UNIT 59

POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

IN THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1945. POLITICAL
RELEVANCE AT INTERNATIONAL LEVEL. PRESENT-
DAY LITERARY BACKGROUND.

OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.

2. A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1945. POLITICAL RELEVANCE
AT INTERNATIONAL LEVEL.
2.1. During the World War II (1939-1945).
2.2. After the World War II: the Cold War (1945-1960s).
2.2.1 The 1940s.
2.2.2. The 1950s.
2.2.3. The 1960s.
2.2.4. The 1970s.
2.2.5. The 1980s.
2.2.6. The 1990s.
2.2.7. The early twenty-first century.
2.3. The US political relevance at international level.

3. A LITERARY BACKGROUND: THE XXth and XXIst-CENTURY LITERATURE.

3.1. Main literary features.
3.2. Main authors.
3.2.1. Poetry.
3.2.2. Drama.
3.2.3. Prose.

4. MAIN EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.

5. CONCLUSION.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

The present unit, Unit 59, aims to provide a useful introduction to the political, social and
economic development in the United States since 1945 up to the present day, and also, its
political relevance at international level. With this background in mind we aim at reviewing the
present-day literary background of the time and, therefore, the life, works and style of the most
representative authors in this period. Actually, we shall analyse how these authors reflected the
prevailing ideologies of the day in the literature of the time which, following Speck (1998), is an
account of literary activity in which social, economic, cultural and political allegiances are
placed very much to the fore.

This is reflected in the organization of the unit, which is divided into five main chapters, namely
devoted to establish the link between the literary activity and the main social, economic and
political changes which took place after the WWII up to the present-day situation in the United
States. It is worth noting that we do not try to establish a clear-cut division of time (1950s,
1960s, 1970s) or powers (political, social, economic) in our study as, sometimes, events are
linked to each other so closely that we cannot draw a sharp line between them. Yet, we try to
offer an overall view of the development of these two countries in terms of time (since we
examine their history through decades) and powers (since political, social and economic events
are interconnected).

Chapter 2 namely offers a historical background for the political, social and economic
development in the United States since 1945 and its political relevance at internationa level so
as to provide an overall view of the context in which the most representative authors lived and
produced their works. In doing so, we shall divide our presentation in two main sections
regarding the main events occurred during and after the World War II (1941-1945) up to the
present-day in political, social and economic terms: (1) during the World War II (1939-1945),
and (2) after the World War II, which coincided in part with the the Cold War (1945-1960s),
thus (a) the 1940s, (b) 1950s, (c) 1960s, (d) 1970s, (e) the 1980s, (f) the 1990s, and (g) the early
twenty-first century.

In Chapter 3, with this historical overview in mind, we shall provide a literary background of
the period which ranges from 1945 to the present day with the aim of going further into the
XXth and XXIst-century North American literature and, therefore, into the most representative
authors and their masterpieces within the three main literary forms: poetry, drama and prose.

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Therefore, we shall approach XXth and XXIst-century literature by examining (1) the main
literary features of the period and the (2) most representative authors and their works in (a)
poetry, (b) drama and (c) prose. Actually, since there is a great amount of poets since 1945 to
nowadays, we shall namely focus on the most representative ones in terms of themes and main
works. Further details on their lives will be not mentioned unless necessary.

In Chapter 4 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching

regarding the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 5 will offer a
conclusion to broadly overview our present study, and Chapter 6 will include all the
bibliographical references used to develop this presentation.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

An influential introduction to the political, social and economic development in the United
States since 1945 and its political relevance at international level is based on Thoorens,
Panorama de las literaturas Daimon: Inglaterra y Amrica del Norte. Gran Bretaa y Estados
Unidos de Amrica (1969); Palmer, Historia Contempornea (1980); Musman, Background to
the USA (1982); Brogan, The History of the United States of America (1985); and Philips,
Wealth and Democracy: A Political History of the American Rich (2002).

On the present-day literary background, relevant works are: Bradbury & Temperley,
Introduction to American Studies (1981); Rogers, The Oxford Illustrated History of English
Literature (1987); Magnusson & Goring, Cambridge Biographical Dictionary (1990); Albert, A
History of English Literature (1990); Ward & Trent, The Cambridge History of English and
American Literature (2000); and VanSpanckeren, Outline of American Literature (2004).

The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative

competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most
complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the
guidelines in B.O.E. (2004) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; the Council of Europe, Modern
Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of reference
(1998); and van Ek and Trim, Vantage (2001). Other sources include Enciclopedia Larousse
2000 (2000); and Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century (1999).

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2. A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1945. POLITICAL RELEVANCE
AT INTERNATIONAL LEVEL.

Chapter 2 namely offers a historical background for the political, socia l and economic
development in the United States since 1945 so as to provide an overall view of the context in
which the most representative authors of the period lived and produced their works. It must be
borne in mind that WWII not only had important consequences for Europe, but also for the
United States, which reaffirmed its political relevance at international level.

So, we shall go further into details after presenting the outline of this chapter, which is divided
in two main sections regarding the ma in events occurred during and after the World War II
(1941-1945) up to the present-day in political, social and economic terms: (1) during the World
War II (1939-1945) , and (2) after WWII, which coincided in the first two decades with the the
Cold War (1945-1960s), in (a) the 1940s, (b) 1950s, (c) 1960s, (d) 1970s, (e) the 1980s, (f) the
1990s, and (g) the early twenty-first century.

First of all, it may be relevant to review all the presidents of the United States during and after
the WWII so as to get an overall view of the political panorama. Therefore, we open the WWII
period with the democrat presidence of F.D. Roosevelt (1933-45) and Harry S. Truman (1945-
52), followed by the Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-61); the democrats J.F. Kennedy
(1961-63) and L.B. Johnson (1963-69); the republicans Richard M. Nixon (1969-73) and Gerald
Ford (1974-77); the democrat presidence of Jimmy Carter (1977-1981), soon to be replaced by
the republican office of Ronald Reagan (1981-89) and George Bush, father, (1989-93); the
democrat Bill Clinton (1993-2001); and currently, the presidence of George W. Bush, son
(2001-2004).

2.1. During the World War II (1939-1945).

It worth remembering that Germanys aggressiveness in 1939 forced Roosevelt to take a

tougher stance. When Hitler overran Poland in September and triggered the formal beginning of
World War II, Roosevelt tried again for repeal of the embargo, and succeeded. Thus, when
France fell and England came under siege in 1940, he began to send Great Britain all possible
aid short of actual military involvement. He negotiated an unneutral deal with Britain whereby
the British leased their bases in the Western Hemisphere to the United States in return for 50

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overaged American destroyers. Roosevelt also secured vastly increased defense expenditures,
but he remained cautious. Yet, when campaigning for reelection in 1940 against Wendell
Willkie, a relatively progressive Republican who agreed with some of his policies, Roosevelts
margin fell sharply from his previous reelection.

However, safely reelected, Roosevelt increased the flow of supplies to Britain. After Germany
attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, help went to the Russians as well. To protect the
supplies against German submarines, U.S. destroyers began escorting convoys of Allied ships
part way across the Atlantic. In the process when a German submarine fired a torpedo at the
American destroyer Greer in September 1941, he feigned surprise and outrage and ordered U.
S. warships to shoot on sight at hostile German ships. By December the United States and
Germany were engaged in an undeclared war on the Atlantic.

America, though a neutral in the war and still at peace, was becoming the heart of democracy, as
its factories began producing as they had in the years before the Depression. However, when the
Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Roosevelt directed organization of the
Nations manpower and resources for global war. The Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor
followed four days later by Germanys and Italys declarations of war against the United States,
brought the nation irrevocably into the war.

Roosevelt became the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, a role he actively carried out.
He worked with and through his military advisers, overriding them when necessary, and took an
active role in choosing the principle field commanders and in making decisions regarding
wartime strategy. Feeling that the future peace of the world would depend upon relations
between the United States and Russia, he devoted much thought to the planning of a United
Nations, in which, he hoped, international difficulties could be settled.

He moved to create a great alliance against the Axis powers through The Declaration of the
United Nations on January 1, 1942, in which all nations fighting the Axis agreed not to make a
separate peace and pledged themselves to a peacekeeping organization (now the United
Nations) on victory. The United States and its allies invaded North Africa in November 1942
and Sicily and Italy in 1943. The D-Day landings on the Normandy beaches in France on June
6, 1944, were followed by the allied invasion of Germany six months later. By April 1945
victory in Europe was certain.

As the war drew to a close, Roosevelts health was seriously deteriorated. By early 1944 a full
medical examination disclosed serious heart and circulatory problems and although his
physicians placed him on a strict regime of diet and medication, the pressures of war and
domestic politics weighed heavily on him. On Apr il 12, 1945, while at Warm Springs, Georgia,

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he suffered a massive stroke and died of a cerebral hemorrhage. He was 63 years old and his
death came on the eve of complete military victory in Europe and within months of victory over
Japan in the Pacific. President Roosevelt was buried in the Rose Garden of his estate at Hyde
Park, New York.

2.2. After WWII: the Cold War (1945-1967).

The beginning of the Cold War is still an issue of disagreement since historians disagree as to
who was responsible for the breakdown of the United States and the Soviet Union relations and
whether the conflict between the two superpowers was inevitable. On the one hand, only a few
American historians affirm that the war was the direct result of Stalins violation of the Yalta
accords between the Big Three Allied Leaders (Prime Minister Winston Churchill (UK),
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (US) and First Secretary Joseph Stalin (USSR)), the
imposition of Soviet-dominated governments on an unwilling Eastern Europe, and aggressive
Soviet expansionism. However, other historians have argued that the United States provocations
and imperial ambitions were at least equally to blame, if not more.

Actually, the US-Soviet wartime alliance traces back to the 1890s when, after a century of
friendship, both political powers became rivals over the development of Manchuria. Then,
Russians closed off and colonize parts of East Asia since they felt unable to compete
industrially with Americans, who demanded open competition for markets. As a result, the
Soviet government negotiated a separate peace with Germany in the First World War in 1917,
leaving the Western Allies to fight the Central Powers alone.

2.2.1. The 1940s.

When the war ended in Europe on May 8, 1945, Soviet and Western (US, British, and French)
troops were located in particular places, essentially, along a line in the center of Europe that
came to be called the Oder-Neisse Line, which would be the iron curtain of the Cold War. As
World War II had resulted in enormous destruction of infrastructure and populations throughout
Eurasia, from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans, Russians were especially scathed due to the
mass destruction of the industrial base that it had built up in the previous decade. The only
major industrial power in the world to emerge intact, and even greatly strengthened from an
economic perspective, was the United States, which moved swiftly to consolidate its position.

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Since then capitalism and communism (US and USSR, respectively) represented the national
ideologies of two different ways of life. Conflicting models of autarky versus exports, of state
planning against free enterprise, were to vie for the allegiance of the developing and developed
world in the postwar years. Even so, however, the Cold War was not obviously inevitable in
1945 and the expected postwar crisis of overproduction in capitalists countries did not arrive.
Instead, the United States led by President Harry S. Truman since April 1945 were determined
to open up the worlds markets to capitalist trade according to the principles laid down by the
Atlantic Charter: self-determination, equal economic access, and a rebuilt capitalist Europe that
could again serve as a hub in world affairs.

Following Bradbury & Temperley (1981), since the Soviet Union continued to pressure on
Western nations by supporting Communist guerrillas in Greece and Turkey, the British
government declared that they could no longer afford to continue its aid to these two countries.
Hence the so-called Truman Doctrine, by means of which the United States assumed the classic
British role of balancer, and, therefore, had a huge political relevance as the protector of
Western interests in the Mediterranean.

In 1947 the Marshall Plan (or Europe Recovery Program) was proposed by George Marshall,
the Secretary of State, so as to meet the Communist threat and restore a strong economy in
Europe. Thanks to it, economic co-operation developed satisfactorily, recovery was steady, and
Western Europe began a process of getting Americanised, adopting American way of life: soft
drinks, fooed and dress, music (American jazz), machine tools and mass-production machines.
By the late years of the 1940s, the Point Four Program (1949) was also proposed by Truman
with the aim of extending the same sort of aid to underdeveloped countries, though was
launched the next year (1950).

It is relevant to remember that in the same year 1949 Truman joined eleven other nations to
form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which meant Americas first European
alliance in 170 years. Stalin retaliated against these provocative steps by integrating the
economies of Eastern Europe and signing an alliance with Communist China in February 1959
and forming the Warsaw Pact, which was the Eastern Europes counterpart to NATO.

2.2.2. The 1950s.

Since the Crimean War in the 1950s, a perennial focus of Anglo-American foreign policy was to
impede Soviet access to the Mediterranean (Greece). Hence Soviets were contained by the
United States that launched massive economic reconstruction efforts, first in Western Europe
and then in Japan (as well as in South Korea and Taiwan). The mentioned Marshall Plan began

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to raise the economy in Western Europe and the United States showed an overwhelming
productive superiority. Furthermore, economic reconstruction helped create clientlistic
obligations on the part of the nations receiving US aid; this sense of obligation fostered
willingness to enter into military alliances and, even more important, into political subservience.

Confronted with growing Soviet successes to respond to provocative Western actions, the
United States officials quickly strengthen their alliance systems, quadruple defense spending,
and embark on an elaborate propaganda campaign to convince Americans to fight this costly
cold war. Truman ordered the development of a hydrogen bomb and in early 1950 the USA
embarked on its first attempt to form a West German army as well as it established the first
commitment to form a peace treaty with Japan that would guarantee long-term US military
bases.

Fearing that a united communist Korea could neutralize the United States power in Japan,
Truman committed American forces and obtained help from the United Nations to drive back
the North Koreans to Stalins surprise. Considered as a historic error, Truman sent his forces to
the Chinese-Korean border, and the Peoples Republic of China responded with human-wave
attacks in November 1950 that decimated US-led forces. Truman faced a hostile China, a Sino-
Soviet partnership, and a bloated defense budget that quadrupled in eighteen months. Yet, it was
not the first time that the United States interfered in the internal affairs and sovereignty of other
countries under the guise of freedom, democracy and human rights the Iranian regime in 1953
and that of Guatemala).

By 1953, the new president, Dwight D. Eisenhower, moved to end the Korean War, reduced
military expenses, but continued fighting the Cold War effectively. Also, Eisenhower thwarted
Soviet intervention wielding American nuclear superiority and used the Central Intelligence
Agency (CIA) to overthrow unfriendly governments. Yet, in the meantime, a new, dynamic and
reformist Soviet leader, Nikita Khurshchev established good relations with India and other
noncommunist states in the Third World. To stabilize his European position, the new Russian
leader created the Warsaw Pact in 1955 to counter West German rearmament (and later on
would build the Berlin Wall in 1961 to stop the Germans from leaving the communist East).
Hence Eisenhower increased Soviet power by developing a hydrogen bomb and, in 1957, he
launched the first earth satellite. While the Berlin Wall was a propaganda setback, the Soviets
garnered a huge victory when Krushchev formed an alliance with Cuba after Fidel Castros
successful revolution in 1959 (still living on to this day).

Socially speaking and in general terms, the 1950s were years of stability and prosperity for the
white American middle class. The growth of consumerism, the suburbs, and the economy,
however, overshadowed the fact that prosperity did not extend to everyone. More than 30

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million Americans, according to some estimates, continued to live in poverty throughout the
Eisenhower years. By then, a large segment of the population felt the rhetoric of the Cold War
policy (freedom and democracy) was especially far from reality. In fact, African Americans in
the South continued to suffer from social, economic, and political discrimination.

This economic prosperity was to be especially felt at the center of middle -class culture which
was consumer-driven, since there was a growing absorption of consumer goods which resulted
from the increasingly variety and availability of products at creating demand. So, between the
1950 and 1960s a large number of Americans responded to consumer crazes such as the
automobile as dishwashers, garbage disposals, televisions, and stereos (Brogan, 1985). Also, the
continuation of the Cold War was emphasized in the public opinion when in 1957 the Soviet
Union launched the Sputnik, the first artificial earth satellite. This seemed to shift the world
balance of power to the Soviet Union until 1958, when the United States launched and earth
satellite.

By this time in Southeast Asia the controversial war in Vietnam continued year after year with
increasing U.S. involvement. In Europe the key element in U.S. military strategy, the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (N.A.T.O.), suffered a severe setback in 1966 when France
declared its intention of withdrawing its forces and requested the removal of all NATO
installations from French soil. The proliferation of nuclear weapons, with both France and
Communist China setting off nuclear explosions during the decade, treatly complicated the
prospects for disarmament and world peace.

Following Bradbury & Temperley (1981), as Eisenhowers second term neared its end in 1960,
the two major U.S. political parties nominated young presidental candidates. The Republican
nominee, Vice-President Richard M. Nixon of California (aged 47), and Senator John F.
Kennedy of Massachusetts (aged 43). Nixons campaign was devoted to defending the record of
the Eisenhower administration while Kennedys main contention was that the Eisenhower
administration had been lacking in vigour and imagination. Eventually, Kennedy beat Nixon on
8 November 1961

2.2.3 The 1960s.

This decade started with the election of the first Roman Catholic young man, John F. Kennedy,
as president of the United States (20 January 1961). His first year in office saw several
important events, such as an abortive invasion of Cuba (1961) at Pigs Bay by secretly trained
forces supplied by the U.S.; a personal meeting with Soviet premier Khrushchev in Vienna
(1962), and a continuation of Cold War tensions. Also, in 1963 US diplomats, the Soviet Union

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and the United Kingdom signed a nuclear test-ban treaty in Moscow in order to stop all testing
of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water.

Yet, Kennedys presidence was not meant to last since he was assassinated in Dallas (Texas) on
22 November 1963, and with no delay, Lyndon Johnson took the oath of office as the 36th
U.S.A. President at Dallas airport. Foreign affairs under Johnsons administration were mainly
focused on the Vietnam War, for instance, by helping South Vietnam defend against the Viet
Cong, or by ordering the bombing of North Vietnamese military targets while announcing his
willingness to negotiate a peace settlement.

In 1968 a rising public opposition to the Vietnam war rose sharply since neither side seemed
able to achieve a military victory. Nixons administration saw the progressive withdrawal of
U.S. troops in Vietnam and serious peace negotiations. Eventually, by 27 January 1973 the
desired cease-fire was finally signed after long periods of conversations and disagreement, but it
was not until April 1975 that war problems ended definitely under the Republican Presidency of
Gerald Ford (1974-78). Due to the Watergate Scandal in the 1973s election campaign, Nixon
was forced to resign and Gerald Ford succeeded him as the next President of the United States.

Regarding the non-political background, by 1960 the postwar prosperity continued and
American suburbs grew. As a result, the United States auto-manufacturers responded to the
boom with ever-flashier automobiles (Detroit). Soon innovations of the single -family housing
market started to appear, for instance, in housing development and mass-production techniques.
In fact, suburbs provided larger homes for larger families, security form urban living, privacy,
and space for consumer goods. Still, the key factor motivating white Americans to move from
the suburbs was race.The main reason was that most suburbs were restricted to whites since few
African Americans could afford to live in them. The few African Americans who ventured into
suburbs were generally clamored to leave.

Aside from this, we must include the opposition of the nationalist prime minister of Iran
(Mohammed Mossadegh) towards the neocolonial presence of Western corporations in his
nation because of oil wells. Convinced that this Western client state was shifting toward an
independent foreign policy, Eisenhower used the CIA forces to overthrow Irans government.
Then the United States replaced Mossadegh by elevating the young Shah of Iran, Mohammed
Reza Pahlevi from the role of constitutional monarch to that of an absolute ruler. In return, the
Shah allowed American companies to share in the development of his nations reserves and
remained a close ally for twenty-five years, even as his regime was becoming increasingly hated
and despotic. As we can see, Iran is yet another example of the parallels between 1950s and
contemporary United States foreign policy (Palmer, 1980).

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2.2.4. The 1970s.

In 1974 the Republican Ford reached an agreement with the Soviet Union about the Strategic
Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and next year another trade agreement was signed, under which
the U.S. would supply grain to the Soviet Union in return for petroleum. In 1978 Jimmy
Carters administration began with firm proposals for reform of the government, federal welfare
and social security systems. On the other hand, this year coincided with the major crisis in Iran,
and riots against the pro-United States Iranian government ended with an important event, the
Shah was forced to leave Iran (1979).

Popular anger eventually culminated in the Islamic Revolution, which led to a hostage crisis that
would perhaps later bring down the Carter administration. The Islamic Republic of Iran imposed
an absolutist regime and formed part of President Bushs so-called Axis of Evil along with
North Korea. Moreover, the foreign interventionism of the Eisenhower administration still
resonates to this day, since the United States deposed the Iraqi regime in 2003, inspired by
Nassers secular Arab nationalism and populist social policies.

Thus, the Suez stalemate was a turning point on the United States hegemony since this event
heralded an ever-growing rift between the Atlantic over North America. The West Europeans,
with the exclusion of the British until 1971, also developed their own nuclear forces as well as
an economy Common Market to be less dependent on Washington. As a result, the American
economic competitiveness faltered in the face of the challenges of Japan and West Germany,
which have recovered rapidly from the wartime decimation of the industrial bases. As another
example of shifting courses among the increasingly independent-minded Western allies, we
include France, which opposed the United States adventurism in the Middle East during the
2003 pre-emptive attack on Iraq, a reversal of roles from the Suez crisis (VanSpanckeren,
2004).

2.2.5. The 1980s.

The eighties are dominated by the presidency of the Republican Ronald Reagan (1980-), former
governor of California, and his chief challenger, George Bush, who became the vice-
presidential nominee. During his successful 1980 campaign, Reagan made several promises,
such as to restore the nations military strength, which produced massive increases in military
spending, and combined with his massive tax cuts, the nation paid a high price for his defense
policies as well as indirectly, the Soviet Union for Reagans commitment to the Cold War.

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The neoconservative movement was a strong influence on Reagans foreign policy adventures,
and in particular from Jeanne Kirkpatrick (fond of rightwing dictatorships) who argued that the
installation of rightwing dictatorships was acceptable and essential. Hence Reagans
administration actively supported the dictatorships of Augusto Pinochet, Ferdinand Marcos and
the racist apartheid regime in South Africa. So, he campaigned, at home, against the relentless
increase of big government and for a cent in income taxes and defense build up; regarding
foreign affairs his years in office are characterized by his determination to strengthen U.S. arms
and his attitude towards the Soviet Union, by reducing the relationship between these two
countries to their lowest levels. Actually, the 1980s opened the decade with a boycott of the
Moscow Summer Olympic Games (August 1980) due to the bad relations between the U.S. and
the Soviet Union (since the latter invaded Afghanistan in 1979).

Reagan also promised an end to the drift in post-Vietnam and post-Iran hostage US foreign
policy, a restoration of the nations military strength, and the economic health by an experiment
known as supply-side economics. However, all these aims were not reconcilable through a
coherent economic policy and in 1981 the U.S. economy began to slide into the recession and
the worst turn since the Great Depression under Reagans Presidency. Reagans election was a
key turning point in American politics since it signaled the new electoral power of the suburbs
as well as the commitment to a militaristic, aggressive foreign policy.

In 1982, Reagans politicized economic program was beset with difficulties since
unemployment rose considerably. Reagan combined the tight-money regime of the Federal
Reserve with an expansionary fiscal policy and, by the middle of 1983, unemployment began its
decline and a radical drop in oil prices moved the U.S. economy into one of the strongest
postwar recoveries. In 1984 the recession was clearly waning, and without a resurgence of
inflation, which had begun its retreat from the double figures of the Carter years as early as
1981. By the end of 1985, funding for domestic programs had been cut nearly as far as Congress
could tolerate as well as the sale of arms in Iran in an unsuccessful effort to free U.S. hostages
in Lebanon.

The late 1980s are characterized by the first Bush administration (1988) with the Irongate
scandal caused by selling secret arms to Iran. and the Persian Gulf War, which was the first
major test of the post-Cold War order. After the Iran-Iraq War, Iraq was left bankrupt and his
President Saddam Hussein felt he had positioned Iraq as a bulwark against the expansion of
Irans Islamic Revolution (1979). Actually, Iraq needed money since it needed to rebuild its
infrastructure after the war. Although Iraq had borrowed a tremendous amount of money from
other Arab states, it was only the United States that would lend it money, an event that made

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Saddams regime be a virtual client state of the US. Since the war profits were to be obtained by
other Gulf Arab states and even the United States, Iraq decided that all debts should be forgiven.
Yet, Kuwait disagreed with this decision and started a conflict with Iraq, by drilling oil out of
wells in the limit border with Kuwait.

2.2.6. The 1990s.

In 1990, Iraq asked the United States for help about Kuwaits action. After years of conflict,
since Iraq needed oil revenues to pay off its debts and avert an economic crisis, Saddam ordered
troops to the Iran-Kuwait border, creating alarm over the prospect of an invasion. After a failed
negotiation session, Saddam finally sent his troops into Kuwait. Then two of the five members
of the NATO (US and Britain) convinced the Security Council to give Iraq a deadline to leave,
but eventually a reluctant Security Council declared war on Iraq. After the Gulf War, Iraq was
expelled from Kuwait under President George Bushs proposal of a New World Order.

In the United States, Bush enjoyed the success of the Gulf War, and as a result, he launched the
free trade program under the heading Iniciative for the Americas (1991) and also, a Treaty of
Free Trade which was signed by the United States, Canada and Mexico (1992). However,
economic problems caused him not to be elected once more and this time it was the Democratic
nominee Bill Clinton who won the elections (1993-2001) on promising reforms at social and
economic level. Actually, the following year witnessed solid increases in real output, low
inflation rates, and a substantial drop in unemployment.

Yet, in 1994 Clinton was accused of obtaining illegal economic support for his presidential
campaing, best known as the Whitewater scandal, which was not to be the only scandal in which
this democratic President would be involved, note his worldwide affair with Monica Levinski.
On the other hand, at international level the U.S. supported the reforms made by the Russian
President Boris Yeltsin. In 1995 a peace treaty was signed (the Treaty of Dayton) so as to put an
end to the Bosnia -Herzegovina war. Moreover, next year the relationship between the U.S. and
Cuba worsened since a stronger blockage on the island was passed by the Helms-Burton law
(1996). The same year welfare reform legislation was enacted (1996) and stated that, first,
people had to work as a condition of receiving benefits and, second, limits were imposed on
how long individuals may receive payments.

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2.2.7. The early twenty-first century.

The following years saw President Clinton involved in an embarrassing scandal related to
sexual affairs, which damaged seriously the image of the most powerful country in the world.
As a result, Clinton lost the next elections and on 13 December 2000, and Republican George
W. Bush was elected as the 43rd President of the United States because of his compassionate
reputation and strong policy based on the principles of limited government, local control and
personal responsibility. However, his first year in office witnessed the horrifying effects of
islamic terrorrism on 11 September 2001, when four commercial aeroplanes were hijacked by
islamic extremists.Two aeroplanes crashed into the worldwide twin towers of the Trade World
Center in New York, another one into the Pentagon in Washington and the fourth of them in
Pennsylvania. The result was devasting: thousands of people died in the attacks and the whole
world feared the black shadow of a possible third world war. In economic terms, the response to
the terrorist attacks of September 11 showed the remarkable resilience of the economy.
Moderate recovery was to be felt in 2002 with a growth rate, though there was a sharp decline in
the stock market, fueled in part by the exposure of dubious accounting practices in some major
corporations.

Since then, the menace of terrorism caused the political intervention of the United States in
Afghanistan so as to find and punish the leader of that horror, Osama bin Laden, who is still
missing since he is heavily protected by the Taliban regime and the terrorist group al Qaeda.
Moreover, having considered the Taliban regime as an international menace for the so-called
weapons of mass destruction , the former dictator of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, was captured alive
on 13 December 2003 by the United States military forces near a farmhouse outside the city of
Tikrit. He now will face the justice since under his regime Afghnistans population was
brutalised, suffered from starvation, and specially for women, was deprived of education and
personal freedom.

According to President Bushs speech on 14 December 2003 (Office of the Press Secretary,
2003), the capture of this man was crucial to the rise of a free Iraq. It marks the end of the road
for him, and for all who bullied and killed in his name. For the Baathist holdouts largely
responsible for the current violence, there will be no return to the corrupt power and privilege
they once held. For the vast majority of Iraqi citizens who wish to live as free men and women,
this event brings further assurance that the torture chambers and the secret police are gone
forever.

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The United Nations then set up an Advisory Group, bringing its country members and the UN
Security Council together to highlight the importance of international support, particularly from
countries in the region in taking forward the transition process in Iraq. The Damascus
Declaration (2 November 2003) formed a follow-up group in relation with the evolving
situation in Iraq. Thirteen days later, the signing of the Politic al Process Agreement in Iraq (15
November 2003), became fully focused to entrust the Iraqi transition to where it rightfully
belongs: for the Iraqis to assume their full sovereignty so as to establish a fully representative
form of government. Yet, terror has already caused heavy losses and untold suffering to all
segments of the Iraqi society, not only at home but at international level.

Actually, the coalition countries which have sacrificed in both Iraq and Afghanistan are sons
and daughters of Australia, Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, India, Italy,
Japan, the Republic of Korea, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Spain, Switzerland, Thailand,
Turkey, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Yet, in these
months,the strong three-fold alliance of Great Britain and Spain with the United States on the
threat of terrorism, had the most terrible outcome on 11 March 2004 when a group of al-Qaeda
terrorists caused the chaos in Madrid in Atocha and surroundings. This new kind of war is
different from the previous ones, said President Bush (Office of the Press Secretary, 2004),
since in recent years, terrorists have struck from Spain, to Russia, to Israel, to East Africa, to
Morocco, to the Philippines, and to America. Theyve also targeted Arab states such as Saudi
Arabia, Jordan, and Yemen, and have attacked Muslims in Indonesia, Turkey, Pakistan, Iraq,
and Afghanistan. So, no nation or regio n is exempt from the terrorists campaign of violence.

The attack in Madrid coincided with the Spanish General Elections, so the new President, Jose
Luis Zapatero, decided to withdraw the troops from Irak so as to avoid more terrorist attacks
and, therefore, his three-fold treaty with the US and the United Kingdom. Also, by the end of
this month, the Iraqi Governing Council is expected to produce a Transitional Administrative
Law, which will constitute the first milestone in the process, as this legislation will provide the
framework within which Iraq will be governed until the new constitution is adopted by popular
vote and free general elections are held. It will be for the benefit of all denominations and
political movements in Iraq if the Iraqi Governing Council drafts the transitional law in a
manner that will establish an accountable and representative transitory administrative structure
upholding Iraqs national unity.

In the Political Transition Plan, end of June, 2004 is marked as the deadline for handing over
full sovereignty to the Iraqis. This requires the full involvement and representation of all
components of the Iraqi society in the formation of the Transitional National Assembly and thus

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the sovereign transitional Government. If this objective is achieved, it will have mainly one
immediate effect: the withdrawal of the United States troops and, therefore, his dominance on
the Iraq political field. Yet, the future still seems uncertain for both (Philips, 2002).

2.3. The US political relevance at international level.

As stated above, since its intervention in the WWII (1941), the US has reaffirmed time after
time its dominance in the international economic field as a superpower nation. It is worth noting
that whereas in the WWI the main weights in the balance were still predominantly European
(Great Britain, France and Russia ; Germany, Austria), at the end of the WWII, the main weights
on each scale were entirely non-European, as it is the case of the United States, Japan and the
Soviet Union. Yet, in the early twenty-first century, the Soviet Union is no longer regarded as a
great leader, but Japan, the European Community and the United States. So, we can see that the
centre of World Politics shifted from Europe to America and Asia and how quickly the US took
leadership in Western countries.

Hence, the new international order, namely managed by the US and its western allies,
dominated the world scene by means of bilateral state trading practises. So, under the US
leadership the post-war structure of trade and finance was deliberatey grounded on institutions
to facilitate multilateral trade expansion, currency stability and international capital investment.
It must be borne in mind that the basis for the economic dominance of the US is that it enjoys a
self-sufficient production system, and actually, the US dollar became the worlds currency
standard. Also, the United States create d a series of organisms to defend themselves against
Eastern countries, hence the Marshall Plan (to rehabilitate European economies so as to meet
the Communist threat) or the NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization so as to create a
new defense force to resist Soviet Agression).

Since the main customers of this bilateral trading practise were underdeveloped countries, the
trade is namely concern with politically balanced countries and their supplying of primary
products from American companies, such as General Motors, General Electric, and even food
ones such as McDonalds. Also, at social level the US supremacy regarding economy, political
power, and even average income and standard of living, provoked not only fear and respect
from other country members but also a great deal of envy and dislike. Moreover, the US
leadership is present from many different points of view when talking of sports, nobel prizes,
clothes, food, technology (N.A.S.A.), American trends and, particularly, music and cinema.

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Following George W. Bush in his speech on September 17, 2002, the great struggles of the
twentieth century between liberty and totalitarianism ended with a decisive victory for the
forces of freedomand a single sustainable model for national success: freedom, democracy,
and free enterprise. In the twenty-first century, only nations that share a commitment to
protecting basic human rights and guaranteeing political and economic freedom will be able to
unleash the potential of their people and assure their future prosperity. Today, the United States
enjoys a position of unparalleled military strength and great economic and political influence
since the worlds great powers are on the same side, united by common dangers of terrorist
violence and chaos.

Also, he added that Today, The United States will build on these common interests to promote
global security.We are also increasingly united by common values. Russia is in the midst of a
hopeful transition, reaching for its democratic future and a partner in the war on terror. Chinese
leaders are discovering that economic freedom is the only source of national wealth. In time,
they will find that social and political freedom is the only source of national greatness. America
will encourage the advancement of democracy and economic openness in both nations, because
these are the best foundations for domestic stability and international order. We will strongly
resist aggression from other great powerseven as we welcome their peaceful pursuit of
prosperity, trade, and cultural advancement.

Finally, he stated that the United States will use this moment of opportunity to extend the
benefits of freedom across the globe and that it will stand beside any nation determined to
build a better future by seeking the rewards of liberty for its people . Free trade and free markets
have proven their ability to lift whole societies out of povertyso the United States will work
with individual nations, entire regions, and the entire global trading community to build a world
that trades in freedom and therefore grows in prosperity. The United States will deliver greater
development assistance through the New Millennium Challenge Account to nations that govern
justly, invest in their people, and encourage economic freedom.We will also continue to lead the
world in efforts to reduce the terrible toll of HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases.

Under the common balance of power, he said that alliances and multilateral institutions can
multiply the strength of freedom-loving nations, adding that the United States is committed to
lasting institutions like the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of
American States, and NATO as well as other long-standing alliances. Coalitions of the willing
can augment these permanent institutions. In all cases, international obligations are to be taken
seriously. They are not to be undertaken symbolically to rally support for an ideal wit hout
furthering its attainment.

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3. A LITERARY BACKGROUND: THE XXth and XXIst-CENTURY LITERATURE.

In Chapter 3, with this historical overview in mind, we shall provide a literary background of
the period which ranges from 1945 to the present day with the aim of going further into the
XXth and XXIst-century North American literature and, therefore, into the most representative
authors and their masterpieces within the three main literary forms: poetry, drama and prose.
Therefore, we shall approach XXth and XXIst-century literature by examining (1) the main
literary features of the period and the (2) most representative authors and their works in (a)
poetry, (b) drama and (c) prose. Actually, since there is a great amount of poets since 1945 to
nowadays, we shall namely focus on the most representative ones in terms of themes and main
works. Further details on their lives will be not mentioned unless necessary.

3.1. Main literary features.

Yet, the post-War years are reflected in the concern of many novelists about the disintegration
of society, and their lack of positive optimism, while the frequency with which violence and
sadism appear as themes is not surprising in a world grown accustomed to the thought of
genocide, global conflict, and nuclear destruction (Albert, 1990:563). Even nowadays, at the
turn of century, globalisation, uncertainty and the question of terrorism are often reflected in
literature as well as the still-relevant role of the United States within the political field.

Following VanSpanckeren (2004), the assumption that traditional forms, ideas, and history
could provide meaning and continuity to human life has changed in the contemporary literary
imagination throughout many parts of the world, including the United States. The violent events
since World War II caused a disassociated sensibility in the United States and, therefore, a sense
of history as discontinuous. Since then, style and form now seem provisional and reflexive as
well as the process of composition and the writers self-awareness.

Originality is becoming the new tradition due to the long and varied catalog of shocks to
American culture, such as the protest movements of the 1960s, the rise of anonymity and
consumerism in a mass urban society, the decade-long Vietnam conflict, the Cold War,
environmental threats, and more recently the change that has most transformed American
society, the rise of the mass media and mass culture. First radio, then movies, and now an all-
powerful television presence which has changed American life at its roots.

