Active Filters

Active filters
Active filters are a special family of filters. They take their name from the fact
that, aside from passive components, they also contain active elements such
as transistors or operational amplifiers. Just like passive filters, depending on
the design, they retain or eliminate a specific portion of a signal.
These types of filters have an advantage over passive filters, mainly because
bulky inductors at low frequencies can be avoided and higher quality factors
can be obtained.
Active filters can be implemented with different topologies:
1. Akerberg-Mossberg
2. Biquadratic
3. Dual Amplifier BandPass (DABP)
4. Fliege
5. Multiple feedback
6. Voltage-Controlled Voltage-Source (VCVS) and Sallen/Key
7. State variable
8. Wien
Active filters also come in different varieties:
1. Butterworth
2. Linkwitz-Riley
3. Bessel
4. Chebyshev (2 types)
5. Elliptic or Cauer
6. Synchronous
7. Gaussian
8. Legendre-Paupolis
9. Butterworth-Thomson or Linear phase
10. Transitional or Paynter
The Butterworth filter has the flattest response in the pass-band. The
Chebyshev Type II filter has the steepest cutoff. The Linkwitz-Riley filter is
often used in audio applications (crossovers).
Note: Cauer is the name of an active filter but its also the name of a passive
topology. The two are different concepts.
1 www.ice77.net
Sallen/Key topology
The Sallen/Key topology was invented by R. P. Sallen and E. L. Key at MIT

Lincoln Laboratory in 1955.
It is a degenerate form of a Voltage-Controlled Voltage-Source (VCVS) filter

topology. It features an extremely high input impedance (practically infinite)
and an extremely low output impedance (practically zero). These two
characteristics are provided by the op-amp and they are often desired in
circuit design for signal integrity.
The network for the Sallen/Key topology includes an op-amp, often in a buffer
configuration, and a set of resistors and capacitors. The op-amp can
sometimes be substituted by an emitter follower or a source follower circuit
since both circuits produce unity gain. Cascading two or more stages will
produce higher-order filters.
Sallen/Key generic configuration for 0dB gain (unity-gain)
Unlike RC passive filters, where only one pole is present in the circuit so that
the gain drops by 6bB/octave or 20dB/decade past the cutoff frequency, the
Sallen/Key circuit topology has two poles so the gain drops by 12bB/octave or
40dB/decade past the cutoff frequency.
Considering two signals with magnitudes A1 and A2, the definitions for octave
and decade are
A 1
20 log10 1 20 log10 6dB / octave
A2 2
and
A 1
20 log10 1 20 log10 20dB / decade
A2 10
where octave means twice the magnitude and decade means ten times the
magnitude.
2 www.ice77.net
Low-pass
The low-pass filter blocks high-frequency signals while leaving low-frequency

signals untouched.
C1
-797.3uV
1n
V+ V+ V-
7
R1 R2 U1 10.00V 10.00V
3 5 -10.00V
V+
0V -1.595mV + OS2 V2
V
10k 10k 6 10Vdc V3
OUT
2 1 V
- OS1
V-
V1 C2 10Vdc
1Vac AD741
0Vdc -10.00V 0V 0V
4
1n
V- 0 0
0V 0V
-1.575mV
0
0
Sallen/Key low-pass filter

1.0V
(15.910K,500.000m)
0.5V
0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(R1:1) V(U1:-)
Frequency
AC sweep from 1mHz to 1MHz
The cutoff frequency is
1 1
fc 15.915kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 10k 10k 1nF 1nF
The quality factor is
R1 R2 C1C 2 10k 10k 1nF 1nF

Q 0.5
C 2 R1 R2 1nF 10k 10k
This circuit is critically damped.
3 www.ice77.net
-0
(16.094K,-6.1371)
-20
-40
(160.941K,-40.508)
-60
20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/V(V1:+))
Frequency
Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz
The gain drops to 6dB at 15.915kHz and it decreases by 40dB/decade.
4 www.ice77.net
High-pass
The high-pass filter blocks low-frequency signals while leaving high-frequency

signals untouched.
R1
-778.0uV
10k
V+ V+ V-
7
C1 C2 U1 10.00V 10.00V
3 5 -10.00V
V+
0V -797.3uV + OS2 V2
V
220n 220n 6 10Vdc V3
OUT
2 1 V
V-
R2 - OS1 10Vdc
V1
1Vac AD741
0Vdc -10.00V 0V 0V
4
10k
V- 0 0
0V 0V
-778.0uV
0
0
Sallen/Key high-pass filter

1.0V
(72.334,500.000m)
0.5V
0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz 10MHz 100MHz
V(C1:1) V(R1:2)
Frequency
1 1
fc 72.34 Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 10k 10k 220nF 220nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 10k 10k 220nF 220nF

Q 0.5
R1 C1 C 2 10k220nF 220nF
This circuit is critically damped.
5 www.ice77.net
-0
(71.969,-6.1226)
-20
-40
(7.2718,-40.000)
-60
-80
20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/V(C1:1))
Frequency
The gain drops to 6dB at 72Hz and it decreases by 40dB/decade.
Note: the gain starts to roll off at 1MHz which is the bandwidth of the AD741
op-amp when its connected in a buffer/non-inverting configuration.
6 www.ice77.net
Band-pass
The band-pass filter blocks low and high frequency signals. It peaks at the
so-called center frequency. Ra and Rb provide gain. C1-R1 form a low-pass
filter and C2-R2 form a high-pass filter.
R3
-782.6uV -1.565mV
10k
V+ V+ V-
7
R1 C2 U1 10.00V 10.00V
3 5 -10.00V
V+
0V -1.595mV + OS2 V2
V
10k 220n 6 10Vdc V3
OUT
2 1 V
- OS1
V-
V1 R2 10Vdc
1Vac C1 AD741 Ra
0Vdc -10.00V 0V 0V
4
20k
220n V- 10k 0 0
0V
0V
-1.575mV
0 0 0 Rb
20k
Sallen/Key band-pass filter

1.0V
(72.287,1.0000)
0.5V
0V
V(R1:1) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency
The center frequency is
1 R3 R1 1 10k 10k
fc 72.34 Hz
2 C1C 2 R1 R2 R3 2 220nF 220nF 10k 20k 10k
The gains are
Ra 10k G 1.5
G 1 1 1 0 .5 1 .5 A 1
Rb 20k 3 G 3 1.5
where G is the internal gain and A is the external gain.
The value of G should be below 3 to avoid oscillation.
7 www.ice77.net
The previous is a Sallen/Key circuit as long as the value of Rb is twice the
value of Ra. If A is more or less than unity, the circuit provides amplification
and becomes a VCVS filter.
R3
-285.5uV -571.0uV
10k
V+ V+ V-
7
R1 C2 U1 10.00V 10.00V
3 5 -10.00V
V+
0V -1.595mV + OS2 V2
V
10k 220n 6 10Vdc V3
OUT
2 1 V
- OS1
V-
V1 R2 10Vdc
1Vac C1 AD741 Ra
0Vdc -10.00V 0V 0V
4
20k
220n V- 1Meg 0 0
0V
0V
-1.575mV
0 0 0 Rb
20k
VCVS band-pass filter I

1.2V
(66.069,1.0625)
0.8V
0.4V
0V
V(R1:1) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

1 R3 R1 1 10k 10k
fc 72.34 Hz
2 C1C 2 R1 R2 R3 2 220nF 220nF 10k 20k 10k
However, if Ra>>Rb, the frequency response is rather flat.
Ra 1M G 51
G 1 1 1 50 51 A 1.06
Rb 20k 3 G 3 51
This circuit will oscillate because G is greater than 3.
Note: the magnitude of the output is 6% higher than the input and this is an
indication of amplification.
8 www.ice77.net
R3
-748.5uV -1.497mV
10k
V+ V+ V-
7
R1 C2 U1 10.00V 10.00V
3 5 -10.00V
V+
0V -1.595mV + OS2 V2
V
10k 220n 6 10Vdc V3
OUT
2 1 V
-
V-
R2 OS1 10Vdc
V1
1Vac C1 AD741 Ra
0Vdc -10.00V 0V 0V
4
20k
220n V- 1k 0 0
0V
0V
-1.575mV
0 0 0 Rb
1Meg
VCVS band-pass filter II

1.0V
(72.287,500.734m)
0.5V
0V
V(R1:1) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency
1 R3 R1 1 10k 10k
fc 72.34 Hz
2 C1C 2 R1 R2 R3 2 220nF 220nF 10k 20k 10k
If Ra<<Rb, the gain drops to at the center frequency.
Ra 1k G 1
G 1 1 1 0 1 A 0.5
Rb 1M 3 G 3 1
The minimum gain attainable by this circuit is 0.5.
Connecting the op-amp in the buffer configuration would produce the same
frequency response.
Note: the magnitude of the output at the center frequency is 50% lower than
the input.
9 www.ice77.net
-0
(72.444,-718.738u)
-20
(1.0000,-33.667)
-40
(100.000m,-53.667)
(10.000K,-39.293)
-60
(100.000K,-59.369)
-80
1.0mHz 10mHz 100mHz 1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/V(R1:1))
Frequency
Sallen/Key band-pass filter: Bode plot from 1mHz to 1MHz
The center frequency is at 72Hz. The gain decreases by 20dB/decade to the

left and right of the center frequency.
(66.069,526.810m)
-40
-80
20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/V(R1:1))
Frequency
VCVS band-pass filter I: Bode plot from 1mHz to 1MHz
The response is rather flat.

-0
(72.444,-6.0081)
-20
(1.0000,-37.181)
-40
(100.000m,-57.180)
(10.000K,-42.805)
-60
(100.000K,-62.833)
-80
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/V(R1:1))
Frequency
VCVS band-pass filter II: Bode plot from 1mHz to 1MHz
The center frequency is at 72Hz with 6dB. The gain decreases by

20dB/decade to the left and right of the center frequency.
10 www.ice77.net
Biquadratic topology
The biquadratic topology takes its name from the fact its transfer function is
the ratio of two quadratic functions. It can be implemented in two ways:
single-amplifier biquadratic or two-integrator-loop.
An example of this filter topology is the so-called Tow-Thomas circuit. This

circuit consists of three op-amps and it can be used as a low-pass or
band-pass filter, depending on where its output is taken.
R2
1k
R3
V+ V-
1k
C2 R6
C1 V2 V3
1u
1k
1u
5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
V-
U1 0 0
uA741
4
R1 uA741 V-
U2
2 1
V-
- OS1
4
R4 uA741 U3
1k
6 2 1
V-
V OUT - OS1
4
R5
1k
V1 3 5 6 2 1
V+
V-
+ OS2 V OUT - OS1
1Vac
1k
0Vdc band-pass 3 5 6
V+
+ OS2 OUT
7
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V
low-pass
7
V+
0
7
V+
0
0 V+
0
Biquadratic filter
1.2V
(158.489,1.0007)
0.8V
0.4V
0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz 10MHz
V(R1:1) V(R2:2) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency
AC sweep from 1Hz to 10MHz
R4
The band-pass gain is G BP .
R2
R2
The low-pass gain is G LP .
R1
The output for the band-pass option is shown in red.

