtration
system.
Based on declining attendance and interest, a new Bears
stadium is not one of those needs, so the project should not
be publicly funded.
Funding this project would violate the mayor's
commitment to use public money for the public.
(Conclusion: Therefore, the stadium construction should
not be funded by taxpayer dollars.)
Notice that the piece uses each paragraph to focus
on one premise of the syllogism (this is not a hard and
fast rule, especially since complex arguments require
far more than three premises and paragraphs to
develop).
Concrete evidence for both premises is provided. The
conclusion is specifically stated as following from
those premises.
Example 2
Consider this example, where a writer wants to argue
that the state minimum wage should be increased.
The writer does not follow the guidelines above
when making his argument.
It is obvious to anyone thinking logically that minimum
wage should be increased.
The current minimum wage is an insult and is unfair to
the people who receive it.
The fact that the last proposed minimum wage increase
was denied is proof that the government of this state is
crooked and corrupt.
The only way for them to prove otherwise is to raise
minimum wage immediately.
The paragraph does not build a logical argument for
several reasons.
First, it assumes that anyone thinking logically will
already agree with the author, which is clearly untrue.
If that were the case, the minimum wage increase
would have already occurred.
Secondly, the argument does not follow a logical
structure. There is no development of premises which
lead to a conclusion.
Thirdly, the author provides no evidence for the claims
made.
In order to develop a logical argument, the
author first needs to determine the logic
behind his own argument.
It is likely that the writer did not consider this
before writing, which demonstrates that
arguments which could be logical are not
automatically logical. They must be made
logical by careful arrangement.
The writer could choose several different logical
approaches to defend this point, such as a syllogism
like this:
Premise 1: Minimum wage should match the cost of
living in society.
Premise 2: The current minimum wage does not
match the cost of living in society.

Conclusion: Therefore, minimum wage should be

increased.
Once the syllogism has been determined, the author
needs to elaborate each step in writing that
provides evidence for the premises:
 The purpose of minimum wage is to ensure that workers
can provide basic amenities to themselves and their
families.
A report in the Journal of Economic Studies indicated
that workers cannot live above the poverty line when
minimum wage is not proportionate with the cost of
living.
It is beneficial to society and individuals for a minimum
wage to match living costs.

Premise 1: Minimum wage should match the cost of

living in society.
 Unfortunately, our state's minimum wage no longer
reflects an increasing cost of living.
When the minimum wage was last set at $5.85, the
yearly salary of $12,168 guaranteed by this wage was
already below the poverty line.
Years later, after inflation has consistently raised the
cost of living, workers earning minimum wage must
struggle to support a family, often taking 2 or 3 jobs just to
make ends meet. 35% of our state's poor population is
made up of people with full time minimum wage jobs.

Premise 2: The current minimum wage does not match

the cost of living in society.
 In order to remedy this problem and support the
workers of this state, the minimum wage must be
increased. A modest increase could help alleviate the
burden placed on the many residents who work too hard
for too little just to make ends meet.

Conclusion: Therefore, minimum wage should be increased.

This piece explicitly states each logical premise in

order, allowing them to build to their conclusion.
Evidence is provided for each premise, and the
conclusion is closely related to the premises and
evidence. Notice, however, that even though this
argument is logical, it is not irrefutable.
An opponent with a different perspective and logical
premises could challenge this argument. See the next
section for more information on this issue.