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Broadly speaking, from the late 1950s to the present, Americans have been increasingly aware
that technology, so useful in itself, presents dangers through the wrong kinds of striking images.
the cultural equilibrium that sprang out as an original and vital literary movement in the
previous half century was to be changed in this period. After 1945 to 1955, approximately,
writers were then faced with the search of new directions, together with the emergence of
Jewish, Blacks and women writers into the literary scence and, therefore, there was much new
and vibrant writing.

Yet, we can talk about a second American literary renaissance (1955-1965) in which there was a
literary revolution due to the cultural and technological progress. The multilateral exchange
between the US and Europe helped the currents of culture flow, and the doors were similarly
open to the Orient, particularly with India and Japan. The three-fold classification (drama,
poetry and prose) seemed to be moving toward new creative impulses due to the truly
cosmopolitan quality of the post-War culture.

Later on, factors another factor of change is drawn from the gradual shift in the philosophy
underlying American literature from Naturalism to Existentialism, mans relationship with God,
nature, society, his fellow man and himself. Hence American writers in the XXth century, and
even to the present day, saw the confrontation of the individual will by a mechanistic fate as the
ultimate tragic issue of human experience. The issue of imminent threat and total destruction of
all life has become a constant issue in modern man, who learns to depend upon intensity and
objectivity. Hence the extremes of comedy, fantasy, natural disasters, perversion, war horror,
terrorism and violence on the one hand and the range and depth of mystic and religious
excitement on the other, which is the main feature of contemporary literature.

In short, the main themes in American literature focused on U.S. foreign policy, international
trade, and a variety of issues and topics of interest worldwide, such as international security
(news and information on U.S. foreign policy); economic issues (the latest on U.S. economic
policies and foreign trade issues); global issues (U.S. policy and programs related to climate
change, the environment, energy, world health, sustainable development, and other topics);
democracy (information from the U.S. and multilateral sources on the growth of democracy
around the world); human rights (information from the U.S. and multilateral sources on human
rights issues around the world); and finally, society, culture and values (information on U.S.
society, culture, and values).

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3.2. Main authors.

3.2.1. Poetry.

Following Albert (1990), the period of the War produced much poetry and therefore, common
themes were boredom, frustration of Service life, horror and tragedy, the waste, the appreciation
of friendship, a deep understanding of the English landscape, and the possibility of violent
death. Also, contemporary poetry, in accordance to present events, deals with the importance of
union against terrorism, individuals and the advances of modern society, such as new
technologies, average standard of living, love and death, and modern facilities, among others.

In general terms, American poetry has been directly influenced by mass media and electronic
technology. Films, videotapes, and tape recordings of poetry readings and interviews with poets
have become available, and new inexpensive photographic methods of printing have encouraged
young poets to self-publish and young editors to begin literary magazines. To Americans
seeking alternatives, poetry seems more relevant than before since it offers people a way to
express subjective life and articulate the impact of technology and mass society on the
individual by means of psychological and social subject matters which demanded explicit
treatments of madness in literature.

Hence we find a host of styles since contemporary American poetry is decentralized, richly
varied, and impossible to summarize, for instance, the traditional, the idiosyncratic and the
experimental, namely. The former poets maintained or revitalized poetic traditions;
idiosyncratic poets used both traditional and innovative techniq ues in creating unique voices;
and finally, experimental poets courted new cultural styles. Actually, there is a great amount of
poets since 1945 (John Berryman, Elizabeth Bishop, Robert Creeley, James Dickey, Richard
Hugo, Philip Levine, Robert Lowell, Sylvia Plath, Adrieenne Rich, Theodore Roethke and Anne
Sexton, among others) regarding these three different cultural styles, but we shall namely focus
on the most representative ones.

So, we shall approach one writer of each style, for instance, Robert Lowell (1917-1977) as an
example of traditionalism (and later on experimental poetry); Anne Sexton (1928-1974) and
Philip Levine (1928-) as an example of idiosyncratic poetry; and finally, among the different
types of experimental poetry we may find (The Black Mountain School, The San Francisco
School, Beat Poets, The New York School, and surrealism and experimentalism), we shall
examine the main works and style of Allen Ginsberg (1926-1997) within the group of Beat
Poets and John Ashbery (1929-1999) within the New York School.

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 Robert Lowell (1917-1977) was he most influential recent poet, who began
traditionally but was later on influenced by experimental currents. Because his
life and work spans the period between the older modernist masters like Ezra
Pound and the contemporary writers, his career places the later experimentalists
in a larger context. Following VanSpanckeren (2004), Lowell fits the mold of
the academic writer: white, male, Protestant by birth, well-educated, and linked
with the political and social establishment.

He was a descendant of the respected Boston Brahmin family and went to

Kenyon College in Ohio, where he rejected his Puritan ancestry and converted
to Catholicism. Jailed for a year as a conscientious objector in World War II, he
later publicly protested the Vietnam conflict. His early books are Land of
Unlikeness (1944) and Lord Weary's Castle (1946), which won a Pulitzer
Prize, and revealed great control of traditional forms and styles, strong feeling,
and an intensely personal yet historical vision.

The violence and specificity of the early work is overpowering in poems like
Children of Light (1946), a harsh condemnation of the Puritans who killed
Indians and whose descendants burned surplus grain instead of shipping it to
hungry people. His next book, The Mills of the Kavanaughs (1951), contains
moving dramatic monologues in which members of his family reveal their
tenderness and failings. As always, his style mixes the human with the majestic.
Often he uses traditional rhyme, but his colloquialism disguises it until it seems
like background melody. It was experimental poetry, however, that gave Lowell
his breakthrough into a creative individual idiom.

In the mid-1950s, Lowell heard some of the new experimental poetry for the
first time. At this point Lowell, like many poets after him, accepted the
challenge of learning from the rival tradition in America (the school of William
Carlos Williams). Then Lowell dropped many of his obscure allusions; his
rhymes became integral to the experience within the poem instead of
superimposed on it. The stanzaic structure, too, collapsed; new improvisational
forms arose. In Life Studies (1959), he initiated confessional poetry, a new
mode in which he bared his most tormenting personal problems with great
honesty and intensity. In essence, he not only discovered his individuality but
celebrated it in its most difficult and private manifestations. He transformed
himself into a contemporary, at home with the self, the fragmentary, and the
form as process.

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 Lowell transformation, a watershed for poetry after the war, opened the way
for many younger writers. In For the Union Dead (1964), Notebook 1967-69
(1970), and later books, he continued his autobiographical explorations and
technical innovations, drawing upon his experience of psychoanalysis. Lowells
confessional poetry has been particularly influential. Works by John Berryman,
Anne Sexton, and Sylvia Plath (the last two his students), to mention only a
few, are impossible to imagine without Lowell.

Anne Sexton (1928-1974) was a passionate woman who was a poet on the eve
of the womens movement in the United States (1960s) and, also, since she
suffered from mental illness, she committed suicide. Sextons poetry is
characterized by being namely autobiographical and powerfully appealing to
the emotions. Her main themes were taboo subjects such as sex, guilt, and
suicide into close focus; and also, female topics such as childbearing, the
female body, or marriage seen from a female point of view, hence her poem
Her Kind (1960). In addition, the titles of her works indicate their concern
with madness and death, such as To Bedlam and Part Way Back (1960), Live or
Die (1966), and the posthumous book The Awful Rowing Toward God (1975).

Philip Levine (1928-) was born in Detroit, Michigan, and his poetry deals
directly with the economic sufferings of workers through keen observation,
rage, and painful irony. With an urban and poor background, he has been the
voice for the lonely individual caught up in industrial America. Much of his
poetry is somber and reflects an anarchic tendency amid the realization that
systems of government will endure. In one of his poems, Levine compares a
man metaphorically with a fox so as to reflect the difficultry of surviving in a
dangerous world through his courage. In terms of his rhythmic pattern, he has
travelled a path from traditional meters in his early works to a freer, more open
line in his later poetry as he expresses his lonely protest against the evils of the
contemporary world.

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 Allen Ginsberg (1926-1997) reaffirmed himself as the heir of Whitman and
Melville due to his namely oral, enumerative and magic poetry. In fact, his
poetry is said to be daring, original, and sometimes shocking. Some might
correctly see it as a great-grandparent of the rap music that became prevalent in
the 1990s. In his search for new values, he claims affinity with the archaic
world of myth, legend, and traditional societies such as those of the American
Indian.

Within the group of Beat Poets, he challenged the 1950s poetry against current
standards with a poetic representation of madness, produced by despair, drugs
and a reaction against the heartlessness of contemporary American society. The
feeling of the poet as the poem is written, and from the natural pauses of the
spoken language. Among his most relevant works we include Aullido (1956),
Kaddish (1961), Collected Poems 1947-1980 (1984), White Shroud Poems
1980-1985 (1987), and Improvised Poetics (1988), where Ginsberg noted his
most famous statement: first thought best thought.

John Ashbery (1929-1999), on the other hand, belongs to the New York School
which, unlike the Beat and San Franciso poets, is not interested in overtly moral
questions, and, in general, they steer clear of political issues. The New York
School Poets are said to have the best formal educations of any group, in fact, it
is worth noting that New York City is the fine arts center of America and the
birthplace of Abstract Expressionism, a major inspiration of this poetry. Most
of the poets worked as art reviewers or museum curators, or collaborated with
painters.

They are quintessentially urban, cool, nonreligious, witty with a poignant, pastel
sophistication. Their poems are fast moving, full of urban detail, incongruity,
and an almost palpable sense of suspended belief. Perhaps because of their
feeling for abstract art, which distrusts figurative shapes and obvious meanings,
their work is often difficult to comprehend, as in the later work of John Ashbery
(1927- ), perhaps the most influential poet writing today.

Ashberys fluid poems record thoughts and emotions as they wash over the
mind too swiftly for direct articulation. His profound, long poem, Self-Portrait
in a Convex Mirror (1975), which won three major prizes, glides from thought
to thought, often reflecting back on itself.

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3.2.2. Drama.

The main literary features of the time also affected drama, and the main playwrights also
showed the horror of war, the insecurity and meaninglessness of a frivolous world, and the
personal development of the population. In a sense, following VanSpanckeren (2004),
American drama imitated English and European theatre until well into the 20th century. Often,
plays from England or translated from European languages dominated theatre seasons. An
inadequate copyright law that failed to protect and promote American dramatists worked against
genuinely original drama. So did the star system, in which actors and actresses, rather than the
actual plays, were given most acclaim.

In addition, Americans flocked to see European actors who toured theatres in the United States.
In addition, imported drama, like imported wine, enjoyed higher status than indigenous
productions. Yet, it was not until the 20th century that would serious plays attempt aesthetic
innovation. Popular culture showed vital developments, however, especially in vaudeville
(popular variety theater involving skits, clowning, music, and the like). Minstrel shows, based
on African-American music and folkways - performed by white characters using blackface
makeup - also developed original forms and expressions.

With this background in mind, we shall approach the most representative figures in this field,
thus Eugene ONeill (1888-1953), Clifford Odets (1906-1963), and more recently, Tennessee
Williams (1911-1983) and Arthur Miller (1915-). Other less relevant dramatist of the period is
Thornton Wilder (1897-1975).

Eugene ONeill (1888-1953) is regarded as the greatest figure of American

theatre. Following VanSpanckeren (2004), his numerous plays combine
enormous technical originality with freshness of vision and emotional depth.
ONeills earliest dramas concern the working class and poor; later works
explore subjective realms, such as obsessions and sex, and underscore his
reading in Freud and his anguished attempt to come to terms with his dead
mother, father, and brother.

His play Desire Under the Elms (1924) recreates the passions hidden within
one family; The Great God Brown (1926) uncovers the unconsciousness of a
wealthy businessman; and Strange Interlude (1928), a winner of the Pulitzer
Prize, traces the tangled loves of one woman. These powerful plays reveal

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 different personalities reverting to primitive emotions or confusion under
intense stress.

ONeill continued to explore the Freudian pressures of love and dominance

within families in a trilogy of plays collectively entitled Mourning Becomes
Electra (1931), based on the classical Oedipus trilogy by Sophocles. His later
plays include the acknowledged masterpieces The Iceman Cometh (1946), a
stark work on the theme of death, and Long Day's Journey Into Night (1956) - a
powerful, extended autobiography in dramatic form focusing on his own family
and their physical and psychological deterioration, as witnessed in the course of
one night. This work was part of a cycle of plays ONeill was working on at the
time of his death.

ONeill redefined the theater by abandoning traditional divisions into acts and
scenes (Strange Interlude has nine acts, and Mourning Becomes Electra takes
nine hours to perform); using masks such as those found in Asian and ancient
Greek theater; introducing Shakespearean monologues and Greek choruses; and
producing special effects through lighting and sound. He is generally
acknowledged to have been Americas foremost dramatist. In 1936 he received
the Nobel Prize for Literature - the first American playwright to be so honored.

Clifford Odets (1906-1963) is also regarded as a master of social drama. He

came from an Eastern European, Jewish immigrant background and was raised
in New York City, where he became one of the original acting members of the
Group Theater directed by Harold Clurman, Lee Strasberg, and Cheryl
Crawford, which was committed to producing only native American dramas.
Following VanSpanckeren (2004), Odetss best-known play was Waiting for
Lefty (1935), an experimental one-act drama that fervently advocated labor
unionism. His Awake and Sing!, a nostalgic family drama, became another
popular success, followed by Golden Boy, the story of an Italian immigrant
youth who ruins his musical talent when he is seduced by the lure of money to
become a boxer and in jures his hands. Like Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby and
Dreisers An American Tragedy , the play warns against excessive ambition and
materialism.

Tennessee Williams (1911-1983), Thomas Lanier Williams , is also one of

Americas greatest playwrights, and certainly the greatest ever from the South.
Williams helped transform the contemporary idea of the Southern literature,
and also helped the South find a strong voice in those auspices where before it

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 had only been heard as a whisper. He wrote fiction and motion picture
screenplays, but he is primarily acclaimed for his plays, nearly all of which are
set in the South, and deal with regionalism. As well as Arthur Miller, he moved
straight to Broadway because of his prolific, colourful and varied output.

In his works, he described his characters on the limit, as victims of societys

frustrations and excesses. Among his early plays, we include Smart Set (1927)
and Cairo, Shanghai, Bombay (1937), which in many respects is regarded as the
true beginning of his literary and stage career. Building upon the experience he
gained with his first production, Williams had two more plays, Candles to the
Sun and The Fugitive Kind (both 1937).

After graduating at the University of Iowa in 1938, Williams found a bit of

fame when he won the Group Theater prize for American Blues (1939). It was
followed by Battle of Angels (1940) and near the close of the war in 1944, what
many consider to be his finest play, The Glass Menagerie, which had a very
successful run in Chicago and a year later burst its way onto Broadway, since it
contained autobiographical elements from his days in St. Louis as well as from
his familys past in Mississippi.
Over the next eight years (1944-1952), he found homes for A Streetcar Named
Desire (1947), Summer and Smoke, A Rose Tattoo (1950), and Camino Real
(1951) on Broadway. His reputation continued to grow and he saw many more
of his works produced on Broadway and made into films, including such works
as Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955), for which he earned a second Pulitzer Prize,
Sweet Birth of Youth (1959), and Night of the Iguana (1961).

Arthur Miller (1915-) also entered Broadway as the American playwright who
combined in his works social awareness with deep insights into personal
weaknesses of his characters. His works, socially inspired, denounce the
illusion of the American dream as in the Death of a Salesman (1949), often
describe North-Americans obsessions , and continues the realistic tradition that
began in the United States in the period between the two world wars. Yet,
Miller is best known for his marriage to the actress Marilyn Monroe. Millers
plays.

Born in New York and after having suffered the effects of the Great Depression
period within his family, he wrote his first work, Timebends: a Lif e (1987).
After graduating in English (1938), Miller returned to New York, where he

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joined the Federal Theatre Project, and wrote scripts for radio programs, such as
Columbia Workshop (CBS) and Cavalcade of America (NBC). Millers first
play to appear on Broadway was The Man Who Had all the Luck (1944), which
was followed by All My Sons (1947), a story about a factory owner who sells
faulty aircraft parts during World War II. It won the New York Drama Critics
Circle award.

On touring Army camps to collect background material, he wrote The Story of

Gi Joe (1945) and also his first novel, Focus (1945), about anti-Semitism. As
stated above, Millers plays often depict how families are destroyed by false
values. Death of a Salesman (1949) brought Miller international fame, and
become one of the major achievements of modern American theatre. It relates
the tragic story of a salesman named Willy Loman, whose past and present are
mingled in expressionistic scenes. The story also deals with the American
Dream, with a no happy end.

His play The Crucible (1953) was based on court records and historical
personages of the Salem witch trials of 1692. He aimed at showing the
American obssession through this allegory for the McCarthy era and mass
hysteria . It was followed by A View from the Bridge (1955), two short plays
telling a drama about incestuous love, jealousy and betrayal. In the late 1950s
Miller wrote nothing for the theatre, except for a screenplay, Misfits (1961),
which was written with a role for his wife, Marilyn Monroe.

Yet, Miller returned to stage in 1964 after a nine-year absence with the play
After the Fall (1964), a strongly autobiographical work, which dealt with the
questions of guilt and innocence. After WWII, Miller became one of the best-
known American playwrights together with Tenessee Williams. In 1965 he was
elected presiden of P.E.N., an international literary organization and at the 1968
Democratic Convention, he was a delegate for Eugene McCarthy. After this
political engagement, he wrote The American Clock (1981) and in the 1990s,
such plays as The Last Yankee (1990) and The Ride Down Mount Morgan
(1991). More recently, in 2002 Miller was honored with Spains prestigious
Principe de Asturias Prize for Literature, making him the first U.S. recipient of
the award.

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3.2.3. Prose.

As for poetry, since World War II the genre of narrative has also resisted generalization and
now it is extremely various and multifaceted. Also fostered by international currents such as
European existentialism and Latin American magical realism, the change that has most
transformed American society, however, has been the rise of the mass media and mass culture.
Following VanSpanckeren (2004), f irst radio, then movies, and now an all-powerful,
ubiquitous television presence have changed American life at its roots. From a private, literate,
elite culture based on the book, the eye, and reading, the United States has become a media
culture attuned to the voice on the radio, the music of compact discs and cassettes, film, and the
images on the television screen.

So, oral genres, media, and popular culture have increasingly influenced narrative. American
prose has also been directly influenced by mass media and while the electronic technology era
has brought the global village. In the past, elite culture influenced popular culture through its
status and example; the reverse seems true in the United States today. Serious novelists like
Thomas Pynchon, Joyce Carol Oates, Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., Alice Walker, and E.L. Doctorow
have borrowed from and commented on comics, movies, fashions, songs, and oral history.

Regarding recent literature, writers in the United States are asking serious questions, many of
them of a metaphysical nature. Writers have become highly innovative and self-aware, or
reflexive. Often they find traditional modes ineffective and seek vitality in more widely
popular material. To put it another way: American writers, in recent decades, have developed a
post-modern sensibility. Because of technological advances, space exploration, and the threat
of nuclear and germ warfare, there has been a tremendous increase in science fiction novels
about the future on other planets, or on an earth catastrophically altered.

In fact, following Albert (1990), the contemporary English novel has been affected to an
inestimable extent by three entirely new influences. Thus, never before have novels from the
U.S.A. been so widely read. Many of these have been characterized by detailed realism, lack of
reticence, brutality, disillusion, and criticism of the national and international scene; they have
dealt in a penetrating manner iwth the frustrations and emotional storms largely caused by
urban-commercial life.

We shall focus on just a handful of writers, the most representative ones, since there is huge
number of them to mention. For instance, among those we shall not examine we include the
realist legacy of Robert Penn Warren (1905-1989) , Arthur Miller (1915- ), Tennessee Williams

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(1911-1983) , AND Eudora Welty (1909- ); within the 1950s, Flannery O'Connor (1925-1964),
Saul Bellow (1915-), Bernard Malamud (1914-1986) , John Cheever (1912-1982) and John
Updike (1932-) about the novel of manners,), and J.D. Salinger (1919- ) and Jack Kerouac
(1922-1969) with social novel, among others. Within the creative 1960s, we shall not include
either Thomas Pynchon (1937- ) or Norman Mailer (1923- ); and in the 1970s and 1980s, nor
John Gardner (1933-1982) or John Barth (1930- ).

Among those we shall examine, we find in the first half of the 20th century, Katherine Anne
Porter (1890-1980). whose fiction in the second half reflects the aftermath of World War II and
the beginning of the Cold War. In the 1950s we shall approach the figures of James Baldwin
(1924-1987) , Ralph Waldo Ellison (1914-1994), Vladimir Nabokov (1889-1977). On the other
hand, Toni Morrison (1931-) will represent the 1960s, which showed the United States in terms
of the Civil Rights Movement, feminism, antiwar protests, minority activism, and the arrival of
a counterculture whose effects are still being worked through American society. Notable
political and social works of the era include the speeches of civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther
King, Jr., the early writings of feminist leader Betty Friedan (The Feminine Mystique, 1963),
and Norman Mailer's The Armies of the Night (1968), about a 1967 antiwar march.

Alice Walker (1944-) will represent the mid-1970s, that is, an era of consolidation since the
Vietnam conflict was over, followed soon afterward by U.S. recognition of the People's
Republic of China and Americas Bicentennial celebration. During the 1980s individuals tended
to focus more on more personal concerns than on larger social issues. And finally, regionalism
appears in the form of urban fiction, making a triumphant return in American literature and
enabling readers to get a sense of place as well as a sense of time and humanity. And it is as
prevalent in popular fiction, such as detective stories, as it is in classic literature (novels, short
stories, and drama). Following VanSpanckeren (2004), there are several possible reasons for
this occurrence. For one thing, all of the arts in America have been decentralized over the past
generation. Theatre, music, and dance are as likely to thrive in cities in the U.S. South,
Southwest, and Northwest as in major cities such as New York and Chicago. Movie companies
shoot films across the United States, on myriad locations.

Katherine Anne Porter (1890-1980)s long life and career encompassed several
eras since 1945 to 1980. For instance, her first success, Flowering Judas
(1930), was set in Mexico during the revolution, and was followed by Noon
Wine (1937), Pale Horse, Pale Rider (1939), The Leaning Tower (1944), and
Collected Stories (1965). In the early 1960s, she produced a long, allegorical
novel with a timeless theme, Ship of Fools (1962), which showed the

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 responsibility of humans for each other in the late 1930s aboard a passenger
liner carrying members of the German upper class and German refugees alike
from the Nazi nation. Not a prolific writer, Porter nonetheless has influenced
generations of authors, among them her southern colleagues Eudora Welty and
Flannery OConnor.
After WWII the United States were brought out of the Depression, and the
1950s saw the delayed impact of modernization and technology in everyday
life. Hence most Americans had more time to enjoy long-awaited material
prosperity. Business, especially in the corporate world, seemed to offer the good
life with its real and symbolic marks of success (house, car, television, and
home appliances). Yet loneliness at the top was a dominant theme.

James Baldwin (1924-1987).

James Baldwin mirrored the African-American experience of the 1950s.

Following VanSpanckeren (2004), his character suffer from a lack of identity,
rather than from over-ambition. Baldwin, the oldest of nine children born to a
Harlem, New York, family, was the foster son of a minister. As a youth,
Baldwin occasionally preached in the church. This experience helped shape the
compelling, oral quality of Baldwins prose, most clearly seen in his excellent
essays, such as Letter from a Region Of My Mind, from the collection The
Fire Next Time (1963). In this, he argued movingly for an end to separation
between the races.

Baldwins first novel, the autobiographical Go Tell It On the Mountain (1953),

is probably his best known. It is the story of a 14-year-old youth who seeks self-
knowledge and religious faith as he wrestles with issues of Christian conversion
in a storefront church. Other important Baldwin works include Another Country
(1962), a novel about racial issues and homosexuality, and Nobody Knows My
Name (1961), a collection of passionate personal essays about racism, the role
of the artist, and literature.

Ralph Waldo Ellison (1914-1994).

Ralph Ellison was a midwesterner, born in Oklahoma, who studied at

Tuskegee Institute in the southern United States. He had one of the strangest
careers in American letters - consisting of one highly acclaimed book, and
nothing more. The novel is Invisible Man (1952), the story of a black man who

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 lives a subterranean existence in a hole brightly illuminated by electricity stolen
from a utility company. The book recounts his grotesque, disenchanting
experiences.

When he wins a scholarship to a black college, he is humiliated by whites;

when he gets to the college, he witnesses the black president spurning black
American concerns. Life is corrupt outside college, too. For example, even
religion is no consolation: A preacher turns out to be a criminal. The novel
indicts society for failing to provide its citizens - black and white - with viable
ideals and institutions for realizing them. It embodies a powerful racial theme
because the invisible man is invisible not in himself but because others,
blinded by prejudice, cannot see him for who he is.

Vladimir Nabokov (1889-1977) arrived in the United States as an immigrant

singer from Eastern Europe. Born into an affluent family in Czarist Russia, he
came to the United States in 1940 and gained U.S. citizenship five years later.
From 1948 to 1959 he taught literature at Cornell University in upstate New
York; in 1960 he moved permanently to Switzerland. He is best known for his
novels, which include the autobiographical Pnin (1957), about an ineffectual
Russian emigre professor, and Lolita (U.S. edition 1958), about an educated,
middle-aged European who becomes infatuated with an ignorant 12-year-old
American girl.
Nabokovs pastiche novel, Pale Fire (1962), another successful venture,
focuses on a long poem by an imaginary dead poet and the commentaries on it
by a critic whose writings overwhelm the poem and take on unexpected lives of
their own. Nabokov is an important writer for his stylistic subtlety, deft satire,
and ingenious innovations in form, aware of his role as a mediator between the
Russian and American literary worlds. He wrote a book on Gogol and translated
Pushkins Eugene Onegin . His daring, somewhat expressionist subjects, like the
odd love in Lolita, helped introduce expressionist 20th-century European
currents into the essentially realist American fictional tradition. His tone, partly
satirical and partly nostalgic, also suggested a new serio-comic emotional
register made use of by writers such as Pynchon, who combines the opposing
notes of wit and fear.

Tony Morrison (1931- ) was an African-American novelist who was born in

Ohio at the core of a spiritually oriented family. She attended Howard

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 University in Washington, D.C., and has worked as a senior editor in a major
Washington publishing house and as a distinguished professor at various
universities. Morrisons richly woven fiction has gained her international
acclaim. In compelling, large-spirited novels, she treats the complex identities
of black people in a universal manner.
In her early work The Bluest Eye (1970), a strong-willed young black girl tells
the story of Pecola Breedlove, who survives an abusive father. Pecola believes
that her dark eyes have magically become blue, and that they will make her
lovable. Morrison has said that she was creating her own sense of identity as a
writer through this novel. Her next work, Sula (1973) describes the strong
friendship of two women, where she paints African-American women as
unique, fully individual characters rather than as stereotypes.

Morrisons Song of Solomon (1977) has won several awards. It follows a black
man, Milkman Dead, and his complex relations with his family and community.
In Tar Baby (1981) Morrison deals with black and white relations. Beloved
(1987) is the wrenching story of a woman who murders her children rather than
allow them to live as slaves. It employs the dreamlike techniques of magical
realism in depicting a mysterious figure. Finally, she suggests that her novels
contain political meaning and, since they regarded as consummate works of art,
Morrison won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1993.

Alice Walker (1944-) is also an African-American writer, born at a

sharecropper family in rural Georgia. On graduating from Sarah Lawrence
College, she became a feminist writer, presenting black existence from the
female perspective. Like other accomplished contemporary black novelists,
Walker uses heightened, lyrical realism to center on the dreams and failures of
accessible, credible people. Her work underscores the quest for dignity in
human life. A fine stylist, particularly in her epistolary dialect novel The Color
Purple, her work seeks to educate. In this she resembles the black American
novelist Ishmael Reed, whose satires expose social problems and racial issues.

Walkers The Color Purple is the story of the love between two poor black
sisters that survives a separation over years, interwoven with the story of how,
during that same period, the shy, ugly, and uneducated sister discovers her inner
strength through the support of a female friend. This work mainly portrays men
as basically unaware of the needs and reality of women.

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 The close of the 1980s and the beginnings of the 1990s saw minority writing
become a major fixture on the American literary landscape. This is true in
drama as well as in prose. August Wilson who is continuing to write and see
staged his cycle of plays about the 20th-century black experience (including
Pulitzer Prize-winners Fences, 1986, and The Piano Lesson, 1989) - ands
alongside novelists Alice Walker, John Edgar Wideman, and Toni Morrison.

Asian-Americans are also taking their place on the scene, for instance, David
Henry Hwang, a California -born son of Chinese immigrants, has made his mark
in drama, with plays such as F.O.B. (1981) and M. Butterfly (1986). A relatively
new group on the literary horizon are the Hispanic -American writers, including
the Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist Oscar Hijuelos, the Cuban-born author of
The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love (1989); short story writer Sandra
Cisneros (Women Hollering Creek and Other Stories, 1991); and Rudolfo
Anaya, author of Bless Me, Ultima (1972), which sold 300,000 copies, mostly
in the western United States.

Finally, within regionalism, following again VanSpanckeren (2004), we find

works such as Nicholson at Large (1975), a study of a Washington newsman
during and after the John F. Kennedy presidency of the early 1960s; In the City
of Fear (1982), a glimpse of Washington during the Vietnam era; and Jack
Gance (1989), a sobering look at a Chicago politician and his rise to the U.S.
Senate, are some of his more impressive works. Susan Richards Shreve's
Children of Power (1979) assesses the private lives of a group of sons and
daughters of government officials, while popular novelist Tom Clancy, a
Maryland resident, has used the Washington politico-military landscape as the
launching pad for his series of epic suspense tales.

Moving southward, McCorkle (born in 1958) represents a new generation, who

has devoted her novels and short stories -- set in the small towns of North
Carolina- to exploring the mystiques of teenagers (The Cheer Leader, 1984), the
links between generations (Tending to Virginia , 1987), and the particular
sensibilities of contemporary suthern women (Crash Diet, 1992).

In the same region is Pat Conroy, whose bracing autobiographical novels about
his South Carolina upbringing and his abusive, tyrannical father (The Great
Santini, 1976; The Prince of Tides, 1986) are infused with a sense of the natural
beauty of the South Carolina low country. Shelby Foote, a Mississippi native

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who has lived in Memphis, Tennessee, for years, is an old-time chronicler of the
South whose histories and fictions led to his role on camera in a successful
public television series on the U.S. Civil War.

Americas heartland reveals a wealth of writing talent. Among them are Jane
Smiley, who teaches writing at the University of Iowa. Smiley won the 1992
Pulitzer Prize in fiction for A Thousand Acres (1991), which transplanted
Shakespeare's King Lear to a midwestern U.S. farm and chronicled the bitter
family feud unleashed when an aging farmer decides to turn over his land to his
three daughters. Texas chronicler Larry McMurtry covers his native state in
varying time periods and sensibilities, from the vanished 19th- century West
(Lonesome Dove, 1985; Anything For Billy, 1988) to the vanishing small towns
of the postwar era (The Last Picture Show, 1966).

In addition, Cormac McCarthy, whose explorations of the American Southwest

desert limn his novels Blood Meridian (1985), All The Pretty Horses (1992),
and The Crossing (1994), is a reclusive, immensely imaginative writer who is
just beginning to get his due on the U.S. literary scene. Generally considered the
rightful heir to the southern Gothic tradition, McCarthy is as intrigued by the
wildness of the terrain as he is by human wildness and unpredictability.

Also, set in the striking landscape of her native New Mexico, Native Americ an
novelist Leslie Marmon Silkos critically esteemed novel Ceremony (1977) has
gained a large general audience. Like N. Scott Momadays poetic The Way to
Rainy Mountain (1969), it is a chant novel structured on Native American
healing rituals. Silkos novel The Almanac of the Dead (1991) offers a
panorama of the Southwest, from ancient tribal migrations to present-day drug
runners and corrupt real estate developers reapin g profits by misusing the land.

Finally, we shall conclude by sayin that the American literature has traversed
an extended, winding path from pre-colonial days to contemporary times.
Society, history, technology all have had telling impact on it. Ultimately,
though, there is a constant humanity, with all its radiance and its malevolence,
its tradition and its promise.

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4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

Literature, and therefore, literary language is one of the most salient aspects of educational
activity. In classrooms all kinds of literary language (poetry, drama, prose novel, short story,
minor fiction-, periodicals) either spoken or written, is going on for most of the time. Yet,
handling literary productions in the past makes relevant the analysis of literature in the twentieth
and twenty-first century in the United States in this unit. Yet, what do students know about the
literature in this period? At this point it makes sense to examine the historical background of the
United States up to the present day so as to provide an appropriate context for these poets,
dramatists and novelists in our students background knowledge and check what they know
about them.

Since literature may be approached in linguistic terms, regarding form and function
(morphology, lexis, structure, form) and also from a cross-curricular perspective (Sociology,
History, English, French, Spanish Language and Literature), Spanish students are expected to
know about the history of the United States and its influence in the world. In addition, one of the
objectives of teaching the English language is to provide good models of almost any kind of
literary productions for future studies.

Currently, action research groups attempt to bring about change in classroom learning and
teaching through a focus on literary production under two premises. First, because they believe
learning is an integral aspect of any form of activity and second, because education at all levels
must be conceived in terms of literature and history. The basis for these assumptions is to be
found in an attempt, through the use of historical events, to develop understanding of students
shared but diverse social and physical environment.

Learning involves a process of transformation of participation itself which has far reaching
implications on the role of the teacher in the teaching-learning relationship. This means that
literary productions are an analytic tool and that teachers need to identify the potential
contributions and potential limitations of them before we can make good use of genre
techniques: the stream of consciousness, the kaleidoscopic point of view, and the presentation of
different scenes, among others. We must bear in mind that most students will continue their
studies at university and there, they will have to handle successfully all kind of genres,
especially poetry, drama and fiction ones within our current framework.

Moreover, todays new technologies (the Internet, DVD, videocamera) and the media (TV,
radio, cinema) may provide a new direction to language teaching as they set more appropriate

35/ 39
context for students to experience the target culture. Present-day approaches deal with a
communicative competence model in which first, there is an emphasis on significance over
form, and secondly, motivation and involvement are enhanced by means of new technologies
and the media. Hence literary productions and the history of the period may be approched in
terms of films and drama representations in class, among others, and in this case, by means of
books (novels: historical, terror, descriptive) and drama (opera, comedies, plays), among others.

But how do twentieth and twenty-first-century North-American literature tie in with the new
curriculum? Spanish students are expected to know about the North American culture and its
presence in Europe since students are required to know about the world culture and history. The
success partly lies in the way literary works become real to the users. Some of this motivational
force is brought about by intervening in authentic communicative events. Otherwise, we have to
recreate as much as possible the whole cult ural environment in the classroom by means of
novels, short stories, documentaries, history books, or their familys stories.

Hence it makes sense to examine relevant figures such as Vladimir Nabokov, who applied
media methods to his writings in Lolita (1958) which was filmed, as well as Arthur Millers
Misfits (1961), and some plays such as A Streetcar Named Desire (1947), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof
(1955), for which he earned a second Pulitzer Prize, and Night of the Iguana (1961). If the
names of the plays or novels are not familiar to students, maybe they are for their parents, who
can always tell their children about the plot, characters and background. Also, relevant figures
such as Arthur Miller in drama may be approached to students if we let them know his marriage
to Marilyn Monroe. In this way, we can bring to reality some of these twentieth and twenty-
first-century authors.

This is to be achieved within the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular,
the Spanish Educational System which establishes a common reference framework for the
teaching of foreign languages where students are intended to carry out several communication
tasks with specific communicative goals, for instance, how to locate a literary work within a
particular historical period. Analytic interpretation of texts in all genres should become part of
every literary students basic competence (B.O.E., 2004).

In addition, one of the objectives of teaching the English language is to provide good models of
almost any kind of literary productions for future studies. Following van Ek & Trim (2001), the
learners can perform, within the limits of the resources available to them, those writing (and
oral) tasks which adult citizens in general may wish, or be called upon, to carry out in their

36/ 39
private capacity or as members of the general public when dealing with their future regarding
personal and professional life.

In short, the knowledge about British culture (history and literature) should become part of
every literary students basic competence (B.O.E., 2004). There are hidden influences at work
beneath the textual surface: these may be sociocultural, inter and intratextual. The literary
student has to discover these, and wherever necessary apply them in further examinatio n. The
main aims that our currently educational system focuses on are mostly sociocultural, to facilitate
the study of cultural themes, as our students must be aware of their current social reality within
the international scene.