The output for the low-pass option is shown in blue.
11 www.ice77.net
The center/cutoff frequency is
1 1
fc 159.15Hz
2 R2 R4 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 1F 1F
R32C1 1k3 1F
Q 0.03
R2 R4C2 1k 1k 1F
The circuit is overdamped.
The bandwidth is approximately given by
2f c 2 159.15Hz
BW 33.33kHz
Q 0.03
-0
-50
-100
1.0Hz 3.0Hz 10Hz 30Hz 100Hz 300Hz 1.0KHz 3.0KHz 10KHz 30KHz 100KHz 300KHz 1.0MHz 3.0MHz 10MHz
V(R1:1) 20*log10(V(R4:1)/V(R1:1)) 20*log10(V(R6:2)/V(R1:1))
Frequency
Bode plots from 1Hz to 10MHz
The center frequency for band-pass filter is at 159Hz and 0dB. The gain
decreases by 20dB/decade to the left and right.
The cutoff frequency for low-pass filter is at 159Hz. The gain decreases
linearly by 40dB/decade to the right of it.
The bandwidth for both plots is about 33kHz.
12 www.ice77.net
Multiple feedback topology
The multiple feedback topology takes its name from the fact it has positive
and negative feedback.
R3 C2
1k 1n V+ V-
V- U1
4
R1 R2 AD741
2 1 V2 V3
V-
- OS1 5Vdc -5Vdc
1k 1k
V
6
OUT
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V
V1 C1
1Vac
1n
0Vdc
7
V+ 0 0
0 0
0
Multiple feedback filter

1.0V
0.5V
(151.741K,333.257m) (159.224K,316.568m)
0V
1.0Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz 10MHz
V(R1:1) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency
The transfer function for the circuit is
V K o2
H s o 2
1

Vi As Bs C o
s2 s o2
Q
where
A R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 1nF 1nF 1 ps

RRC 1k 1k 1nF
B R2 C 2 R1C 2 1 2 2 1k 1nF 1k 1nF 3s
R3 1k
R 1k
C 1 1
R3 1k
13 www.ice77.net
R3 1k
K 1
R1 1k
R2 R3C1C2 1k 1k 1nF 1nF

Q 0.333
R3 R2 K R2 C2 1k 1k 1 1k 1nF
1 1
fc 159.15kHz
2 R2 R3 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 1nF 1nF
o 2f c 2 159.15kHz 999.968kHz
where K is the DC voltage gain, Q is the quality factor, fc is the cutoff

frequency and o is the angular frequency.
The circuit is overdamped.

40
(160.456K,-10.060)
(1.6046M,-38.113)
(16.046M,-61.581)
-40
-80
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/V(R1:1))
Frequency
The gain drops to 10.060dB at 160.456kHz and then it decreases in a

nonlinear fashion to the right of the cutoff frequency.
Several stages can be cascaded to obtain high-order multiple feedback filters.
14 www.ice77.net
First-order filters
First-order filters are very simple. They have only one capacitor which in turn
produces a single pole. The 3dB frequency is given by
1
f 3dB
2RC
First-older filters come in combinations of non-inverting, inverting,

low-pass and high-pass. All the filters presented here have unity-gain.
Non-inverting low-pass
This circuit lets the low-frequency signals through without inverting the input.
V+
7 V+ V-
R1 U1
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
2k 6 3.6Vdc -3.6Vdc
OUT
2 1 V
- OS1
V-
V1
1Vac C1 AD741
0Vdc
4
47n
0 0
V-
0 0
First-order non-inverting low-pass filter
The 3dB frequency is given by
1 1
f 3dB 1.693kHz
2RC 2 2k 47 nF
1.0V
(1.6930K,707.101m)
0.5V
0V
V(V1:+) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency
The 3dB frequency for the filter is at 1.693kHz.
15 www.ice77.net
10
(1.6853K,-2.9899)
-0
(16.853K,-20.004)
-20
(168.526K,-40.039)
-40
-60
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
The gain drops to 3dB at 1.693kHz and then it decreases by 20dB/decade.
16 www.ice77.net
Inverting low-pass
This circuit lets the low-frequency signals through while inverting the input.
C1
220n
R1
723.4
V-
U1 V+ V-
R2 4
2 V- 1AD741
- OS1 V2 V3
723.4 6 3.6Vdc -3.6Vdc
V OUT
3 5
+ 7 OS2 V
V1
1Vac V+
0Vdc
0 0
V+
0
0
First-order inverting low-pass filter
1 1
f 3dB 1kHz
2RC 2 723.4 220nF
1.0V
(1.0005K,706.625m)
0.5V
0V
1.0Hz 3.0Hz 10Hz 30Hz 100Hz 300Hz 1.0KHz 3.0KHz 10KHz 30KHz 100KHz 300KHz 1.0MHz
V(R2:1) V(C1:1)
Frequency
The 3dB frequency for the filter is at 1kHz.
17 www.ice77.net
10
0 (1.0000K,-3.0140)
(10.115K,-20.095)
-20
(128.825K,-36.092)
-40
V(R2:1) 20*LOG10(V(C1:1)/V(R2:1))
Frequency
The gain drops to 3dB at 1kHz and then it decreases by 20dB/decade.
18 www.ice77.net
Non-inverting high-pass
This circuit lets the high-frequency signals through without inverting the input.
V+
V+ V-
7
C1 U1
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
47n 6 3.6Vdc -3.6Vdc
OUT
2 1 V
V-
- OS1
V1
1Vac R1 AD741
0Vdc
4
2k 0 0
V-
0 0
First-order non-inverting high-pass filter
1 1
f 3dB 1.693kHz
2RC 2 2k 47 nF
1.0V
(1.6933K,707.101m)
0.5V
0V
V(V1:+) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency
The 3dB frequency for the filter is at 1.693kHz.
(1.6853K,-3.0304)
(168.526,-20.084)
-40
(16.853,-40.041)
-80
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
19 www.ice77.net
Inverting high-pass
This circuit lets the high-frequency signals through while inverting the input.
C2
100p
R2
723.4
V-
U1 V+ V-
C1 R1 4
2 V- 1AD741
- OS1 V2 V3
220n 723.4 6 3.6Vdc -3.6Vdc
V OUT
3 5
+ 7 OS2 V
V1
1Vac V+
0Vdc
0 0
V+
0
0
First-order inverting high-pass filter
The 100pF capacitor ensures stability at high frequency.
1 1
f 3dB 1kHz
2RC1 2 723.4 220nF
1.0V
(1.0000K,707.461m)
0.5V
0V
V(C1:2) V(C2:1)
Frequency
The 3dB frequency for the filter is at 1kHz.
20 www.ice77.net
(1.0000K,-3.0060)
-0
(100.000,-20.044)
-20
(10.000,-40.001)
-40
-60
V(C1:2) 20*LOG10(V(C2:1)/V(C1:2))
Frequency
21 www.ice77.net
Second-order filters
Second-order filters have two poles which are given by two capacitors.
1
fc
2 R1 R2 C1C 2
Depending on low-pass or high-pass configurations, the quality factors are
R1 R2 C1C 2
Q low-pass
C 2 R1 R2
R1 R2 C1C 2
Q high-pass
R1 C1 C 2
where C2 is the shunt capacitor for the low-pass configuration and R1 is the
bridging resistor in the high-pass configuration (consistency is important).
The quality factors for 2nd-order and higher filters are summarized here:
Butterworth 0.7071
Linkwitz-Riley 0.5
Bessel 0.577
Chebyshev (0.5dB) 0.8637
Chebyshev (1dB) 0.9565
Transitional or Paynter 0.639
Butterworth-Thomson or Linear phase 0.6304
Every type of filter is designed to retain a portion of a signal for a specific

range of frequencies while suppressing the same signal at other undesired
frequencies. The major difference among filters is in the mathematical
framework that lies behind them. Every filter has different ratios among
resistors and capacitors and this produces a different response.
Filters of second and higher orders come in unity-gain or gain versions. If they
are in the unity-gain configuration, the op-amp is in buffer mode. If gain is
needed, then two additional resistors are used to provide the proper gain.
The trick behind designing 2nd-order filters is to set up a system of two

equations (fc and Q) in two unknowns (C and R). The first equation sets the
frequency. The second equation sets the quality factor. It is necessary to
choose specific values for frequency and quality factor while leaving two
passive components unknowns. By using software like Maple it is possible to
force a convergence and calculate the two unknowns (C and R).
22 www.ice77.net
Butterworth filter
The Butterworth filter was originally proposed by Stephen Butterworth in 1930.
This filter can be implemented with different orders. For every order, the gain
of the filter will drop by 6dB/octave or 20dB/decade past the cutoff
frequency. Increasing the order of the filter will produce a sharper cutoff.
The Butterworth filter has a very flat response and does not present ripples in
the pass-band. It can be arranged for low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and
band-stop/notch purposes.
A band-pass Butterworth filter is obtained by placing an inductor in parallel

with each capacitor to form resonant circuits. The value of each additional
component must be selected to resonate with the other component at the
frequency of interest.
A band-stop/notch Butterworth filter is obtained by placing an inductor in

series with each capacitor to form resonant circuits. The value of each
additional component must be selected to resonate with the other component
at the frequency to be rejected.
The Butterworth filter can be implemented with different topologies, including

Cauer (passive) and Sallen/Key (active).
For a Butterworth filter, the quality factor must be 0.707.
Second-order low-pass
In the following example, the circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key

topology. The capacitor values do not match here. This is a second-order filter
because it has two capacitors.
C1
200n
V+ V+ V-
U1
R2
7
R1 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1k 1k 6
OUT
V1 C2 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc
100n
4
V-
0 0
0 0
Butterworth filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)
Note: R1=R2 and C1=2xC2.
23 www.ice77.net
1.0V
(1.1253K,707.101m)
0.5V
0V
V(V1:+) V(U1:-)
Frequency
1 1
fc 1.125kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 200nF 100nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 200nF 100nF

Q 0.707
C 2 R1 R2 100nF 1k 1k
20
-0
(1.1307K,-3.0528)
-20
-40
(11.307K,-40.148)
-60
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
24 www.ice77.net
Second-order high-pass

topology. The resistor values do not match here. This is a second-order filter
because it has two capacitors.
R1
1k
V+ V+ V-
U1
7
C1 C2 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
10n 10n 6
OUT
V1 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1
V-
1Vac R2
0Vdc
4
2k
V-
0 0
0 0
Butterworth filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)
Note: C1=C2 and R2=2xR1.