5. CONCLUSION.

On reviewing the issue of Unit 59, we have examined the political, social and economic
development in the United States since 1945 up to the present day, and also, its political
relevance at international level. With this background in mind we aim at reviewing the present-
day literary background of the time and, therefore, the life, works and style of the most
representative authors in this period. Hence in Chapter 2 we have presented the main events
occurred during and after the World War II (1941-1945) up to the present-day in the United
States in political, social and economic terms.

This historical background has provided the basis for a better understanding of the literary
background in the XXth and XXIst-century main authors and works in the United States. On
reviewing each genre, we have got closer to how those writers reflected the time in which they
were living. In Chapter 4 we have established a link between this historical and literary
background with the main educational implications in language teaching regarding the
introduction of this issue in the classroom setting and how to make our students aware of how
much they know about the modern history of the United States in relation to the rest of the
world. At this point, we hope to offer fruitful conclusions on this presentation, and we shall
close it by presenting all the bibliographical references used in its elaboration for further
references.

So far, we have attempted to provide the reader in this presentation with a historical, literary and
cultural background on the vast amount of literature productions in the twentieth and twenty-
first-century literature in the United States. This information is relevant for language learners,

37/ 39
even ESO and Bachillerato students, who do not automatically establish similiarities between
North-America and the rest of the world in terms of social reality. So, learners need to have
these associations brought to their attention in cross-curricular settings through the media. As
we have seen, understanding how literature reflects the main historical events of a country is
important to students, who are expected to be aware of the richness of North-American
literature in all English-speaking countries.

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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Albert, Edward. 1990. A History of English Literature. Walton-on-Thames. Nelson. 5th edition (Revised
by J.A. Stone).

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 116/2004, de 23 de enero. Currculo de la

Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 117/2004, de 23 de enero. Currculo de

Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.

Bradbury, M. and H. Temperley. 1981. Introduction to American Studies. London: Longman.

Brogan, H. 1985. The History of the United States of America, Penguin Books, New York.

Cook, C. and J. Paxton. 2001. European Political Facts of the Twentieth Century. Palgrave.

Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European
Framework of reference.

Greenfeld, H. 1973. Gertrude Stein, A Biography. New York: Crown Publishers.

Kennedy, J. Gerald. 1993. Imagining Paris: Exile, Writing, and American Identity. New Haven: Yale
University Press.

Magnusson, M., and Goring, R. (eds.). 1990. Cambridge Biographical Dictionary. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Meyers, J. 1994. Scott Fitzgerald: A Biography. New York: Harper Collins.
Musman, R. 1982. Background to the USA, Macmillan Press, London.
Palmer, R. 1980. Historia Contempornea, Akal ed., Madrid.
Philips, K. 2002. Wealth and Democracy: A Political History of the American Rich. Broadway Books,
U.S.
Reynolds, M. 1989. Hemingway, the Paris Years. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell.

Rogers, P. 1987. The Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature. Oxford University Press.

Thoorens, L. 1969. Panorama de las literaturas Daimon: Inglaterra y Amrica del Norte. Gran Bretaa y
Estados Unidos de Amrica. Ediciones Daimon.

van Ek, J.A., and J.L.M. Trim, 2001. Vantage. Council of Europe. Cambridge University Press.

VanSpanckeren, K. 2004. Outline of American Literature. International Information Programs.

Ward & Trent, et al. 2000. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature. New York: G.P.
Putnams Sons, 190721; New York: Bartleby.com.

Other sources:

Enciclopedia Larousse 2000. 2000. Editorial Planeta.

Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century. 1999. Detroit, St. James.

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 UNIT 60

NORTH AMERICAN BLACK NOVEL: D. HAMMETT

AND R. CHANDLER. ENGLISH DETECTIVE NOVEL:
P.D. JAMES.

OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.

2. THE NORTH AMERICAN BLACK NOVEL AND THE ENGLISH DETECTIVE

NOVEL.

2.1. Crime fiction: common features.

2.1.1. Main elements.
2.1.2. Main sources.

2.2. The English detective novel.

2.2.1. Definition.
2.2.2. Historical and literary background.
2.2.2.1. The nineteenth century.
2.2.2.2. The twentieth century up to the present day.
2.2.3. Most representative authors: P.D. James.

2.3. The North American black novel.

2.3.1. Definition.
2.3.2. Historical and literary background.
2.2.2.1. The nineteenth century.
2.2.2.2. The twentieth century up to the present day.
2.3.3. Most representative authors: D. Hammett and R. Chandler.

3. MAIN EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.

4. CONCLUSION.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1/43
1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

The present unit, Unit 60, aims to provide a useful introduction to the North American black
novel and the English detective novel. In doing so, we aim at reviewing the historical and
literary background of the time so as to analyse the life, works and style of the most
representative authors in this period: D. Hammett and R. Chandler within the former, and P.D.
James, within the latter. Actually, it must be borne in mind that the English detective novel
emerged nearly a century before than the American black novel, and therefore, it will be
analysed first for the sake of chronological order.

Hence, we shall analyse how these authors reflected the prevailing ideologies of the day in the
literature of the time which, following Speck (1998), is an account of literary activity in which
social, economic, cultural and political allegiances are placed very much to the fore. This is, in
fact, reflected in the organization of the unit, which is divided into four main chapters, namely
devoted to establish the link between the literary activity and the main social, economic and
political changes which took place from the late nineteenth century to the present-day situation
both in Great Britain and in the United States.

It is worth mentioning that since both types of novels are framed in the same centuries, but on
different sides of the Atlantic, we shall approach their analysis in terms of historical background
at political, social and economic level; literary background, so as to trace back to the very
sources of the English and North American detective novel; and finally, at a personal level, in
which we shall examine the life, works and style of the most representative authors of each type.

So, Chapter 2 namely offers an overview of the North American black novel and the English
detective novel. In doing so, we shall approach first both types in terms of (1) common features
within crime fiction, regarding (a) main elements and (b) main literary sources. Then we shall
examine (2) the English detective novel in terms of (a) definition; (b) a parallel presentation of
historical and literary background, which will show to what extent history and literature are
interrelated in (i) the nineteenth and (ii) the twentieth century up to the present day. With this
background in mind we are ready to examine how this reality is shown by (c) the most
representative figures in this field under the figure of P.D. James and other less relevant authors.
We shall also examine (3) the American black novel in terms of (a) definition; (b) a parallel
presentation of historical and literary background in (i) the nineteenth and (ii) the twentieth

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century up to the present day; and (c) the most representative figures in this field: (i) Samuel
Dashiell Hammett and (ii) Raymond Thornton Chandler.

Chapter 3 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching regarding
the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 4 will offer a conclusion to
broadly overview our present study, and Chapter 5 will include all the bibliographical
references used to develop this presentation.

2.1. Notes on bibliography.

An influential introduction to the North American black novel and the English detective novel is
based on Thoorens, Panorama de las literaturas Daimon: Inglaterra y Amrica del Norte. Gran
Bretaa y Estados Unidos de Amrica (1969); Palmer, Historia Contempornea (1980);
Brogan, The History of the United States of America (1985); Cook & Paxton, European
Political Facts of the Twentieth Century (2001); and Philips, Wealth and Democracy: A
Political History of the American Rich (2002).

On the present-day literary background, relevant works are: Fiedler, Love and Death in the
American Novel (1960); Bradbury & Temperley, Introduction to American Studies (1981);
Rogers, The Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature (1987); Magnusson & Goring,
Cambridge Biographical Dictionary (1990); Byron, Murder Will Out, The Detective Fiction
(1990); Ousby, The Crime and Mystery Book. A Readers Companion (1997); Keating, Writing
Crime Fiction (1988); Ward & Trent, The Cambridge History of English and American
Literature (2000); and VanSpanckeren, Outline of American Literature (2004).

The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative

competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most
complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the
guidelines in B.O.E. (2004) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; the Council of Europe, Modern
Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of reference
(1998); and van Ek and Trim, Vantage (2001). Other sources include Enciclopedia Larousse
2000 (2000); Enciclopedia Encarta CD Rom (2004); and Encyclopedia of World Literature in
the 20th Century (1999).

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2. THE NORTH AMERICAN BLACK NOVEL AND THE ENGLISH DETECTIVE
NOVEL.

So, Chapter 2 namely offers an overview of the North American black novel and the English
detective novel. In doing so, we shall approach first both types in terms of (1) common features
within crime fiction, regarding (a) main elements and (b) main literary sources. Then we shall
examine (2) the English detective novel in terms of (a) definition; (b) a parallel presentation of
historical and literary background, which will show to what extent history and literature are
interrelated in (i) the nineteenth and (ii) the twentieth century up to the present day. With this
background in mind we are ready to examine how this reality is shown by (c) the most
representative figures in this field under the figure of P.D. James and other less relevant authors.
We shall also examine (3) the American black novel in terms of (a) definition; (b) a parallel
presentation of historical and literary background in (i) the nineteenth and (ii) the twentieth
century up to the present day; and (c) the most representative figures in this field : (i) Samuel
Dashiell Hammett and (ii) Raymond Thornton Chandler.

2.1. Crime fiction: common features.

2.1.1. Main elements.

As a branch of crime fiction 1 , the detective fiction, has similar features to any other fiction genre
in terms of content, elements or characteristics. Actually, the term fiction is used to describe
works of information created from the imagination and, in contrast to non-fiction, which makes
factual claims, it may be partly based on factual occurrences but always contain imaginary
content. Hence detective fiction is a combination of imaginary events and religious, historical,
social or psychological facts taken from reality.

Regarding elements, thus plots (and subplot), characters (protagonists, antagonists), conflicts,
climax, resolution, and structure, this fictional genre also shares most elements with other types
of fiction, though the plot usually centers around an investigation by a detective, usually in the
form of the investigation of a murder. A common feature is that the main character (the
investigator) is usually unmarried with some source of income other than a regular job, and

1
It is worth noting that the term fiction includes many different subgenres, for instance, within crime writing we
include spy thrillers, detective stories, and crime novels, namely. Other subgenres are: fictional realm, fictional
characters, film, classical novel, clerical fiction, spy fiction, science fiction, fantasy fiction, childrens fiction, and
interactive fiction.

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frequently has an assistant, who is asked to make all kinds of apparently irrelevant inquiries, and
acts as an audience surrogate for the explanation of the mystery at the end of the story. It may
also be an archetypal gossipy spinster, such as Agatha Christies Miss Marple.

In addition, some typical features of this type of fiction are, broadly speaking, an apparently
insoluble crime, uncooperative or dim-witted police, the detective (often an amateur), who may
be eccentric, the detectives confident, who helps to clarify the problems, a variety of suspects
and carefully laid red herrings to put the reader off the scent, a suspect who appears guilty from
circumstantial evidence, and a resolution, often startling and unsuspected, in which the detective
reveals how he has found out the culprit (Byron, 1990).

Other key points that must be included in a good detective novel for it to be successful are given
by Encarta (2004), for instance, the detective is rarely the first on the crime scene; forensic
reports; rules and regulations to be follow by the witnesses; suspects arrested and kept in
custody, usually wrongly; pressure from senior officers to show progress; a large investigating
team (two, three or four main characters, plus other officers to order about); specific places to
discuss or think about the case (usually pubs, night clubs, parks); informants; political pressure
when the suspects are prominent figures; internal hostility from comrades when the suspects are
fellow police officers; pressure from the media (tv, newspapers) to come up with an answer; and
interesting and unusual cars driven by the principal detective.

Similarly, following Keating (1994), the traditional elements in the detective story are: the
apparently perfect crime, the evident suspect accused wrongly, the powers of observation and
superior mind of the detective, and the surprising denouncement, in which the detective reveals
the clues followed in the investigation. Also, a constant in these stories is that initial conviction
and evidences are irrelevant.

2.1.2. Main sources.

Although the golden age of detective fiction in Britain and America is set up in the 1920s (the
interwar years), it did not spring into being in its current form in the twentieth century. Rather, it
evolved over time, beginning with stories in which the reader was not a participant at all, but a
witness who looked over the detectives shoulder. Both the English detective novel and the
American black novel have traditionally been framed within the classical tradition in the late
Victorian period and modernism, respectively.

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Similarly, they both had their highest point in the 1920s during the interwar years, and had a
revival in the 1960s, first, in Great Britain under P.D. James and then in America, under the
figures of D. Hammett and R. Chandler. Yet, it is necessary to trace back in history to find out
about the main literary sources of both types of novel. In doing so, we shall review both the
history and literary background at the same time so as to better understand why the predecessors
of crime fiction decided to write about detective stories.

As mentioned above, a true detective story must include several elements, among which we find
the element of detection before the crime is solved. Though not in Britain, there are two early
works which used this element before Wilkie Collins in Great Britain and Edgar Allan Poe in
the United States in the nineteenth century. We refer, first of all, to a XVIth-century Italian tale
that was translated into French in 1719 by the Chevalier de Mailly, Le voyage et les aventures
des trois princes de Sarendip (translated into English as The Travels and Adventures of Three
Princes of Sarendip, 1722); and secondly, to the French writer Voltaire, who also achieved
similar deductive feats in Zadig (1747), in which the hero describes a horse that has never seen
(Encarta, 2004).

Later on, Gothic novels of terror written in the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth
century were also regarded as literary sources, but were eventually dismissed as such because
their mystery depended more on their isolated, medieval- like setting and gloomy atmosphere
than on a legitimate mystery. For instance, Jane Austens Northanger Abbey (1798, published
posthumously 1818), Horace Walpoles Castle of Otranto: a Gothic Story (1764), William
Beckfords Vathek (1786), Mrs Anne Radcliffes The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794), or Matthew
Gregory Lewiss The Monk (1795). Since these works only use elements of detection, we do not
consider them to be true detective stories, but the trigger for it.

However, there is one author who deserves an honorable place among the detective storys
predecessors before Wilkie Collins, that is, the English philosopher William Godwin. The
reason is that his work, The Adventures of Caleb Williams (1794), already accounts for the
stereotype of characters in detective fiction, since among its leading characters are an amateur
investigator (motivated by curiosity) and an implacable police spy. On the other side of the
Atlantic, Edgar Allan Poe masterfully drew all these influences together and marked the
beginning of the American black novel for more than a century afterward.

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2.2. The English detective novel.

2.2.1. Definition.

First of all, the English detective novel is to be framed within the field of crime fiction which, in
turn, is to be included in the literary genre of fiction. It is defined as a tale that features a
mystery and/or the commission of a crime, emphasizing the search for a solution. The detective
story is distinguished from other forms of fiction by the fact that it is a puzzle (Encarta, 2004).
This puzzle is related to baffling circumstances, logical investigation, a series of clues, and
deductive reasoning, among others so as to direct the readers attention to the circumstances
surrounding the crime rather than to the event itself.

Note that the English detective novel is often called a whodunit (also spelled whodunit in the
US), which is regarded as the most widespread subgenre of the detective novel. It is used where
great ingenuity is exercised in revealing the basic method of the murder in such a manner as to
simultaneously conceal it from the readers, until the end of the book, when the method and
culprit are revealed.

2.2.2. Historical and literary background.

2.2.2.1. The nineteenth century.

Nineteenth-century Great Britain is to be politically framed upon the Georgian succession line
under the figures of George III (1760-1820), king of Great Britain and Ireland; his son, George
IV (1820-1830), who was succeeded by his brother, William IV; and finally, by the accession of
Queen Victoria to the throne when her uncle, William IV dies in 1837. Victoria would reign
from 1837 to 1901 and would be the longest reigning British monarch.

Broadly speaking, the Georgian period had to face the previous-century consequences of the
Industrial Revolution, the Seven Years War (1756-1763), the United States of Americas
declaration of independence (1776) and consequently, the American Civil War (1778-1783),
and the French Revolution (1789), which were to influence the literature of the pre-Romantic
period, and for our purposes, the main literary sources of crime fiction. This period was one of
change since the very infrastructure of Britain was changing and Britain became the worlds
first modern society, not only in agricultural developments which were followed by industrial
innovation, but also in urbanisation and the need for better communications.

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So, regarded as a period of financial, naval and military strength, in which the British
government tended to prevail at political, social, economic, and technological level, the
Georgian period was also known at literary level. In general, the early Georgian literature dealt
with art, music and a variety of genres throught the century (hence the wide variety of authors
who produced a flourishing scholarly and popular works that we still consider classics)
whereas the late Georgian literature showed other features distinct to the previous puritanism
and mannerism.

In general terms, these events had their effects in every corner of Europe, and in none more
strongly than England were reactions were soon heard from the early Romantic writers showing
their disappointment, disillusion, dejection and despair as a result of the unexpected political
developments. In addition, these changes were also to be felt at social level since the long war
brought inevitable misery, low wages, unemployment, and heavy taxation from the government
which gave rise to fiery resentment and fierce demands on the part of the people (Albert, 1990).

On the other hand, during Victorias reign, the revolution in industrial practices continued to
change British life, bringing about urbanisation, a good communications network and wealth. In
addition, Britain became a champion of Free Trade across her massive Empire, and
industrialisation and trade were glorified in the Great Exhibitions. Yet, by the turn of the
century, Britains industrial advantage was being challenged successfully by other nations such
as the USA across the ocean and Germany on the continent.

The effects of the industrial revolution were also felt in the nineteenth-century Great Britain at
social level, and again, in connections between industrialization, labor unions, and movements
for social reform in England, Western Europe, and the United States. Also, it is namely noticed
in the pace and extent of industrialization in Great Britain and the United States in the latter half
of the 19th century. Actually, up to 1837 the main political consequences on social events are
closely connected to this move from the country to the towns and the division of labour in the
industry market.

Also, industrialization shaped social class and labor organizations in terms of connections
between industrialization and the rise of new types of labor organizations and mobilization. In
fact, the nineteenth-literature reveals to a high extent the emergence and conditions of new
social classes during the industrial period through relevant literary figures, such as Charles
Dickens and his works. In particular, specific conditions for children employed by 19th-century
England before and after major legislation passed in 1833, 1842, and 1847; the wide variety of

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organizations created by working-class peoples in England, Western Europe, and the United
States in response to the conditions.

On the other hand, other features reflected in the literature of the time are the policy of imperial
expansion reached its widest point during the reign of Queen Victoria (18371901), migration
waves all over Europe because of the wish to make states with one nationality, the standard of
living of some members of the labouring population, the role that women played in society
through institutions such as charities, churches, local politics, and the arts, especially music; the
further growth of the factory system, and the colonial administration.

As stated before, the Victorian Age includes several changes different in nature and, in this
respect, the literary background presents a great variety of aspects. Thus, the literary period is
characterized by its morality, which to a great extent is a natural revolt against the grossness of
the earlier Regency, and the influence of the Victorian Court. In addition, literary productions
are affected by the intellectual developments in science, religion, and politics.

Also, the new education acts of the period made education compulsory, which rapidly produced
an enormous reading public. Actually, the cheapening of printing and paper increased the
demand for books among which the most popular form was the novel. Finally, we also observe
a strong literary interaction between American and European writers (specially in polit ical and
philosopical writings), hence the influence of European crime fiction in the United States.

The Victorian literature is characterized by the telling of every detail, as in photography so as to

get a real image of the object or person described. The fact may suggest concepts of clarity,
precision, and certainty, which are reflected in the main literary productions of the period,
namely divided into two groups : main themes and le sser themes. Within the former we include
political, philosophical and social issues, and within the latter we find several miscellaneous
subjects, for instance, historical novel, tales, class light novels, religiuos, humorous,
translations, essays, and biographies, art, politics, economics and politics writings and, for our
purposes, the subgenres of mystery and detective stories.

Within this background, the subgenre of detective fiction includes several authors who were
fascinated by the new detective force not only in Great Britain but also on the continent. Yet,
perhaps the most important stimulus to the development of detective fiction is reflected in the
Mmoires (1828) of Franois Eugne Vidocq of France who, in his early life was a thief and
imprisoned several times, whereas he later turned police agent and became the first chief of the
Sret, the famed Parisian detective bureau. In his initial volume he describes his investigating
methods in great detail by means of an energetic though embroidered style, and exciting

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exploits while catching criminals. Further instances of detective fiction and, in particular, of
analytical deduction are applied by the French author Alexandre Dumas in some of the Three
Musketeers (1844) episodes, and to a lesser extent in the series of books entitled La comdie
humaine (The Human Comedy) by the French writer Honor de Balzac.

At home, detective stories began to flourish as a popular form of literature after the
establishment of regular, paid police forces and their accompanying detective departments.
Soon anonymous writers with little police experience started to write thinly veiled fictions
where detectives became protagonists in cheap books such as Recollections of a Detective-
Police Officer (1852), Diary of an Ex -Detective (1960), and The Lady Detective (1961). Other
writers also went on detective investigations such as Charles Dickens in his work Bleak House
(1852-1853), where he created the convincing character Inspector Bucket of the Detective. As
expected, Buckets investigations follow the Victorian parameters of clarity, precision, and
certainty.

However, it was Dickenss longtime friend and occasional collaborator, the English Wilkie
Collins (1824-1889), who is credited with the first great mystery novel The Woman in White
(1860) and is sometimes referred to as the grandfather of English detective fiction. He was
similarly interested in the activities of the detective bureau and, actually, his novel The
Moonstone (1868), was defined by T.S. Eliot as the first and greatest of English detective
novels. In it, Collins patterned the rose-loving sleuth Sergeant Cuff after the real-life Inspector
Wicher and showed him making surprising but logical deductions from the given facts
(Encarta, 2004).

The only weakness of this work relies on the fact that the investigation is not the entire focus of
the novel, but part of a larger narrative. In this sense, the same qualification can be made about
the use of detectives in other sensation novels, such as Ellen Woods The Trail of the Serpent
(1861) and Mary Elizabeth Braddons Lady Audleys Secret (1862). Later on, by the mid-1880s
many authors, including B.L. Farjeon, Thomas W. Speight, and Fergus Hume were writing
genuine detective novels, for instance, Humes The Mystery of a Hansom Cab (1886).

However, although technically preceded by Charles Felixs The Notting Hill Mystery (1865),
The Moonstone can claim to have established the genre with several classic features of the
twentieth-century detective story: a country house robbery, a celebrated investigator, bungling
local constabulary, detective enquiries, false suspects, the least likely suspect, a rudimentary
murder in a locked room, a reconstruction of the crime, and a final twist in the plot.

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Yet, it was in the late 1880s that the English author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930)
created the greatest of all fictional characters, the detective Sherlock Holmes and his friend Dr
Watson. Following Encarta (2004), the first Sherlock Holmes novel, A Study in Scarlet
appeared in 1887 and was followed by a series of short stories, published through the 1890s,
that made Holmes and his assistant, Dr. Watson, household names. The most famous Holmes
stories include The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (1892) and The Hound of the Baskervilles
(1902), and the popularity of the Holmes tales was such that Doyles determined attempt to kill
off his hero in the short story The Final Problem (1893) had to be abandoned. With the
explanation that the great detective had disappeared, not died, Doyle later resurrected Holmes
and continued his adventures.

The chief attractions of these stories nowadays are their period charm and the characterization
of Holmes himself. Arrogant, omniscient, and self-absorbed, he comes through notonly with
wonderful clarity but also, surprisingly enough, as an extremely symapthetic character. So, we
may say that Conan Doyle actually set the pattern for the great detective and was largely
responsible for the subsequent popularity of the detective short story. Among his more
distinguished followers in England were Arthur Morrison, who invented Investigator Martin
Hewitt; Baroness Orczy, who created the nameless logician known as the Old Man in the
Corner; R. Austin Freeman, who introduced the first genuine scientific detective, Dr. John
Thorndyke, and orginated the inverted story in which the reader knew every detail of the crime;
Ernest Bramah, whose character Max Carrados was the first blind detective; and M. McDonnell
Bodkin, who created the first detective family 2 .

2.2.2.2. The twentieth century up to the present day.

Within the first decade, still within the Holmes tradition, many of the short stories written
during the period ranging roughly from the appearance of Sherlock Holmes to the end of World
War I (1914-1918) can be read with pleasure today (Encarta, 2004). Unfortunately, this cannot
be said of the novels, though with very few exceptions, for instance, the stories of Mary Roberts
Rinehart, Carolyn Wells, and Marie Belloc Lowndes which, although best-sellers in their own
day, look very old-fashioned now. Thus, Lowndess The Lodger (1913), an interpretation of the
Jack the Ripper murders, which was successful as a stage play and a motion picture.

2
Bodkins main Works are Paul Beck (1897), Dora Myrl, The Lady Detective (1900), The Capture of Paul Beck
(1909), and Young Beck (1912).

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Moreover, among the mystery novels of this period that continue to be notable, we include those
of A.E.W. Mason featuring Inspector Hanaud, the bulky detective from the Sret in At the
Villa Rose (1910), which was a detective novel far ahead of its time, as well as his later work,
The House of the Arrow (1924). Another author was Gaston Leroux, who is still regarded as one
of the most ingenious locked-room puzzlers ever devised, for instance, in The Mystery of the
Yellow Room (1909). Also, E.C. Bentley who was one of the first in featuring the detetective as
a human being rather than a reasoning machine. For instance, in his work Trents Last Case
(1913), he makes the detective fall in love with the main suspect and also introduces the
multiple-solutions theme that would become important during next decade. Unfortunately, the
World War I brought a marked change in the nature of the detective story in the sense that the
same magazines that published so many of the Holmes stories, declined in popularity.

The years before the First World War coincide with the accession of Victorias son, Edward VII
(1841-1910) to the crown, and his reign was known as the Edwardian Age (1901-1910) or the
age of the House of Saxe -Coburg-Gotha. Edward was the only British monarch who reigned for
nine years at the beginning of the modern age in the early years of the 20th century. He was
replaced on his death by King George V (1865-1936), who replaced the German-sounding title
with that of the English Windsor during the First World War. Actually, the Windsor title
remained in the family under the figure of Edward VIII, Duke of Windsor (1894-1936) , and, as
we know, the family name is still present in the current Royal Family. He was followed by
George VI, who reigned from 1936 to 1952; and since then the English Crown has been
represented by the figure of Elizabeth II.

Broadly speaking, under the rule of Edward VII, known as Edward the Peacemaker for his
diplomacy in Europe, the kingdom of Britain still felt secure after the Boer War despite the
growing forces of discontent and resentment felt by most members of British society due to the
international situation. It must be borne in mind that the balance of power in so many areas was
shifting in a Europe because of the rise of a united Germany, and in a world in which the United
States would soon dominate. Yet, the death of King Edward would mark the dividing line
between the security and stability of the nineteenth century and the uncertainties of the
twentieth, not only in Great Britain but also on the rest of the world.

Following Laurousse (2000), the First World War came about the result of a breakdown in the
European diplomatic system and of the profound economic changes that had been at work
within European society. As stated above, Englands domestic problems had dictated foreign
policy decisions, such as not to see Germany defeat France again or to lose her imperialist
position as the worlds leading power. Eventually, World War I broke out in August 1914, when

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Germany declared war on Russia, and trouble in the Balkans precipitated the outbreak of
hostilities, which had been stewing for a long time.

Regarding Englands domestic policies in the pre-War years, the following major changes are to
be mentioned. Economically, the crisis on the question of tariff reform, whic h divided the
Conservative and Liberal parties; in politics, the rapid rise of men from humble origins to high
positions in the government; the greatest industrial unrest in Britains history (1911) where
nationwide strikes of dock workers, railway men and miners brought the country to a standstill;
and finally, in social terms, the passing of the National Insurance Act to ensure the welfare of its
citizensby means of which the worker, the employer and the government would contribute to a
general fund to pay for free medical treatment, sick pay, disability and maternity benefits.

Moreover, this flood of reforms which took place under the label of socialist experiment
brought about important changes in society, such as the introduction of a salary for the Me mbers
of Parliament (M.P.s), the entry of working class members to Parliament; the Union Trades
liability for strike damage, and the freedom to use their funds in politics. Hours and conditions
of labor were also regulated, slum clearances effected, eighty-three labor exchanges set up, and
old-age pensions inaugurated as the first installment of social security. All this cost a great deal
of money and, as we stated above, came from the pockets of the rich (tariff reform).

Actually, these reforms were further incensed by the Home Rule Bill of 1912 and, since Irish
M.P.s wanted their reward in Home Rule, they helped the Liberals gain power. Yet, the
Conservatives did not agree with the idea of Britain splitting up in the face of increasing
German hostility and defined this situation as ludicrous. Hence they were aided by the
Protestant forces of Ulster (most of Northern Ireland), who were equally alarmed at the prospect
of being ruled from Dublin. As a result, major civil war loomed in Ireland, and in the mutiny at
the Curragh the British Army regulars made it clear that they would not fight against their
brothers in Ulster. In 1914, the Home Rule Bill was finally pushed through, but the outbreak of
the Great War pushed everything else aside.

On the other hand, regarding foreign policy, it is worth mentioning that by the turn of the
century, Prime Minister Arthur Balfour (1902-1905) saw that Britain needed to strengthen its
defenses after the humiliations of the Boer War and a Committee of Imperial Defence was
created. Hence the Civil Service was itself enriched by a steady stream of educated, qualified
young men and Britains naval defenses were also improved so as to further meet the threat
from the new German fleet. Moreover, it had become increasingly apparent to many, both in
and out of government, that the possession of an Empire would not cure Britains domestic

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problems but, on the contrary, could only waste the nations resources (the costly adventures in
Afghanistan, the Sudan and South Africa), sorely needed to aid its own people and its own land.

Yet, the troubles began out of the British Isles, in Bosnia, with the assassination of the
Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June, 1914 since, after it, the military chiefs of many nations were
all ready to go to war. Then two main events created a huge dilemma for Britain: first, Austria
declared war on Serbia (with the Kaisers support) and, second, Germany declared war on
Russia and on France. This meant that Britain should give full military support to France (and
her allies) and also to stay out of Europe altogether in a policy of complete neutrality. Yet,
Germany violated the neutrality of Belgium in August and eventually Britain went to war on the
side of France.

Yet, the period of inter-wars (1918-1939) was, according to Albert (1990:507), overshadowed
by the two World Wars the after-effects of the first and the forebodings of the second. After
the Treaty of Versailles [1919] attention in England was still mainly concentrated on foreign
affairs- the growing pains of the new League of Nations, uncertainty in the Middle East, and
troubles in India and Ireland. The Treaties of Locarno (1925) diminished, at least temporarily,
anxieties in Europe, and home affairs began again to dominate English political thought.

As stated above, the final treaty of Versailles marked the beginning of the inter-War period and
therefore, the reparations in all the nations which took place in the war. Yet, the war-guilt
clauses were later seen as a future cause of discontent since they later became an excuse for
Herr Hitler to begin his efforts to countermand them. The United States did not ratify the treaty,
and the disunity that prevailed after its signing did not bode well for the future of Europe.
Eventually, the United States and Russia did not join the League of Nations that met for the first
time in Geneva in November, 1920.

Broadly speaking, the inter-War period is namely characterized by three main factors: economic
weakness, social conflicts and political reorganization. Hence it is regarded as a period of
rehabilitation, grave economic conditions for the British Empire and the introduction of new
economic measures to improve social welfare; social conflicts (social agitation, the introduction
of new social statements), and politically, the reorganization of the Commonwealth and Irish
problems.

Within this background in mind, the short story was no longer the predominant form and had
few specialist practitioners, although H.C. Baileys character Reggie Fortune was a skillful
newcomer. The novel was thought to give more scope for plot development and surprise, and in

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what is often called the Golden Age, which coincides with the inter-war years from 1918 to
1939- dozens of new great detectives arose, several of whom were created by women. In fact,
the first detective book published in this decade was The Mysterious Affair at Styles (1920),
whose author was the English novelist Agatha Christie (1891-1976).

She is regarded as the first lady of crime fiction and also the heir of Doyles tradition in the
1920s and 1930s. She is worldwide famous due to a three-fold creation: first, the masterful
detective Hercule Poirot, a tiny, weary Belgian, whose eccentricities did not please the reading
public; the character of Miss Marple, a perspicacious old spinster so masterful as the former;
and a masterly constructed plot, which is one of her best known characteristics in all her novels,
particularly reflected in The Murder of Roger Ackroyd (1926) and Murder in the Orient Express
(1934).

The list of authors who followed is a long one and includes in the 1920s Freeman Wills Crofts,
who created the character Inspector French; Ellery Queen, with detective Ellery Queen;
Anthony Berkeley, with the creation of Roger Sheringham; and Philip Macdonald, with
Anthony Gethryn. A second wave during the 1930s includes John Dickson, who created Sir
Henry Merivale; Erle Stanley Gardner, who is the creator of Perry Mason; Margery Allingham,
with Albert Campion; Ngaio Marsh, with Roderick Alleyn; Michael Innes, with John Appleby;
Nicholas Blake, with Nigel Strangeways; and Rex Stout, with Nero Wolfe.

All were British or American writers, for on the European continent the detective story had not
fulfilled the promise of continuity due to the politic al and social background. Yet, the 1920s and
1930s, the British detective novel flourished and set the standard for its type. These books were
meant to be entertainments, games where the reader matched wits with the author, so their
hallmarks were cleverness of murder and detection methods, graphic violence or sociological
comment kept to a minimum, stylish writing, and a satisfactory conclusion where order was
restored to the community by an essentially honorable detective to confirm the readers notion
that the English way of life was the best on offer.

Actually, detective-story writers were now taking the rules of their craft very seriously, and two
of them, Monsignor Ronald Knox and S.S. Van Dine, wrote rules to be obeyed by detective-
story writers. Founded in 1928 the Detection Club was dedicated to the cultivation of the art.
Members swore to abide by a set of rules of fair play with the reader: no concealing of vital
clues allowed; the detective solves the crime by his or her wits; no divine inspiration or
supernatural intervention allowed; the Kings English must be honored. This club still exists,
although the rules have been abandoned. Among its original members, we mention G.K.

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Chesterton (first president), Dorothy L. Sayers, Agatha Christie, S.S. Van Dine, Anthony
Berkeley, Gladys Mitchell, Miles Burton/John Rhode, Freeman Wills Croft, and Father Ronald
Knox.

After the WWII, the uncertainty of the War- and post-War years is reflected in the concern of
many novelists about the disintegration of society, and their lack of positive optimism, while the
frequency with which violence and sadism appear as themes is not surprising in a world grown
accustomed to the thought of genocide, global conflict, and nuclear destruction (Albert,
1990:563). Even nowadays, at the turn of century, globalisation, uncertainty and the question of
terrorism are often reflected in literature as well as the positive development of Europe under
the strong ties of the European Union.

Generally speaking, the post-war years brought about a general feeling for change. British
population was resentful of unemployment, asked for the nations post-war restructuring, and
did not trust the Conservative government any more since they failed to tackle the enormous
political, social and economic problems. Thus, at a political level, the end of the Second World
War brought a new Labour government and the desire for independence on behalf of almost all
of Britains colonies (India and Pakistan) though most retained ties with Britain through the
Commonwealth; at a social level, countless thousands of returning soldiers and sailors wanted a
turn-around in the status quo and the government promoted the expansion of the welfare state
including the establishment of a National Health Service.

Moreover, despite the fact that Britains political and economic history has been somewhat
mixed in the latter half of the twentieth century, in some areas, the country and its population
have continued to lead the world. Actually, the 1960s witnessed modern Britain through the
eyes of a more permissive society, increased consumer confidence, radical political protest and
a blossoming of popular music which spread across the world; at economic levels, Britains
economic position relative to many other industrialised countries continued to decline, although
external trade remained extremely important to the country (signified by the entering of the
European Community in 1973).

The 1990s and early twenty-first century coincide with a Conservative and Labour Government
under the rule of John Major and Tony Blair, respectively. First of all, we shall deal with John
Major as prime minister (1990-97), who was committed to keep Thatcherism alive and, hence,
his administration is likely to be remembered at least as much for its failures. Yet, he
successfully steered the government through conflict in the Gulf, negotiated an opt-out for

16/ 43
Britain at the later stages of the European Monetary Union (December, 1991), and rejected the
social chapter at the Maastricht Summit meeting of the European Council.

Regarding Britains presence in the European Union, after much diplomatic insight, Britain and
Ireland formally entered the EU in January 1993. On the one hand, Ireland showed enthusiastic
about being a member of Europe since it obtained a great economic benefit whereas Britain still
showed hostility on the fact of being governed by the Common Market. Its geographical
features seemed to be the reason of former hostilities but this shadow disappeared when France
and Britain agreed in building a high-speed rail tunnel to end with isolationism (1986).
Nevertheless, the economic and political relationship with Europe remained a divisive issue in
the government. In fact, important controversies are still evident nowadays, regarding world
trade, agricultural and fishery policy, audiovisual trade barriers, and more recently, the attitude
towards the conflict of Iraq.

At home, leading Tories feared that British industry would be subject to European regulations in
working conditions and labor relations and, therefore, hundreds of Tory candidates were in open
rebellion over Majors fence straddling on Europe. Finally, despite the fact that the economy
was recovering and inflation was low (due to the sale of tens of thousands of public housing at
bargain prices) and the lowest unemployment in Europe, Labour won a landslide victory in
1997. Tony Blair was thus able to inherit an economy free from the dreaded British disease
regarding militant trade unions, over-regulation, and vacillating government policies.

Tony Blair then became prime minister in May 1997 (up to nowadays) and the generally
favourable economic conditions inherited from the previous administration helped to ensure that
the Government did not experience the economic difficulties which had challenged previous
Labour administrations. As a result of manifesto promises (and subsequent referenda) both
Scotland and Wales were granted forms of administrative and political devolution as the
millennium closed. Yet, the most important events under the Labour Government are the
question of Scotland and Wales assembly independence (1997), the peace negotiations in
Northern Ireland (1998), the question of the House of Lords (1999), the conflict over Kosovo
(1999), and the current conflict of Iraq (2004).

First, the question of Scotland and Wales namely lies on the search for independence, that is,
asking for their own Assembly. On the one hand, Scotland, though very much a minority party
represented by the Scottish National Party (SNP), still suffered from the stigma attached to the
very idea of nationalism during war years. So the SNP begun to build its organizational skills
and work on political strategy; similarly, this intense activity was also carried out in Wales by
members of the Party of Wales (Plaid Cymru). In both cases, discontent in both areas of Britain

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led to a feverish proliferation of committees soon at work in Westminster looking at further
measures of devolution for Scotland and Wales.

Also, problems in Europe remained for Tony Blair and, in addition, there was the age-old
question of what to do about the House of Lords. Regarding the latter issue, the very idea of
non-elected, hereditary legislators seemed ridiculous in a country that prided itself on its
democratic institutions since the Lords had often obstructed legislation that would have surely
benefited the nation. Their defense of ancient privilege had often blinded them to the realities of
British political life since the time of Oliver Cromwell. Their record on Ireland was appalling,
with their obstruction of Home Rule Bills, but it could be matched by many other areas in which
they had excelled in their obstinacy.

Also, th House of Lords needed some drastic changes. The days of complacency were over. In
1967, the Labour Party announced its plans to reduce the powers of the Lords and to eliminate
its hereditary basis. Many Labour M.P.s wished to abolish the Upper House altogether, but a
compromise was reached: only minor changes were effected. In the late 1990s, Tony Blair
grapped with the problem of the Lords, a problem that perhaps exemplifies the struggle of
Britain to adjust itself to the modern world by preventing hereditary members from obtaining
their parliamentary rights.

Also, a large-scale conflict in Kosovo (1999) broke out between the Serbian government and
Kosovar Albanians when this autonomous region within Serbia, sought independence. Later on,
since violence continued, a ceasefire was agreed in October 1998 to allow refugees to find
shelter in Europe. Yet, the Serbian government refused the proposed settlement at a peace
conference held in Paris (19 March 1999) and five days later, NATO forces (which were
formerly devised to be defensive and not offensive) led by Britain and the United States began
air attacks on Serbia.

Finally, the current question of Iraq suggests two main points, first, that this issue is not new,
since it started several years ago; and second, that one thing was clear from this event: that
Britain still had not made up its min d whether its first political loyalty lay across the Atlantic,
or in Europe (McDowall, 1995:174).

Yet, as the years passed, the great detective, that egocentric amateur, became slightly more
human, and the attendant Watson-like character almost vanished. But it was firmly believed
that, there was a great difficulty about letting real human beings into a detective story. Thus,
alhough the clasical detective story produced masterpieces of watertight plotting, the most

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representative masterpieces after the WWII are closely related to the name of the English
detective writer P.D. James.

2.2.3. Most representative authors: P.D. James.

Phyllis Dorothy James, Baroness James of Holland Park, was born on 3 August 1920 and was
the eldest daughter of an Inland Revenue Official. is the most representative contemporary
British writer of crime fiction. When she was eleven, her family moved to Cambridge and there
she attended the Cambridge High School for Girls. She also worked for the National Health
Service (1949-68) and the Civil Service until 1979 when she began to work as a full-time writer.

It is against the backdrop of Britains vast bureaucracies such as the criminal justice system and
the health services where many of P.D. James mystery novels take place, since these places are
arenas in which James honed her skills for decades starting in the 1940s when she went to work
in hospital administration to help support her ailing husband and two children. In 1968 she
entered the Home Office taking the open competition for older Civil Service candidates and
served as a Principal, first in the Police Department and then in theCriminal Law Department. It
was in the former job that she was concerned iwth forensic science service, so useful for her
future novels.

In 1979 she decided to retire and devote herself to full time writing, but she could not fullfill her
promise since she continued on the labour scene. She was a Governor for the BBC (1988-93),
and Chairman of the Literature Advisory Panel at both the Arts Council of England (1988-92)
and the British Council (1988-93). She was awarded the OBE (Officer of the Order of the
British Empire) in 1983 and created a Life Peer (Baroness James of Holland Park) in 1991. The
same year she was made a DBE (Dame Commander of Order of the British Empire). In 1986
she was made an Associate Fellow of Downing College , Cambridge; and Baroness James is also
a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature, a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, and chaired
the Booker Prize Panel of Judges in 1987.

She has also been President of the Society of Authors since 1997 and since then she has
received the following honorary degrees: Doctor of Letters from the Universities of
Buckingham 1992; Hertfordshire 1994; Glasgow 1995; Durham 1998, Portsmouth 1999. In
addition she has been awarded with Doctor of Literature from the University of London 1993;
Doctor of the University, Essex 1996; and has been awarded major prizes for her crime writing
in Great Britain, America, Italy and Scandinavia. In 1999 she received the Mystery Writers of
America Grandmaster Award for long term achievement.

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It is worth noting that she is published widely overseas including the USA, Canada, France,
Germany, Italy, Spain, Japan, Holland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Portugal, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia and Argentina. More recently, she was made an Associate Fellow, Cambridge
(1986) and an Honorary Fellow of Downing College (2000). She is also an Honorary Fellow of
St Hildas College, Oxford (1996) and of Girton College, Cambridge (2000).

Regarding her main productions in terms of themes, characters and style, it has been noted by
many critics that James has upgraded and expanded the entire genre of mystery writing; and that
many of her books, especially the police procedurals starring Dalgliesh, the poetry writing
detective, fit the mainstream novel criteria as much as they do the detective genre. James
strengths are characterization and her ability to construct atmosphere and stories rich in detail.
Also, her many years of experience within the already mentioned bureaucracies add a complex
stratum of insiders knowledge to her writing.

Her style is said to be literate, her plots complicated, her clues abundant and fair, and her
solutions, a surprise. Among her most popular detective novels we include: Cover Her Face
(1962), which introduced her Scotland Yard detective Adam Dalgliesh, who is described by
some other characters in the novel as tall, dark and handsome, an unusual appearance for a
detective. In this work, she uses an accurate prose full of emotional charge as well as in
characterization. Next year she wrote A Mind to Murder (1963) with similar characteristics; then
An Unsuitable Job for a Woman (1972), which introduced her female sleuth called Cordelia
Gray, a self-reliant independent 22-year-old detective who owns a detective agency in the Soho
and goes through melodramatic moments. Here it is shown the feminine view of the detective
work.

In The Black Tower (1975), she introduces classical detective story considerations and insights
on the subject of death, though she always tried to avoid it; Death of an Expert Witness (1977);
Innocent Blood (1980), a successful mainstream novel in which she tackled a subject and a
theme difficult to find in contemporary fiction: the nature of love. These works were followed
by The Children of Men (1992) and Death in Holy Orders (2001), which displays an insightful
grasp of the inner workings of church hierarchy and concerns murder at an Anglican theological
college on the East Anglian coast. In this work she features the Scotland Yard policeman
Commander Adam Dalgliesh. Finally, her latest Commander Dalgliesh mystery is The Murder
Room (2003).

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2.3. The North American black novel.

2.3.1. Definition.

Similarly to the English detective novel, the North American black novel is to be framed within
the field of crime fiction and, therefore, defined as a tale that features a mystery and/or the
commission of a crime, emphasizing the search for a solution and is distinguished from other
forms of fiction by the fact that it is a puzzle (Encarta, 2004). The baffling circumstances,
logical investigation, a series of clues, and deductive reasoning, among others are shared with
the English novel so as to direct the readers attention to the circumstances surrounding the
crime rather than to the event itself. Yet, thought the English detective story is known as a
whodunit, the North American black novel was known as the hard-boiled detective stories.

2.3.2. Historical and literary background.

Yet, the main difference between the English detective novel and the North American black
novel relies not on the sources (since both of them were inspired on other European works,
namely French) or the content (since they both deal with the same topic s), but the time in which
each type was developed in literary and historical terms. Thus the English type is to be framed
within the classical novel in the very early twentieth century whereas the North American type
it is framed within modernism between the 1920s and the 1940s.

2.2.2.1. The nineteenth century.

Historically speaking, this period coincides in its second half with the presidential election of
Abraham Lincoln (1860), which took place in an atmosphere of great tension since it was not
received in the same way in the North and South, and as a result, the Civil War (1861-1865),
which has been also called the main American social revolution, a watershed in the rise of
modern industrial society in the United States and as the result of free-labor industrial
capitalism, and the resolution of sectional conflict in the North. This war was fought between
the northern states, popularly referred to as the Union, the north, or the Yankees, and the
seceding southern states, commonly referred to as the Confederate States of America, the
Confederacy. the south, or the rebels.

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The aftermath of the Civil War is namely represented by several international and national
events which are interrelated regarding social consequences, which were reflected in the strong
spirit of reform and important social and cultural changes; economic consequences, which
include the emergence of new industrialized fronts in the South and the West as a result of the
late consequences of international events, such as the Industrial Revolution and the imperialist
policy of powerful countries; and finally, the main political consequences in this period.

The period before the Civil War coincides with democratic origins, revolutionary writers and
the beginning of the Romantic period. The triumph of American independence was regarded as
a divine sign of greatness, where military victory fanned nationalistic hopes for a great new
literature. Yet with the exception of outstanding political writing, few works of note appeared
during or soon after the Revolution. Since American books were harshly reviewed in England
and there was an excessive dependence on English literary models, the search for a native
literature became a national obsession.

Whereas Europe could afford the luxury of romanticising its past and finding its ideal in the
pastoral, Americas past was too close. Yet Americas literature was in need of tradition in
which literature could flourish. The American Romanticists created a form that, at first glance,
seems ancient and traditional; they borrowed from classical romance, adapted pastoral themes,
and incorporated Gothic elements. Hence the unique features of American prose fiction are as
follows: separated lovers and womans chastity; an intricate plot, including stories within stories
(hence detective stories); exciting and unexpected chance events; travel to faraway settings;
hidden and mistaken identity; and works to be written in an elaborate and elegant style.

Hence it would take fifty years of accumulated history for America to earn its cultural
independence and to produce the first great generation of American writers: Washington Irving,
James Fenimore Cooper, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Herman Melville,
Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, Walt Whitman, and Emily Dickinson. Americas
literary independence was slowed by a lingering identification with England, an excessive
imitation of English or classical literary models, and difficult economic and political conditions
that hampered publishing.

Then American awareness of literary fashion still lagged behind the English, and fifty years
after their fame in England, English neoclassic writers were still eagerly imitated in America.
Moreover, the challenges of building a new nation attracted talented and educated people to
politics, law, and diplomacy. These pursuits brought honor, glory, and financial security.
Writing, on the other hand, did not pay. Early American writers, now separated from England,

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effectively had no modern publishers, no audience, and no adequate legal protection, so until
1825, most American authors paid printers to publish their work.

On the other hand, British nineteenth-century literature in the Victorian period, that is, from
1837 to 1901 coincides with the late consequences of the British imperialism since the mid-
Victorian period (from 1850 to 1873) saw the highest point of the British imperial expansion,
and economic and political prosperity. Yet, the late Victorian period (from 1873 to 1901) is
associated to a loss of consensus due to the Great Depression (1873) which marks the end of
British economic supremacy and, therefore, the decline of the British empire.

All in all, this literary period is characterized by its morality, which to a great extent is a natural
revolt against the grossness of the earlier Regency, and the influence of the Victorian Court. In
addition, literary productions are affected by the intellectual developments in science, religion,
and politics, where we observe a strong literary interaction between American and European
writers (specially in political and philosopical writings). The Victorian literature is also
characterized by the telling of every detail, as in photography so as to get a real image of the
object or person described. The fact may suggest concepts of clarity, precision, and certainty.
On the contrary, the disadvantages of being close to the object, and of possessing masses of
information about it is the production of copious works.

Within American prose we find different types of productions (novel -fictional and non-
fictional-, literary criticism, periodical literature -political, philosophical-, essays, and other
miscellaneous works which receive scanty notice), but we shall focus on the novel (American
romance) and short story in the United States (namely detective stories). The first fiction writers
used American subjects, historical perspectives, themes of change, and nostalgic tones. They
wrote in many prose genres, initiated new forms, and found new ways to make a living through
literature. With them, American literature began to be read and appreciated in the United States
and abroad.

The Romantic period and, in particular, the Romance form indicated how difficult it was to
create an identit y without a stable society. The self-divided, tragic note in American literature
becomes dominant in the novels, even before the Civil War of the 1860s manifested the greater
social tragedy of a society at war with itself. It is in this background that we find relevant
writers such as Herman Melville and Edgar Allan Poe. Similarly, there is no doubt that the
Victorian era, even in America, was the age of the English novel, namely realistic, thickly
plotted, crowded with characters, and long. By the end of the period, the novel was considered
not only the premier form of entertainment but also a primary means of analyzing and offering

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solutions to social and political problems, only challenged by the revival of realism towards the
end of the century.

The American romance, which shows a literary form in which happy country life is portrayed as
a contrast to the complexity and anxiety of the urban society, as we can see in the American
romancers use of the frontier, Indian society, Arcadian communities, Puritan villages, and
shipboard societies. Hence typical features of romance are the manuscript, the castle, the crime,
religion, deformity, ghosts, magic, blood, which are used as the basis and end of a tale of terror.
The other variety of prose is the short story (namely developed in the next century under the
shape of detective story), which shares the same features as the American romance or gothic
novel, but differs in length (shorter than the novel).

So, within this century, the most important crime-fiction authors before 1880 in the United
States were the American Anna Katharine Green (1846-1935) and Edgar Allan Poe (1809-
1849). It is worth noting that, except for her, there were no notable American detective-story
writers between Poe and the beginning of the 20th century. Green is remembered today as the
mother of detective fictionand gave us Amelia Butterworth, the first spinster sleuth, and Miss
Violet Strange whose success rested on her possession of a clue-sensitive bloodhound. Her most
representative work, The Leavenworth Case (1878), was the first significant detective novel
written by a woman and is said to rank with the works of Edgar Allan Poe, Wilkie Collins and
Emile Gaboriau as a cornerstone of the genre. In this work, she gave the world not only the
main character is Inspector Ebenezer Gryce, who follows a detailed investigation into a
mysterious murder, but also the first literary instance of ballistics testimony. Later on, the last
part of the nineteenth century was dominated by the fictionalized memoirs of Allan Pinkerton,
beginning with The Expressman and the Detective (1874). In 1882, a steady stream of dime-
novel detective adventures began appearing, featuring such characters as Old Sleuth, Old King
Brady, and Nick Carter.

On the other hand, Edgar Allan Poe introduced the first great detective of ficion, C. Auguste
Dupin, an abrupt man, contemptuous of the police, and more like a reasoning machine than a
human being. Poe, though born in Boston, was brought up partly in England (1815-20) by a
childless couple since he lost his parents between 1810-1811. Edgar attended Manor School at
Stoke Newington, and it was there that he first became acquainted with the Gothic literature that
was popular in Europe at the time.

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When Poe returned to Richmond in 1820, he continued his education at private schools,
studying Latin, verse, and oratory, but he was not popular. He was taunted by his peers as the
son of actors since this was a disreputable profession. Fortunately, in 1825, John Allan inherited
a large sum of money, and this abrupt reversal of fortune enabled him to enroll Edgar at the
University of Virginia (1826), but since then his life would be a misfortune. On trying to make
his own way in Boston Poe joined the U.S. Army in 1827 as a common soldier, enlisting under
the fictitious name of Edgar A. Perry.

While he was stationed at Fort Independence, Poe prevailed upon a local publisher to print his
first volume of verses, Tamerlane and Other Poems, By a Bostonian (1827). To these, he would
eventually add six new poems for a volume that would be published in Baltimore under his real
name at the end of 1829. By then, in February 1829, Poes stepmother died, and tragedy struck
Poes life once more since it was the third mother figure in his life to suffer an untimely death.

In 1830 Poe entered the United States Military Academy at West Point, but was dishonorably
discharged next year (1831), for deliberate neglect of his duties. Shortly thereafter, he brought
out a third slim volume of poems; like its predecessors, this third book was comprised of verses
on conventional romantic subjects, notably the myth of an idealized world of beauty and joy
recaptured as dreams and memories. Unfortunately, like his first two collections, it failed to
receive any reviews. Poe applied for editorial and teaching positions, but was unsuccessful in
his effort to gain regular employment.

By 1832, the tastes of the American reading public had turned from romantic poetry and toward
humorous and satirical prose. By June of that year, he had submitted five comic pieces to the
Philadelphia Saturday Courier, thus Metzengerstein, The Duc de L'Omelette , The Bargain Lost,
A Tale of Jerusalem, and A Decided Loss, all of which were first published in 1832. After that,
Poe would write comic and satiric tales, including parodies, burlesques, grotesques and outright
hoaxes. In 1833 and 1834, Poe wrote two serious short stories, MS. Found in a Bottle (the first
of his sea tales) and The Assignation (the first Poe story to appear in a magazine with national
circulation).

Yet his proposal brought his talents to the attention of John Pendleton Kennedy, and through
Kennedy, Poe received entree to the Southern Literary Messenger in Richmond (1835-37), and
in 1836 Poe married his 13-year-old cousin Virginia Clemm. The next eight years were Poes
most productive period as a fiction writer, where he composed most of the tales of terror
Berenice (1835), Morella (1835), Ligeia (1838), The Fall of the House of Usher (1839) and
William Wilson (1840). Then he joined Burton's Gentlemans Magazine in Philadelphia (1839-

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40) where he produced his best-selling work. The Conchologists First Book (1839); and finally,
he joined Grahams Magazine (1842-43). Shortly thereafter, he became an editor of the
Messenger, to which he would contribute additional tales, poetry, and scores of book reviews.
Many of the latter were extremely abrasive and Poe quickly made enemies that would come
back to haunt him, even after his death.

In 1840, Poe financed the publication of twenty-five short stories as Tales of the Grotesque and
Arabesque, which contained one of his most famous works, The Fall of the House of Usher
(1839). But their appearance was neglected by other reviewers, many of whom Poe had already
alienated through his criticism of their talents and tastes. Also, The Murders in the Rue Morgue
(1841) and The Purloined Letter are among Poes most famous detective stories. Poe fired back,
with sharply-barbed literary parodies like "How to Write a Blackwood's Article ," and through
political satires, many of which were aimed at the bourgeois life-style and sensibilities of the
rising middle class. After quarrelling with his co-editor, he was fired and Poe tried to found his
own literary journal, Penn Magazine, but found no financial backers for the project. Thereafter,
he worked for a year (April 1841 to May, 1842) as an editor at Graham's Magazine.

Due to his familys financial insecurity, Poe attempted to gain a position at a customs house but
was not successful. To earn a living, Poe turned to the composition of comic pieces like Never
Bet the Devil Your Head. Yet, in 1842, his young wife Virginia suffered a burst blood vessel
and contracted tuberculosis, which was reflected in his allegory of epidemic disease, The
Masque of the Red Death (1842) and in the dark poem of lost love, The Raven (1845), which
brought Poe national fame. In the fall of 1845, Poe borrowed a large sum of money and bought
the Broadway Journal. But it failed to turn a profit and ceased publication altogether in early
1846. His wife died in the same year.

After her death, Poe began to lose his struggle with drinking and drugs, suffered from bouts of
depression and madness, and even, attempted suicide in 1848. Yet, he turned to the composition
of theoretical works about literature, human nature, and the cosmos at large, including Eureka:
A Prose Poem (1848), in which he advanced a complete theory about Gods will and the
universe. During this time, Poe developed friendships with several women, including Sarah
Helen Whitman, Mrs. Annie Richmond, and Mrs. Sarah Elmira Shelton (Poes adolescent
erstwhile fiance). He became conditionally engaged to the somewhat older Sarah Helen
Whitman, but their relationship ended abruptly when he called upon her in a drunken state.

Contrary to popular belief, in his final year (1849), Poes life was relatively stable. He continued
to earn a living through his lectures and recital performances, and visited friends that he had

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made in Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Richmond. In fact, it was there that Poe wrote his last
poem, the melancholy Annabel Lee. In late September and in seemingly good health, Poe left
Richmond for New York, but for some unknown reason he stopped in Baltimore. On October 3,
1849, Poe was found deliriously ill and was taken to hospital. There he uttered his final words
and epitaph, Lord help my poor soul, on October 7, 1849. He was buried the next day in
Baltimores Presbyterian Cemetery.

Edgar Allan Poe has a darkly metaphysical vision mixed with elements of realism, parody, and
burlesque. He refined the short story genre and invented detective fiction. Many of his stories
prefigure the genres of science fiction, horror, and fantasy so popular today. Poes short and
tragic life was plagued with insecurity and this influenced his works. He believed that
strangeness was an essential ingredient of beauty, and his writing is often exotic. His stories and
poems are populated with doomed, introspective and gloomy aristocrats.

Regarded as an American poet, a master of the horror tale, and credited with practically
inventing the detective story we shall focus on his novelist style. His main works include The
Premature Burial, Ligeia, The Cask of Amontillado, and The Fall of the House of Usher. On the
other hand, Poes verse, like that of many Southerners, was very musical and strictly metrical.
His best-known poem, in his own lifetime and today, is The Raven (1845), an eerie poem. Poe
decadence also reflects the devaluation of symbols that occurred in the 19th century. The
resulting chaos of styles was particularly noticeable in the United States, which often lacked
traditional styles of its own and the loss of coherent systems of thought. In art, this confusion of
symbols fueled the grotesque, an idea that Poe explicitly made his theme in his classic collection
of stories, Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque (1840).

2.2.2.2. The twentieth century up to the present day.

After 1900 several significant series of short detective stories were written by Americans.
Jacques Futrelle wrote two volumes about Professor Augustus S.F.X. Van Dusen, better known
as the Thinking Machine. These works, almost of Chestertonian ingenuity, also introduce the
most uncompromisingly omniscient detective in fiction. Whether beating the world chess
champion after only a few lessons or escaping from a prison death cell to win a bet, Professor
Van Dusen finds all problems absurdly easy to solve. Melville Davisson Posts Uncle Abner,
Master of Mysteries (1918) is similar to Chestertons stories, especially in its quasireligious
atmosphere. Uncle Abner, who lives in the western part of Virginia before the American Civil
War (1861-1865), sees crime and detection in moral terms. Although rarely read today, the most

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popular American writer of this period was Arthur B. Reeve, whose stories are filled with an
astonishing array of scientific or pseudoscientific gadgets.

Historically speaking, the First World War (1914-1918) brought a period of diplomatic conflict
between the United States and Great Britain and between the United States and Germany since
it was an outgrowth of European territorial problems and nationalism. Following Palmer (1980),
the great majority of Americans were firmly neutral and determined to avoid intervention unless
American rights and interests were violated, and in 1915 an official proclamation of neutrality
was proclamated. This proclamation appealed the Americans to be impartial both in thought and
action. Yet, in April 6, 1917 the United States was finally drawn into the war against Germany
and its allies due to the unrestricted German submarine warfare on Atlantic shipping.

The United States contribution was decisive in the outcome because of its military superiority
both in armament and people. Henc e it provided Britain with the ships to overcome the
submarine threat and also, with the American Expeditionary Force on September 1918 to
France. As a result, this military power inclined the balance on the western front and helped to
end the war in November 1918. Next year, the United States was also influential in the writing
of the Treaty of Versailles, which formally ended the war in 1919.

Many historians have characterized the period between the two world wars as the United States
traumatic coming of age, despite the fact that the United States direct involvement was
relatively brief (1917-1918). The great processes of change and periods of war transformed the
American and European life in terms of human nature, society, and the individuals place of
history, and modernism appeared under the shape of innovations and experimentalism.. Thus, in
Britain literature is to be framed into the Edwardian (1901-1910) and Georgian literature, which
will challenge previous productions of Victorian morality with an emerging realism, which is
defined as the pre-war literature up to the First World War, whereas after the World War II, we
find post-modernism towards the end of the century.

On the other hand, the United States became a dominant nation in the twentieth century, and in
the same way, literature also interpreted these changes as a period of a fundamental redirection
in the nature of the ideology of American society and also, cultural and technological
development. Up to the First World War literature is associated with a stream of realism, both in
American and in Britain, but in the roaring 1920s there is a need to divert attention from the
cruder conceptions of reality (Great Depression, post-war situation, poverty, the 1929 Crack),
since Americans had lost their ideals.

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Hence this generation of artists turned their back on progress, on economics, on Main Street,
and on Wall Street. Rather, they focused on the Jazz Age and showed no interest in politics nor
in business. Yet, the great outburst of artistic creativity had begun even before 1920 and it
continued beyond 1929. We may consider these experimental forms to be a break with tradition
and have a deliberate use of artistic manipulation of concepts of time, man, sound and meaning.
During the Roaring Twenties, as these years are commonly known, the United States enjoyed a
period of unbalanced prosperity since prices for agricultural commodities and wages fell at the
end of the war while new industries (radio, movies, automobiles, and chemicals) flourished.

Also, the standard of living in rural areas fell increasingly behind that of urban and suburban
areas which saw dramatic improvements in housing and urban planning. In cultural terms, Jazz
music became widely popular and dancing was a popular recreation. Although the early 1920s
brought improvements in architecture, education, technology, and Americans fell in love with
modern entertainments (movies, radio, automobile touring, dancing), these years also saw the
rising of mass law-breaking and the rise of organized crime. Yet, the late years of the 1920s
witnessed the cease of this prohibition due to the 1929 Stock Market Crash and the turn of the
decade saw the Great Depression which was an unparallelled economic disaster in the history of
the United States.

During the 1930s all social classes were affected by this crash. Actually, millions of workers
lost their jobs, banks failed, the nations economy was paralyzed and poverty swept through on
a scale never experienced under Hoovers presidence (1929). In addition, the depression
deepened as the elections of 1932 approached. In November 1932 Roosevelt was elected
President and in the months preceding Roosevelts inauguration presidency, the Depression
worsened and he faced the greatest crisis in American history since the Civil War. Yet, he
undertook immediate actions to initiate a sweeping program to bring recovery to business and
agriculture, relief to the unemployed and to those in danger of losing farms and homes, and
reform, especially through the establishment of the Tennessee Valley Authority. This program
was known as the New Deal.

The New Deal proved successful and the results were soon to be felt since banks reopened and
direct relief saved millions from starvation, so the nation had achieved some measure of
recovery. By 1938, Roosevelt was spending increasing amounts of time on international affairs
to pledge for arrangements of mutual action against aggressors, that is, neutrality acts designed
to keep the United States out of another world war. Yet at the same time he sought to strengthen
nations threatened or attacked under the menace of Germanys aggressiveness, which would

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lead the American people to the World War II when Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June
1941.

America, though a neutral in the war and still at peace, was becoming the heart of democracy, as
its factories began producing as they had in the years before the Depression. However, when the
Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Roosevelt directed organization of the
Nations manpower and resources for global war. The Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor
followed four days later by Germanys and Italys declarations of war against the United States,
brought the nation irrevocably into the war.

The aftermath coincides with beginning of the Cold War (1945-1967) , which coincides with a
disassociated sensibility in the United States due to the violent events since World War II and,
therefore, a sense of history as discontinuous. Since then, style and form now seem provisional
and reflexive as well as the process of composition and the writers self-awareness. Following
VanSpanckeren (2004), the assumption that traditional forms, ideas, and history could provide
meaning and continuity to human life has changed in the contemporary literary imagination
throughout many parts of the world, including the United States.

The after-war years also coincide with the concern of many novelists about the disintegration of
society, and their lack of positive optimism, while the frequency with which violence and
sadism appear as themes is not surprising in a world grown accustomed to the thought of
genocide, global conf lict, and nuclear destruction. Even nowadays, at the turn of century,
globalisation, uncertainty and the question of terrorism are often reflected in literature as well as
the still-relevant role of the United States within the political field.

Broadly speaking, from the late 1950s to the present, Americans have been increasingly aware
that technology, so useful in itself, presents dangers through the wrong kinds of striking images.
the cultural equilibrium that sprang out as an original and vital literary movement in the
previous half century was to be changed in this period. After 1945 to 1955, approximately,
writers were then faced with the search of new directions, together with the emergence of
Jewish, Blacks and women writers into the literary scence and, therefore, there was much new
and vibrant writing.

Yet, we can talk about a second American literary renaissance (1955-1965) in which there was a
literary revolution due to the cultural and technological progress. The multilateral exchange
between the US and Europe helped the currents of culture flow, and the doors were similarly
open to the Orient, particularly with India and Japan. The three-fold classification (drama,

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poetry and prose) seemed to be moving toward new creative impulses due to the truly
cosmopolitan quality of the post-War culture.

Later on, factors another factor of change is drawn from the gradual shift in the philosophy
underlying American literature from Naturalism to Existentialism, mans relationship with God,
nature, society, his fellow man and himself. Hence American writers in the XXth century, and
even to the present day, saw the confrontation of the individual will by a mechanistic fate as the
ultimate tragic issue of human experience. The issue of imminent threat and total destruction of
all life has become a constant issue in modern man, who learns to depend upon intensity and
objectivity. Hence the extremes of comedy, fantasy, natural disasters, perversion, war horror,
terrorism and violence on the one hand and the range and depth of mystic and religious
excitement on the other, which is the main feature of contemporary literature.

In short, the main themes in American literature focused on U.S. foreign policy, international
trade, and a variety of issues and topics of interest worldwide, such as international security
(news and information on U.S. foreign policy); economic issues (the latest on U.S. economic
policies and foreign trade issues); global issues (U.S. policy and programs related to climate
change, the environment, energy, world health, sustainable development, and other topics);
democracy (information from the U.S. and multilateral sources on the growth of democracy
around the world); human rights (information from the U.S. and multilateral sources on human
rights issues around the world); and finally, society, culture and values (information on U.S.
society, culture, and values).

It is within this context that the detective novel does not only search for a murderer by following
a lineal plot, but also a whole denouncement of corrupt society at all levels (upper classes,
ordinary citizens, religious institutions) since this kind of fiction has always been related to
public interest in the problems of modern, urban life, particularly in crime. Having its roots in
the English detective novel, the convention of the great detective, the supreme amateur who
knew much more than the foolish police comes into force in the United States by the mid-
twentieth century.

Lesser writers were Mary Roberts Rinehart (1876-1958), who is often referred to as the founder
of the had I but known school of detective fiction since her statements always started like that.
Her first successful novel, The Circular Staircase (1908) is now considered a classic and, along
with two later novels, The Yellow Room (1945) and The Swimming Pool (1952), are first-rate
examples of mystery writing. Also, we find the works of Carolyn Wells (1870-1942), who with
Green and Rinehart may be considered a founding mother of the genre. Her books have become

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increasingly collectible in recent years. Finally, Gertrude Stein is regarded as a mystery writer
because of Blood on the Dining-Room Floor (1948), which is concerned with the puzzling
circumstances surrounding the death of a friend.

Yet, the figure of the great detective was shattered by the advent of the American hard-boiled
school, founded in the pages of the pulp magazine Black Mask. The first hard-boiled writer was
Carroll John Daly, whose most important detective was Race Williams, but the outstanding
figures in this genre were Dashiell Hammett and Raymond Chandler.

2.3.3. Most representative authors: D. Hammett and R. Chandler.

Generally speaking , following Encarta (2004), Hammetts Sam Spade and Chandlers Philip
Marlowe are both private investigators doing a job for money and not much money at that.
They are honest but have a strong streak of ruthlessness. In The Maltese Falcon (1930), Spade
refuses to allow his love for a murderess to interfere with the course of justice. Although a
gentler characters, Marlowe is almost equally implacable in his pursuit of social good. Both
Hammet and Chandler began by writing for the magazine Black Mask, but their stories far
surpass the ordinary pulp magazine bang-on-the-head level of fiction. In Europe, and somewhat
less in the United States, both were recognized as serious novelists possessing great narrative
skill.

Although Hammett and Chandler have had hundreds of imitators, only two showed anything
like their perceptiveness of the social scene or possessed more than a fragment of their sharp
intelligence. One was Johathan Latimer, whose early Bill Crane stories are filled with
sardonically funny dialogue, and the other and more notable was Ross Macdonald, Chandlers
true successor, whose work radiates human sympathy and understanding. After Hammett and
Chandler, it was impossible that any more great detectives, arrogant and omniscient, should be
born. Christie, Allingham, and Queen greatly modified their central characters while retaining
them in far more loosely constructed tales than the classical detective stories of the 1930s and
1940s. Indeed, few classic puzzlers are now written. The spy thriller and the crime novel have
taken their place.

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2.3.1. Samuel Dashiell Hammett (1894-1961).

Hammett was born on 27 May, 1894 in St. Marys County, between the Potomac and Patuxent
Rivers, Maryland and he died on 10 January, 1961 at Lenox Hill Hospital, New York, New
York. At present, he is buried in Arlington National Cemetery. In this section we shall approach
the question of What did he do in those 66 years? As a child, his family moved to Philadelphia
and later Baltimore, where he studied at Baltimore Polytechnic. He left school at fourteen to
help support the family and then, after having worked as paper boy, junior clerk in an
advertising agency, messenger for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, nail machine operator in a
box factory, and advertising manager, he became a detective in 1915 when he was twenty-one.
He joined the Baltimore branch of the Pinkertons National Detective Agency where he was
trained by James Wright, who later served as Hammetts model for the Continental Op.

During the First World War he was a sergeant in the ambulance corps but spent most of the war
in hospital following tuberculosis. After the war (June 1918), he resigned from Pinkertons and
enlisted in the Army. It was during this time he contracted influenza and later tuberculosis, from
which he would suffer the rest of his life. In May 1920, he returned to Pinkertons and worked
out of their San Francisco office, at Washington, branch. He became sick again with lung
troubles and went to hospital where he met a nurse, Josephine Dolan (Jose), with whom he
would marry on July 7, 1921; four months later (October 15) his daughter Mary Jane was born;
and on February 15, 1922, Hammett resigned from Pinkertons.

He signed up for journalism courses at Munsons Business Colle ge, with the goal of becoming a
newspaper reporter. Actually, Dashiell Hammett started writing detective stories in the 1920s,
when the typical detective story was not well defined. Eventually he was discovered by H. L.
Mencken, editor of The Smart Set and published his first by-lined piece, The Parthian Shot
(October 1922). After working as an operative at the famed Pinkerton Detective Agency, he
took his experience to the written word. He and other early detective writers of this era made
famous what is now known as the hard-boiled detective genre. The rough, rogue operative
who was a step ahead of the law and not unlike many of the criminals he chased.

Mencken soon bought more from Hammett and in 1923 the first short story by Hammett, The
Road Home, appeared in Black Mask. Thanks to the adventures of the Continental Op Hammett
became one of its most popular writers of the period and by the end of May 1923, he completed
his schooling at Munsons and began to sell his work on two levels, fiction to the pulps and ads
to local stores. Under the pseudonym Peter Collinson, Hammet introduced a short, overweight,

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unnamed detective employed by the San Francisco branch of the Continental Detective Agency,
who became known as The Continental Op, the first believable detective hero in American
fiction.

In March 1926 Hammett leaves Black Mask because he was not receiving enough money, but he
was asked to come back in the summer of 1926. So, between 1929 and 1930, he wrote three
dozen stories that featured the tough and dedicated Op, whose methods of detection were
completely convincing, and whose personality had more than one dimension. His first book,
Red Harvest (1929) was a set of four linked stories all telling a common story of corruption and
gangsters in a Montana mining town, which was followed shortly after by The Dain Curse
(1929) both featuring The Continental Op. The same year (1929), Hammett portrayed another
character, Sam Spade, the protagonist of one of the most famous detective stories ever written:
The Maltese Falcon (1930).