1.0V
(11.247K,707.101m)
0.5V
0V
V(C1:1) V(U1:-)
Frequency
1 1
fc 11.253kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 2k 10nF 10nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 2k 10nF 10nF

Q 0.707
R1 C1 C 2 1k 10nF 10nF
25 www.ice77.net
40
(11.142K,-3.0893)
(1.1142K,-40.169)
-100
(111.424,-80.170)
-200
V(C1:1) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/V(C1:1))
Frequency
The gain drops to 3dB at about 11.253kHz and then it decreases by

40dB/decade.
26 www.ice77.net
Third-order low-pass (same capacitor values)

topology. The capacitor values match here and the circuit provides gain by
means of two additional resistors. This is a third-order filter because it has
three capacitors.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R3
7
R2 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
2294 1059 476 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
-
V-
1Vac OS1
0Vdc
150n 150n 150n R4
4
V- 1.2k
0 0
0 0 0
R5
1k
Butterworth filter (low-pass) (3rd-order)
Note: C1=C2=C3.
3.0V
(10.000,2.1999)
2.0V
(1.0029K,1.5710)
1.0V
0V
V(V1:+) V(C2:1)
Frequency
The cutoff frequency is 1kHz.
The gain is given by the gain resistors:
R4 R5 1.2k 1k
A 2 .2 or +6.848dB
R5 1k
27 www.ice77.net
50
(10.000,6.8481) (1.0000K,3.9619)
(10.000K,-53.006)
-50
-100
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(C2:1)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
The gain is flat at +6.8481dB in the lower frequency range and then it drops to
+3.9619dB at 1kHz. It eventually decreases to 53.006dB one decade later.
28 www.ice77.net
Third-order low-pass (cascaded)
This circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key topology by cascading a

simple low-pass filter after a second-order filter. For the second-order block
the quality factor must be 1 whereas the quality factor for the low-pass filter is
not defined. This is a third-order filter because it has three capacitors. The
overall quality factor is 0.707.
C1
400n
V+ V+ V-
U1
R2
7
R1 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 R3 V2 V3
V 795 795 6
OUT
V1 C2 2 1 V 1.59k V 5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc C3
100n 4
V- 100n
0 0
0 0
0
Butterworth filter (low-pass) (3rd-order)

1.2V
(1.0000K,1.0009)
(1.0000K,708.091m)
0.8V
0.4V
0V
V(V1:+) V(U1:OUT) V(R3:2)
Frequency
The cutoff frequencies are
1 1
f c1 1kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 795 795 400nF 100nF
1 1
f c2 1kHz
2R3 C 3 2 1.59k 100nF
The quality factor of the second-order block is
R1 R2 C1C 2 795 795 400nF 100nF

Q1 1
C 2 R1 R2 100nF 795 795
29 www.ice77.net
20
(1.0000K,-2.9982)
-50
(10.000K,-60.083)
-100
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+)) 20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
30 www.ice77.net
Third-order high-pass (same resistor values)

topology. This is a third-order filter because it has three capacitors.
V+ V+ V-
U1
7
C1 C2 C3 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
47n 47n 47n 6
OUT
V1 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac R1 R2 R3 - OS1
0Vdc
4
2431 954 16.73k
V-
0 0
0 0
0
Butterworth filter (high-pass) (3rd-order)
Note: C1=C2=C3.
1.0V
(1.0000K,707.639m)
0.5V
0V
V(V1:+) V(R2:1)
Frequency

100
(1.0000K,-3.0038)
(100.000,-60.007)
-100
(10.000,-120.007)
-200
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R2:1)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
31 www.ice77.net
Third-order high-pass (cascaded)

simple high-pass filter after a second-order filter. For the second-order block
the quality factor must be 1 whereas the quality factor for the low-pass filter is
not defined. This is a third-order filter because it has three capacitors. The
overall quality factor is 0.707.
R1
750
V+ V+ V-
U1
7
C1 C2 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 C3 V2 V3
V 106n 106n 6
OUT
V1 R2 2 1 V 100n V 5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R3
3k 4
V- 1.59k
0 0
0 0
0
Butterworth filter (high-pass) (3rd-order)

1.2V
(1.0000K,0.9991)
(1.0000K,706.096m)
0.8V
0.4V
0V
V(C1:2) V(R1:2) V(R3:2)
Frequency
1 1
f c1 1kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 750 3k 106nF 106nF
1 1
f c2 1kHz
2R3 C 3 2 1.59k 100nF
The quality factor of the second-order block is
R1 R2 C1C 2 750 3k 106nF 106nF

Q1 1
R1 C1 C 2 750 106nF 106nF
32 www.ice77.net
100
(1.0000K,-3.0227)
0
(100.000,-60.025)
-100
-200
V(C1:2) 20*log10(V(U1:-)/V(C1:2)) 20*log10(V(R3:2)/V(C1:2))
Frequency
33 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order low-pass (same resistor values)

topology. The resistor values match here and the circuit provides gain by
means of two additional resistors. This is a fourth-order filter because it has
four capacitors.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R2 R4
7
R3 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1k 1k 1k 1k 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 C4 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R5
212n 296n 214n 47n
4
V- 430
0 0
0 0 0
R6
1k
Butterworth filter (low-pass) (4th-order)
Note: all resistor values match.
(10.000,1.4299)
1.5V
(1.0009K,1.0385)
1.0V
0.5V
0V
V(V1:+) V(C1:1)
Frequency

20
(10.000,3.1064)
(1.0000K,343.421m)
-40
(9.3325K,-61.319)
-80
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(C1:1)/V(V1:+))
Frequency
+0.343dB at 1kHz. It eventually decreases to 61.319dB at 9.3325kHz.
34 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order low-pass (same capacitor values)

four capacitors.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R2 R4
7
R3 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
495 2.65k 1.08k 195 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 C4 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R5
220n 220n 220n 220n
4
V- 1.2k
0 0
0 0 0
R6
1k
Note: all capacitor values match.

2.6V
(10.000,2.1999)
2.0V
(1.0005K,1.5311)
1.0V
0V
V(V1:+) V(R5:2)
Frequency

20
(10.000,6.8481)
(1.0000K,3.7091)
-0
-20
-40
(8.7096K,-50.861)
-60
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
35 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order low-pass (cascaded)
This circuit is implemented with the Sallen/Key topology by cascading two

second-order filters. The quality factors for the first and the second block must
be 0.5412 and 1.3065 respectively. This is a fourth-order filter because it has
four capacitors. The overall quality factor is 0.707.
C1 C3
120n 685n
V+
U1 V+
R2
7
R1 LM741 U2
3 5
V+
+ OS2 R4
7
R3 LM741 V+ V-
1.45k 1.45k 6 3 5
V+
V OUT + OS2
V1 C2 2 1 V
610 610 6
V-
1Vac - OS1 OUT
0Vdc C4 2 1 V2 V3
V
V-
100n - OS1
4
V- 100n 5Vdc -5Vdc
4
V-
0 0
0 0 0
th
Butterworth filter (low-pass) (4 -order)
1.2V
(1.0063K,706.509m)
0.8V
(1.0000K,548.870m)
0.4V
0V
V(V1:+) V(C1:1) V(C3:1)
Frequency
1 1
f c1 1001Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1.45k 1.45k 120nF 100nF
1 1
f c2 997 Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 610 610 685nF 100nF
The quality factors are
R1 R2 C1C 2 1.45k 1.45k 120nF 100nF

Q1 0.5477
C 2 R1 R2 100nF 1.45k 1.45k
R3 R4 C 3 C 4 1k 1k 685nF 100nF
Q2 1.3086
C 4 R3 R 4 100nF 1k 1k
The quality factors are reasonably close to 0.5412 and 1.3065.
36 www.ice77.net
40
(1.0000K,-2.9035)
-0
(1.0000K,-5.2106)
-40
-80
(10.000K,-80.232)
-120
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(C1:1)/ V(V1:+)) 20*LOG10(V(C3:1)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
The gain drops to 2.9035dB at 1kHz and then it decreases by

80dB/decade.
37 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order high-pass (same capacitor values)

four capacitors.
V+ V+ V-
U1
7
C1 C2 C3 C4 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
100n 100n 100n 100n 6
OUT
V1 R1 R2 R3 R4 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R5
1195 850 1.2k 5.28k
4
V- 440
0 0
0 0 0
R6
1k
Butterworth filter (high-pass) (4th-order)

1.8V
(10.000K,1.4233)
1.5V
(1.0000K,1.0184)
1.0V
0.5V
0V
V(C1:2) V(R3:1)
Frequency

40
(10.000K,3.0658)
(1.0000K,158.734m)
-100
(100.000,-76.834)
-200
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/V(V1:+))
Frequency
The gain is flat at +3.6058dB in the higher frequency range and then it drops
to +0.158dB at 1kHz. It eventually decreases to 76.834 at 100Hz.
38 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order high-pass (cascaded)

second-order filters. The quality factors for the first and the second block must
be 0.5412 and 1.3065 respectively. This is a fourth-order filter because it has
four capacitors. The overall quality factor is 0.707.
R1 R3
1k 1k
V+
U1 V+
7
C1 C2 LM741 U2
3 5
V+
+ OS2
7
C3 C4 LM741 V+ V-
192n 100n 6 3 5
V+
V OUT + OS2
V1 R2 2 1 V
23n 100n 6
V-
1Vac - OS1 OUT
0Vdc R4 2 1 V2 V3
V
V-
1.3k - OS1
4
V- 11k 5Vdc -5Vdc
4
V-
0 0
0 0 0