In this work the first person narration is dropped and Hammett views the detective from the
outside. Also, Hammetts language was unsentimental, journalistic, moral judgments were left
to the reader. Regarding the characters, a beautiful woman, Brigid OShaughnessy, is also
introduced to reflect the evil of feminity since she is eventually a murderer. The Maltese Falcon
was filmed first time in 1931 and then in 1936 under the title Satan Met a Lady, directed by
William Die terle and starring Bette Davis. Also, John Hustons adaptation from 1941 starring
Humphrey Bogart as Sam Spade is the most famous.

At a personal level, since Hammett had a couple of affairs, his marriage to Jose was over by
1929. Yet, in 1930 he met Lillian Hellman at about the same time as he began the Thin Man. In
the following years, he published The Glass Key (1931), in which the main character, Ned
Beaumont, was partly a self-portrait: a tall, thin, tuberculosis-ridden gambler and heavy drinker;
and The Thin Man (1934), in which he presented Nick Charles, a former detective who had
married a rich woman, Nora Charles, whose character was based on Lillian Hellman. Both
novels had a resounding success since he combined hard-boiled style with lighthearted comedy.

Then, subsequent to the success of The Thin Man, the studio hired Hammett to write screen
stories, which would be adapted and turned into screenplays by other writers. By 1934,
embarked on a long, tumultous relationship, full of high drama and cocktails, politics and art
with Lillian Hellman, Hammetts career as a creative prose writer was almost over. He never
wrote another novel, and he decided to write few short stories. By then, Hammett had completed
over 90 pieces of fiction, including 2 stories printed after his death and some 13 unprinted

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stories found among his papers in just 12 years,. He had also written a dozen nonfiction pieces
and well over a hundred book reviews. He had no intention of ending his career as a novelist at
this point in his life. He intended to do straight stuff and continued to think of himself as a
working writer. But in truth, at age 40, his fiction writing career had ended.

Increasingly disturbed over what he perceived as a rising tide of anti-Semitism and fascism,
Hammett turned to the Communist Party.Then in 1940 Hammett became politically active and
joined the Communist Party as chairman of the Committee on Election Rights against Nazism.
However, when Hemingway and a number of other writers went to Spain to help the
Republicans in the Civil War (1936-39), Hammett remained in the United States, but helped
veterans after their return from the war. Yet, he started drinking heavily and had problems with
his writing, but his support was crucial for Hellmans own career.

During the Second World War he edited a newspaper for troops in the Aleutian Islands and he
also created a new character, Secret Agent X-9 in the new comic strip, which only lasted a year.
Always looking for money, he also wrote a few things for radio, or at least lent his name to
them. Thanks to the success of the film versions of his work, his reputation preceded him in
Hollywood, and he wrote a handful of screen stories. However, the end of World War II saw the
anti-Communist breakdown pinpoint him for his Communist beliefs, and elected him president
of the Committee of Rights (1946).

The FBI kept a close watch on Hammett's activities since this group was regarded as subversive
by the Attorney General. Actually, in the summer of 1951 four communist leaders were
convicted on charges of criminal conspiracy and the US District Court in New York collected
information in order to aid authorities in tracing the fugitives. In July that year, Hammett was
called to testify in the trial of four communists accused of conspiring against the U.S.
government. He declined, and went to prison for five months, despite his failing health.

From 1946 to 1956 he taught creative writing in Jefferson School of Social Science while the
State Department kept his books away from the shelves of overseas US libraries, inland revenue
claimed he owed huge amounts of tax and the federal government attached his income. After
that, he was blacklisted in Hollywood. When Hammett was jailed Hellman testified at a closed
session and got away without legal penalty. Early in 1955 Hammett was once again required to
testify, this time before the New York State Joint Legis lative Commmittee and the committee
dismissed him without penalt y.

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In August 1955 he suffered a major heart attack and next year (1956) Hammett went into
hospital. Hellman refused to allow him to go and convinced him to move in with her.
Eventually, she convinced him. In April 1959 he complained of severe and continual shortness
of breath and by 1960 the disease had already progressed to an inoperable stage: he had lung
cancer. Hammett quickly depleted the fortune he had made as a successful writer and died a
relatively poor man in 1961.

He was one of the twentieth-century greatest American novelist who also worked as a
screenwriter in Hollywood. He represented the early realistic vein in detective stories through
the way his tough heroes confronted the violence with full knowledge of its corrupting potential.
In his novels Hammett painted mean picture of the American society, where greed, brutality,
and treachery are the major driving forces behind human actions. For instance, Red Harvest
(1929) is more than a superb crime novel: it is a classic exploration of corruption and violence
in the American grain; The Dain Course (1929) is a tautly crafted masterpiece of suspense.

His greatest novel, The Maltese Falcon (1930) shows the tale of Sam Spade, the quintessential
hard-boiled detective, who searches for order and truth in a perfect mystery novel as anyone is
going to get, and often rises above the genre as a tightly-constructed literary masterpiece, rich in
both character and plot; The Glass Key (1931), is a combination of an airtight plot, authentically
venal characters, and writing of telegraphic crispness. Woman in the Dark (1933) shows the
author at the peak of his narrative powers; The Thin Man (1934) is one of Hammetts most
enchanting creations, in which a rich, glamorous couple solve homicides in between wisecracks
and martinis. At once knowing and unabashedly romantic , The Thin Man is a murder mystery
that doubles as a sophisticated comedy of manners.

Similarly, other works include Dashiell Hammet Omnibus (1935), The complete Dashiell
Hammett (1942), Blood money (1943), The adventures of Sam Spade (1944), The battle of the
Aleutians (1944), and The Continental Op (1945), which was the prototype for generations of
tough-guy detectives since he was short, thick-bodied, mulishly stubborn, and indifferent to
pain. In these stories the Op unravels a murder with too many clues while looking for a girl with
eyes the color of shadows on polished silver. Also, The return of the Continental Op (1945),
Hammett homicides (1946), Dead Yellow Women (1947), Nightmare Town (1948), in which
Sam Spade confronts the darkness in the human soul while rolling his own cigarettes; The
Creeping Siamese (1950), A Man Called Thin (1962), The Big Knockover (1966), The
Continental Op: more stories from the Big Knockover (1967), and Selected Letters of Dashiell
Hammett 1921-1960 (2001).

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Among this most famous screenplays we include City Streets (1931), with Oliver H.P. Garrett
and Max Marcin, and directed by Rouben Mamoulian; Mister Dynamite (1935), with Doris
Malloy and Harry Clork; After the Thin Man (1936), with Frances Goodrich and Albert
Hackett,
Another Thin Man (1939), with Frances Goodrich and Albert Hackett, and Watch on the
Rhine (1943), with Lillian Hellman.

2.3.2. Raymond Thornton Chandler (1888-1959).

Raymond Chandler was born in Chicago (July 22 1888), but grew up in Engla nd, after the
divorce of his parents. He attended two different public schools between 1900 and 1905, Upper
Norwood and Dulwich College, London where he studied both classical and modern subjects,
and received solid instruction in the craft of writing. He also studied in France and Germany
between 1905 and 1907 and then he became a naturalized British subject in 1907 in order to be
eligible for the civil service. His first position was as Assistant Store Officer, in the Naval Stores
Branch, at the Admiralty (1907).

Yet, after six months he resigned and between 1908 and 1912worked as a teacher at Dulwich
and a journalist for the London Daily Express and Bristol Western Gazette. Before returning to
the United States (1912), Chandler published twenty-seven poems and his first story, The Rose-
Leaf Romance. Once in the United States, he worked in a number of different jobs, for instance,
in a bank, as a bookkeeper and as an auditor in an oil company, from where he was dismissed
for his alcoholic problems. In 1924 he married divorcee Cissy Hurlburt (twice married, and
divorced), and eighteen years older than he was. In 1933, with the support of Cissy, he devoted
himself entirely to writing and became a successful full time writer at the age of forty-five.

Chandler was a slow writer so it took him five months to write his first work Blackmailers Don't
Shoot (1933) which, was published by Black Mask , the leading crime pulp of its time which also
published Dashiell Hammetts stories. Between 1933 and 1939 he produced a total of nineteen
pulp stories, eleven in Black Mask , seven in Dime Detective, and one in Detective Fiction
Weekly . Unlike most of his pulp-writing colleagues, Chandler tried to expand the limits of the
pulp formula to more ambitious and humane directio n which was fully reflected in his next
work Killer in the Rain, which later formed part of Chandlers first novel The Big Sleep (1939),
and then to screenwriting (1943). In it we meet his main character, Philip Marlowe, a 38-year-
old idealistic, honest and romantic private investigator, who is a man of honor and a modern day
knight with a college education, but tough and cynical at the same time. He is described as an

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old-fashioned character, chivalrous, with an individual sense of conduct and justice, and as an
intellectual who reads Hemingway, T.S. Eliot and Flaubert, among others. These characteristics
trascend his actions and it is actually shown in the maturity expressed in The High Window
(1942).

Writing proved lucrative, and was something Chandler enjoyed, so he continued. So, he wrote
Farewell, My Lovely (1940) and The Lady in the Lake (1943). After this, Chandler met with
some success writing for Hollywood and, in 1943 he was asked to work on the script for Double
Indemnity, the novel by James Cain. Although Billy Wilder and Chandler did not get on all that
well, Wilder quickly recognized Chandlers ability as a screenwriter and he started to write.
Thus, And Now Tomorrow (1944), Five Murderers (1944), Double Indemnity with Billy Wilder
(1944), The Unseen (1945), an original script; and The Blue Dahlia (1946). The same year
(1946), he and Cissy moved to La Jolla (north of San Diego) where he continued writing while
taking care of his beloved wife, who suffered from fibrosis of the lungs. In 1946 Chandler
received Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America for screenplay.

By that time he was a heavy drinker although he tried to control his drinking, still managing to
produce some of the English languages greatest crime fiction. As a representative and master of
hard-boiled school of crime fiction, Chandler criticized classical puzzle writers for their lack of
realism in his much quoted essay The Simple Art of Murder (1950) and Strangers On A Train
for Hitchcock (1951). In 1954 Cissy passed away after a lengthy illness and two months after
her death, he attempted suicide. During the last year of his life Chandler was president of the
Mystery Writers of America; and his last finished novel, Playback appeared in 1958.

Since then he went into a slow decline, though he is said to have had two romantic interests
after Cissys death: his secretary, Jean Fracasse and his agent, Helga Greene. He died of
pneumonia brought on by a particularly heavy drinking binge on March 23, 1959, at the age of
seventy. His unfinished novel, Poodle Spring (1959) was completed by Robert B. Parker, who
has also written a sequel to The Big Sleep, entitled Perchance to Dream (1990). Also, some of
his novels were made movies, such as Murder, My Sweet (1944), directed by Edward Dmytryk;
The Big Sleep (1946), directed by Howard Hawks, and starring Bogart & Bacall; The Lady in
the Lake (1947), directed by & starring Robert Montgomery; and finally, The Long Goodbye
(1973), directed by Robert Altman.

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3. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

Literature, and therefore, literary language is one of the most salient aspects of educational
activity. In classrooms all kinds of literary language (poetry, drama, prose novel, short story,
detective fiction, minor fiction-, periodicals) either spoken or written, is going on for most of the
time. Yet, handling literary productions in the past makes relevant the analysis of literature in
the twentieth and twenty-first century in this unit, specially when we find literary adaptations to
the cinema. Yet, what do students know about the literature in this period? At this point it makes
sense to examine the historical background of Great Britain and the United States up to the
present day so as to check what our students know about these crime fiction writers which are
specialized in detective stories.

Since literature may be approached in linguistic terms, regarding form and function
(morphology, lexis, structure, form) and also from a cross-curricular perspective (Sociology,
History, English, French, Spanish Language and Literature), Spanish students are expected to
know about the history of Great Britain and the United States and its influence in the world. In
addition, one of the objectives of teaching the English language is to provide good models of
almost any kind of literary productions for future studies.

Currently, action research groups attempt to bring about change in classroom learning and
teaching through a focus on literary production under two premises. First, because they believe
learning is an integral aspect of any form of activity and second, because education at all levels
must be conceived in terms of literature and history. The basis for these assumptions is to be
found in an attempt, through the use of historical events, to develop understanding of students
shared but diverse social and physical environment.

Learning involves a process of transformation of participation itself which has far reaching
implications on the role of the teacher in the teaching-learning rela tionship. This means that
literary productions are an analytic tool and that teachers need to identify the potential
contributions and potential limitations of them before we can make good use of genre
techniques, in our case, detective stories techniques: clues, characters, a murder, the crime
setting, and so on. We must bear in mind that most students will continue their studies at
university and there, they will have to handle successfully all kind of genres, especially poetry,
drama and fiction ones within our current framework.

Moreover, todays new technologies (the Internet, DVD, videocamera) and the media (TV,
radio, cinema) may provide a new direction to language teaching as they set more appropriate

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context for students to experience the target culture. Present-day approaches deal with a
communicative competence model in which first, there is an emphasis on significance over
form, and secondly, motivation and involvement are enhanced by means of new technologies
and the media when dealing with literary adaptations. Hence literary productions and the history
of the period may be approched in terms of film displays in class, among others.

But how do twentieth and twenty-first-century English and North-American detective novel tie
in with the new curriculum? Spanish students are expected to know about both cultures and
their presence in Europe since students are required to know about the world culture and history.
The success partly lies in the way literary works become real to the users. Some of this
motivational force is brought about by intervening in authentic communicative events.
Otherwise, we have to recreate as much as possible the whole cultural environment in the
classroom by means of novels, short stories, documentaries, history books, or their familys
stories.

Hence it makes sense to examine relevant figures such as Hammett, though students are likely
to know him best for his novel, The Maltese Falcon (1930) and even more, for his literary
adaption to the cinema, that is, John Hustons adaptation from 1941 starring Humphrey Bogart
as Sam Spade, which is the most famous. Also, some of Raymond Chandlers novels were made
movies, such as The Big Sleep (1946), directed by Howard Hawks, and starring Bogart &
Bacall; The Lady in the Lake (1947), directed by & starring Robert Montgomery. Yet, the most
famous detective characters, such as Conan Doyles Sherlock Holmes or Chandlers Philip
Marlowe are known by students through television.

This is to be achieved within the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular,
the Spanish Educational System which establishes a common reference framework for the
teaching of foreign languages where students are intended to carry out several communication
tasks with specific communicative goals, for instance, how to locate a literary work within a
particular historical period. Analytic interpretation of texts in all genres should become part of
every literary students basic competence (B.O.E., 2004).

In addition, one of the objectives of teaching the English language is to provide good models of
almost any kind of literary productions for future studies. Following van Ek & Trim (2001), the
learners can perform, within the limits of the resources available to them, those writing (and
oral) tasks which adult citizens in general may wish, or be called upon, to carry out in their
private capacity or as members of the general public when dealing with their future regarding
personal and professional life.

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In short, the knowledge about British and American culture (history and literature) should
become part of every literary students basic competence (B.O.E., 2004) since there are hidden
influences at work beneath the textual surface: these may be sociocultural, inter and intratextual.
The literary student has to discover these, and wherever necessary apply them in further
examination. The main aims that our currently educational system focuses on are mostly
sociocultural, to facilitate the study of cultural themes, as our students must be aware of their
current social reality within the international scene.

4. CONCLUSION.

On reviewing the issue of Unit 60, we have examined the North American black novel and the
English detective novel up to the present day. In doing so, we have reviewed the historical and
literary background of the time so as to analyse the life, works and style of the most
representative authors in this period: D. Hammett and R. Chandler within the former, and P.D.
James, within the latter. Actually, both of them represent two different types of detective fiction
within the genre of crime fiction: the English detective novel, more classical and with Victorian
reminiscences, commonly known as the whodunit, and the North American novel, more
related to public interest in the problems of modern, urban life, particularly in crime , commonly
known as hard-boiled detective fiction.

So, Chapter 2 has namely offered an overview of the North American black novel and the
English detective novel in terms of common features within the genre of crime fiction, regarding
main elements and literary sources, namely European for both, and in particular, from French
authors. Then we have introduced the two types of novels in terms of definition; a parallel
presentation of historical and literary background in the nineteenth and twentieth century up to
the present day; and finally, the most representative figures in this field, that is, the English P.D.
James and the American Samuel Dashiell Hammett and Raymond Thornton Chandler, better
known as the creators of Sam Spade in The Maltese Falcon (related forever to the figure of
Humphrey Bogart) and the private investigator Philip Marlowe, recently associated to the
American actor Bruce Willis in the TV series Moonlight. On reviewing their characters, we
have got closer to how those writers reflected the time in which they lived.

Chapter 3 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching regarding
the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 4 will offer a conclusion to
broadly overview our present study and have an overall view of this presentation from the

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furthest sources, through the figures of the Three Musketeers (1844) by Alexandre Dumas;
Detective Bucket by Charles Dickens in Bleak House (1852-1853); The Adventures of Sherlock
Holmes (1892) by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , Hercule Poirot or Miss Marple in Murder in the
Orient Express (1934); and more recently, the detective figures we know through the media.
Finally, Chapter 5 will include all the bibliographical references used to develop this
presentation.

So far, we have attempted to provide the reader in this presentation with a historical, literary and
cultural background on the vast amount of literature productions in the twentieth and twenty-
first-century literature in Great Britain and the United States. This information is relevant for
language learners, even ESO and Bachillerato students, who do not automatically establish
similiarities between North-American and English literature and the rest of the world in terms of
social reality. So, learners need to have these associations brought to their attention in cross-
curricular settings through the media. As we have seen, understanding how literature reflects the
main historical events of a country is important to students, who are expected to be aware of the
richness of English-speaking countries literature.

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5. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Albert, Edward. 1990. A History of English Literature. Walton-on-Thames. Nelson. 5th edition
(Revised by J.A. Stone).

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 116/2004, de 23 de enero.

Currculo de la Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de
Murcia.

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 117/2004, de 23 de enero.

Currculo de Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.

Bradbury, M. and H. Temperley. 1981. Introduction to American Studies. London: Longman.

Brogan, H. 1985. The History of the United States of America, Penguin Books, New York.

Byron, T.J. 1990. Murder Will Out, The Detective Fiction. Oxford University Press.

Cook, C. and J. Paxton. 2001. European Political Facts of the Twentieth Century. Palgrave.

Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common

European Framework of reference.

Fiedler, Leslie. 1960. Love and Death in the American Novel. New York: Criterion Books.

Keating, H.R.F. 1994. Writing Crime Fiction. A & C Black Ltd., London.
Magnusson, M., and Goring, R. (eds.). 1990. Cambridge Biographical Dictionary. New York:
Cambridge University Press.

Ousby, Ian. 1997. The Crime and Mystery Book. A Readers Companion. London.
Palmer, R. 1980. Historia Contempornea, Akal ed., Madrid.

Philips, K. 2002. Wealth and Democracy: A Political History of the American Rich. Broadway
Books, U.S.

Rogers, P. 1987. The Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature. Oxford University Press.

Thoorens, L. 1969. Panorama de las literaturas Daimon: Inglaterra y Amrica del Norte. Gran
Bretaa y Estados Unidos de Amrica. Ediciones Daimon.

van Ek, J.A., and J.L.M. Trim, 2001. Vantage. Council of Europe. Cambridge University Press.

VanSpanckeren, K. 2004. Outline of American Literature. International Information Programs.

Ward & Trent, et al. 2000. The Cambrid ge History of English and American Literature. New
York: G.P. Putnams Sons, 190721; New York: Bartleby.com.

Other sources:

Enciclopedia Larousse 2000. 2000. Editorial Planeta.

Enciclopedia Encarta CD Rom. 2004. Editorial Planeta.

Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century. 1999. Detroit, St. James.

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 UNIT 61

THE IMPACT OF CINEMA ON THE DIFFUSION OF

LITERARY WORKS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.

2. THE IMPACT OF CINEMA ON THE DIFFUSION OF LITERARY WORKS IN THE ENGLISH

LANGUAGE.

2.1. A history of literature and cinema.

2.1.1. A history of literature.
2.1.1.1. Earlier times: religious sources and oral tradition.
2.1.1.2. The eleventh century: epic and elegy.
2.1.1.3. The twelfth century: romance and lyric.
2.1.1.4. The thirteenth century: lyrics and prose.
2.1.1.5. The fourteenth century: spiritual writing vs. secular prose.
2.1.1.6. The fifteenth century: morality plays.
2.1.1.7. The sixteenth century: the Tudor and Elizabethan Age.
2.1.1.8. The seventeenth century: The Stuart Age and the Enlightment.
2.1.1.9. The eighteenth century: the Victorian Age.
2.1.1.10. The nineteenth century: the Augustean Age and the Romantics.
2.1.1.11. The twentieth century up to the present day.
2.1.2. A history of cinema up to 1895.
2.1.2.1. Earlier times.
2.1.2.2. The seventeenth century.
2.1.2.3. The eighteenth century.
2.2. From the birth of cinema (1895) up to the present day.
2.2.1. The film era: three main stages.
2.2.1.1. The Silent Film Era.
2.2.1.2. The Golden Age: the sound era.
2.2.1.3. The Second Golden Age: the movie brats.
2.3. Cinema and literature: literary adaptations.
2.3.1. Main subjects and stories.
2.3.1.1. The Western.
2.3.1.2. The musical.
2.3.1.3. Crime: gangsters and film noir.
2.3.1.4. Adventure.
2.3.1.5. Comedies.
2.3.1.6. Epics.
2.3.1.7. Horror.
2.3.1.8. Science fiction.
2.3.1.9. Love stories.
2.3.1.10. War.
2.3.2. Main techniques.
2.3.3. Main similarities and differences.

3. MAIN EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.

4. CONCLUSION.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

The present unit, Unit 61, aims to provide a useful introduction to the impact of cinema on the
diffusion of literary works in the English language. In doing so, we aim at reviewing the
historical development of literature and the cinema throughout time so as to analyse how the
cinematic genre has helped the literary genre to expand at a high speed all over the world and to
bring to life literary works which may be part of reality, such as ancient history (Troia, featuring
Bradd Pitt) or social conflicts (In the Name of the Father, featured by Brad Pitt and Harrison
Ford) or part of fiction (X-Men, featuring Will Smith).

In this presentation we shall try to answer the question of What was first? Literature or
cinema? At first sight, one might say that it was literature since most films are based on literary
works. Yet, the answer is that both of them trace back to ancient times, and hence, it is almost
impossible to pinpoint the exact date. Nowadays, most historians agree that the literary genre is
linked to mans first attempts of communication through language and therefore, oral
transmission literature in the past within religious and magic practices whereas the story of
cinema traditionally traces back to the ancient Greeks and moving shadows (Parkinson,
1995). Yet, there is a question in the air: Could the Homo Sapiens discover the true magic of
cinema with moving shadows on the walls of primitive caves before they could speak?

So, these considerations will be reflected in the organization of Chapter 2, which is divided into
three main sections: first, regarding the history of both literature and cinema, in which literature
is overviewed from its origins up to nowadays, and the cinema just to 1895 (only in this
section), the date of its birth since the majority of film experts agree that cinema began with the
cinematographic show of Louis and Auguste Lumire on 28 December 1895 (Parkinson,
1995:17); and finally, the relationship of cinema and literature in terms of similarities and
differences.

Then, the first part on (1) a history of literature and cinema will offer (a) a history of literature
from its origins to the present day in terms of literary age and literary genres in (i) earlier times
through religious sources and oral tradition; (ii) the eleventh century, with epic and elegy; (iii)
the twelfth century, with romance and lyric; (iv) the thirteenth century, with lyrics and prose; (v)
the fourteenth century, with spiritual writing vs. secular prose; (vi) the fifteenth century, with
morality plays; (vii) the sixteenth century, under the Tudor and Elizabethan Age; (viii) the
seventeenth century, representing the Stuart Age and the Enlightment; (ix) the eighteenth

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century, with the industrial revolution in the Victorian period; (x) the nineteenth century, half
romantic and half Victorian; and finall, (xi) the twentieth century up to the present day, with
modernims and experimentalism. Similarly, we shall start a journey through (b) a history of
cinema, to see how it developed into this centurys most popular form of entertainment, as well
as into an art form in (i) the early years, (ii) the seventeenth and (iii) eighteenth century.

The second part, (2) from the birth of cinema up to the present day will present (a) the three
main stages in film era, that is, (i) the Silent Film Era, (ii) the Golden Age or sound era, and (iii)
the Second Golden Age, which coincided with a new generation of fim-makers, nicknamed the
movie brats. These three stages will be described in cinematographic and historical terms,
since the three of them coincided with important historical benchmarks at international level.
Finally, the last section will introduce (3) the relationship of cinema and literature in terms of
(a) subjects and stories; (b) main techniques, and (c) similarities and differences.

Chapter 3 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching regarding
the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 4 will offer a conclusion to
broadly overview our present study, and Chapter 5 will include all the bibliographical
references used to develop this presentation.

2.1. Notes on bibliography.

An influential introduction to the impact of cinema on the diffusion of literary works in the
English language is based on Richard, Cinema (1992); Shiach, The Movie Book. An Illustrated
History of the Cinema (1993); and Parkinson, The Young Oxford Book of Cinema (1995).
Historical information is drawn from Goytisolo Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and
Intangible heritage of Humanity (2001), Palmer, Historia Contempornea (1980); Brogan, The
History of the United States of America (1985); Cook & Paxton, European Political Facts of the
Twentieth Century (2001); and Philips, Wealth and Democracy: A Political History of the
American Rich (2002).

On the present-day literary background, relevant works are: Fiedler, Love and Death in the
American Novel (1960); Bradbury & Temperley, Introduction to American Studies (1981);
Rogers, The Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature (1987); Magnusson & Goring,
Cambridge Biographical Dictionary (1990); Byron, Murder Will Out, The Detective Fiction
(1990); Ousby, The Crime and Mystery Book. A Readers Companion (1997); Keating, Writing

3/56
Crime Fiction (1988); Ward & Trent, The Cambridge History of English and American
Literature (2000); and VanSpanckeren, Outline of American Literature (2004).

The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative

competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most
complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the
guidelines in B.O.E. (2004) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; the Council of Europe, Modern
Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of reference
(1998); and van Ek and Trim, Vantage (2001). Other sources include Enciclopedia Larousse
2000 (2000); Enciclopedia Encarta CD Rom (2004); and Encyclopedia of World Literature in
the 20th Century (1999).

2. THE IMPACT OF CINEMA ON THE DIFFUSION OF LITERARY WORKS IN THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

Chapter 2 is divided then into three main sections: (1) the origins of literature and cinema up to
1895, regarding (a) the story of cinema and (b) the story of literature in terms of literary age and
literary genres; (2) from the birth of cinema up to the present day regarding (a) the three main
stages in film era, that is, (i) the Silent Era, in which there was nor sound or colour; (ii) the
Golden Age, in which sound arrived to the screen, and finally, (iii) the Second Golden Age,
which coincided with a new generation of film-makers, nicknamed the movie brats. These
three stages will be described in cinematographic and historical terms, since the three of them
coincided with important historical benchmarks at international level. Next section addresses the
relationship of (3) cinema and literature regarding literary adaptations in terms of (a) main
subjects and stories; (b) main cinema techniques adapted from literature, and finally, (c) main
similarities and differences.

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2.1. The origins of literature and cinema up to 1895.

2.1.1. A history of literature.

2.1.1.1. Earlier times: religious sources and oral tradition.

We may say that literature holds timeless universal human truths which can be read or listened
to without regard to historical context of its production, and without regard to particular
historical moment in which we read, listen and make meaning of it. For Malinowsky, a relevant
anthropology figure, language had only two main purposes: pragmatic and ritual. The former
refers to the practical use of language, either active (by means of speech) or narrative (by means
of written texts) and the latter is concerned with the use of language associated to ceremonies,
and also referred to as magic. As seen, we can already mark a distinction here between ordinary
and literary language since both had different purposes.

As Juan Goytisolo (2001) stated in his speech at the Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral
and Intangible heritage of Humanity, we must first examine our historical knowledge of both
oral and written cultures so as to provide ourselves a cultural identity in society. Since ancient
times, tribal chiefs, chamans, bards and story-tellers have been in charge of preserving and
memorising for the future the narratives of the past, so Goytisolo further points out that
acquiring knowledge of this primary orality is an anthropological task in the field of literature
and oral narrative. The usual forms of popular and traditional expression were oral literature,
music, dance, games, mythology, rituals, marketplaces, festivals and even architecture, and for
our purposes, the cinema nowadays.

Earlier works in Britain, Britannia, England.

Then when examining earlier works that took place in Britain (under the influence of Celtic
people), Britannia (under the rule of the Roman Empire) and England (Anglo-Saxon England),
we realise that literature is written language since human settlement preceded recorded history
by some millennia, and Old English works (namely epic and lyric) preceded writing by some
generations. Thus, the earlier inhabitants of the island, the Celts (also known as Britons) passed
on no written literacy to their conquerors since they had an oral literary tradition; yet, later on,
the Romans brought about to the island the art of writing through their historical literary
accounts, for instance, Tacituss Germania (AD 98) or St Jeromes vulgate edition of the Bible
(AD 384).

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Next, the Germanic tribes (the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) were illiterate so their orally-
composed verses were not written unless they formed part of runic inscriptions. When the
Roman empire faded, the Saxons did not have to exchange their Germanic tongue for Latin
although Latin was the language of those who taught them to read and write. So, the English
learned to write only after they had been converted to Christ (the process of Christianization) by
missionaries sent from Rome in AD 597.

In fact, there is no evidence of Old English writing that is not Christian, since the only literates
were clerics. Linguistically and historically, the English poems composed by Caedmon after 670
and Bede (AD 676-735) are the earliest we know about. Hence, oral poetry (epic) was an art
which had evolved over generations and was considered to be an art of memorable speech. It
dealt with a set of heroic and narrative themes in a common metrical form, and had evolved to a
point where its audience appreciated a richly varied style and storytelling technique (Alexander,
2000).

Just as the orally-composed poetry of the Anglo-Saxons was an established art, the Roman
missionaires were highly literate. Bedes work makes it clear that the evangelists sent by Pope
Gregory in AD 597 to bring the gospel to the Angles were an lite group, for instance, St
Augustine and his most influential successor, the Syrian Greek Theodore of Tarus (Archbishop
of Canterbury, 669-90). According to Alexander (2000), this hybrid culture found literary
expression in an unmixed language, in which the English took few words from the languages of
Roman Britain (except for Celtic names of rivers and the Roman words wall and street).

Christian literature in Anglo-Saxon England.

Christian literature in Anglo-Saxon England is represented by different types of literary

productions, such as verse paraphrases of Old Testament stories (Caedmons Genesis and
Exodus, Daniel and Judith, 657-80), lives of saints (Andrew or Helena), historical lives of
contemporaries (St Guthlac, Cuthbert of Lindisfarne), sermons, wisdom literature or, finally,
doctrinal, penitential and devotional works, such as The Dream of the Rood, a substantial
English verse carved in c. 700 in the Vercelli Book found in Northumbria.

Yet, the figure of Alfred, the fourth son of the King of Wessex from 871, proves highly relevant
in the development of literacy in Anglo-Saxon England, not only because he defended his reign
against the Danes who had overrun all the English kingdoms except his own, but also because
he translated wisdom books into English. Alfred may cast an interesting light on literacy as well
as on literature since he reported that when he came to the throne he could not think of a single

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priest south of the Thames who could understand a le tter in Latin or translate one into English
(Alexander, 2000). Looking backwards at the great learning that had been in Roman Britain, the
king tried to improve and increase the number of literature works under his reign by means of
translating Latin works into English ones.

Alfred had some needful wise authors to carry out this task, for instance, Augustine (354-430),
Orosius (earlyl fifth century), Boethius (c. 480-524), and Gregory (c. 540-604). Since Old
English verse was namely oral to record written laws, Alfred established English as a literary
language in authorising versions of essential books from Latin into English prose. Hence we
find such works (AD 878) as Bedes Eclesiastical History, Orosius Histories, Gregorys
Pastoral Care and Dialogues, Augustines Soliloquies and Boethius Consolation of
Philosophy.

According to Alexander (2000:27), Alfreds educational programme for the laity did not
succeed at first but bore fruit later in the Wessex of this grandson Edgar, who ruled 959-76.
After the Ages of Bede and Alfred, this is the third clearly-defined Age of Anglo-Saxon
literature, the Benedictine Revival, under Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury 960-88, himself a
skilled artist. Bishop Aethelworld made Winchester a centre of manuscript illumination. In its
profusion of manuscripts the Wessex of Dunstan, Aethelwold and Aelfric is better represented
today than the more remarkable early Norhumbria of Bede. In this period English prose became
the instrument for a flourishing civilisation, with scientific, political and historical as well as
religious interests. It was in this second Benedictine age, towards AD 1000, that the four poetry
manuscripts were made: the Vercelli Book, the Junius Book, the Exeter Book and the Beowulf
manuscript.

Beowulf, elegies and battle poetry.

These three works represent the starting point towards the end of the Old English period. First,
the epic poem of Beowulf 1 (c. 909), a poem of historic scope telling of heroes and of the world
(human and non-human), is considered to be the first great work of English literature and like
other epics, it has a style made for oral composition, rich in formulas. It shows the English the
world of their ancestors, the heroic world of the north, a world both glorious and heathen since
the audience for this kind of poetry was the lord of the hall and the men of this retinue.

1
The poem Beowulf was found in a manuscript of the late 10th century, but was probable composed two
centurias earlier, and it is set in a world more than two centuries earlier still, on the coasts of the Baltic,
the north-west Germanic world from which the English had come to Britain (Alexander, 2000).

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Yet, the most striking early English poems are the Elegies of the Exeter Book, which are
divided into heroic elegies (i.e. The Wanderer and The Seafarer) and love elegies (i.e. The
Husbands Message, The Wifes Complaint). This type of poems are dramatic monologues
whose speaker is unnamed and whose soliloquy moves from his own sufferings to a general
lament. Finally, battle poetry is relevant in this period because German warriors were said to
recite poetry before battle, according to the Roman historian Tacitus.

So, as we can see, Alfreds translation programmed had developed into a body of discursive
native prose as it has been reflected in the works mentioned above. This was extended in the
10th century and this prose gave way to impressive political and legal writings which provided
the laity with the religious and civil materials long available to the clergy in Latin. Then, by
1000 the humane Latin culture which developed between the renaissance of learning at the court
of Charlemagne and the 12th century renaissance, had found substantial expression in English.

There were changes in the nature of the language, notably the use of articles, pronouns and
prepositions instead of final inflections, which made verse composition more difficult. The
millenium was a period of cultural growth but of political decline. The reign of Ethelred II (978-
1016) saw an artistic revival, but there were disunity and Danish invasions (The Viking Age).
The conquest of England by Vikings and then by Norman kings disrupted cultural activity, and
changed the language of the rulers. Yet, Latin remained the language of the church, but the
hierarchy was largely replaced by Normans, and English uses were done away with. But how
did the Norman Conquest affect medieval literature?

2.1.1.2. The eleventh century: epic and elegy.

As stated above, the eleventh century was characterized by the use of epic and elegy within
literary works. Yet, the Norman Conquest (1066) meant the establishment of a new social,
political, economic, cultural, linguistic and even literary situation in which the type of works
were to be changes as well into romance and lyric. Therefore, the language of the new rulers,
French, displaced English as the medium of literature and also influenced the way of writing.

There is evidence that William the Conqueror tried to learnt English, but he gave up. On the
other hand, Saxons dealing with him had to learn French, and French became the language of
the court and the law for three centuries in such as way that the Normans spoke Norman French,
which was commonly known in England as Anglo-Norman.

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In fact, the linguistic situation during the eleventh century and early twelfth centuries is
described as a relationship of vertical bilingualism (or sometimes called trilingualism, if we
consider the role of Latin). This situation describes the coexistence of two (or three) languages,
which were not wholly mixed up. Possibly, this mix appeared in mercantile centres or perhaps
as a desire to look socially sophisticated.

This promotion of French was impinged by several historical factors, such as the existence of a
close connection between the Norman nobility in England and Normandy; the expansion of the
Dukedom of Normandy when King Henry II married Eleanor of Aquitaine (AD 1152) and
gained the state of Brittany, and therefore, the King of England controlled two thirds of France;
and the development of courtly literature in French by wish of Eleanor, among others.

So, educated men for the next three centuries were trilingual, and many homes bilingual.
Literature in English suffered then a severe disruption in 1066 since the classical Old English
verse died out, just to revive later on in a very different form, romance, whereas prose continued
in the form of sermons within the clergy.

2.1.1.3. The twelfth century: romance and lyric.

As stated above, when the classical Old English verse died out, it revived in a very different
form, romance, and the prose developed in a lyric form. When this new writing appeared, it was
in an English which had become very different from that of the eleventh century. The reasons
for this include the lack of any written standard to discourage dialectal variety, scribal practice,
linguistic change and, above all, a new literary consciousness. This is the background for the
first of our works to comment on, the Arthurian legend under oral tradition.

According to Alexander (2000), the change in literary sensibility after 1100 is often
characterized as a change from epic to romance, where romance is defined as a kind of
medieval story, originally from stories written in romauns, or vernacular French. Actually, it
was such a novelty that William Is minstrel Taillefer is said to have led the Normans ashore at
the battle of Hastings declaiming the Chanson de Roland, which is a chanson de geste (song
of deeds). Also, in c. 1200 a Norman from Jersey called Layamon dedicated an Old English
heroic poem (Brut) to Eleanor of Aquitaine. This poem was based on the French Roman de
Brut (1155) by Wace, a canon of Bayeux, who in turn based his work on Geoffrey of
Monmouths Historia Regum Britanniae. Yet, the main literature works were the Arthurian
legend and courtly literature.

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 The Arthurian legend.

It was this latter author, Geoffrey of Monmouth who, in AD 1135 (c.1130-6), wrote Historia
Regum Britanniae and, unconciously, created the Arthurian legend by means of a wonderful
historical romance, in which the Arthur of literature belongs to the age of chivalry and the
Crusades after 1100. Yet, according to the historian Gildas and his work Excidio Britanniae
(c.550), there was a Romanized Celtic chieftain called Ambrosius Aureliano, who became a
Celtic (British) hero agains the Saxon invasion in west part of Britain.

Later on, another British author, called Nennius (c.800) reported about this chieftain, and said
that he became a servant of Vortigern (under the influence of a spell) to defeat the Saxons.
Then, in the same report it is said that a man called Arthur led his warriors to victory in twelve
successful battles against the Saxons, the latter taking place at Mons Badonicus in todays
Wales (Asimov, 1990:47). So, later oral legends created King Arthur, his Knights of the Round
Table, and even Camelot was set up as the legendary capital of Arthurian reign in Cadbury Hill
(Wales).

It was in northern France that the legends of Arthur, his Round Table and the Quest for the Grail
improved before they re-crossed the Channel to the northern half of the Norman kingdom. Note
that although the Normans conquered southern Scotland, Wales and Ireland, they did not
include in the Arthurian story2 . Geoffreys work was quite a popular story until the Renaissance,
and a popular legend afterwards. Note that the character of Merlin in this story has Celtic
origins, since he is an enigmatic figure related to ancient druids.

Geoffreys legendary history of the island of Britain was put into English by Layamon, a parish
priest at Arley Regis in Worcestershire, an area where old verse traditions lasted. His work was
written in 14,000 lines and makes no distinction between the British and the English, thus
allowing the English to regard Arthur, their British enemy, as English. Although his talent was
for narrative, he employed old formulas with less economy when describing Arthurs death. In
his metre, Arthur is wafted by elf-ladies to Avalon to be healed, and to return. This promise is

2
The plot is based on the fact that the kings of Britain descend from Brutus, the original conqueror of
the island of Albion, then infested by giants. This Brutus is the grandson ofAeneas the Trojan, from
whom Virgil traced the kings of Rome. Brutus calls Albion Britain, after his own name, whose capital is
New Troy, later called London. The Romans conquer Britain, but the Britons, under Lucius, reconquer
Rome. They fight bravely under king Arthur against the Saxon invader, but Arthur, poised to conquer
Europe, has to turn back at the Alps to put down the revolt of his nephew Mordred. Fatally wounded at
the battle of Camlann, Arthur is taken to the island of Avalon, whence, according to the wizard Merlins
prophecies, he shall one day return. Geoffrey stops in the sixth century at King Cadwallader, after whom
the degenerate Britons succumbed to the Saxons (Alexander, 2000:39).

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repeated in Malorys Morte Darthur (c.1470), who also tried to compile the main body of
Arthurian legends into narrative.

So, during the eleventh and thirteenth centuries there was a change from gestes (songs of res
gestae, Lat. things done) to romances of chivalry as part of the rise of feudalism. Hence, a
knights duty was to serve God and the King with a religious orientation and a legal force,
which was not just an honour-code in literature. So, the concept of chivalry was considered to
be historical as well as literary and its cultural prestige was spread through Romance.

Courtly literature.

As we can see, Romances were tales of adventurous and honourable deeds, such as at first
were deeds of war and later on, to defend ladies or to fight for them. Soon they developed into
courtly literature and began as a courtly genre, a leisure pursuit, like feasting, hunting, reading,
playing chess, or love itself. The warrior gave way to the knight, and when the knight got off his
horse he wooed the lady. In other words, in literature the pursuit of love grew ever more refined
(Alexander, 2000:40).

The French rulers enjoyed romances of antiquity, about Thebes, Aeneas, Troy and Alexander
and, actually, Benot de Sainte-Maure produced a 30,000-line Roman de Troie (1165) at the
court of Eleanor of Aquitaine. Such popular stories made reference to classical themes full of
marvels (Rome), but Arthurian romance was even more popular with French ladies and hence,
the first developments of Geoffreys Arthurian legend material were in French.

As we will see, the romance is a lasting legacy of the Middle Ages, not only to works of fantasy
in later centuries (such as Edmund Spensers Faerie Queene or the Gothic novel but also to such
marvellous but pseudo-realist works as Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe and Samuel
Richardsons Pamela).

2.1.1.4. The thirteenth century: lyrics and prose.

The thirteenth century was just about to bring changes at all levels when, shortly after AD 1200,
England lost an important part of her possessions abroad. The Loss of Normandy would have,
for our purposes, linguistic consequences, such as the loss of prestige of Norman-French and
Anglo-Norman. Consequently, the maintenance of French into some kind of artificial language
had an influence on the literary productions in that period, namely on lyrics and prose. Yet, this
nationalistic feeling did not extend to the King and courtly nobility, but linguistically speaking,
the loss of prestige of Norman French and Anglo-Norman reinforced the functional use of
English, the use of Latin as the official language for records, and the adoption of Norman
French by native English speakers.

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Literature, then, reflected this situation at two main levels, first, by showing the relevance of
medieval institutions and authority; and second, by means of lyrics and English prose.
Regarding the former, The Canterbury Tales by Chaucer shall look at institutions and mental
habits which shaped this new English literature. Nowadays, modern literature is mostly
concerned with secular life and lay people, but for over a thousand years, thought, culture and
art in Europe were promoted by the Church. The clergy were the source of education at that
time as well as of arts and literature.

Second, regading the latter, lyrics and English prose dominated the literature scene at that time.
Thus, these two new academic attitudes inspired clerical literature, such as The Owl and the
Nightingale (early 13th century), which became the bird of love in Provenal lyrics of the early
12th century. The refinement and abundance of Provenal song-literature is unmatched in North
French and English lyric. Hundreds of medieval lyrics remain in manuscripts which can be
roughly dated, but composition and authors are usually unknown. In addition, rhyme is first
found in Church hymns, but late religious lyrics appear with the fifteenth century literature.

2.1.1.5. The fourteenth century: spiritual writing vs. secular prose.

During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries new historical events, such as the Hundred Years
War, the Black Death and the Peasants Revolt, reinforced the national feeling which had
ensued the loss of Normandy and led the inhabitants of the island to a general adoption of
English. On the other hand, the bubonic and pneumonic plague ravaged Europe in the mid
fourteenth century and, its effects were felt at all levels, particularly the social and economic
ones since the drastic reduction of the amount of land under cultivation became the ruin of many
landowners. Therefore, the shortage of labour implied a general rise in wages for peasants and,
consequently, provided new fluidity to the stratification of society and afforded a new status to
the middle and lower social classes, whose native language was English.

Linguistically speaking, the consequences of these events were to be felt in a general adoption
of English in the late fourteenth century. Already in the late thirteenth century, the English
language was virtually understood and actively used by everyone, but it was not recognized in
official, legal, governmental or administrative affairs. Hence, among the historical events of the
fourteenth century which led to a gradual use of English in these high domains, we may
highlight the use of English in a will, instead of Latin, for the first time (1383) and later on, in
an official petition to Parliament (petition of the London Mercers Guild, 1386).

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It is in this environment where spiritual writing vs. secular prose comes into force, as well as the
Ricardian poetry, and Geoffrey Chaucers works. Thus, we can namely distinguish spiritual
writing, which seeks a disciplicine of the spirit to become closer to God, and secular prose,
which was used for practical matters in general terms. So, spiritual writing is represented by
Richard Rolle (c.1300-49), who included in his English writings (Song of Songs, Form of
Living, Ego Dormio) allegorical commentaries, poems and prose marked by a musical rhetoric,
and also Walter Hilton (d.1379) who also addressed the spiritual life in his writings (The Scale
of Perfection). On the other hand, secular prose appeared when reformers started to translate the
Bible into English since they had to produce an English Vulgate so literal as to be almost
unreadable.

In fact, according to Alexander (2000), apart from The Peterborough Chronicle in 1154,
English secular prose non-religious prose-, other prose writers of interest were Sir John
Mandeville and Margery Kemp who, after a religious conversion, wrote her confessional
testament in The Book of Margery Kempe (revised in 1436). Similarly, The Paston Letters were
the correspondence of a 15th -century Norfolk family which was subject to study years after.

The reign of Richard II (1372-98) saw the flowering of a mature English poetry in Middle
English. Besides lyric and religious prose of the highest quality, Arthurian verse romances were
spirited in the Stanzaic Morte (c.1390) and the Alliterative Morte (c.1400). The revival of
English alliterative verse produced at least two crucial poems, Piers Plowman (c.1377) by
William Langland and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, which was found with three other
fine poems (Patience, Cleanness and Pearl) in the Gawain manuscript (c.1390). Each poem is
strikingly original and intelligent, but Gawain must stand here for all. On the other hand, verse
drama was also popular, although surviving texts are 15th century (Alexander, 2000).

Yet, according to Rogers (1987:39), the most important contributions to the literature
development in this century were made by two courtly makers, that is, Chaucer and Gower.
On the one hand, John Gower (1330-1408) contributed with the appearance of an assured
syllabic verse in his long poems and, on the other hand, Geoffrey Chaucer contributed with the
establishment in English of the decasyllabic verse of France and Italy: in the Troilus stanza
(c.1382-5) which coincided with the Peasants Revolt (1381), and the couplets of the
Canterbury Tales (c.1387).

Finally, Chaucers relevance is not merely historical but also literary. He states Chaucer was as
humane as any English non-dramatic poet, with a versatility and narrative skill never exceeded,
even though Gower wrote in three languages and Chaucer in English only. Yet, this linguistic

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tool gave a richer tone and a deeper social reach than French or Latin at that age. Chaucer is said
to be a bright star in a sky with many bright stars since his relevance was recognized at his
death. His mature and last work, The Canterbury Tales, is today his most popular.

2.1.1.6. The fifteenth century.

Historically speaking, by the fifteenth century, during the reign of Henry V (1413-1422), the
English language was officially used at both the oral and written levels in most fields, except
legal records (still written in Latin), the Statutes of Parliament (written in French until 1489) and
in ceremonial formulae (still French). Yet, for our purposes, we shall focus on the literary
productions which reinforced the national feeling which had ensued the loss of Normandy and
led the inhabitants of the island to a general adoption of English.

Regarding literature, after Chaucer and Gower were buried outside the City of London, in the
churches in Westminster and Southwark next to which each had lived, there was good English
writing in the fifteenth century, particularly in lyric and drama and prose, but no major poet.
Yet, Thomas Hoccleve (1369-1426), who called Chaucer his father, scratched his living as a
copyist at Westminster, lacking his masters skill and his diplomacy. His job was reported to be
boring.

Another author who is worth mentioning is John Lydgate (1370-1449). He was a monk of Bury
St Edmunds, and did well out of English verse. Among his main works, we mention Troy
Book, written for Henry V; his version of The Pilgrimage of the Life of Man for the Earl of
Salisbury; his Fall of Princes for Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. His works had a decorated
style without Chaucers rhythm, verve and intelligence.

So, we can affirm that the decasyllable lost its music in the 15th century, as words altered in
accent and inflection. As English topped up with prestige words from Latin and French and
doubled its resources, its eloquence took the form of reduplication, pairing English and
Romance synonyms. New literary streams and events were entering this century, for instance,
drama (mystery and morality plays), religious lyric, Scottish poetry and the most important
event, the arrival of printing, with which quality marketing had begun. That meant that
chivalry and romance were dying, but manners could be learned.

Regarding literary work, although English poetry was the dominant tradition of fifteenth-
century (established by Chaucer and Gower), there was also good English writing in the
fifteenth century, particularly in lyric and drama and prose, but no major poet. Yet, other

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relevant authors in Middle English literature are Thomas Hoccleve (1369-1426), who called
Chaucer his father, scratched his living as a copyist at Westminster, lacking his masters skill
and his diplomacy; John Lydgate (1370-1449), who was a monk of Bury St Edmunds, and did
well out of English verse; and a dynasty of courtly makers (from courtly literature: romance)
represented by Lydgate, Charles dOrlans and James I of Scotland, Henryson, and Dunbar
(Rogers, 1987).

Moreover, the decasyllable lost its music in the 15th century, as words altered in accent and
inflection. As English topped up with prestige words from Latin and French and doubled its
resources, its eloquence took the form of reduplication, pairing English and Romance
synonyms. New literary streams and events were entering this century, for instance:

Drama. Fifteenth-century writers played an important role in the development of

vernacular drama, which distinguished between mystery and morality plays:
o On the one hand, Miracle or Mystery plays represented Biblical history in
Latin and in local tongues. These plays were cycles of religious dramas
performed by town guilds, craft associations of a religious kind. It is relevant
to bear in mind that English drama is Catholic in origin and that a branch of it,
liturgical drama, spread over Europe after the 10th century. Although they were
last suppressed in 1580 at the Reformation, they continued in Catholic Europe.
As Greek tragedy began in religious rite, medieval European drama also began
with the representation of the central Christian story in the Mass, and in the
annual cycle of services developed by the early Church, where Mystery Plays
have their origin (other records survive from Italy, Spain, France, Germany,
Ireland and Scotland).
o On the other hand, morality plays showed the fate of the single human person
in the 15th and 16th centuries, played by travelling companies. The moralities
had a final moral, but it is to the Mysteries that Elizabethan dramma will owe a
long-established communal participation in religious drama, civic comedy and
secular drama, recorded but not extant.
Also, religious lyric developed from Latin songs and hymns. If we trace back in
history, hymns came into the Latin church in the fourth century, bringing in accentual
rhythm and rhyme from popular songs. There is a large literature of Latin songs, sacred
and profane, from every century.
The oldest prose narrative was also familiar in English, apart from those in scripture.
Hence, Le Morte Darthur (1470) of Sir Thomas Malory, which derived from the
French prose La Mort Artu. Malory acknowledges the French prose books on whichhe

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 draws, but not his English verse sources. His prose is rhythmical, and there is a larger
narrative rhythm to his scenes, well-paced and with dramatic exchanges, which tells us
of conflict and loss in a courtesy world. In fact, the status of Le Morte Darthur owes
much to its printing by William Caxton (1422-91), who also printed a Canterbury
Tales in 1477 (Alexander, 2000).
Finally, Scottish poetry took place in the late fifteenth century and showed a mix of
four tongues: Highland Gaelic. Lowland English, clerkly Latin, and lordly Anglo-
Norman French.

2.1.1.7. The sixteenth century: the Tudor and Elizabethan Age.

Historically speaking, the sixteenth century coincides in its early years with the Tudor Age,
which not only marked the start of Reinassance, but also the end of the medieval Arthur. The
early Tudor period, particularly the reign of Henry VIII, was marked by a break with the Roman
Catholic Church and a weakening of feudal ties, which brought about a vast increase in the
power of the monarchy. Stronger political relationships with the Continent were also developed,
increasing Englands exposure to Renaissance culture as the revival of learning. This meant a
turn to classical models of verse, which began with a man Chaucer called Fraunceys Petrak, the
lauriat poete (who was an Italian humanist and collected classical manuscripts).

Hence, humanism became the most important force in English literary and intellectual life, both
in its narrow sense (the study and imitation of the Latin classics) and in its broad sense (the
affirmation of the secular, in addition to the otherworldly, concerns of people), and in fact, the
contrast between Renaissance learning based on classical models and medieval ignorance is
often exaggerated. Yet, in 1517, the Protestant Reformation began with Martin Luthers attacks
on the Churchs Penitential system, order and doctrine.

The Reformation, like the Renaissance, was an outcome of a gradual transfer of authority away
from weaker central and communal structures to stronger local individual ones, and an
accompanying transfer from external to internal ways of thinking, feeling and representeing.
These changes brought about the division of Europe into Catholic or Protestant. With this
background in mind, Henry VIII wrote the first book by an English king since King Alfred,
though in Latin not English (Defence of the Seven Sacraments). He was helped by Sir Thomas
More, a lawyers son, who had a new faith in education since rhetoric challenged the medieval
sciences of logic and theology.

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Also, Henry asked Rome for the divorce of Catherine of Aragon (unable to produce a male
heir) to marry Ann Boleyn. Then, after being excommunicated (since he went ahead with
marriage), Henry made himself Supreme Head of the Church (at that time the Church of
England) and held to Catholic doctrines, but in the six years under his young son Edward VI
(1547-53), reform was imposed. For the next six years, her daughter Mary returned
Catholicism, recalling the Benedictines to Westminster Abbey. Finally, Elizabeth I (1558-
1603), Ann Boleyns daughter, gradually imposed a compromise between Protestant teaching
and Catholic practice, but Catholics lost ground when Rome declared the Queen illegitimate
(1570).

The Reformation brought about authors like Thomas More (1478-1535), Sir Thomas Wyatt
(1503-1542) and The Earl of Surrey (1517-1547) as the main representative figures in this
period. Moreover, we may mention first, the development of religious and instructive prose
with the aim to promote native vernacular English. Since prose has such a varity of tasks, its
history is not readily summarized, but we can distinguish bible translation, since the
Reformation created an urgent need for a religious prose (Miles Coverdale -1488-1568-
produced the first complete printed English bible in 1539). Secondly, instructive prose perfects
a storytelling mode originally oral. Writer took their ideas of style from Cicero and Quintilian to
get Latin-derived words which would worry linguistic patriots. Hence, main authors to be
mentioned are Sir Thomas Elyot (c.1490-1546) who wrote Governor (1531) for Henry VIII,
the humanist John Cheke (1514-1557) who became tutor to Edward VI, and Roger Ascham
(1515-1568) who dedicated his Toxophilus (1545) to Henry, which earned him a pension.

The Reformation may also account for drama. The fact the major literature of the period 1540-
1579 was in the translation of religious texts meant the suppression of the monasteries and
their schools,which did not go into education and poets needed patrons. Before the Elizabethan
theatre opened, there was no paying profession of writing. University men tried vainly to bridge
the gap between uncommercial gentle status and scribbling for a tiny market. Yet in this
fallow period secular drama began. Mystery and morality plays continued, and the Mysteries
until Shakespeares day (Alexander, 2000).

Guilds clubbed together to buy pageant waggons and costumes and companiesof players
travelled between inns and great houses . Hence, a new kind of play, the interlude, was now
played between courses in big houses at Christmas and Easter, and was considered to be a moral
entertainment. Drama became a family habit and soon many authors appeared on stage, thus
John Rastell (1470-1536) with his own interlude The Four Elements (with the first printed
music), John Heywood (c.1497-1580), author of the farcical interlude The Four Ps, Nicolas

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Udall (1504-1556), who adapted Roman comedie s by Plautus and Terence, for instance, Ralph
Roister Doister (first English comedy for pupils), and Jasper Heywood (1535-1598), Johns son,
who translated into English Senecas Troas.

So, these forces developed during the reign (15581603) of Elizabeth I, which became one of
the most fruitful eras in literary history.The activities and literature of the Elizabethans
reflected a new nationalism, which expressed itself also in the works of chroniclers (John Stow,
Raphael Holinshed, and others), historians, and translators and even in political and religious
tracts. A wide range of new genres, themes, and ideas were incorporated into English literature,
and Italian poetic forms, especially the sonnet, became models for English poets.

So, the last two decades of the Elizabethan golden age are so crowded with special talents: in
1552 were born Edmund Spenser and Walter Ralegh, and in 1554 Philip Sidney, John Lyly and
Richard Hooker. This generation began what was completed by Christopher Marlowe and
William Shakespeare (b.1564), and John Donne and Ben Johnson (b.1572) at the end of Tudor
England; let alone the second-rank dramatists and the theologians (Rogers, 1987).

Hence this period saw a variety of prose, artful, lively and dignified variety of literary styles
among which we may distinguish: verse (Sir Philip Sidney, Edmund Spenser, Sir Walter
Ralegh, the Jacobethans, Christopher Marlowe), song (Thomas Campion), prose (John Lyly,
Thomas Nashe, Richard Hooker), and namely, drama (Shakespeare, and an unprecedented
abundance of non-dramatic poets and translators). It is worth remembering that Shakespeare has
been one of the main inspirations for the cinema business.

The variety was called Elizabethan Drama for Queen Elizabeth, who was popular for her love
of religion and arts. When the Renaissance reached England, this intellectual and artistic
impulse found its fullest and most lasting expression in the drama which, due to a fortunate
group of coincidences, affected the people of England at a moment when the country was
undergoing a rapid and peaceful expansion. In addition, the development of the language and
the forms of versification had reached a point which made possible the most triumphant literary
achievement which that country has seen: the Elizabethan Drama. In fact, the Elizabethan Age
achieved this literary success through different intellectual and artistic representations of reality:
the chronicle history, tragedy and comedy.

With the revival of learning came naturally the study and imitation of the ancient classical
drama, and in some countries this proved the chief influence in determining the prevalent type
of drama for generations to come. But in England, though we can trace important results of the

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models given by Seneca in tragedy and Plautus in comedy, the main characteristics of the drama
of the Elizabethan age were of native origin, and reflected the spirit and the interests of the
Englishmen of that day (Ward & Trent, 2000).

2.1.1.8. The seventeenth century: The Stuart Age and the Enlightment.

The seventeenth century has its starting point in the death of Elizabeth I (1603) and is to be
framed upon the Stuart succession line, thus under the rule of James I (1603-1625); his son,
Charles I (1625-1642), who ruled until civil war broke out in 1642; then Cromwell (1642-1660),
until monarchy was restored by Charles II (1660-1685); this was followed by his brother, James
II (1685-1689) who, in 1668, fled before his invading son-in-law, the Dutchman William of
Orange became William III; and finally , William and Mary II (1689-1707), who were
succeeded by Marys sister, Queen Anne (1702-1713).

Regarding literature, we can talk about different literary conditions under the rule of Cromwell
and the Restoration since the former showed a Puritan attitude against Renaissance culture and
manners whereas the latter inaugurated a new temper and a cultural style which lasted into the
eighteenth century. Actually, with the return of Charles II as King in 1660, new models of
poetry and drama came in from France, where the court had been in exile. Later on in James I
reign, high ideals had combined with daring wit and language, but the religious and political
extremism of the mid-century broke that combination.

In literature the Restoration was a period of novelty, change and refoundation rather than of
great writing. Following Alexander (2000:156), if the Restoration period produced no writer of
the first rank, it gave secular literature new importance. The civil, secular, social culture of the
Restoration period is often called Augustan, since its writers saw parallels between the restored
monarchy and the peace restored by the Emperor Augustus after vivil war and the assassination
of Caesar had ended the Roman republic.

It is relevant to bear in mind that those who had remained in England during the Commonwealth
had faced years of strict moral repression, and those who fled to France had acquired some of
the decadence bred across the channel. In combination, these two forces created a nation of
wealthy, witty, amoral hedonists, whose theatre reflected their lifestyles. Thus was born the
Restoration Tragedy and the Comedy of Manners.

Yet, in the Restoration period, it is relevant to say that that Restoration verse, prose and stage
comedy were marked by world ly scepticism clearly shown in the works of Bunyan, Milton and

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Dryden. In fact, the only works worth mentioning from these forty years (1660-1700) to have
been read in every generation since are Bunyans The Pilgrims Progress (1678-1679), some
poems by John Dryden , and the better Restoration comedies.

First of all, regarding drama, it is worth mentioning that this is one of the most affected
genres by the English Civil War in 1642 and the figure of Cromwell, since one of the
first acts after the Civil War was to order the closing all the theatres in London for the
sake of purity. Yet, when Charles II returned, he gave literature chances and the theatres
opened again, determined to reject Puritan earnestness. As a result, the kings friends
came back from France with a more secular, sceptical and civilized tone, and above all,
neo-classical ideas. Hence Charles patronized the Royal Sociey, the Royal Observatory,
the theatre and the opera, and soon the Restoration Tragedy and the Comedy of
Manners were born.

Secondly, poetry in this century came from the Court, the Church, and the gentry of the
theatre. Hence the first half of the century (to 1642) flourished under the names of: Ben
Jonson (1572-1637), a professional poet as well as playwright, whose clarit y, edge and
economy behind his writing produced one of his most famous poems Works (1616);
also, we find metaphysical poets (Henry King, George Herbert, Thomas Carew, Henry
Crashaw, John Cleveland, Abrahan Cowley, Andrew Marvell, Henry Vaughan, Thomas
Traherne), devotional poets such as George Herbert (1593-1633) whose poems are
homely in imagery and simple in language, and Henry Vaughan (1621-95), Herberts
disciple, among others; and cavaliers poets who wrote with a gallant secular verse (Sir
John Suckling, Sir Richard Lovelace, Andrw Marvell); and finally, John Milton (1608-
1674), whose late work was aimed to a spiritual lite. Among his most famous works
are Lycidas (1637), an ambitious pastoral elegy for a Cambridge contemporary, and
Paradise Lost (1667), which was adapted from a drama called Adam Unparadisd
(1642). Milton turned from poetry to reforming prose at the Civil War and toughened
his argumentative powers.

Finally, prose is namely represented in the Restoration period by John Dryden, the
Royal Society of Londons members, and John Locke. In the first half of the century
one of the main prose works was the Duke of Buckinghams The Rehearsal (1672),
which was a huge successful prose burlesque of the theatrical conventions of the time.
One of his targets was John Dryden, who was considered as a social inferior by
Buckingham and other writers.

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 o When Royalist politics and religion lost favour in the 1680s, John Dryden
(1631-1700) turned from poetry to satire, and then to translation. He wrote in
every kind, but posterity has liked best the non-dramatic work of his later
career: his satire, his prose and his Virgil. Among his works we include the
most representative of his career: Works (1697) and Fables, Ancient and
Modern (1700).
o Also, the Royal Soc iety of London, which was the nursery of English science,
had members who helped in the production of prose (i.e. Wren, Boyle, Hooke,
Locke and Newton). There is much pleasurable minor prose, for instance, Izaak
Waltons Lives (1665), the diaries of Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn, the
Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson by his daughter Lucy, the account of the
assassination of Buckingham in John Aubreys Brief Lives. Also, we find other
new forms such as brief biographies.
o Finally, we shall approach the figure of John Locke (1632-1704) as one of the
most important writers in British cultural history, since his epistemology and
psychology bacame part of the common sense of the eighteenth century. He
was an Oxford academic who published after 1689, when he formulated an
empirical philosophy which derived knowledge from experience and a theory of
government as a contract between governor and the governed. One of his most
famous works is Essay concerning Human Understanding (1690), which held
that the human mind at birth is as a white paper, without any ideas.

With this background in mind, we are ready now to examine eighteenth-century Great Britain,
and understand certain events closely related to previous historical period.

2.1.1.9. The eighteenth century: the Augustean Age and the Romantics.

This period coincides to a great extent with the Augustean Age (1714-1790), and only in the last
decade it is related to the Romantics (1790-1837). The political background is to be framed
upon the Georgian succession line, thus under the rule of Queen Anne (1701-1714); her German
cousin, which became George I (1714-1727); George II (1727-1760), George III (1760-1820),
king of Great Britain and Ireland; and his son, George IV (1820-1830), who was succeeded by
his brother, William IV.

Following Alexander (2000:173), the course of the 18th century presents a broad contrast to the
disruption and change of the 17th . A desire for rational agreement, and an increasing confidence,
mark literary culture for a century after 1688. There were cross-currents, exclusions and

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developments: the novel arrived in the 1740s, and Augustanism was increasingly in dialogue
with other modes. By then, England and her empire within the British Isles prospered by
improvements in agriculture and industry, and by trade with her overseas empire, at first
commercial, then territorial. Also, much of the religion of a rational Church of England settled
into duties, social and private, though there was the evangelical revival known as Methodism.
Disenters and Catholics had civil disabilities, but were tolerated: Dissenters with condescension,
Catholics with mistrust. Toleration was extended to Jews (expelled from England in 1290) and
atheists.

Regarding the literary background of the eighteenth century, we shall overvie w how Georgian
literature dealt with art, music and a variety of genres throught the century. Thus the eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries saw a wide variety of authors who produced a flourishing
scholarly and popular works that we still consider classics, for example, Defoes Robinson
Crusoe (1719), Humes Treatise on Human Nature (1739), Johnsons Dictionary (1755),
Smiths Wealth of Nations (1776), Gibbons Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776). Yet,
the turn of the century saw artists such as Austens Sense and Sensibility (1811), Scotts
Waverley Novels (1814 onwards), Shelleys Frankenstein (1818) and Tennysons Lady of Shalot
(1832).

Musically, the period started with Handel regularly composing and performing in London and
ended with Mendelsson's Fingals Cave likewise being performed to a metropolitan audience.
Other works such as Rule Britannia , God save the King and Auld Lang Syne also date from this
period. In 1823, the Royal Academy of Music opened in London.

According to Alexander (2000:173), the status of literature is shown by periodicals which

carried out essays on civilized neutral topics, including literature itself; by the sums subscribed
for editions of Prior and Pope and Johnsons Dictionary as a monument to English letters; by
Gothic fiction where the neo-classicism prevails until mid-century, and art imitates reality.
Hence much 18th -century literature has a polite or aristocratic tone, but its authors were largely
middle-class, as were its readers. The art of letters had social prestige, and poets found patrons
among the nobility, who also wrote. Congreve, Prior and Addison rose high in society, and so,
despite his disadvantages, did Pope.

Fiction was less polite and more commercial than poetry, and in Johnsons Dictionary, the
prose writer most cited is Samuel Richardson, a joiners son who became a printer and finally a
novelist. Johnson himself was a booksellers son. The pioneer realist, Daniel Defoe, was a hack
journalist who lived by his pen. Defoe and Richardson had a concern with individual

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consciousness, which evolved out of the Protestant anxiety about personal salvation, found in
John Bunyan (17th century). Defoe and Richardson were Dissenters. Henry Fielding, an
Anglican, scorned Richardsons concern with inwardness and attacked social abuses
(2000:174).

In this period the triumph of classicism is fully represented in poetry, which is developed by
means of (1) lyric, which almost disappears (although the best pieces of the period are to be
found in Prior, Gay and Ramsay); (2) the ode, which also survives feebly in the Pindaric form,
namely developed by Pope and Lady Winchilsea; (3) the satiric type, which is more common, of
high quality and tends to be lighter, brighter, and more cynical whose best example is Popes
Dunciad, a personal satire. Satire also spread to other forms of verse such as the heroic couplet
(Swift, Prior and Gay poems); (4) also, narrative poetry, which contains the best works of the
period together with a slight revival of the ballad (Pope, Gay, Prior); and finally, (5) the
Pastoral, which was highly famous among formal compositions.

Among the most popular poets we namely find Alexander Pope (1688-1744), followed by
Mattew Prior (1664-1721), John Gay (1685-1732), Edward Young (1683-1765), Sir Samuel
Garth (1661-1719), Lady Winchilsea (1661-1720), Ambrose Philips (1675-1749), Thomas
Parnell (1679-1718) and Allan Ramsay (1686-1758).

As stated above, drama production was not so fruitful as poetry or prose because of previous
events (see seventeenth-century literary background). So the main works in this period are
Ambrose Philipss The Distressed Mother (1712) (among other two tragedies); Addisons Cato,
in tragedy; and Steeles The Beggars Opera, which is a comedy play regarded as a survival of
the Restoration type and the only advance in drama.

In this period we observe the prominence of prose namely characterized by the rise of periodical
literature. Hence we find the rise of the press, the essay, prose narrative and miscellaneours
prose. Thus:

(1) the rise of the periodical press, which traces back to the first periodical publication in
Europe, the Gazetta (1536) in Venice. Later on, newssheets were published in the
Elizabethan England, followed by the publication of the first regular English journal in
1622 by Thomas Archer and Nicholas Bourne. Political passions which led to the Civil
War were reflected in a kind of journalistic writing, which in 1641, gave way to the
Diurnalls and home news. Yet, in 1659 Cromwell suppressed the licensed press (with
the exception of the official organ, the weekly The Publick Intelligencer), but in 1682

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 the freedom of the Press was restored and large numbers of periodicals appeared in
different fashions. Hence The Daily Courant (1702), Defoes Review (1704) (a Whig
organ) and its opponent The Examiner (a Tory paper); Steeles The Tatler (1709), The
Spectator (1711) and The Plebeian (1719) as an early example of the political
periodical.
(2) The rise of the essay refers to the development of writing productions which must be
short, unmethodical, and written in a style that is literary, easy, and elegant (Albert,
1990:218). Again, the English essay traces back to the Elizabethan Age under the work
of Lodge, Lyly, and Greene, among others. Hence Sidneys Apologie for Poetrie
(1595), Francis Bacon, who is regarded as the first real essayist in English; Cowleys Of
Myself and The Garden; Drydens Essay of Dramatick Poesie (1668), Lockes An Essay
concerning Human Understanding (1690); and Temples Essay of Poetry (1685). More
recently, Addisons The Tatler (1709) and Steeles The Spectator (1711).
(3) Prose narrative, still under the influence of allegory, is namely reflected in Swifts
Gulliver Travels and Addisons The Vision of Mirza, among others. Yet, fiction is given
prominence in the novels of Defoe and, in particular, in his work Robinson Crusoe.
(4) Finally, miscellaneous prose is namely regarded as a large body of religious, political,
and philosophical work. In political and religious prose-writing Swift is the most
relevant figure, but we may find other authors such as Bolingbroke (political), Berkeley
(philosophical) and Steele (religious).

Regarding prose style, the most outstanding feature is the emergence of the middle style, pure
without scrupulosity, and exact without apparent elaboration; always equable, and always easy,
without glowing words or pointed sentences (Albert, 1990:220). It is a prose suitable for
miscellaneous purposes, that is, for newspapers, political or religious works, as well as for
essays, for history and biography.

Among the main novelists or prose-writers we include Jonathan Swift (1667-1745), Joseph
Addison (1672-1719), Sir Richard Steele (1672-1729), Daniel Defoe (c.1659-1731), John
Arbuthnot (1667-1735), Lord Bolingbroke (1678-1751), George Berkeley (1685-1753), and
Lady Mary Wortley (1689-1762), whose literary productions are framed (more or less) within
this period. Note that this period coincides with the days of Alexander Pope, and hence it is
referred to as the Age of Alexander Pope (Alexander, 2000).

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2.2.1.10.The nineteenth century: the Victorian Age.

The nineteenth century is namely represented by the accession of Queen Victoria to the throne
when her uncle, William IV dies in 1837. So Victoria would reign from 1837 to 1901 and would
be the longest reigning British monarch. In general terms, during Victorias reign, the revolution
in industrial practices continued to change British life, bringing about urbanisation, a good
communications network and wealth. In addition, Britain became a champion of Free Trade
across her massive Empire, and industrialisation and trade were glorified in the Great
Exhibitions. Yet, by the turn of the century, Britains industrial advantage was being challenged
successfully by other nations such as the USA across the ocean and Germany on the continent.

The Victorian Age includes, as stated before, several changes different in nature and, in this
respect, the literary background presents a great variety of aspects. Thus, the literary period is
characterized by its morality, which to a great extent is a natural revolt against the grossness of
the earlier Regency, and the influence of the Victorian Court. In addition, literary productions
are affected by the intellectual developments in science, religion, and politics.