1.2V
(1.0094K,706.509m)
0.8V
0.4V (1.0000K,537.091m)
0V
V(V1:+) V(R1:2) V(U2:-)
Frequency
1 1
f c1 1007 Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1.3k 192nF 100nF
1 1
f c2 1kHz
2 R1 R 2 C1C 2 2 1k 11k 23nF 100nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1.3k 192nF 100nF

Q1 0.5411
R1 C1 C 2 1k 192nF 100nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 11k 23nF 100nF
Q2 1.2932
R1 C1 C 2 1k 23nF 100nF
39 www.ice77.net
60
(1.0000K,-3.1741)
-0
(1.0000K,-5.3991)
-100
(100.000,-80.138)
-200
-300
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/ V(V1:+)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:-)/V(V1:+))
Frequency
40 www.ice77.net
Fifth-order low-pass (same resistor values)

means of two additional resistors. This is a fifth-order filter because it has five
capacitors.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R2 R3 R5
7
R4 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1k 1k 1k 1k 1k 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc 246.83n 154.56n 182.49n 83.06n 34.57n R6
4
V- 1k
0 0
0 0 0 0
R7
1k

3.0V
(1.0000K,2.5885)
(10.000,2.0000)
2.0V
1.0V
0V
V(V1:+) V(C2:1)
Frequency

50
(10.000,6.0207) (1.0000K,8.2609)
-50
(10.000K,-75.288)
-100
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(C2:1)/V(V1:+))
Frequency
The gain is flat at +6dB in the lower frequency range and then it peaks to
+8.2609dB at 1kHz. It eventually decreases to 75.288dB at 10kHz.
41 www.ice77.net
Fifth-order low-pass (cascaded)

simple low-pass filter after two second-order filters. The quality factors for the
first and the second block must be 0.6180 and 1.6181 whereas the quality
factor for the low-pass filter is not defined. This is a fifth-order filter because it
has five capacitors. The overall quality factor is 0.707.
C1
C3
153n
1050n
V+
U1 V+ V+ V-
R2
7
R1 LM741 U2
3 5
+ V+ OS2 R4
7
R3 LM741
1.285k 1.285k 6 3 5
V+
V OUT + OS2 R5 V2 V3
V1 C2 2 1 V 490 490 6
V-
1Vac - OS1 OUT

0Vdc C4 2 1 V 1.59k V 5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
100n - OS1
4
C5
V- 100n
4
V- 100n
0 0 0 0
0
0

1.3V
1.0V
(1.0033K,705.621m)
0.5V
(1.0033K,617.409m)
0V
V(R1:1) V(U1:-) V(U2:-) V(R5:2)
Frequency
1 1
f c1
1001Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1.285k 1.285k 153nF 100nF
1 1
f c2 1002 Hz
2 R3 R4 C 3 C 4 2 490 490 1050nF 100nF
1 1
f c3 1kHz
2R5 C 5 2 1.59k 100nF
42 www.ice77.net
R1 R2 C1C 2 1.285k 1.285k 153nF 100nF

Q1 0.6185
C 2 R1 R2 100nF 1.285k 1.285k
R3 R 4 C 3 C 4 490 490 1050nF 100nF
Q2 1.6202
C 4 R3 R 4 100nF 490 490

50
(1.0000K,-2.9558)
-0
-50
-100
(10.000K,-100.244)
-150
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:-)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/V(R1:1))
Frequency
43 www.ice77.net
Fifth-order high-pass (cascaded)

simple low-pass filter after two second-order filters. The quality factors for the
first and the second block must be 0.6180 and 1.6181 whereas the quality
factor for the high-pass filter is not defined. This is a fifth-order filter because it
has five capacitors. The overall quality factor is 0.707.
R1
R3
1.285k
1k
V+
U1 V+ V+ V-
7
C1 C2 LM741 U2
3 5
+ V+ OS2
7
C3 C4 LM741
207n 50n 6 3 5
V+
V OUT + OS2 C5 V2 V3
V1 R2 2 1 V 48n 50n 6
V-
1Vac - OS1 OUT

0Vdc R4 2 1 V 100n V 5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
2.44k - OS1
4
R5
V- 10.475k
4
V- 1.59k
0 0 0 0
0
0

1.3V
1.0V
(1.0000K,703.322m)
(1.0000K,617.445m)
0.5V
0V
V(C1:2) V(U1:OUT) V(R3:2) V(R5:2)
Frequency
1 1
f c1 1001Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 2.44k 207 nF 50nF
1 1
f c2 1003Hz
2 R3 R4 C 3C 4 2 1k 10.475k 48nF 50nF
1 1
f c3 1kHz
2R5 C 5 2 1.59k 100nF
44 www.ice77.net
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 2.44k 207nF 50nF

Q1 0.6183
R1 C1 C 2 1k 207nF 50nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 10.475k 48nF 50nF
Q2 1.6179
R1 C1 C 2 1k 48nF 50nF

100
(1.0000K,-3.0569)
(100.000,-100.100)
-200
-400
V(C1:2) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/V(C1:2)) 20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/V(C1:2)) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/V(C1:2))
Frequency
45 www.ice77.net
Sixth-order low-pass (same resistor values)

means of two additional resistors. This is a sixth-order filter because it has six
capacitors.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R2 R4
7
R3 R5 R6 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V 1k 1k 1k 1k 1k 1k 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 2 1 V 5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R7
205n 465n 218n 212n 104n 36n
4
V- 1k
0 0
0 0 0 0
R8
1k

2.6V
(10.000,1.9999)
2.0V
(1.0000K,1.4347)
1.0V
0V
V(R1:1) V(C5:1)
Frequency

30
(10.000,6.0202)
(1.0000K,3.1353)
-40
(3.8019K,-65.177)
-80
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(C5:1)/V(R1:1))
Frequency
The gain is flat at +6dB in the lower frequency range and then it drops to
46 www.ice77.net
Sixth-order low-pass (cascaded)
For sake of illustration, a sixth-order low-pass Butterworth filter is shown

below. The circuit is nothing more than a cascade of 3 second-order blocks
like the ones previously shown. The stages must have Q1=0.5177, Q2=1.7071
and Q3=1.9320.
C1
C3
200n
C5
V+ 2000n
U1 V+ 2000n
R2
7
R1 LM741 U2 V+ V-
3 5 V+
V+
+ OS2 R4
7
R3 LM741 U3
2.584k 490 6 3 5
V+
V OUT + OS2 R6
7
R5 LM741
V1 C2 2 1 767 165 6 3 5 V2 V3
V+
V
1Vac - V- OS1 OUT + OS2
0Vdc C4 2 1 V 619 204 6
V-
100n - OS1 OUT 5Vdc -5Vdc
4
C6 2 1 V
V-
V- 100n - OS1
4
V- 100n
4
0 0
V- 0 0
0
0

3.0V
(1.0000K,1.7122)
2.0V
1.0V
0V
V(R1:1) V(U1:-) V(U2:OUT) V(U3:-)
Frequency
The plot shown above clearly demonstrates that increasing the order of the
filter will produce a sharper response. Increasing the order of the filter will
produce a roughly vertical drop at the cutoff frequency.
1 1
f c1 1kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 2.584k 490 200nF 100nF
1 1
f c2 1kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 767 165 2000nF 100nF
1 1
f c3 1.001kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 619 204 2000nF 100nF
47 www.ice77.net
R1 R2 C1C 2 2.584k 490 200nF 100nF

Q1 0.5177
C 2 R1 R2 100nF 2.584k 490
R1 R2 C1C 2 767 165 2000nF 100nF
Q2 1.7070
C 2 R1 R2 100nF 767 165
R1 R2 C1C 2 619 204 2000nF 100nF
Q3 1.9310
C 2 R1 R2 100nF 619 204
The quality factors are reasonably close to 0.5177, 1.7071 and 1.9320.
100
(1.0000K,-5.7160)
(1.0000K,-1.0514)
-100 (1.0000K,4.6711)
(10.000K,-121.211)
-200
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:OUT)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U3:-)/V(R1:1))
Frequency
The gain peaks to +4.6711dB at 1 kHz and then it decreases by about

120dB/decade.
48 www.ice77.net
Sixth-order high-pass (cascaded)
For sake of illustration, a sixth-order high-pass Butterworth filter is shown

below. The circuit is nothing more than a cascade of 3 second-order blocks
like the ones previously shown. The stages must have Q1=0.5177, Q2=1.7071
and Q3=1.9320 respectively.
R1
R3
615
R5
V+ 186
U1 V+ 165
7
C1 C2 LM741 U2 V+ V-
3 5 V+
V+
+ OS2
7
C3 C4 LM741 U3
400n 100n 6 3 5
V+
V OUT + OS2
7
C5 C6 LM741
V1 2 1 400n 100n 6 3 5 V2 V3
V+
V
V-
1Vac R2 - OS1 OUT + OS2
0Vdc 2 1 V
400n 100n 6
V-
R4 - OS1 OUT 5Vdc -5Vdc
4
1.03k 2 1 V
V-
V- R6 - OS1
4
3.396k
V-
4
0 0 3.844k
V- 0 0
0
0

3.0V
2.0V (1.0000K,1.7095)
1.0V
0V
V(C1:1) V(C3:1) V(U2:-) V(U3:-)
Frequency
1 1
f c1 999.9 Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 615 1.03k 400nF 100nF
1 1
f c2 1001Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 186 3.396k 400nF 100nF
1 1
f c3 999.2 Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 165 3.844k 400nF 100nF
49 www.ice77.net
R1 R2 C1C 2 615 1.03k 400nF 100nF

Q1 0.5177
R1 C1 C 2 615 400nF 100nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 186 3.396k 400nF 100nF
Q2 1.7092
R1 C1 C 2 186 400nF 100nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 165 3.844k 400nF 100nF
Q3 1.9307
R1 C1 C 2 165 400nF 100nF
The quality factors are reasonably close to 0.5177, 1.7071 and 1.9320.
200
(1.0000K,-1.0675) (1.0000K,-5.7166)
(1.0000K,-1.0675)
0
(1.0000K,4.6575)
-200
(100.000,-119.930)
-400
V(C1:1) 20*LOG10(V(C3:1)/V(C1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:-)/V(C1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U3:-)/V(C1:1))
Frequency
The gain peaks at +4.6575dB at 1kHz and then it decreases by about