Also, the new education acts of the period made education compulsory, which rapidly produced
an enormous reading public. Actually, the cheapening of printing and paper increased the
demand for books among which the most popular form was the novel. Finally, we also observe
a strong literary interaction between American and European writers (specially in political and
philosopical writings). In Britain, the influence of the great German writers was continuous
(Carlyle, Arnold).

The Victorian literature is characterized by the telling of every detail, as in photography so as to

get a real image of the object or person described. The fact may suggest concepts of clarity,
precision, and certainty. On the contrary, the disadvantages of being close to the object, and of
possessing masses of information about it is the production of copious works. So we notice that
this aspect of clarity is reflected in the main literary productions of the period, which are namely
divided into three groups: political, philosophical and social so as to reflect the events of the
time. But before examining prose in this aspect, let us briefly examine first the other two literary
forms: poetry and drama.
Regarding poetry, the Victorian Age produced literary works of a high quality, but,
except in the novel, the amount of actual innovation is by no means great. Actually, the
lyrical output is very large and varied, but there is no work worth mentioning since
there were many attempts at purely narrative poetry. Despite the efforts to revive the
epic, the impulse was not sufficiently strong. Thus, Brownings Ring and the Book (a

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 psychological epic) and William Morris The Earthly Paradise (a return to the old
romantic tale).
Similarly, there are no drama productions which are worth mentioning since there were
no efforts to revive the poetical drama. Of them all, we may highlight Swinburnes
tragedies (concerned with Mary Queen of Scots), Brownings earlier plays (before he
overdeveloped his style) and Tennysons Ulysses and Tithonus.
Regarding prose (the novel), there is no doubt that the king style in prose was the novel
by the middle of the nineteenth century, which is presented with a political,
philosophical or social overtone (Thackeray, Dickens, Bront). Another variety of prose
is the short story (namely developed in the next century); the essays, in the treatise-style
(Carlyle, Symonds, Pater); the lecture, which became prominent both in England and in
America; historical novel, strongly represented by William Stubbs, Edward A. Freeman
and Samuel R. Gardiner; and finally, we find the scientific treatise so as to account of
the scientific developments of the period (Browne, Burton, Berkeley).

o Political writing reflects the political consequences of the industrial revolution

in eighteenth and nineteenth-century Britain. Therefore, writers such as
Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881), Edward Bulwer-Lytton (1803-1873), Anthony
Trollope (1815-1882) and Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) among others, show,
denunciate and value the moral and political affairs which deeply affected
society in Britain at that period. Thus, some of their works are respectively,
Coningsby: or the New Generation (1844), Sybil: or The Two Nations (1845),
dealing with the politics of his day; Richelieu, or the Conspiracy (1839), A
Strange Story (1862) and The Coming Race (1871); Phineas Finn (1869) and
Phineas Redux (1874), where Trollope makes a satire of the political period;
and finally, Carlyles The French Revolution (1837) and Oliver Cromwells
Letters and Speeches (1845), in an attempt to criticize Cromwells methods.
o Philosophical writing is represented by George Eliot (1819-1880), who is
actually a woman writing under a pen-name, George Meredith (1828-1909) and
Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895). His main works reflect the most
outstanding philosophical and moral problems of the period, thus respectively:
Eliots Adam Bede (1859), an excellent picture of English country life among
the humbler classes, Felix Holt the Radical (1866), a critical work on the
Reform Bill, and Daniel Deronda (1876), which strongly coloured
preoccupation at that period with moral problems and and inexorable realism;
Merediths Vittoria (1867) which revindicates the spirited handling of the
Italian insurrectionary movement and The Egoist (1879), with a moral plot;

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 finally, Huxleys Mans Place in Nature (1863), Lay Sermons, Addresses and
Reviews (1870), and American Addresses (1877).
o Finally, social writing is represented by:
William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-1863), whose works showed a biting
humour and the observation of human weaknesses, thus The Book of Snobs
(1849), The Memoirs of Barry Lyndon (1844), a picaresque novel, and
Vanity Fair (1847-1848), which tells about the fortunes of Becky Sharp to
denounce the mournful vision of the vanities of mankind, and The
Virginians (1857-1859).
The Bront sisters, Charlotte (1816-1855), Emily (1818-1878) and Anne
(1820-1849) wrote melodramatic, terror and passionate novels addressing
the features of the period in which they lived. Thus, Charlottes Jane Eyre
(1847), full of countryside details, Shirley (1849) and Villette (1853);
Emilys unique Wuthering Heights (1847) in a description of the wild,
desolate moors where the main characters conceive their passions in
gigantic proportions, described with a stark realism; finally, Annes Agnes
Grey (1847) and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall (1848).
Wilkie Collins (1824-1889), who was considered to be the most successful
of the followers of Dickens, specialized in the mystery novel to which he
sometimes added a spice of the supernatural. Thus The Dead Secret
(1857), The Woman in White (1860) and The Moonstone (1868) as one of
his earliest detective stories.
Thomas Hardy (1840-1928), who was strongly criticized by his stark
pesimism in his writing. Among his most famous works, we highlight Tess
of the DUrbevilles (1891), Poems of the past and present (1901), The
dynasts (1903-1908), and Moments of Vision (1917). He is regarded as one
of the first modernists in content, attitude rather than form.
Finally, among many others not mentioned, Charles Dickens (1812-1870)
who showed in all his novels a great interest in Social Reform at his time: A
Christmas Carol (1843), Hard Times (1854), Bleak House (1852-1853),
Great Expectations (1861) and Bleak House (1865), among his most
representative works.

2.2.1.11.The twentieth century up to the present day.

The twentieth century literature is reflected by different periods and group of authors, for
instance, in the first quarter by the Lost Generation; in the inter-war years by another

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miscellaneous group; and finally, in the second half, by contemporary writers up to nowadays.
Broadly speaking, the main features of literature in the inter-war period and WWII are summed
up in five key concepts: the breakdown of established values, the resurgence of poetry, the
variety of technical experiments in most literary genres, the influence of radio and cinema, and
the speed of life. Thus,

(1) a breakdown of established values because of the perplexity and uncertainty which
sprang from the post-War situation. Many different reactions regarding spiritual values
were equalled by a great variety of literary work.
(2) Hence the resurgence of poetry whereas the novel and drama were the protagonists in
the previous years. Actually, the pre-War years had seen relative eclipse of poetry, and
the dominance of the novel and drama as literary forms, but a new and living poetical
tradition was demanded and was met between the Wars in his own work and in that of
the new poets (T.S. Eliot, W.H. Auden, Cecil Day Lewis, Louis MacNeice). Following
Albert (1990:508), poetry again became a vital literary form closely in touch with life,
and if it did not oust the novel from its primacy it certainly outstripped the drama.
(3) Also, there was a desire for new forms and methods of presentation, and in all the major
literary genres the age produced revolutionary developments thanks to two important
inventions of the twentieth century: the radio and the cinema.
(4) Actually, the radio and the cinema had an enormous impact on the rapid development of
the media and also, had important effects on the literature of the time, which applied
these two media techniques. It must be borne in mind that this novelty reduced the time
devoted to reading (prose) and going to the theatre (drama) since the radio brought
literature at home and the cinema brought a new form of leisure activity. In the form of
broadcast stories, plays, films, or literary discussion, a new field was opened for authors
who applied film techniques to a number of experiments in the novel.
(5) Finally, since people lived in a new atmosphere of fear and restlessness, the demand
was for more and faster action, stronger and more violent stimulus, and the general
atmosphere thus created was by its very nature inimical to the cultivation of literary
pursuits, which necessarily demand a degree of calmness of spirit and leisure of mind
(Albert, 1990:509).

For poetry, the hopes for a new world quickly disappeared in peoples minds after the World
War I and even less during the WWII, which caused a general feeling of disillusionment and
despair. Writers witnessed how culture disintegrated with no positive values to replace it and
soon they felt the need for a new world, for a new outlook on life. Following Albert (1990), the
overall impression of this inter-war years coincide with a new awareness of sociological factors

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which affect poetry, for instance, developments in poetic technique, the difficulty of modern
poetry, the combination of psychology and politics, the rise of surrealism and new
traditionalism, and the quest for stability. Thus,

developments in poetic technique were soon demanded to show a more realistic way to
face up to those difficult years. So, there was a change from old poetic forms to free
verse, and also to sprung rhythms, complex verbal patterns, and disregard for normal
syntax.
The emphasis on the evolution of new forms gave way to a great difficulty of modern
poetry, thus the dominance of form on content and the use of eccentric themes. Hence
this difficulty caused an increase in the use of vers libre and obscurity to appeal the
complex states of mind. This trend was encouraged by the popularity of the
metaphysical conceit, which accompanied the rebirth of symbolism (Yeats, French
Symbolistes) and the imitation of allusiveness (Eliot). Poetry reflected the situation of
those inter-war years: complexity, a refined sensibility, and the use of allusive and
indirect language.
Psychology and politics tried to come together under the figures of Sigmund Freud and
Karl Marx, respectively, so as to find a solution to the world problems. Already in the
1920s psychological research made poets turn their attention to the investigation of the
hidden impulses of man, and the development of techniques such as the internal
monologue and the stream of consciousness in characters. On the other hand, political
ideas took up the cause of the masses, whose lives they studied with genuine sympathy
and often with striking realism. The Republican support to the Spanish Civil War
together with a proletarian sympathy was seen by contemporary England in the form of
cheap satire.
The rise of surrealism and new traditionalism also contributed to poetry writing, for
instance, the former as an over-simplification of a complex and constantly shifting
situation which meant the escape from the complex problems of contemporary life by
means of experiments; the latter as the expression of the individual emotional
development and their reactions to their environment. Poetry was then characterized by
a detailed observation and lucid phraseology, concise expression, ironic style, stirred by
love and sex, out of the scope of experiments, and also on the line of dramatic
monologue.
Finally, the quest for stability increased as there was still no strongly established poetic
tradition to compare in stability with that of the Victorian age, but a constructive
approach to life. During the inter-War years we find a great proportion of didactic verse,

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 and the numerous attempts to find a solution to the problems of a perplexed generation
through the use of lyric poetry.

As for poetry, the situation of the inter-War years was deeply felt in the English theatre, and
therefore, in Ireland within the Irish Literary Revival Drama. Following Albert (1990), after the
war the sociological factors which affected this literary form were, broadly speaking, the
conditions in the theatre, the decline of realism, the development of comedy, the popularity of
the history play, the revival of poetic drama and the experiments abroad and at home. Thus,

By the 1920s the conditions in the English theatre was defined as poor since there were
no worth productions since Shaws Pygmalion (1913). The increasing demand for light
and escapist entertaintment for troops had made spectacle and musical comedy supreme
on the London stage. It must be borne in mind that in the early part of this period the
cause of serious drama in England depended almost entirely on a few enlightened
individuals (Lilian Baylis, Sir Barry Jackson, Sir Nigel Playfair). In addition, the arrival
of the cinema constituted a new threat to the theatre since it quickly became the main
way of entertainment of the masses. The cinema was a powerful competitor as it is
today due to the ability to offer sensation, spectacle on a scale impossible in the theatre,
and the novelty of a new art form.

Other hopeful aspects of dramatic activity are found under the growth of the amateur
dramatic movement regarding the British Drama League (1919) and the Scottish
Community Drama Association, both created to stimulate drama. Yet, it must be born in
mind that and this growth of repertory in England and Ireland (1890-1918) was
promoted by the arduous struggle to create an audience for the new drama (troops). This
led to seek additional support in the provinces, and thus came into being the repertory
movement 3 , whose chief aim was to encourage the writing of realistic problem plays in
the new tradition, and among the dramatists who there came to the fore were St John
Ervine (1883-1971), W. Stanley Houghton (1881-1913) and Allan Monkhouse (1858-
1936).
Repertory companies of distinction were founded in Liverpool (1911) and Birmigham
(1913). But most important of the theatrical developments outside London was the
creation of the Irish National Theatre in Dublin. Of the dramatists who wrote for this

3
A season of Shaw repertory was given in 1904 at the Court Theatre under the Vedrenne-Barker
management, and in 1907 Miss A.E.F. Horniman (1860-1937) abandoned her active interest in the Abbey
Theatre, Dublin to found Miss Hornimans Company, which, at the Gaiety Theatre, Manchester,
developed into the Manchester Repertory Company.

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 theatre, Yeats and Synge looked on the drama as a thing of the emotions, and, reacting
against realism, sought their themes among the legends, folklore, and peasantry of
Ireland.
The decline of realism takes place after the 1920s, that is, after realism and naturalism
had dominated the work of most English dramatists. Yet, the movement from realism is
the keynote of the inter-War period and is namely reflected in the greatest new inter-
War dramatist, OCasey, though he bases his plays on a truthful picture of Dublin slum
life, and has the ability to transform his works into real poetry, where the new literary
trends are sentimentalism and the concern with the after-life.
The development of comedy caught the atmosphere of the later twenties and therefore
was quite popular. Yet, there were not major comedy writers as in the novel.
Similarly, the popularity of the history play was only second to that of comely. Yet, the
vogue of this genre in modern times began witht he work of John Drinkwater (1882-
1937), who was one of the founders of the Birmingham Repertory Company, where
numerous history plays took place.

Finally, regarding prose, by the end of the period, the novel was considered not only the premier
form of entertainment but also a primary means of analyzing and offering solutions to social and
political problems, only challenged by the revival of drama towards the last two decades. This
king style, the novel, is presented with a political, philosophical or social overtone since was the
ideal form to describe contemporary life and to entertain the middle class.

Yet, the twentieth century witnesses the development of the novel into new revolutionary
techniques as well as the genres of poetry and drama. Thus, we shall examine the novel in
relation to, for instance, the new approach as an interpreter of life, experiments in the evolution
of a new technique, the influence of pshychology, the lack of popularity of the new novelists,
writers in the established tradition, war books, satire, escapist novels, the autobiographical-
novel-sketch comedies, and the growth of the American novel under the figures of the lost
generation.

The novel was regarded as an interpreter of life since it reflected the disillusionment,
cynicism, despair, and bewilderment in face of the crumbling of established moral
values which characterize the post-War world and even the WWII. These features,
combined with its form and content, made the inter-War generation look to the novel
for an interpretation of the contemporary scene. According to Albert (1990:521), we
may distinguish three main groups of novelists: first, those who attempted to replace the
old values for new ones; second, those who portrayed the comple xities of inter-War life;

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 and finally, those who focused attention on the impact of life on the individual
consciousness and on characters rather than action.
This practice is closely connected to impressionism which gives way to expressionistic
techniques based on experiments, which establish a clear difference between the pre-
War novel (Henry James) and that of the inter-War years (James Joyce). Namely the
novel develops from having a controlled, finished, artistic form to have a more loose,
fluid, and le ss coherent one; from presenting an outward appearance to inner realities of
life; from a simple chronological development of plot to a complex and discontinuous
one. Apart from James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and Aldous Huxley, other who
experimented in this way included Dorothy Miller Richardson and May Sinclair.
Yet, the most representative technique of this period is drawn from the influence of
pshychology so as to present the mind of the characters: the stream of consciousness,
the use of the interior monologue, the detailed tracing of the association of ideas, and an
allusive style. The rapid development of the science of psychology did much to deepen
and enrich the study of human character in the early years, but its full impact came with
the works of Sigmund Freud about the study of personality. This opened the way to the
exploration of the vast fields of the subconscious and the unconscious so as to dwell the
mind of characters, which meant a breakdown of Victorian moral attitudes.
The lack of popularit y of the new novelists is not surprising, according to Alfred
(1990:524) as their concern with the subtlest shades of motive and inner impulse called
for readers while the preoccupation of some with the morbid mental states provoked
distaste. So, it is not surprising either that writers in the Established tradition were
inevitably more popular since they wrote after the manner of an earlier generation.
Among these writers we find Sir Hugh Walpole (1884-1941), William Somerset
Maugham (1874-1965), John Boynton Priestley (1894-), Sir Compton Mackenzie
(1883-1972), Francis Brett Young (1884-1954), and Robert Graves (1895-), among
others.
Another reflection of the disillusionment of the post-War generation is to be found in
the literature on the War itself, which began to appear once the catastrophe was
sufficiently remote. Among the War writers we include Edmund Blunden (1896-1974),
Robert Graves (1895-), and C.E. Montague (1867-1928), among others.
Satire was also common as a form of fiction. Satirist writers are Rose Macaulay (1881-
1958), Ronald Firbank (1886-1926), and Cyril Connolly (1903-1974).
Another genre was escapist novels, characteristic of all periods of great emotional and
moral tension. This type of novel was highly demanded in the 1920s, which was partly

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 met by imaginative, fantastic, and light writing. Among the most representative writers
we include Norman Douglas, Walter de la Mare, and David Garnett.
We also find autobiographical-novel-sketch comedies with tragic implications which
particularly show the after-war situation in the 1930s. Thus, popular writers are
Christopher Isherwood, Richard Hughes, and Leopold Hamilton Myers, among others.
Finally, it is worth mentioning the growth of the American novel since it is one of the
most striking features of the period. Following Albert (1990:528), since the turn of the
century, not only has the U.S.A. given encouragement and shelter to artists whose work
met with opposition in this country, but Americans have been among the boldest so far
as experiments in technique are concerned. The basis of most of their work was realism,
the depiction of the contemporary scene no matter how unlovely, the exposure of
corruption and lack of moral values in organizations and in people, the consideration of
emotiona l crises and moral dilemmas at all levels of society, and the portrayal of the
individual and the depths or heights with which he can be faced.

The XXth and XXIst-century literature is characterized by the uncertainty of the post-War
years, which is reflected in the concern of many novelists about the disintegration of society,
and their lack of positive optimism, while the frequency with which violence and sadism appear
as themes is not surprising in a world grown accustomed to the thought of genocide, global
conflict, and nuclear destruction (Albert, 1990:563). Even nowadays, at the turn of century,
globalisation, uncertainty and the question of terrorism are often reflected in literature as well as
the positive development of Europe under the strong ties of the EU.

Among the most representative figures are John Clifford Mortimer (1923-2001), who applied
media methods to his writings in Dock Brief (1957) -developed from a TV script-; Harold
Pinters demostration of how plays for radio and television can be adapted to suit the stage, and
that the so-called legitimate drama can gain much from the techniques necessitated by other
media; and the best example for students, J.R.R. Tolkiens novels which have been recently
taken into the big screen by Hollywoods superproduction The Lord of the Rings. Other writers
are Dylan Thomas (1914-1955) in poetry; Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956) and Samuel Becket
(1906-1989) in drama; and William Golding (1911-1993) and Graham Greene (1904-), as
representing the evil of socie ty and mans most primitive insticts, and the imaginative
exploration of characters, respectively. Also, George Orwell (1903-1950) is worth mentioning
as the typical product of the inter-war and WWII years; and J.R.R. Tolkien, as the most
representative figure of the XXIst century with his science fiction novels.

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With this background in mind, we proceed to analyse a history of cinema where most of the
works already mentioned will be part of its history since they have been filmed and have
become works of art.

2.1.2. A history of cinema.

2.1.2.1. Earlier times.

Following Parkinson (1995:10), the earliest picture shows are to be traced back to the time of
the Ancient Greeks since these people was fascinated by the tricks of light and shade. He states
that around 360 BC, the Greek philosopher Plato described in his book The Republic the
movements made by shadows thrown on to the wall of a cave by the glow of a camp fire. Some
film historians consider this description of the Cave of Shadows to be the first reference to
moving images.

Yet, he also states (1995:13) that the illusion of the magic lantern, the ancestor of the movie
camera and the projector, had already first been observed by the Ancient Egyptians, who
believed that the eye retained an image of an object for a fleeting moment after it had been
removed from sight (in fact we now know that it is the brain and not the eye that has this
ability).

As Flatt (1992:6) states, shadow shows like these are as old as fire itself. But primitive shadow
theatre eventually became the life-like movies that we all enjoy today. A discovery by Chinese
wise men 1,000 years ago marked the first step. They noticed that a hole in a window blind
projected an upside-down picture of the scene outside. Five centuries later, Italian Girolamo
Cardano (1501-1576) fixed a lens into the hole which made the pictures clearer.

2.1.2.2. The seventeenth century.

In the seventeenth century, delicately decorated leather puppets spread from the Far East, from
medieval Java, China and India to be used with lights and shade to cast the shadows on to
traslucent screens in order to tell epics tales based on local myths and legends.

2.1.2.3. The eighteenth century.

Following Parkinson (1995:11), similar puppet shows were introduced into Europe in the late
18th century during the period of intellectual curiosity known as the Enlightment. Shows, such

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as Dominque Sraphins Chinese Shadows remained popular for over a century. These
simple shadows had grown into elaborate pictures painted on glass. A magic lantern projected
these glass lantern slides onto a screen. But real moving images were still a thing of the future.

In the 1780s a Scottish showman, Robert Barker, devised another form of visual entertainment
called the Panorama. This used ingenious lighting to animate vast paintings depicting dramatic
battles or busy street scenes. At the same time, the artist Philippe de Loutherbourg introduced
his Eidophusikon, a theatre of effects which used imaginative lighting to make pictures appear
three-dimensional. Yet, the most famous lanternist was tienne Robert (known as Robertson),
whose Phantasmagoria (1798) was the forerunner of the horror film. Staged in a theatre eerily
decorated like a ruined chapel, this terrifying show used a moving lantern to make supernatural
images appear and vanish in the smoke-filled air.

Yet, it was some years before (in 1765) that a Frenchman, Chevalier dArcy, whirled a hot coal
on the end of a rope and suggested that the glowing coal made a bright circle in the dark
because its image persists (remains visible) for about one tenth of a second. But his work went
unnoticed until the 1820s, when people used his discovery to make toys and other
entertainments (Platt, 1992).

2.1.2.4. The nineteenth century.

This phenomenon, says Parkinson (1995:13), was first called persistence of vision in 1824
by Peter Roget, the author of the famous Rogets Thesaurus. Persistence of vision allows us to
see a series or sequence of separate still images as a single , continuous action. The whole
process of making and watching films depends on this principle. In fact, in the nineteenth
century, scientists in Europe made use of persistence of vision to make drawings appear to
move by running them together in rapid succession.

Then, an Austrian baron, Franz von Uchatius, was the first to project moving pictures in 1853.
However, his Projecting Phenakistoscope produced blurred images. The problem was solved by
L.S. Beale, who devised a six-frame slide called a Choreutoscope. This slide briefly held each
picture before the projecting lens and the used a shutter to block the light until a system of gears
slid the next image into place.

Later on, an odd scene made history in 1878, for the racehorse, Occident, was the first moving
subject to be captured in a photograph sequence. Imagine the scene (Platt, 1992:10).:

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thundering down a white track, a racehorse snaps threads stretched tight across its path. The
broken threads trigger the shutters of 12 identical cameras, so with each prancing step, the horse
photographs itself. Yet, the British photographer, Eadweard Muybridge, was not the first to
use a camera nor to photograph movement since Frenchman Nicphore Nipce invented
photography more than 50 years earlier and pictures of slow-moving subjects were common.

Also, in 1888 Louis Le Prince, a French engineer working in England, did manage to produce
moving images of traffic passing over a bridge in Leeds, using a specially treated paper strip.
But he mysteriously vanished in 1890 leaving his work unfinished. Claims have also been made
on behalf of many other European and American inventors (Parkinson, 1995:16). Later on,
another French artist, mile Reynaud, pioneered an alternative projector called the
Praxinoscope. Based on the Zoetrope, it used mirrors placed at the centre of the drum to project
images on to miniature stage sets. In 1892 he constructed a fullsize version, with which he
presented his Illuminated Pantomimes at the Optical Theatre in Paris. Complete with musical
accompaniment, these charmings shows are considered to be the earliest animated films. His
first programme was made up of The Clown and his Dogs, Poor Pierrot, and A Good Glass of
Beer (Parkinson, 1995:13).

But, following Parkinson (1995:16), it as Scotsman William Dickson [1860-1935], an assistant

to the famous American Thomas Edison [1847-1931], who produced the first movie camera in
1891. Edison hoped that a picture machine would have the same commercial success as the light
bulb and the Phonograph which had earlier been developed by his laboratories. Using a camera,
which he called the Kinetograph, Dickson shot one of the earliest motion pictures of a man
raising his hat and bowing. Two years later he completed the Kinetoscope, a viewer that
employed a stop-start motion to wind films past a peephole situated in its lid.

In order to satisfy the demand for moving picturs featuring vaudeville (or music -hall) stars,
comedians and boxers, Edison built the worlds first film studio. This was called the Black
Maria, becuase it looked like an American police wagon of the period. Inside this cramped room
Dickson photographed such influential early films as Fred Otts Sneeze and The Rice-Irwin
Kiss. Convinced that moving pictures would be merely a passing novelty, Edison decided to
ignore projection and make a quick profit from his Kinetoscopes. Yet, others recognized this
and continued working towards creating a projecting machine (Parkinson, 1995:17).

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2.2. From the birth of cinema (1895) up to the present day.

Among those who continued working on the projecting machine were Louis and Augute
Lumire who demonstrated their Cinmatographe projector at a scientific conference in March
1895. Later that spring, Major Woodville Latham showed a boxing film to a paying crowd on
Broadway in New York. In August, Birt Acres and R.W. Paul projected several shorts with the
Kineopticon in London. The following month Americans Thomas Armat and Francis Jenkins
presented their Phantascope in Atlanta. Finally, just weeks before the Lumiress Grand Caf
premire, Max and Emil Skladanowsky exhibited their Bioscope in Berlin (Parkinson,
1995:17).

Following Parkinson (1995:17), any of these inventors could justifiably claim to have
projected the first moving pictures, but the majority of film experts now agree that cinema
began with the Lumiress show on 28 December 1895.

2.2.1. The film era: three main stages.

So, the film era has already started and as Platt (1992:18) states, the invention of moving
pictures was such a sensation that audiences paid just to see people walking or dancing on
screen. When the novelty wore off, New York and Philadelphia film companies built roof-top
studios and turned out short, cheap, dramas: fims that told stories, like stage plays. But for good
pictures, they needed sunshine, and they soon became tired of waiting for the clouds over the
East Coast to clear. In 1910, many film makers headed west for California.

There, close to Los Angeles, they found a sleepy town called Hollywood. Land was cheap,
wages were low, the sun shone constantly, and there was an incredible variety of background
landscapes for their movies, just a short distance away. Hollywood grew quickly from 5,000
people in 1910 to 1910 to 35,000 less than a decade later. The film people creates studios, the
studios created movie stars, the stars built mansions, and soon the very name Hollywood
began to mean Movies. Since then cinema is characterised by three main stages: the Silent
Film Era, the Golden Age which coincided with the arrival of sound to the screen, and finally,
the Second Golden Era, which is commonly known because of the movie brats.

2.2.1.1. The Silent Film Era.

Though Hollywood was the centre of world movie -making for most of the silent era, many other
countries had thriving film industries. In Europe, Germany actually produced more feature films
than the USA in 1913. In 1926, German director Fritz Lang produced his silent masterpiece

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Metropolis, a chilling vision of the future; British studios flourished in the 1920s and 1930s.
Britains best-known studio, Rank, was founded in the 1930s by flourmilling tycoon J. Arthur
(later lord) Rank, in order to make religious films; in Italy, the Cinecitt was created, but
became less important as Hollywood grew; and in France, Leon Gaumont founded the British
Gaumont studios in Shepherds Bush, west London.

In the States, during the first decade of the twentieth century, Hollywood began to replace New
York as the centre of filmmaking and several companies were created, thus Paramount
Company by the mogul Adolph Zukor; Metro Goldwyn Mayer, whose motto was more stars
than there are in the heavens; Warner Brothers, which dismissed bad reviews with the words
Todays newspaper is tomorrows toilet paper; and later on in 1935, the famous studio 20th
Century Fox, which pioneered both sound and colour.

The reasons to create all these companies were several: independent producers went west to
escape the dutches of the Motion Picture Patents Company, a trust formed to enforce a
monopoly on filmmaking patents; the suburbs round Los Angeles were relatively undeveloped
and furnished excellent natural resources for filmmaking on the cheap (sun, desert, mountains,
nearby urban locations); and, crucially, the area was also a source of far cheaper labour than
could be found in New York (Shiach, 1995:12).

Actually, the first motion picture theatre, the Electric, was opened in 1902 in Los Angeles.
Early cinemas were called nickelodeons because you paid a nickel (five cents) to see the
show. By 1907 there were approximately 3000 such nickelodeons across America. The cinema
was on its way to becoming big business (Shiach, 1993:10). In 1903 the Edison factory
produced the first true narrative film, The Great Train Robbery, and a few years later a young
actor, on replacing a sick director, produced The Adventures of Dolly , which was to launch him
as a great film-maker, David Wark Griffith.

In 1907 he was offered the chance to appear in Edwin Porters Rescued from an Eagle s Nest,
and although he originally disliked cinema, he directed 61 short films within a year Grifith and
was regarded as one of Americas most promising film-makers. In 1912 he watched the
audiences reaction to the French film Queen Elizabeth, which ran for about 50 minutes, and
later the Italian epic Quo Vadis?, which lasted for almost two hours. Then, though by the end of
1913 he had completed over 450 motion pictures and was hailed as the Shakespeare of the
screen, he began to work on his first feature film, The Birth of a Nation. Next year, the
Paramount Pictures was formed to release the pictures of the Famous Players Company and the
World War First started (1914-1918).

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In 1915 the most famous silent movie of all, The Birth of Nation, was released and everything
Griffith had learned about film-making he used on this three-hour epic. Tracing the relations
between two families during the American Civil War and the period of reconstruction that
followed, this film was easily the most ambitious film so far attempted in America: spectacular
battle sequences, long shots juxtaposed, and specially coloured or tinted film stock to heighten
their mood. The film was a success and it earned the cinema a new social and intellectual
respectability as audiences of all classes flocked to see it. However, it was also seen as an
openly racist depiction since the Ku Klux Klan were represented heroically as the defenders of
civilised values and, as a result, it was banned in many American cities.

The WWI marked a dramatic change in America at three main levels. First, at social level the
younger generation were keen to abandon many of the moral and cultural attitudes that had
existed before the war since the motor car, the radio, the tabloid press and a new style of music
called jazz became part of daily life. This social revolution was seen as a more relaxed approach
to sex and morality which Hollywood was quick to exploit. Secondly, at industrial and
economic level since many countries (film industries of the Soviet Union, Germany, France and
Scandinavia) were forced to stop making pictures between 1914 and 1918; and finally, at
popularity level, since thanks to it, the American film industry had effectively establish itself as
the dominant cinema.

Hollywood studios had then the power to impose their products wherever films were shown
commercially since they created an aura of glamour and excitement round movies, where stars
were the main protagonists. In the first films, the actors playing leading roles earned low
salaries and were anonymous. The star system began when highly paid and pampered stage
actors began to appear in films. The lives of famous film people appeared to be idyllic because
of huge houses, ranging from French chateaux to Spanish haciendas, swimming pools, servants,
cars, and parties. Hence their glamorous life-styles gave fans a fantasy of escaping their own
humdrum lives despite that fact that, in real life, many stars came from humble homes.

Among the most famous film stars then we include the Polish Pola Negri (1894-1987), who
ended her career when sound arrived to the scene; the so-called Valentino, actually Rudolph
Valentino (1895-1926), who was the idol of millions of women playing an arab lover in films
such as The Sheik (1921); the beautiful Gloria Swanson (1897-1983) who began as an extra;
Bebe Daniels (1901-1971), who first appeared on screen at the age of seven; and Theda Bara
(1890-1955), famed fo her sexy roles as eastern princesses, among others.

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Following Shiach (1993:15), by the twenties movies were very big business indeed. The
average movie was unsophisticated and direct in its appeal. Film makers went after family
audiences because that was where the money was, so escapism was the order of the day. Movies
offered an escape frome everyday problems and hence the Hollywood studios were called the
Dream Factories. They wanted to produce the highest quality entertainment, but they were not
keen to risk making films that might not earn any money. This is the moment in which literature
comes into force since to minimize such risks, they began to concentrate on groups of films
called genres. These reused the most popular plots, characters, locations and themes to
guarantee box-office success (Parkinson, 1995:24).

Parkinson added that among the most popular genres were crime, horror, comedy, melodrama,
action adventure and the Western (the development of each of these genres from the silent era
to the present day is covered in next section on subjects and stories). The most important
pictures were backed by cleverly targeted advertising and mass publicity campaigns, which
focused on film stars who, by the 1920s, had become the cornerstone of the entire Hollywood
system. At the same time, the studios tried to avoid the examination of films by the authorities
and imposed their own strict moral code on both their pictures and their employees.

As seen, silent screen stars, like modern mime artists, became expert at expressing themselves
without words. Instead, they communicated with their faces and hands, exaggerating every
gesture. Then suddenly, in 1927, the silent screen spoke. Film makers had found a practical way
to record sounds as well as pictures (Platt, 1992:22) and interest in silent cinema disappeared
virtually overnight. Follow ing Parkinson (1995:27), the sudden decline of silent film-making
has no parallel in any other art form. The public never abandoned classical music, but the idols
of the silent era almost are forgotten. He also adds that by 1927 as Hollywood dominated
international cinema, silent production virtually ceased in the western world within three years.
An age of bold artistic experiment was over.

2.2.1.2. The Golden Age: the sound era.

Following Parkinson (1995: 34), sound transformed cinema. Film industries sprang up around
the world, as countries began tomake pictures in their own languages. Europe has produced
many fine films, and Africa, Asia and Australia have begun to make an impact on the
international scene. But the film capital of the world is still Hollywood. From here have come
not only many of the most popular films of all time, but also much of the technology that makes
movie-going so magical. Moreover, Warner Brothers desperately needed to attract big
audiences to stay in business, so Sam Warner decided to take a risk with sound and in 1926

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his studio made Don Juan, which was a silent costume drama that included sound effects and
orchestral music on a sound-on-disc system called Vitaphone. The real proof that the silent
era was over finally came in October 1927 with the release of The Jazz Singer, starring Al
Jolson.

Also, colour, like sound, did not immediately become an essential part of international film-
making, and many films continued to be made in black-and-white, or monochrome up to the
1970s. One reason for this was that most directors preferred the more subtle and atmospheric
images they could achieve with monochrome (Parkinson, 1995:38). The technicolor method
(introduced by Herbert T. Kalmus in 1917) was used on many silent classics, including The
Black Pirate (1926), Disneys cartoon Flowers and Trees (1932), The Wizard of Oz and (1930s)
Margaret Michells Gone With the Wind (1940s). However, technicolors first real test came in
1935, with the launch of Becky Sharp, a historical drama based on Thackerays Vanity Fair. It
was the first feature film made entirely using the Technicolor three-strip process.

In the inter-war years, European directors adapted to sound more quickly than directors in
Hollywood. Actually, according to Parkinson (1995: 45) for a brief period in the middle of the
1930s Hollywoods most serious competition came from its biggest customer Britain. But most
British movies were cheaply and quickly made, produced only to fulfil the terms of the Quota
Act, which stated that 20 per cent of all British screen time had to be filled with British
pictures. One of the most important directors of the time was Alfred Hitchcock, who began his
career directing silent thrillers like The Lodger (1926).

Hitchcock made his name with the first British Talkie, Blackmail (1929), which explored his
favourite theme, fear in everyday life. He was deeply influenced by German Expressionism
and planned each scene with great precision so that the dcor, props, performers and camera
angles, as well as the music and sound effects, all added to the tension of the plot (1995: 45).
He so effortlessly blended thrills, comedy and romance in the pictures like The 39 Steps (1935)
and The Lady Vanishes (1938) that by the time he moved to Hollywood he was known as the
Master of Suspense. His first American film was the tense melodrama Rebecca, which won
the Oscar for Best Picture of 1940.

During World War II (1939-1945) films had to provide both information and entertainment.
British pictures like Went the Day Well? were almost as realistic as documentaries. Among the
best Hollywood war films were Lifeboat (1944), Alfred Hitchcocks study of the Nazi menace,
and Tay Garnetts Bataan (1943), which depicted the harsh realities of the conflict in the
Pacific. Actually, cinema was transformed in the period after World War II. A growing

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number of directors began to make films showing the world around them in a more realistic
way in the same way literature did within the influential style known as neo-realism or new
realism in the 1940s.