120dB/decade.
50 www.ice77.net
Linkwitz-Riley filter
The Linkwitz-Riley filter was invented by Siegfried Linkwitz and Russ Riley in
1978. This filter is alternatively called Butterworth squared filter (squared
because for the Linkwitz-Riley filter Q=0.5, for the Butterworth filter Q=0.707
and the square of 0.707 is 0.5). This filter is used in audio crossovers.
The Linkwitz-Riley filter can be implemented with different orders. For every
order, the gain of the filter will drop by 6dB/octave or 20dB/decade past the
cutoff frequency. Increasing the order of the filter will produce a sharper cutoff.
A 2nth-order Linkwitz-Riley filter can be obtained from cascading 2 nth-order

Butterworth filters (2 2nd-order Butterworth filters will produce a 4th-order
Linkwitz-Riley filter).
In a way, the Linkwitz-Riley filter is a superset of the Butterworth filter which in

turn exploits the Sallen/Key topology.
For a Linkwitz-Riley filter, the quality factor must be 0.5.

topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors.
C1
100n
V+ V+ V-
U1
R2
7
R1 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1k 1k 6
OUT
V1 C2 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1
V-
1Vac
0Vdc
100n
4
V-
0 0
0 0
Linkwitz-Riley filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)
Note: R1=R2 and C1=C2.
51 www.ice77.net
1.0V
(1.5915K,500.000m)
0.5V
0V
V(R1:1) V(C1:2)
Frequency

1 1
fc 1.5915kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 100nF 100nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 100nF 100nF

Q 0.5
C 2 R1 R2 100nF 1k 1k
20
-0
(1.5849K,-5.9848)
-20
-40
(15.849K,-40.062)
-60
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(C1:2)/V(R1:1))
Frequency
The gain drops to 6dB at 1.5915kHz and then it decreases by

40dB/decade.
52 www.ice77.net

R1
1.5k
V+ V+ V-
U1
7
C1 C2 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
10n 10n 6
OUT
V1 2 1 V 5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac R2 - OS1
0Vdc
4
1.5k
V-
0 0
0 0
Linkwitz-Riley filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)
Note: C1=C2 and R1=R2.

1.0V
(10.635K,501.385m)
0.5V
0V
V(C1:1) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency
1 1
fc 10.61kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1.55k 1.65k 10nF 10nF
R1 R 2 C1C 2 1.5k 1.5k 10nF 10nF

Q 0 .5
R1 C1 C 2 1.5k 10nF 10nF
53 www.ice77.net
40
(10.540K,-6.0746)
-0
(1.0540K,-40.197)
-40
(105.404,-80.113)
-80
-120
10Hz 100Hz 1.0KHz 10KHz 100KHz 1.0MHz
V(C1:1) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/V(C1:1))
Frequency
The gain drops to 6dB at about 10.61kHz and then it decreases by

40dB/decade.
54 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order low-pass (cascaded)

identical second-order filters. The quality factors for the blocks must be 0.707
(equivalent to two cascaded Butterworth stages). This is a fourth-order filter
because it has four capacitors. The overall quality factor is 0.5.
C1 C3
200n 200n
V+
U1 V+
R2
7
R1 LM741 U2
3 5
V+
+ OS2 R4
7
R3 LM741 V+ V-
1k 1k 6 3 5
V+
V OUT + OS2
V1 C2 2 1 V
1k 1k 6
V-
1Vac - OS1 OUT
0Vdc C4 2 1 V2 V3
V
V-
100n - OS1
4
V- 100n 5Vdc -5Vdc
4
V-
0 0
0 0 0
Linkwitz-Riley filter (low-pass) (4th-order)

1.0V
(1.1254K,707.134m)
(1.1254K,500.000m)
0.5V
0V
V(R1:1) V(R3:1) V(U2:-)
Frequency
1 1
f c1 f c 2 1.125kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 200nF 100nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 200nF 100nF

Q1 Q2 0.707
C 2 R1 R2 100nF 1k 1k
55 www.ice77.net
30
(1.1316K,-3.0594)
-0
(1.1316K,-6.1196)
-40
-80
(11.316K,-80.323)
-120
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(R3:1)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:-)/V(R1:1))
Frequency
56 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order high-pass (same capacitor values)

four capacitors.
V+ V+ V-
U1
7
C1 C2 C3 C4 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
100n 100n 100n 100n 6
OUT
V1 R1 R2 R3 R4 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R5
1.125k 906 1.12k 5.623k
4
V- 320
0 0
0 0 0
R6
1k
Linkwitz-Riley filter (high-pass) (4th-order)

1.5V
(10.000K,1.3061)
1.0V
(1.0000K,662.007m)
0.5V
0V
V(C1:2) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

60
(1.0000K,-3.5828)
(10.000K,2.3198)
-100
(100.000,-77.614)
-200
V(C1:2) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/V(C1:2))
Frequency
The gain is flat at +2.3198dB in the higher frequency range and then it drops
to 3.5828dB at 1kHz. It eventually decreases by 80dB/decade.
57 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order high-pass (cascaded)

identical second-order filters. The quality factors for the blocks must be 0.707
(equivalent to two cascaded Butterworth stages). This is a fourth-order filter
because it has four capacitors. The overall quality factor is 0.5.
R1
R3
1k
V+ 1k
U1 V+ V-
V+
7
C1 C2 LM741 U2
3 5
V+
+ OS2
7
C3 C4 LM741
10n 10n 6 3 5 V2 V3
V+
V OUT + OS2
V1 2 1 V 10n 10n 6
V-
1Vac R2 - OS1 OUT 5Vdc -5Vdc
0Vdc 2 1 V
V-
R4 - OS1
4
2k
V-
4
2k
V- 0 0
0 0
0

1.0V
(11.245K,707.211m)
(11.245K,500.000m)
0.5V
0V
V(C1:1) V(R1:2) V(U2:-)
Frequency
1 1
f c1 f c 2 11.253kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 2k 10nF 10nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 2k 10nF 10nF

Q1 Q2 0.707
R1 C1 C 2 1k 10nF 10nF
58 www.ice77.net
60
(11.167K,-6.1380)
(11.167K,-3.0696)
(1.1167K,-80.261)
-200
-350
V(C1:1) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/V(C1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:-)/V(C1:1))
Frequency

80dB/decade.
59 www.ice77.net
Sixth-order low-pass (cascaded)
For sake of illustration, a 6th-order low-pass Linkwitz-Riley filter is shown

below. The circuit is nothing more than a cascade of 3 2nd-order blocks like
the ones previously shown. All blocks cut off at the same frequency. However,
the first stage must have Q=0.5, the second and the third stages must have
Q=1.
C1
C3
100n
C5
V+ 200n
U1 V+ 200n
R2
7
R1 LM741 U2 V+ V-
3 V+ 5 V+
+ OS2 R4
7
R3 LM741 U3
1k 1k 6 3 5
V+
V OUT + OS2 R6
7
R5 LM741
V1 C2 2 1 1k 1k 6 3 5 V2 V3
V+
V
V-
1Vac - OS1 OUT + OS2

0Vdc C4 2 1 V 1k 1k 6
V-
100n - OS1 OUT 5Vdc -5Vdc
4
C6 2 1 V
V-
V- 50n - OS1
4
V- 50n
4
0 0
V- 0 0
0
0
Linkwitz-Riley filter (low-pass) (6th-order)

1.2V
0.8V
(1.5895K,501.939m)
0.4V
0V
V(V1:+) V(C1:2) V(R5:1) V(C5:2)
Frequency
1 1
f c1 1.591kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 100nF 100nF
1 1
f c2 f c3 1.591kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 200nF 50nF
60 www.ice77.net
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 100nF 100nF

Q1 0.5
C 2 R1 R2 100nF 1k 1k
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 200nF 50nF
Q2 Q3 1
C 2 R1 R2 50nF 1k 1k
50
(1.5898K,-5.9938)
-100
(15.898K,-120.259)
-200
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:OUT)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(U3:-)/V(R1:1))
Frequency

120dB/decade.
61 www.ice77.net
Sixth-order high-pass (cascaded)
For sake of illustration, a 6th-order high-pass Linkwitz-Riley filter is shown

below. The circuit is nothing more than a cascade of 3 2nd-order blocks like
the ones previously shown. All blocks cut off at the same frequency. However,
the first stage must have Q=0.5, the second and the third stages must have
Q=1.
R1
R3
1.5k
R5
V+ 750
U1 V+ 750
7
C1 C2 LM741 U2 V+ V-
3 5 V+
+ V+ OS2
7
C3 C4 LM741 U3
10n 10n 6 3 5
V+
V OUT + OS2
7
C5 C6 LM741
V1 2 1 10n 10n 6 3 5 V2 V3
V+
V
V-
1Vac R2 - OS1 OUT + OS2

0Vdc 2 1 V
10n 10n 6
V-
R4 - OS1 OUT 5Vdc -5Vdc
4
1.5k 2 1 V
V-
V- R6 - OS1
4
3k
V-
4
0 0 3k
V- 0 0
0
0

1.2V
0.8V
(10.616K,501.939m)
0.4V
0V
V(C1:1) V(U1:-) V(U2:-) V(R5:2)
Frequency
1 1
f c1 10.61kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1.5k 1.5k 10nF 10nF
1 1
f c2 f c3 10.61kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 750 3k 10nF 10nF
62 www.ice77.net
R1 R2 C1C 2 1.5k 1.5k 10nF 10nF

Q1 0.5
R1 C1 C 2 1.5k 10nF 10nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 750 3k 10nF 10nF
Q2 Q3 1
R1 C1 C 2 750 10nF 10nF
100
(10.638K,-5.9403)
-200 (1.0638K,-119.853)
-400
-600
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/V(V1:+)) 20*LOG10(V(C5:1)/V(V1:+)) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/V(V1:+))
Frequency

120dB/decade.
63 www.ice77.net
Bessel filter
The Bessel filter is named after Friedrich Bessel, a German mathematician

who studied the mathematics behind the filter before it was implemented. This
is also known as Bessel-Thomson filter. W. E. Thomson was responsible for
actually using the theory and putting it to work.
For a second-order Bessel filter, the quality factor must be 0.577.

C1
133n
V+
U1 V+ V-
R2
7
R1 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2
1k 1k 6 V2 V3
V OUT
V1 C2 2 1 V
V-
1Vac - OS1 5Vdc -5Vdc

0Vdc
100n
4
V-
0 0
0 0
Bessel filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)
Note: R1=R2 and C1=1.336xC2.

1.0V
(1.3791K,576.923m)
0.5V
0V
V(R1:1) V(C1:2)
Frequency
1 1
fc 1.38kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 133nF 100nF
64 www.ice77.net
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 133nF 100nF

Q 0.577
C 2 R1 R2 100nF 1k 1k
20
-0
(1.3804K,-4.7854)
-20
(13.971K,-40.118)
-40
-60
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(C1:2)/ V(R1:1))
Frequency
The gain drops to 4.78dB at 1.38kHz and then it decreases by

40dB/decade.
65 www.ice77.net

R1
1k
V+
U1 V+ V-
7
C1 C2 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2
100n 100n 6 V2 V3
V OUT
V1 R2 2 1 V
V-
0Vdc
1.33k
4
V-
0 0
0 0
Bessel filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)
Note: C1=C2 and R2=R1x1.336.

1.0V
(1.3807K,576.923m)
0.5V
0V
V(V1:+) V(R1:2)
Frequency
1 1
fc 1.38kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1.33k 100nF 100nF
R1R2C1C2 1k 1.33k 100nF 100nF

Q 0.577
R1 C1 C2 1k 100nF 100nF
66 www.ice77.net
40
-0
(1.3834K,-4.7606)
-50
(138.337,-40.002)
-100 (13.834,-79.958)
-150
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
The gain drops to 4.78dB at 1.38kHz and then it decreases by

40dB/decade.
67 www.ice77.net
Third-order low-pass (same resistor values)

topology. The resistor values match here. This is a third-order filter because it
has three capacitors.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R3
7
R2 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
712 712 712 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1
V-
1Vac
0Vdc
218n 314n 56n
4
V-
0 0
0 0 0
Bessel filter (low-pass) (3rd-order)
Note: R1=R2=R3.
1.0V
(1.0006K,715.976m)
0.5V
0V
V(V1:+) V(U1:-)
Frequency

20
(1.0000K,-2.8984)
(10.034K,-51.006)
-50
-100
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
The gain drops to 2.8984dB at 1kHz and then it decreases to 51.006dB a

decade later.
68 www.ice77.net
Third-order low-pass (same capacitor values)

means of two additional resistors. This is a third-order filter because it has
three capacitors.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R3
7
R2 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
3.05k 902 520 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R4
100n 100n 100n
4
V- 1.2k
0 0
0 0 0
R5
1k
Bessel filter (low-pass) (3rd-order)
Note: C1=C2=C3.
3.0V
(10.000,2.1998)
2.0V
(1.0000K,1.5651)
1.0V
0V
V(V1:+) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency

30
(10.000,6.8478)
(1.0000K,3.8909)
(10.000K,-44.399)
-50
-100
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
+3.8909dB at 1kHz. It eventually decreases to 44.399dB one decade later.
69 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order low-pass (same capacitor values)

four capacitors.
V+ V+ V-
U1
R1 R2 R4
7
R3 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
640 4.41k 1.265k 333 6
OUT
V1 C1 C2 C3 C4 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc R5
100n 100n 100n 100n
4
V- 1.2k
0 0
0 0 0
R6
1k
Bessel filter (low-pass) (4th-order)

2.8V
(10.000,2.1998)
2.0V
(1.0000K,1.5627)
1.0V
0V
V(V1:+) V(C3:1)
Frequency

20
(10.000,6.8478)
(1.0000K,3.8777)
-0
-20
-40
(12.589K,-50.168)
-60
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(C3:1)/V(V1:+))
Frequency
70 www.ice77.net
Chebyshev filter
The Chebyshev filter bears the name of Pafnuty Chebyshev, a Russian

mathematician who developed the theory behind the Chebyshev polynomials.
Chebyshev filters come in two variants: if the ripple is present in the

passband, they are called Type I otherwise, if the ripple is present in the
stopband, they are called Type II (also known as Inverted).
The filter can be designed to have different ripples that can vary from 0.5dB to
3dB and intermediate values (typically in 0.5dB increments).
Type I
This is the Chebyshev filter with the ripple in the passband. Its probably the
most common version of the filter.
For a second-order Chebyshev Type I filter, the quality factors must be 0.864,
0.956, 1.129 and 1.305 for 0.5dB, 1dB, 2dB and 3dB versions of the filter
respectively.
Second-order low-pass (0.5dB ripple)

topology. This is a second-order filter because it has two capacitors. This
specific filter is designed to have a 0.5dB ripple in the passband.
C1
298n
V+
U1 V+ V-
R2
7
R1 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2
1k 1k 6 V2 V3
V OUT
V1 C2 2 1 V
V-

0Vdc
100n
4
V-
0 0
0 0
Chebyshev 0.5dB ripple filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)
Note: for a 0.5dB ripple, R1=R2 and C1=2.986xC2.
71 www.ice77.net
1.2V
(922.189,862.722m)
0.8V
0.4V
0V
V(V1:+) V(U1:OUT)
Frequency
The ripple in the passband is noticeable.
1 1
fc 921.96 Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 1k 298nF 100nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 298nF 100nF

Q 0.863
C 2 R1 R2 100nF 1k 1k
20
(926.119,-1.3203)
-0
-20
(9.2612K,-40.123)
-40
-60
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
The gain drops to 1.3203dB at 926Hz and then it decreases by

40dB/decade.
72 www.ice77.net
2.0
1.0
(524.808,499.849m)
-1.0
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
Close-up of 0.5dB ripple
The frequency response of the circuit peaks at 524Hz with a 0.5dB overshoot
and then it decays rapidly.
73 www.ice77.net
Second-order low-pass (1dB ripple)

specific filter is designed to have a 1dB ripple in the passband.
C3
366n
V+ V+ V-
U2
R4
7
R3 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1k 1k 6
OUT
V4 C4 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1
V-
1Vac
0Vdc
100n
4
V-
0 0
0 0
Chebyshev 1dB ripple filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)
Note: for a 1dB ripple, R3=R4 and C3=3.663xC4.

1.2V
(830.016,958.580m)
0.8V
0.4V
0V
V(V4:+) V(U2:-)
Frequency
1 1
fc 831.92 Hz
2 R2 R3C 2 C 3 2 1k 1k 366nF 100nF
R 2 R3 C 2 C 3 1k 1k 366nF 100nF
Q 0.957
C 3 R 2 R 3 100nF 1k 1k
74 www.ice77.net
50
(830.736,-863.103m)
-0
-50
(8.3074K,-92.129)
-100
-150
V(V4:+) 20*LOG(V(U2:-)/ V(V4:+))
Frequency
The gain drops to 0.863dB at 830Hz and then it decreases to 92dB a

decade past the cutoff frequency (much faster roll-off).
2.0
(562.341,1.0039)
1.0
-1.0
V(V4:+) 20*LOG10(V(U2:-)/ V(V4:+))
Frequency
Close-up of 1dB ripple
The frequency response of the circuit peaks at 562Hz with a 1dB overshoot
75 www.ice77.net

C5
509n
V+ V+ V-
U3
R6
7
R5 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1k 1k 6
OUT
V5 C6 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1
V-
1Vac
0Vdc
100n
4
V-
0 0
0 0

1.5V
(705.774,1.1272)
1.0V
0.5V
0V
V(V5:+) V(C5:2)
Frequency
1 1
fc 705.44 Hz
2 R5 R6 C 5 C 6 2 1k 1k 509nF 100nF
R5 R 6 C 5 C 6 1k 1k 509nF 100nF
Q 1.128
C 6 R5 R 6 100nF 1k 1k
76 www.ice77.net
20
(702.533,1.0863)
-0
-20
(6.9970K,-39.882)
-40
-60
V(V5:+) 20*LOG10(V(C5:2)/ V(V5:+))
Frequency
The gain is +1.0863dB at 702Hz and then it decreases by 40dB/decade.

3.0
(549.541,2.0010)
2.0
1.0
-1.0
V(V5:+) 20*LOG10(V(C5:2)/ V(V5:+))
Frequency
77 www.ice77.net

C7
681n
V+ V+ V-
U4
R8
7
R7 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1k 1k 6
OUT
V6 C8 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1
V-
1Vac
0Vdc
100n
4
V-
0 0
0 0

1.5V
(609.575,1.3047)
1.0V
0.5V
0V
V(V6:+) V(U4:OUT)
Frequency
1 1
fc 609.88 Hz
2 R7 R8 C 7 C8 2 1k 1k 681nF 100nF
R 7 R8 C 7 C 8 1k 1k 681nF 100nF
Q 1.305
C 8 R 7 R8 100nF 1k 1k
78 www.ice77.net
20
(611.881,1.8548)
-0
-20
(6.1188K,-37.523)
-40
-60
V(V6:+) 20*LOG10(V(U4:OUT)/ V(V6:+))
Frequency

4.0
(512.861,3.0052)
2.0
-1.0
V(V6:+) 20*LOG10(V(U4:OUT)/ V(V6:+))
Frequency
79 www.ice77.net
Second-order low-pass ripple comparison
1.5V
1.0V
0.5V
0V
V(V1:+) V(U1:OUT) V(V4:+) V(U2:OUT) V(V5:+) V(C5:2) V(V6:+) V(U4:OUT)
Frequency
0.5dB, 1dB, 2dB and 3dB circuit response comparison
Above is a comparison of the response for the low-pass circuits previously

presented. The peaks in the response are clearly not matching because the
circuits have been designed with the same resistor values so the cutoff
frequency moves to the left of the plot as the magnitude of the ripple
increases.
4.0
(512.861,3.0052)
(549.541,2.0010)
2.5
(562.341,1.0039)
(524.808,499.849m)
-2.5
-5.0
100Hz 300Hz 1.0KHz 3.0KHz
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:OUT)/ V(V1:+)) V(V4:+) 20*LOG10(V(U2:OUT)/ V(V4:+)) V(V5:+)
20*LOG10(V(U3:OUT)/ V(V5:+)) V(V6:+) 20*LOG10(V(U4:OUT)/ V(V6:+))
Frequency
0.5dB, 1dB, 2dB and 3dB ripple comparison
The plot shown above compares the ripples for every circuit previously
presented. It is clear that a higher amount of ripple will produce a sharper
cutoff.
80 www.ice77.net
Second-order high-pass (0.5dB ripple)

specific filter is designed to have a 0.5dB ripple in the passband.
R1
1k
V+
U1 V+ V-
7
C1 C2 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2
100n 100n 6 V2 V3
V OUT
V1 R2 2 1 V
- OS1
V-
1Vac 5Vdc -5Vdc
0Vdc
2.98k
4
V-
0 0
0 0
Chebyshev 0.5dB ripple filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)
Note: for a 0.5dB ripple, C1=C2 and R2=2.986xR1.

1.2V
0.8V
(921.668,862.722m)
0.4V
0V
V(C1:1) V(R1:2)
Frequency
1 1
fc 921.96 Hz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1k 2.98k 100nF 100nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 2.98k 100nF 100nF

Q 0.863
R1 C1 C 2 1k 100nF 100nF
81 www.ice77.net
40
(925.642,-1.2459)
-0
(92.564,-39.902)
-40
-80
-120
V(C1:1) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/ V(C1:1))
Frequency

40dB/decade.
2.0
1.0
(1.6218K,486.213m)
-1.0
V(C1:1) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/ V(C1:1))
Frequency
Close-up of 0.5dB ripple
The frequency response of the circuit peaks at 1.62kHz with a 0.5dB

overshoot and then it decays rapidly.
82 www.ice77.net
Second-order high-pass (1dB ripple)

R3
1k
V+
U2 V+ V-
7
C3 C4 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2
100n 100n 6 V2 V3
V OUT
V4 R4 2 1 V
- OS1
V-
1Vac 5Vdc -5Vdc
0Vdc
3.66k
4
V-
0 0
0 0
Chebyshev 1dB ripple filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)
Note: for a 1dB ripple, C3=C4 and R4=3.663xR3.

1.2V
0.8V
(833.787,958.580m)
0.4V
0V
V(V4:+) V(R3:2)
Frequency
1 1
fc 831.92 Hz
2 R3 R4 C 3C 4 2 1k 3.66k 100nF 100nF
R3 R 4 C 3 C 4 1k 3.66k 100nF 100nF

Q 0.957
R3 C 3 C 4 1k 100nF 100nF
83 www.ice77.net
40
(830.736,-398.059m)
-0
(83.074,-39.986)
-40
-80
-120
V(V4:+) 20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/ V(V4:+))
Frequency

40dB/decade.
2.0
(1.2303K,990.336m)
1.0
-1.0
V(V4:+) 20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/ V(V4:+))
Frequency
The frequency response of the circuit peaks at 1.23kHz with a 1dB overshoot
84 www.ice77.net

R5
1k
V+ V+ V-
U3
7
C5 C6 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
100n 100n 6
OUT
V5 R6 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
- OS1
V-
1Vac
0Vdc
5.09k
4
V-
0 0
0 0

1.5V
(705.088,1.1272)
1.0V
0.5V
0V
V(C5:1) V(R5:2)
Frequency
1 1
fc 705.44 Hz
2 R5 R6 C 5 C 6 2 1k 5.09k 100nF 100nF
R5 R 6 C 5 C 6 1k 5.09k 100nF 100nF

Q 1.128
R5 C 5 C 6 1k 100nF 100nF
85 www.ice77.net
40
(700.870,985.793m)
-0
(70.087,-40.061)
-40
-80
-120
V(C5:1) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/ V(C5:1))
Frequency

3.0
(912.011,1.9866)
2.0
1.0
-1.0
V(C5:1) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/ V(C5:1))
Frequency
86 www.ice77.net

R7
1k
V+ V+ V-
U4
7
C7 C8 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V 100n 100n 6
OUT
V6 R8 2 1 V 5Vdc -5Vdc
-
V-
1Vac OS1
0Vdc
6.81k
4
V-
0 0
0 0

1.5V
(610.162,1.3047)
1.0V
0.5V
0V
V(C7:1) V(U4:-)
Frequency
1 1
fc 609.88 Hz
2 R7 R8 C 7 C8 2 1k 6.81k 100nF 100nF
R7 R8 C 7 C8 1k 6.81k 100nF 100nF

Q 1.305
R7 C 7 C8 1k 100nF 100nF
87 www.ice77.net
40
(609.867,2.3057)
-0
(60.987,-39.939)
-40
-80
-120
V(C7:1) 20*LOG10(V(U4:-)/ V(C7:1))
Frequency

4.0
(724.436,2.9916)
2.0
-1.0
V(C7:1) 20*LOG10(V(U4:-)/ V(C7:1))
Frequency
88 www.ice77.net
Second-order high-pass ripple comparison
1.5V
1.0V
0.5V
0V
V(V1:+) V(R1:2) V(C3:1) V(U2:OUT) V(C5:1) V(R5:2) V(C7:1) V(U4:-)
Frequency
0.5dB, 1dB, 2dB and 3dB circuit response comparison
Above is a comparison of the response for the high-pass circuits previously

presented. The peaks in the response are clearly not matching because the
circuits have been designed with the same capacitor value so the cutoff
frequency moves to the left of the plot as the magnitude of the ripple
increases.
4.0
(724.436,2.9916)
(912.011,1.9866)
2.0
(1.2303K,990.336m)
(1.6218K,486.213m)
-2.0
300Hz 1.0KHz 3.0KHz 10KHz

V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(R1:2)/V(V1:+)) V(C3:1) 20*LOG10(V(U2:OUT)/V(C3:1)) V(C5:1) 20*LOG10(V(R5:2)/V(C5:1))
V(C7:1) 20*LOG10(V(U4:-)/V(C7:1))
Frequency
0.5dB, 1dB, 2dB and 3dB ripple comparison
The plot shown above compares the ripples for every circuit previously
presented. It is clear that a higher amount of ripple will produce a sharper
cutoff.
89 www.ice77.net
Type II
This is the Chebyshev filter with the ripple in the stopband. This filter has a
very sharp cutoff.
Fifth-order low-pass
This circuit is implemented with two notch filter blocks and a simple RC filter.
This is a fifth-order filter because the circuit contains five capacitors.
C1
C3
10n
10n
R3
R8
92.3k
22.86k
V- V+ V-
U1 V-
4
R1 C2 LM741 U2
2 1
V-
- OS1
4
R6 C4 V2 V3
LM741
V 2398 10n 6 2 1
V-
OUT - OS1 R11
V1 3 5 6184 10n 6 5Vdc -5Vdc
V+
+ OS2 V OUT
1Vac R2
0Vdc 3 5 777
V+
+ OS2 V V
R7
7
337k
V+ C5
7
23.36k 0 0
V+ 100n
0 0
R4 0
0
R9
670
R5 1.04k
R10
10k
1k
0
0
Inverted Chebyshev filter (low-pass) (5th-order)

1.5V
(10.000,1.1579)
(1.0004K,807.692m)
1.0V
0.5V
0V
V(R1:1) V(R3:2) V(C3:2) V(R11:2)
Frequency
The gain in the passband boosts the input from 1V to 1.15V. The filter drops
rapidly right before 1kHz. The ripple in the stopband is noticeable.
90 www.ice77.net
0
(299.358,1.2741)
(1.0002K,-1.8478)
(10.000K,-21.079)
-20
-40
100Hz 300Hz 1.0KHz 3.0KHz 10KHz 30KHz 100KHz
V(R1:1) 20*LOG10(V(R3:2)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(C3:2)/V(R1:1)) 20*LOG10(V(R11:2)/V(R1:1))
Frequency
Bode plot from 100Hz to 100kHz
The gain is +1.2741dB in the passband and 1.8478dB at 1kHz. Then it drops
to 21.079dB a decade later. The ripple in the stopband is noticeable.
91 www.ice77.net
Elliptic filter
The Elliptic filter, also known as Cauer filter, has a sharp cutoff. This filter is
named after Wilheld Cauer, a German mathematician who developed the
theory behind the filter.
Third-order low-pass
This circuit is implemented with an asymmetrical twin-T notch filter (R1, R2, R3,
C2, C3, C4). This is a third-order filter.
R6 V-
4.42k U1
4
uA741
2 1
V-
C1 - OS1 R7
6
OUT
3 5 2358
V+
20n + OS2 V
R5
C5
7
1k
100n
V+
0
R1 R2 0
V 6242 6242
V+ V-
C2 C3 C4 R4
V1
1Vac
0Vdc 10n 10n
44n 47.94k
5Vdc V2 5Vdc V3
R3
3111
0 0 0
0 0 0
rd
Elliptic filter (low-pass) (3 -order)
6.0V
(10.000,4.2998)
4.0V
(1.0011K,2.8047)
2.0V
0V
V(C2:2) V(R7:2)
Frequency
The gain in the passband boosts the input from 1V to 4.3V. The ripple in the
passband is barely noticeable. The gain drops rapidly right before 1kHz.
92 www.ice77.net
50
(10.000,12.669) (1.0098K,8.7278)
(10.000K,-29.254)
-50
-100
V(C2:2) 20*LOG10(V(R7:2)/V(C2:2))
Frequency
The gain is +12.669dB in the passband and +8.7278dB at 1kHz. Then it drops
to 29.254dB a decade later.
93 www.ice77.net
Synchronous filter
Synchronous filters are made up by a series of filters cascaded after each

other. Each capacitor introduces a pole. Resistors and capacitors usually
have all the same values and they are tuned to a specific cutoff frequency.

topology. This circuit is equivalent to the Butterworth circuit discussed
previously (Q=0.707). This is a second-order filter because it has two
capacitors.
C1
200n
V+ V+ V-
U1
R2
7
R1 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
1125 1125 6
OUT
V1 C2 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
-
V-
1Vac OS1
0Vdc
100n
4
V-
0 0
0 0
Synchronous filter (low-pass) (2nd-order)

1.0V
(1.0003K,707.101m)
0.5V
0V
V(V1:+) V(U1:-)
Frequency
1 1
fc 1kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1125 1125 200nF 100nF
94 www.ice77.net
R1 R2 C1C 2 1125 1125 200nF 100nF

Q 0.707
C 2 R1 R2 100nF 1125 1125
20
-0
(1.0000K,-3.0079)
-20
(10.000K,-40.051)
-40
-60
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
95 www.ice77.net

topology. This circuit is equivalent to the Butterworth circuit discussed
previously (Q=0.707). This is a second-order filter because it has two
capacitors.
R1
1125
V+ V+ V-
U1
7
C1 C2 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 V2 V3
V
100n 100n 6
OUT
V1 R2 2 1 V
5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc
2.25k
4
V-
0 0
0 0
Synchronous filter (high-pass) (2nd-order)

1.2V
(0.9995K,706.509m)
0.8V
0.4V
0V
V(C1:2) V(U1:-)
Frequency
1 1
fc 1kHz
2 R1 R2 C1C 2 2 1125 2.25k 100nF 100nF
R1 R2 C1C 2 1125 2.25k 100nF 100nF

Q 0.707
R1 C1 C 2 1125 100nF 100nF
96 www.ice77.net
50
-0
(1.0000K,-3.0135)
-50
(100.000,-40.007)
-100 (10.000,-80.006)
-150
V(C1:2) 20*LOG10(V(U1:-)/ V(C1:2))
Frequency
97 www.ice77.net
Third-order low-pass

topology by cascading a simple low-pass filter after a second-order filter. This
is a third-order filter because it has three capacitors.
C1
100n
V+ V+ V-
U1
R2
7
R1 LM741
3 5
V+
+ OS2 R3 V2 V3
V 810 810 6
OUT
V1 C2 2 1 810 V 5Vdc -5Vdc
V-
1Vac - OS1
0Vdc C3
100n
4
V- 100n
0 0
0 0
0
Synchronous filter (low-pass) (3rd-order)
Note: all resistor and capacitor values match.

1.0V
(1.0021K,707.101m)
0.5V
0V
V(V1:+) V(C3:2)
Frequency

20
(1.0000K,-2.9990)
(10.000K,-42.932)
-40
-80
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(C3:2)/ V(V1:+))
Frequency
98 www.ice77.net
Fourth-order low-pass

topology by cascading two identical second-order filters. This is a fourth-order
filter because it has four capacitors.
C1 C3
100n 100n
V+
U1 V+
R2
7
R1 LM741 U2
3 5
V+
+ OS2 R4
7
R3 LM741 V+ V-
691 691 6 3 5
V+
V OUT + OS2
V1 C2 2 1 V
691 691 6
V-
1Vac - OS1 OUT
0Vdc C4 2 1 V2 V3
V
V-
100n - OS1
4
V- 100n 5Vdc -5Vdc
4
V-
0 0
0 0 0
Synchronous filter (low-pass) (4th-order)
Note: all resistor and capacitor values match.

1.0V
(1.0026K,840.896m)
(1.0026K,707.101m)
0.5V
0V
V(V1:+) V(C1:1) V(U2:-)
Frequency

20
(1.0000K,-1.4979)
(1.0000K,-2.9961)
-50
(10.000K,-51.990)
-100
V(V1:+) 20*LOG10(V(C1:1)/V(V1:+)) 20*LOG10(V(U2:-)/V(V1:+))
Frequency
The gain drops to 3dB at 1kHz and then it decreases to 51.99dB a decade
later.
99 www.ice77.net
Linkwitz-Riley crossover
The Linkwitz-Riley crossover is an audio application that stems from the work
of Linkwitz and Riley.
The crossover can be implemented with different orders. For every order, the
gain of the filter will drop by 6dB/octave or 20dB/decade past the cutoff
frequency. Increasing the order of the filter will produce a sharper cutoff.
The crossover can be designed to split the audible spectrum in 2, 3 or 4 ways.

A 2-way audio crossover splits the audible spectrum in two parts, it has a
single cutoff frequency and its implemented by cascoding two Butterworth
filters (low-pass and high-pass). For a 3-way crossover, there will be three
regions with a low cutoff frequency and a high cutoff frequency. This is
arguably the most popular crossover configuration in the market. The reason
why the audible spectrum is divided into 3 sections is explained by the need
for audio systems to handle each section more effectively through speakers
for proper sound reproduction. A 3-way system has 6 speakers (2 for each
channel).
A 3-way 4th-order Linkwitz-Riley crossover can be designed with the following

expression:
1
f
2 2 RC
First of all the designer needs to choose cutoff frequencies for the specific
regions of the spectrum. At that point, with a set frequency, a value for
capacitance (C) or resistance (R) is chosen and the other one is derived.
Assuming that the desired low cutoff frequency is 340Hz then C can be
chosen to be 100nF and R can be chosen to be 3.3k.
1 1
fL 341.029 Hz
2 2 RC 2 2 3.3k 100nF
Assuming that the desired high cutoff frequency is 3.5kHz then C can be
chosen to be 6.8nF and R can be chosen to be 4.7k.
1 1
fH 3.521kHz
2 2 RC 2 2 4.7 k 6.8nF
100 www.ice77.net
E.S.P. Linkwitz-Riley Crossover Calculator screenshots for low pass and high pass
The values for the two sections of the crossover need to be arranged just like
shown above. The values of capacitance or resistance double depending on
the configuration of the specific section of the filter.
R4 R5
4.7k VCC 4.7k

7
U1 VCC U2
7
C1 R1 3 5 VCC
V+
+ OS2
7
3 5 C6 C7 U3
V+
+ OS2 C2 C3 6 3 5
V+
1u 2.2k
V
6 uA741OUT + OS2 R6 HIGH
6.8n
uA741OUT 2 1 6.8n 6
6.8n 6.8n
V-
R2 100k 2 1 - OS1 uA741OUT

V3
V-
1Vac - OS1 R3 R21 2 1 100 V

V-
9.4k -VCC 9.4k - OS1
0Vdc
4
-VCC R22
4
0 -VCC
4
1000k
0 0
0
0
C5
C4
13.6n VCC
7
13.6n VCC
R10 R9
7
U4 3 5
V+
3 5 +U5 OS2
V+
+ OS2 R7 R8 6
4.7k 4.7k 6 uA741OUT
uA741OUT 2 1
V-
C10 6.8n 2 1 4.7k 4.7k - OS1

V-
- OS1 C9 6.8n
-VCC
4
-VCC
4
0
0
R11 R12
3.3k 3.3k
VCC
C11 C12
7
U6
3 5 VCC
V+
+ OS2 C13 C14

7
U7
100n 100n 6 3 5 MID
V+
R19 uA741OUT + OS2 R13

6.6k 2 1 100n 100n 6
V-
- OS1 uA741OUT
R20 2 1 100 V
V-
-VCC - OS1
4
6.6k R23
0 -VCC 100k
4
0
0
C15
200n C16
VCC
R18 R17
7
200n VCC GND -VCC

3 5 VCC
V+
+U8 OS2 R16 R15

7
U9
3.3k 3.3k 6 3 5 V1 V2
V+
uA741OUT + OS2 R14 LOW 15Vdc -15Vdc

2 1 3.3k 3.3k 6
V-
C18 - OS1 uA741OUT

C17 2 1 100 V
V-
100n -VCC - OS1

4
100n R24 100k 0 0 0

-VCC
4
0 0 0
3-way Linkwitz-Riley crossover
101 www.ice77.net
The circuit previously shown is a cascode of 3 sections. The top provides the
high frequencies, the bottom provides the low frequencies and the central part
provides the mid frequencies. High and low sections are made up by a
cascade of 2 2nd-order Butterworth filters. The middle section is a high-pass
section followed by a low-pass section.
1.0V
High cut-off frequency
(3.5445K,501.188m)
0.5V
(340.041,503.457m)
Low cut-off frequency
0V
10Hz 30Hz 100Hz 300Hz 1.0KHz 3.0KHz 10KHz 30KHz 100KHz
V(R22:2) V(R13:2) V(R24:2) V(V3:+)
Frequency
AC sweep from 20Hz to 20kHz
The frequency response for the 3-way Linkwitz-Riley crossover is shown

above. The low cutoff frequency is 340Hz. The high cutoff frequency is
3.5kHz.
A 3-way 4th-order crossovers gain will drop by 24dB/octave or

80dB/decade past the cutoff frequency.
102 www.ice77.net

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Active filters

Active filters can be implemented with different topologies:

Active filters also come in different varieties:

The Sallen/Key topology was invented by R. P. Sallen and E. L. Key at MIT

It is a degenerate form of a Voltage-Controlled Voltage-Source (VCVS) filter

Sallen/Key generic configuration for 0dB gain (unity-gain)

The low-pass filter blocks high-frequency signals while leaving low-frequency

Sallen/Key low-pass filter

AC sweep from 1mHz to 1MHz

The cutoff frequency is

The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 10k 10k 1nF 1nF

This circuit is critically damped.

Bode plot from 1Hz to 1MHz

The gain drops to 6dB at 15.915kHz and it decreases by 40dB/decade.

The high-pass filter blocks low-frequency signals while leaving high-frequency

Sallen/Key high-pass filter

AC sweep from 1mHz to 100MHz

The cutoff frequency is

The quality factor is

R1 R2 C1C 2 10k 10k 220nF 220nF

This circuit is critically damped.

Bode plot from 1Hz to 100MHz

The gain drops to 6dB at 72Hz and it decreases by 40dB/decade.

Sallen/Key band-pass filter

AC sweep from 1mHz to 1MHz

The center frequency is

The gains are

where G is the internal gain and A is the external gain.

The value of G should be below 3 to avoid oscillation.

VCVS band-pass filter I

AC sweep from 1mHz to 1MHz

However, if Ra>>Rb, the frequency response is rather flat.

This circuit will oscillate because G is greater than 3.

VCVS band-pass filter II

AC sweep from 1mHz to 1MHz

The center frequency is

If Ra<<Rb, the gain drops to at the center frequency.

The minimum gain attainable by this circuit is 0.5.

Sallen/Key band-pass filter: Bode plot from 1mHz to 1MHz

The center frequency is at 72Hz. The gain decreases by 20dB/decade to the

VCVS band-pass filter I: Bode plot from 1mHz to 1MHz

The response is rather flat.

VCVS band-pass filter II: Bode plot from 1mHz to 1MHz

The center frequency is at 72Hz with 6dB. The gain decreases by

An example of this filter topology is the so-called Tow-Thomas circuit. This

AC sweep from 1Hz to 10MHz

The output for the band-pass option is shown in red.

The quality factor is

The circuit is overdamped.

The bandwidth is approximately given by

The bandwidth for both plots is about 33kHz.

Multiple feedback filter

AC sweep from 1Hz to 10MHz

The transfer function for the circuit is

A R1 R2 C1C 2 1k 1k 1nF 1nF 1 ps

R2 R3C1C2 1k 1k 1nF 1nF

where K is the DC voltage gain, Q is the quality factor, fc is the cutoff

The circuit is overdamped.

Bode plot from 1Hz to 100MHz

The gain drops to 10.060dB at 160.456kHz and then it decreases in a

Several stages can be cascaded to obtain high-order multiple feedback filters.

First-older filters come in combinations of non-inverting, inverting,