New realities were also to be shown by Britain, which also made highly polished pictures during
this period. Following Parkinson (1995:51), they were mainly costume melodramas, heroic war
films and pictures known as Ealing comedies that gently poked fun at the British character.
But producers like Alexander Korda and J. Arthur Rank were not content with only pleasing
British audiences. They also wanted to succeed in America. They co-produced films like Carol
Reeds thriller The Third Man (1949) with Hollywood money and stars like Orson Welles and
Joseph Cotton. For other films they drew on Britains colourful history and proud literary
heritage. For instance, David Leans version of Dickens Great Expectations (1946) and
Laurence Oliviers adaptation of Shakespeares Hamlet (1948) were much admired. But British
cinema did not have enough money to challenge Hollywood seriously, even though Hollywood
was itself deep in a crisis that threatened its very survival.

In the States, American directors approached their subjects in much the same way as the Italian
neo-realists had done in order to increase the realism of their films. They abandoned artificial
studio sets and shot the action to location, often casting less well-known performers in the
leading roles rather than big stars. However, even the problem pictures that were most critical of
society usually concluded that things would improve if everyone lived according to traditional
American values. This idealism was totally absent from a brutal, pessimistic kind of feature film
known as film noir (1995:53). Hence we have again a connection to literature since the most
famous films of this type are John Hustons version of Dashiell Hammetts The Maltese Falcon
(1930) in 1941; and Edward Dmytrykss version of Chandlers Farewell, My Lovely (1940) in
1945.

However, right-wing politicians did not agree with this type of problem pictures and, as a
result, in September 1947 a government body called the House Committee on Un-American
Activities (HUAC) came to Hollywood to investigate Communism in motion pictures.
Consequently, since ten screenwriters and directors refused to cooperate, they were jailed.
Several leading film stars, including Humphrey Bogart, Lauren Bacall and Gene Kelly,
campaigned for the release of the Hollywood Ten. Then, the studios threatened to put
communists and their supporters on a blacklist and they decided to back down. The blacklist
resulted in the ruin of many talented individuals, and the witch-hunt created deep divisions
within Hollywood.

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Also, the 1950s coincided with the widescreen technology, known as Cinerama, which had
originally been invented to help train air force gunners during World War II. Hollywood
believed that widescreen epics wre the way to win the war with television and films in all genres
were made in the widescreen format, among which we highlight King Vidors War and Peace
(1956). Moreover, many screen stars of the Golden Age remained popular after World War II,
along with later Hollywood performers such as Ingrid Bergman, Elizabeth Taylor, Grace Kelly,
Marilyn Monroe, Kirk Douglas, Gregory Peck, Charlton Heston and Burt Lancaster. Their looks
and glamorous styles were given as much publicity as their ability to act (1995:57).

In the late 1950s a new technique known as method acting became popular with young actors
like Marlon Brando, James Dean and Paul Newman. They believed that their performances
would be more lifelike if they studied the background to their characters for many months
before filming started. The result was a depth and realism that had not been seen on screen
before (1995:57). A similar literary technique was the study of personality by psychological
techniques drawn from Freud (stream of consciousness, depiction of thoughts). The end of the
era was close and over the next 30 years the boldest and most imaginative pictures were to be
made in Europe.

The 1960s was a decade of enormous change. Exciting new attitudes to sex, fashion and politics
were reflected in films, books, music and art. It was a time when film-makers everywhere began
to reject the basic storytelling methods that had been used for over half a century. Contemporary
techniques taken from literary genres or advertis ing such as the flashback or the new wave
cinematic truth method are applied to cinema. British cinema is also transformed during the
1950s and 1960s since it is influenced by the social background of the time: the kitchen sink
stage plays are usually set in the industrial north and deal with the everyday lives of angry
young men who are dissatisfied with their place in society to add realism.

2.2.1.3. The Second Golden Age: the movie brats.

Following Parkinson (1995:68-9), since 1970 a new generation of film-makers, nicknamed the
movie brats, has dominated Hollywood. Their big-budget blockbusters appeal to younger
audiences. Action-packed entertainments are released worldwide, with adevertising and
publicity campaigns to ensure that they succeed at the box office. Francis Ford Coppola, George
Lucas, Martin Scorsese and Steven Spielberg were the best known of this new generation. They
were called movie brats because they had been trained at film schools, where they developed
their wide knowledge of cinema history, which influenced their individual styles of directing.
Coppolas The Godfather (1972) and Spielbergs Jaws (1975) began a new era of blockbusters.

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Science fiction and escapist adventures offer more leading roles to actors than to actresses.
Among the stars to have emerged as a result are action-men like Clint Eastwood, Arnold
Schwarzenegger, Sylvester Stallone, Harrison Ford and Mel Gibson. There are also many
respected characters actors including Robert de Niro, Al Pacino, Michael Douglas, Jack
Nicholson, Tom Hanks, Kevin Costner and Tom Cruise. Only Julia Roberts, Sharon Stone and
Demi Moore have equal box-office appeal. But Hollywood can call on many fine actresses,
including Jodie Foster, Michelle Pfeiffer, Meryl Streep, Jessica Lange, Winona Ryder, Geena
Davis and Susan Sarandon.

It must be borne in mind that American self-confidence was very low in the mid-1970s,
following its defeat in the Vietnam War and the resignation of President Nixon after the
Watergate bugging scandal. Americas gloom was reflected in a number of powerful films. A
key director in this period was Robert Altman. He re-worked several film genres, such as the
war movie (M*A*S*H, 1970), the Western (McCabe and Mrs Miller, 1971), the detective
thriller (The Long Goodbye, 1973) and the musical (Nashville, 1975) to challenge the glamorous
image of America usually presented by Hollywood. He even poked fun at the movie business
itself in The Player (1992).

The problem facing Hollywood in the 1990s is how to appeal to young audiences while
retaining the loyalty of adults who have grown out of kidpix escapism. Studio executives have
fallen back on the familiar storylines of the Hollywood genres to find a solution. When
complaints wre made about the amount of sex and violence in movies, producers began to
concentraqte more on feel good entertainment. Pictures like Pretty Woman (1990) and
Sleepless in Seattle (1993) marked a return to the romantic comedies of the Golden Age of
Hollywood for family movies. Some blockbusters like Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991)
and Judge Dredd (1995) still rely heavily on special effects. But others are now spending their
budgets on lavish costumes and sets for such swashbuckling historical adventures as Robin
Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991) and Braveheart (1995), inspired on real British historical facts.
Many other period pieces are adapted from novels, like The Age of Innocence (1993) and
Interview with the Vampire (1994).

Up to now we have seen how during the first century of its existence the cinema has usually
managed to find imaginative ways of using the latest technology. Sound, colour and widescreen
all eventually became essential elements in film-making, after long periods of trial and error.
Perhaps the same will be said one day for 3D, interactive systems such as CD-i and virtual
reality. Digital video (DV) now makes it possible to store moving images on a compact disc.
When it is inserted, the viewer can influence a films plot and ending simply by using a joypad.

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Computer imaging will soon make it possible for viewers not only to alter the storyline of
popular pictures, but also to star in them themselves! After a century of cinema projection, the
electronic cinema may take us through the next 100 years. Whatever happens, it is clear that
the moving image will continue to excite, entertain and enthrall audiences of all ages and
tastes.

2.3. The cinema: literary adaptations.

As mentioned above, one of the main sources from which cinema receives most ideas and plots
is literature. Actually, during the silent film era, Hollywood studios wanted to attract the widest
audiences, so they began to make films within certain subject areas, called literary genres,
which gave audiences familiar plots, characters and settings. The different cinematic genres, as
for literary ones, offer then exciting adventure, hilarious comedy, unbearable suspense, heart-
warming romance and much more.

Audiences would know what to expect and then, they would have two sets of expectations at
least, of the genre and the star. Genres made sense economically because a studio could re-use
the same sets, locations, actors, directors, costumes and even plots from literary works to churn
out more westerns, musicals, comedies or war movies which bred a sense of familiarity in the
mass audience. It must be borne in mind that genres and stars were a means of product
differentiation and a way of persuading the customer to come back for more. Moreover, the only
demand made on the audience was to sit back and enjoy itself.

So, we shall approach the literary adaptations in terms of (1) subjects and stories, regarding (a)
the Western, (b) the musical, (c) crime stories regarding gangsters and film noir, (d) adventure,
(e) comedies, (f) epics, (g) horror, (h) scie nce fiction, (i) love stories, and (j) war; and also, in
terms of (2) main techniques and (3) main similarities and differences.

2.3.1. Main subjects and stories.

2.3.1.1. The Western.

Following Schiach (1993:206), the western is the most cinematic of the genres because no
other art form can hope to emulate the cinemas power to represent the myths of the American
frontier in such an immediate and all-embracing manner. But why have westerns been so
popular with the public in the past and why have they largely disappear nowadays from our
cinema screens? The answer lies in the way westerns deal in mythology. They present a view of
Americas frontier and agrarian past that feeds the American Dream: the rugged individual

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striking out for the unknown, Man against raw Nature, the pursuit of an independent way of life,
the acquiring of land and wealth, the conquering of hostile elements in the shape of Indians and
bad men, and building communities out of the wilderness based on simple values, hard work
and Godliness.

Packed with stagecoaches, cattle stampedes, tribal raids, saloon brawls, lawmen, villains and
gunfights, the Western represents a unique American contribution to the arts. Celebrating
chiefly the 30-year period that followed the end of the American Civil War in 1865, Westerns
often had similar plots, but their combination of breathtaking scenery, larger-than-life
characters, distinctive costumes and exciting action made them popular with audiences
worldwide. Hence, the first cowboy picture was Cripple Creek Bar Room (1898), the first
important Western was The Great Train Robbery (1903), and John Ford as the greatest director
of the psychological Westerns.

Actually, there are several literary adaptations taken from English and American literature at
that time. John Ford, notable for the beauty of his composition and his insights into the
hardships of frontier life, produced several popular and intelligent Westerns, which were turned
into art forms. He made hugely influential films in a range of other genres, winning Best
Direction Oscars for The Informer (1935), How Green Was My Valley (1941) and, for our
purposes, John Steinbecks The Grapes of Wrath (1940), originally written in 1939; and The
Quiet Man (1952). More recently, the pioneering era when America was a British colony was
shown in the Hollywoods cinematic adaptation from James Fenimore Coopers The Last of the
Mohicans, re-made in 1992.

2.3.1.2. The musical.

The musical is another genre that Hollywood took over and made its own. When sound came
to Hollywood, the studios poured out film after film with people singing and dancing rather
inexpertly, and audiences seemed to love these happy films (Shiach, 1993:209). However, soon
the public got tired of the new phenomenon, the movie musical probably due to the onset of the
Depression or the surfeit of musicals as well as the studio system since they were expensive to
make and required a large body of permanent employees to produce. Among the most famous
Broadway blockbusters taken from literary works in this genre was My Fair Lady, produced in
1964.

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2.3.1.3. Crime: gangsters and film noir.

The literary genre of crime fiction has probably been the most adapted by cinema. Both gangster
movies and film noir take characters, plot and scenery from English literature. According to
Parkinson (1995:94), crime was a popular subject in the silent film era. The earliest screen
crooks were usually burglars or melodramatic villains and swindlers. The crime film presents a
very sinister picture of modern city life. Set on crowded, unwelcoming streets, the action is
often fast and the talk is always tough. Gangsters, bank robbers and murderers seem to lurk on
every corner, while cops, private eyes and special agents search for clues to solve baffling
mysteries. We shall concentrate in this section on gangsters and sleuths within crime, and
private eyes within film noir.

On the one hand, the gangster film was transformed by the coming of sound. The rattle of
machine-gun fire, the screams of onlookers and the screeching tyres of getaway cars all added to
the excitement and realism of these tough-talking pictures. The hoodlums in the films in the
classic gangster era (1930-1933) were often based on real gangsters who operated in American
cities like Chicago. Many of the stories in these features were taken directly from true crime
reports splashed across the daily newspapers (Parkinson, 1995:94).

Yet, most films were based on amateur detectives or sleuths taken from literature, such as Sir
Arthur Conan Doyles Sherlock Holmes. These stories, set amid the bustling, foggy streets of
Victorian London, made Hollywood stars like Basil Rathbone (as Holmes) and Nigel Bruce (as
his faithful assistant) starred in fourteen adventures together, many of whic h, like Sherlock
Holmes Faces Death (1943), were set during World War II.

In the 1930s and 1940s several other sleuths found their way on to the screen from the pages of
popular fiction. The most sophisticated films of this type were the Thin Man series, starring
William Powell and Myrna Loy as Nick and Nora Charles. The British author Agatha Christies
best-known character, the Belgian detective Hercules Poirot, has featured in a number of all-star
whodunits, including Murder on the Orient Express (1974), originally written in 1934.

Regarding the film noir, the most famous Hollywood private eyes were set within the gloomy
and threatening atmosphere of WWII. They first appeared in the pages of hard-edged thrillers
by American writers like Dashiell Hammett and Raymond Chandler. World-weary and
charming, the private eye solved baffling mysteries in which there were as many murders as
there were twists in the plot (1995:96). Actually, Hammetts The Maltese Falcon (1930)

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launched this shadowy style in 1941s widescreens and introduced a new kind of detective, the
private eye, also known as the shamus.

Humphrey Bogart played Sam Spade in The Maltese Falcon, and went on to star as the equally
tough Philip Marlowe in Chandlers The Big Sleep in 1946, originally written in 1939. Several
other actors have also played the part of Marlowe, including Dick Powell in Farewell, My
Lovely (1944) and Elliot Gould in The Long Goodbye (1973). But the role is usually associated
with Bogart. Other private eyes in the same cynical mould include Mike Hammer in the brutal
Kiss Me Deadly (1955) and J.J. Gittes, played by Jack Nicholson in Chinatown (1974) and The
Two Jakes (1990). Other literary adaptations include Graham Greenes Brighton Rock (1938),
taken to the widescreen in 1948; Hammetts The Thin Man (1934), filmed in 1934; and Alfred
Hitchcocks Vertigo and Psycho (a thriller) filmed in 1958 and 1960, respectively.

2.3.1.4. Adventure.

Following Parkinson (1995:74), action and adventure movies are pure escapism. They are
usually simple tales of heroes and villains locked in a struggle between good and evil. The pace
is fast and furious; the chases, rescues, fights and escapes are spectacular. There is also humour
and romance, but they only play supporting roles. In all other genres, the action sequences form
only part of the story. In adventure films they are everything.

In the 1920s the director Douglas Fairbanks brought a swaggering, acrobatic style to many of
the screens best-loved adventures, including Robin Hood, DArtagnan, The Thief of Bagdad
and The Black Pirate. Yet, the most enjoyable version was the one made in 1948 with Gene
Kelly as an energetic, almost gymnastic DArtagnan. The director Richard Lester made three
lighthearted variations on the story in the 1970s and 1980s. The Three Musketeers was made yet
again for youngter viewers in 1993, taken from the French author Alexandre Dumass Three
Musketeers (1844) episodes.

Also, Hitchcocks North by Northwest (1959) was adapted to cinema, in which a businessman
(Gary Grant) beocmes the target of a gang of traitors led by an enemy agent (James Mason);
historical events taken from British History, such as Robin Hood, Prince of the Thieves (1991),
Braveheart (1995), Rob Roy (1995), First Knight (1995); and, Herman Melvilles Moby-Dick;
or, The Whale (1856), filmed in 1956.

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2.3.1.5. Comedies.

Comedy is the oldest form of film fiction. The very first cinema show given by the Lumire
brothers in 1895 included a comic short film LArroseur arros (The Sprinkler Sprinkled)
(Parkinson, 1995:80). The most important comedy actors were Charles Chaplin in the early
years of cinema, Buster Keaton, Laurel and Hardy, the Marx Brothers, and more recently,
comedy actors such Tony Curtis, Jack Lemmon and Jim Carrey. It is worth mentioning that
comedy has taken little from literature and this unpredictability makes comedy the most difficult
film style to do consistently well.

2.3.1.6. Epics.

The cinema has always tried to provide spectacle for mass audiences. The technological and
material resources of cinema can recreate any period of history, any imaginary world, any vision
of writers and directors. Movies have tried ever since they became a mass entertainment to
privde spectacles that no other art or entertainment medium can rival in their size, opulence and
authenticity (Shiach, 1993:215).

Birth of a Nation was the cinemas first great spectacle and from then on many producers and
directors have attempted to impress us with the grandness of their designs, the extravagance of
their concepts, their devotion to reproducing a historical period, and to rewriting history itself.
Among those works worth mentioning, which have been adapted from historical literature, we
include: Birth of a Nation (1915), The Private Life of Henry VIII (1933), the imperial adventures
of The Four Feathers (1939), Braveheart (1995), Rob Roy (1995), and the recent Troia (2004),
among others.

2.3.1.7. Horror.

Following Schiach (1993:219), audiences love to be scared and filmmakers have learned to
serve up ready-made nightmares on order. Horror films came out of the tradition of European
gothic novels by way of Mary Godwin and Bram Stoker. Cinema, of all the art forms, is nearest
to the dream state we sit in the dark watching huge fig ures on a screen enact our fantasies and
fears. Horror films deal with our nightmares, the fears of mankind, the horror of the irrational
and the unknown, the horror of man himself.

Actually, Parkinson (1995:100) says that the pioneer of screen horror was tienne Robertson,
whose Phantasmagoria (1798) terrified audiences in Paris during the French revolution.

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Moreover, many horror film directors were inspired by Gothic romances, which also first
appeared at the end of the 18th century. These novels were set in ruined castles and gloomy
monasteries built in the Gothic style of architecture.

Similarly, the famous 19th -century novel by Bram Stoker, Dracula, based on the historical
figure of Dracula in 16th -century Transylvania, has still terrified people in modern-day New
York through films such as Dracula (1958), and more recently, Bram Stokers Dracula (1992)
or Interview with the Vampire (2001). Other terror films like Frankestein (1931) and Mary
Shelleys Frankestein (1994) have been based on Mary Shelleys Frankenstein (1818) monster
as well as Doyles The Murders in the Rue Morgue; Alfred Hitchcocks The Birds (1963) and
George A. Romeros Night of the Living Dead (1968).

2.3.1.8. Science fiction.

Science-fiction films have been made since the early 20th century. Many of the first pictures
were set in the future or on distant planets, and included experiments with camera tricks, special
effects, costumes and make-up. It is thanks to science fiction that many devices and processes
were invented that have since become common in films of all kinds. Actually, it was not until
the Cold War era of teh 1950s, when invasion and nuclear holocaust seemed very real threats,
that more serious themes were tackled. Even then, sci-fi films did not have big budgets or big
stars, so the special effects and the acting- were usually both second rate.

At the beginning, the main inspiration was taken from Julius Vernes adventures to the moon,
into Earth or in the sea, such as Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959). Time travel is as old
as cinema itself and hence, we get adaptations from H.G. Wells landmark sci-fi novel, The
Time Machine (1985), filmed in 1960, which was published just months before the first cinema
show in 1895. Later on, from the comic trip adventures of superheroes like Flash Gordon and
from Superman.

The outer space was a common theme in the 1950s with the new outer space era and
extraterrestrial life, shown in Outer Space (1959), Stanley Kubericks 2001: A Space Odyssey
(1968), George Lucass Star Wars (1977), and more recently, Irvin Kershners The Empire
Strikes Back (1980), Richard Marquands The Return of the Jedi (1983), Steven Spielbergs
E.T.-The Extraterrestrial (1982). More recently, archaelogical discoveries, the successful
Jurassic Park (1993), directed by Steven Spielberg, was based on the best-selling novel by
Michael Crichton.

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2.3.1.9. Love stories.

By love stories or romantic movies, one usually means movies where the main interest is in
the romantic involvement of the two leads. Some people, on that basis, would argue that Gone
With the Wind is a love story about Scarlett OHara and Rhett Butler rather than a civil war
epic. Similarly, Casablanca is about the tragic love between Bogart and Bergman rather than a
thriller involving the Nazis, Claude Rains as a Vichy policeman and the Resistance (Shiach,
1993:222). Similarly, who remembers very much about the Spanish Civil War from
Hemingways For Whom The Bell Tolls (1940)?

The British have made their share of romantic movies, but unitl the sixties they were usually of
the tight-lipped, blouse-buttoned variety. For instance, Theodore Dreisers novel An American
Tragedy, is a hugely romantic movie dedicated to the concept of a love that transcends all was
adapted by George Stevens film version A Place in the Sun (1952), featured by Montgomery
Clift and Elizabeth Taylor. In fact, the screen romance had onlyl one golden rule: that true love
should never run smoothly. Only when lovers had overcome all obstacles in the ir path could
they be united in a final kiss. Also, the film Rebecca, filmed by Hitchcock in 1940, based on the
novel of Daphne Du Mauriers popular novel Rebecca.

On the other hand, following Parkinson (1995:91), a common romantic storyline was one in
which the characters were not immediately attracted to each other. This is the case of how
Hemingway shows some stories of boxing, bullfighting, war and love relationships between
men and women in A Farewell to Arms (1929), a tragic story of love, betrayal and reconciliation
against the violent backdrop of World War I. Other similar works are Gone with the Wind
(1939), From Here to Eternity (1953), Love Story (1970); and literary adaptations include:
Charles Dickens Great Expectations (1861), filmed in 1946, and more recently, 2000; Emily
Brntes Wuthering Heights (1847), filmed in 1939 and 1992; and Howards End, the third novel
by the Edwardian author E.M. Forster to be adapted for the screen by the director-producer team
of James Ivory and Ismail Merchant, though it is considered a melodrama rather than a love
story.

2.3.1.10. War.

Following Parkinson (1995:118), cinema helped transform peoples attitude to war by bringing
the realities of combat to their local screens. At first governments were not keen to show such
powerful pictures in wartime, for fear they would lower morale. But they soon came to realize
that both factual and fictional films could stir up popular support for their war efforts. Battle
sequences whether ancient, medieval or from the Napoleonic era usually looked spectacular.

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Hence, the best-known literary adaptation is Stephen Cranes haunting Civil War novel, The
Red Badge of Courage (1895), filmed in 1951 by John Huston.

2.3.2. Main techniques.

As mentioned above, from its birth cinema has adapted literary novels to assure success, and
similarly, it has also adapted the main techniques used in the literary scene. So, in the twentieth
century literature witnesses the development of new revolutionary techniques in which the new
approach was a new way to interprete life, scientific and technological experiments, and the
influence of pshychology. So, we may appreciate certain techniques, such as flashback in which
the story does not follow a chronological order but this is altered so as to attract the viewers
attention; the psychological influence of Freuds theories on the human mind, reflected in the
stream of consciousness; and also the influential effects of literary streams such as realism,
modernism, experimentalism.

2.3.3. Main similarities and differences.

As mentioned above, film makers went after family audiences because that was where the
money was, and they wanted to produce the highest quality entertainment, but they were not
keen to risk making films that might not earn any money. So, since they needed familiar issues
and stories to deal with, they approached literature to minimize such risks. Yet, since they were
to benefit each other though, they present similarities and differences. Among similiarities, we
mention the fact that they both are regarded as genres, for instance, cinematic and literary
genres, and as such, they deal with the same subjects and stories, and common elements: plots,
characters, locations and techniques.

Among the main differences we highlight the fact that since they are different languages, they
operate on different levels regarding time, content, and treatment. While watching a film takes
between one hour and three hours, we have no limits to read a book (one day, two weeks, a
year), that is, in cinema the spectator cannot make his choice of the speed in passing thorugh the
events and situations whereas in literature the reader makes his own choice; also, imagination
does not work in the same way at the level of visualizing images, since when reading a book we
mentally create our own image about characters and scenery whereas at the cinema it is the
director choice which determines the image (selection of characters and scenery); and finally,
the difficulty of adapting literary novels since the director may change the writers point of view
by using a free adaptation.

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3. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

Literature, and therefore, literary language is one of the most salient aspects of educational
activity, and in this unit we have linked its relevance to cinema. In classrooms all kinds of
literary language (poetry, drama, prose novel, short story, detective fiction, minor fiction-,
periodicals) either spoken or written, is going on for most of the time. Yet, handling literary
productions in the past makes relevant the analysis of literature in the twentieth and twenty-first
century in this unit, specially when we find literary adaptations to the cinema. Yet, what do
students know about the relationship of cinema and literature throughtout history?

Currently, action research groups attempt to bring about change in classroom learning and
teaching through a focus on literary production through the presence of cinema productions.
First, because they believe learning is an integral aspect of any form of activity and second,
because education at all levels must be conceived in terms of literature and cinema history. The
basis for these assumptions is to be found in an attempt, through the use of historical events, to
develop understanding of students shared but diverse social and physical environment.

Learning involves a process of transformation of participation itself which has far reaching
implications on the role of the teacher in the teaching-learning relationship. This means that
literary productions are an analytic tool when related to cinema, and that teachers need to
identify the potential contributions and potential limitations of them before we can make good
use of genre techniques, in our case, flashback, stream of consciousness, suspense, and so on.
We must bear in mind that most students will continue their studies at university and there, they
will have to handle successfully all kind of genres within our current framework.

Moreover, todays new technologies (the Internet, DVD, videocamera) and the media (TV,
radio, cinema) may provide a new direction to language teaching as they set more appropriate
context for students to experience the target culture. Present-day approaches deal with a
communicative competence model in which first, there is an emphasis on significance over
form, and secondly, motivation and involvement are enhanced by means of new technologies
and the media when dealing with literary adaptations. Hence literary productions and the history
of cinema may be approched in terms of film displays in class, among others.

Hence it makes sense to examine the main literary adaptations through the subjects students feel
most attracted, such as detective and love stories, or science fiction, such as Hammetts The
Maltese Falcon (1930) by John Hustons adaptation in 1941 starring Humphrey Bogart as Sam
Spade; Raymond Chandlers The Big Sleep (1946), directed by Howard Hawks, and starring

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Bogart & Bacall; Hitchcocks Psycho; or Conan Doyles Sherlock Holmes and Chandlers
private detective Philip Marlowe, familiar to students through television.

This is to be achieved within the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular,
the Spanish Educational System which establishes a common reference framework for the
teaching of foreign languages where students are intended to carry out several communication
tasks with specific communicative goals, for instance, how to locate a literary work within a
particular historical period. Analytic interpretation of texts in all genres should become part of
every literary students basic competence (B.O.E., 2004).

In short, the knowledge about the history of literature and cineman should become part of every
literary students basic competence (B.O.E., 2004) since there are hidden influences at work
beneath the textual surface: these may be sociocultural, inter and intratextual. The literary
student has to discover these, and wherever necessary apply them in further examination. The
main aims that our currently educational system focuses on are mostly sociocultural, to facilitate
the study of cultural themes, as our students must be aware of their current social reality within
the international scene.

4. CONCLUSION.

The present unit, Unit 61 has provided so far a useful introduction to the impact of cinema on
the diffusion of literary works in the English language. In doing so, we have offered an
overview of the origins of literature and cinema from the birth of cinema up to the present day
regarding the three main stages in film era, that is, the Silent Era, in which there was nor sound
or colour; the Golden Age, in which sound arrived to the screen, and finally, the Second Golden
Age, which coincided with a new generation of film-makers, nicknamed the movie brats.

Last section has approached the issue of literary adaptations in terms of main subjects and
stories; main cinema techniques adapted from literature, and finally, main similarities and
differences so as to make our students aware of the important relationship of cinema and
literature in the past and nowadays. Chapter 3 has presented the main educational implications
in language teaching regarding the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting; and now
we try to put an end to our presentation by offering a brief overall view Finally, Chapter 4 will
include all the bibliographical references used to develop this presentation for further
information.

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So far, we have attempted to provide the reader in this presentation with a historical and cultural
background on the vast amount of literature and cinema productions in the twentieth and
twenty-first-century literature in the English-speaking countries. This information is relevant for
language learners, even ESO and Bachillerato students, who do not automatically establish
similiarities between literature and cinema, and the rest of the world in terms of social reality.
So, learners need to have these associations brought to their attention in cross-curricular settings
through the media. As we have seen, understanding how literature and cinema reflects the main
historical events of a country is important to students, who are expected to be aware of the
richness of English-speaking countries literature.

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5. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Albert, Edward. 1990. A History of English Literature. Walton-on-Thames. Nelson. 5th edition (Revised
by J.A. Stone).

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 116/2004, de 23 de enero. Currculo de la

Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 117/2004, de 23 de enero. Currculo de

Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.

Bradbury, M. and H. Temperley. 1981. Introduction to American Studies. London: Longman.

Brogan, H. 1985. The History of the United States of America, Penguin Books, New York.

Byron, T.J. 1990. Murder Will Out, The Detective Fiction. Oxford University Press.

Cook, C. and J. Paxton. 2001. European Political Facts of the Twentieth Century. Palgrave.

Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European
Framework of reference.

Fiedler, Leslie. 1960. Love and Death in the American Novel. New York: Criterion Books.
Goytisolo, Juan. 2001. Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible heritage of Humanity 18
May 2001. Speech delivered at the opening of the meeting of the Jury (15 May 2001)

Keating, H.R.F. 1994. Writing Crime Fiction. A & C Black Ltd., London.
Magnusson, M., and Goring, R. (eds.). 1990. Cambridge Biographical Dictionary. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

Ousby, Ian. 1997. The Crime and Mystery Book. A Readers Companion. London.
Palmer, R. 1980. Historia Contempornea, Akal ed., Madrid.

Parkinson, David. 1995. The Young Oxford Book of Cinema. Oxford University Press.

Philips, K. 2002. Wealth and Democracy: A Political History of the American Rich. Broadway Books,
U.S.

Platt, Richard. 1992. Cinema. Eyewitness Guides. Dorling Kindersley Limited.

Rogers, P. 1987. The Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature. Oxford University Press.

Shiach, Don. 1993. The Movie Book. An Illustrated History of the Cinema. Acropolis Books.
van Ek, J.A., and J.L.M. Trim, 2001. Vantage. Council of Europe. Cambridge University Press.
Ward & Trent, et al. 2000. The Cambridge History of English and American Literature. New York: G.P.
Putnams Sons, 190721; New York: Bartleby.com.

Other sources:

Enciclopedia Larousse 2000. 2000. Editorial Planeta.

Enciclopedia Encarta CD Rom. 2004. Editorial Planeta.

Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century. 1999. Detroit, St. James.

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 UNIT 62

THE COMMONWEALTH. CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND

DEVELOPMENT OF LINGUISTIC VARIETIES.
INTERCULTURAL INFLUENCES AND MANIFESTA-
TIONS: THE NOVELS OF E.M. FORSTER, D. LESSING
AND N. GORDIMER.
OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

2. THE COMMONWEALTH: A GENERAL OVERVIEW.

2.1. Definition.
2.2. A brief history of the Commonwealth.
2.2.1. Origins.
2.2.2. Membership.
2.2.3. Organization.
2.3. Historical background.
2.4.1. The first British empire.
2.4.1.1. XVth and XVIth century.
2.4.1.2. XVIIth century.
2.4.1.2. XVIIIth century.
2.4.2. The second British empire: XIXth century.
2.4.3. The dis mantling of the Britis h empire: XXth and XXIst century.

3. CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND DEVELOPMENT OF LINGUISTIC VARIETIES.

3.1. The Commonwealth: principles and values.

3.2. The Commonwealth: cultural and linguistic diversity.
3.2.1. Canada.
3.2.2. Australia.
3.2.3. New Zealand.
3.2.4. South Africa.
3.2.5. India.
3.2.6. The Caribbean Islands.

4. INTERCULTURAL INFLUENCES AND MANIFESTATIONS: THE NOVELS OF E.M.

FORSTER, D. LESSING AND N. GORDIMER.

4.1. Edward Morgan Forster (1879-1970).

4.2. Doris Lessing (1919-).
4.3. Nadine Gordimer (1923-).

5. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

6. CONCLUSION.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

The present unit, Unit 62, aims to provide a useful introduction to the Commonwealth from a
general overview regarding its cultural diversity and development of linguistic varieties as well
as in terms of intercultural influences and manifestations, which are namely reflected in the
novels of E.M. Forster, D. Lessing and N. Gordimer. In doing so, the unit is to be divided into
three main chapters which correspond to the three main tenets of this unit: first, Chapter 2 deals
with the entity of (1) the Commonwealth in terms of (a) definition, (b) brief history of the
Commonwealth regarding (i) origins, (ii) membership, and (iii) organization, that is, its
evolution as an international organization up to the present day; and (c) a historical background
of the development and administration of the British colonial empire from the seventeenth
century to the present day, by reviewing (i) the first British empire, which traces back to the
fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth century; (ii) the second empire, which ranges the
nineneteenth century; and (iii) the dismantling of the British empire in the twentieth and twenty-
first century in terms of colonies, and for our purposes, states members.

Secondly, Chapter 3 approaches the Commonwealth country members cultural diversity and
development of linguistic varieties individually. So, we shall try to present an overview of the
Commonwealth cultural and linguistic variety by addressing (1) the Commonwealth principles
and values, and how these principles and values are present in (2) the countries which founded
the Commonwealth, namely (a) Canada, (b) Australia, (c) New Zealand, (d) South Africa, (e)
India, and (f) the Caribbean Islands.

Finally, in Chapter 4 the intercultural influences and manifestations are to be found within a
literary background in the novels of E.M. Forster, D. Lessing and N. Gordimer. In general, the
literature of the time was both shaped by and reflected the prevailing ideologies of the day
which, following Speck (1998), means that this is an account of literary activity in which social,
economic, cultural and political allegiances are placed very much to the fore. In this chapter, we
shall namely deal with post-colonial literature so as to frame Forster, Lessing and Gordimers
literary works in an appropriate social and political context to make him coincide with the late
consequences of the British imperialism. So, we shall provide the reader with the biographies of
(1) Edward Morgan Forster, (2) Doris Lessing and (3) Nadine Gordimer in terms of life, main
works and style so as to frame their lives in an appropriate social and political context to make
him coincide with the late consequences of the British imperialism.

Chapter 5 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching regarding
the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 6 will offer a conclusion to

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broadly overview our present study, and Chapter 7 will include all the bibliographical
references for further information.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

An influential introduction to the historical background of the Victorian period, Imperialism and
the Industrial Revolution is based on Thoorens, Panorama de las literaturas Daimon:
Inglaterra y Amrica del Norte. Gran Bretaa y Estados Unidos de Amrica (1969); and
Alexander, A History of English Literature (2000). The literary background includes the works
of Sanders, The Short Oxford History of English Literature (1996); Speck, Literature and
Society in Eighteenth -Century England: Ideology Politics and Culture (1998). Magnusson &
Goring, Cambridge Biographical Dictionary (1990).

General information on the Commonwealth are drawn from the Encyclopedia Encarta (1997),
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (2003); the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004); a brief
guide to the association provided by the Commonwealth Secretariat (2003); and two outstanding
webpages www.bbc.com and www.wwnorton.com. The background for educational
implications is based on the theory of communicative competence and communicative
approaches to language teaching are provided by the most complete record of current
publications within the educational framework is provided by the guidelines in B.O.E. (2004)
for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; and the Council of Europe, Modern Languages: Learning,
Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of reference (1998).

2. THE COMMONWEALTH: A GENERAL OVERVIEW.

Chapter 2 deals with the entity of (1) the Commonwealth in terms of (a) definition, (b) brief
history of the Commonwealth regarding (i) origins, (ii) membership , and (iii) organization, that
is, its evolution as an international organization up to the present day; and (c) a historical
background of the development and administration of the British colonial empire from the
seventeenth century to the present day, by reviewing (i) the first British empire, which traces
back to the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth century; (ii) the second empire,
which ranges the nineneteenth century; and (iii) the dismantling of the British empire in the
twentieth and twenty-first century in terms of colonies, and for our purposes, states members.

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2.1. Definition.

Following the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004), the term commonwealth refers to a body
politic founded on law for the common weal, or good. The term was often used by 17th-
century writers to signify an organized political community, its meaning thus being similar to
the modern meaning of state or nation. For instance, nowadays we talk about the
commonwealth to make distinction in name only regarding the four U.S. states (Kentucky,
Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia) which call themselves commonwealths; Puerto
Rico, which has been a commonwealth rather than a state since 1952; and its residents, though
U.S. citizens, have only a nonvoting representative in Congress and pay no federal taxes.

Yet, traditionally, it primarily referred to the Commonwealth of Nations regarding the free
association of sovereign states consisting of Britain and many of its former dependencies who
have chosen to maintain ties of friendship and cooperation. It was established in 1931 by the
Statute of Westminster as the British Commowealth of Nations. Later its name was changed and
it was redefined to include independent nations. Most of the dependent states that gained
independence after 1947 chose Commonwealth membership. Moreover, the British monarch
serves as its symbolic head, and meetings of the more than 50 Commowealth heads of
government take place every two years.

2.2. A brief history of the Commonwealth.

2.2.1. Origins.

As we shall see later, territorial acquisition began in the early 17th century with a group of
settlements in North America and West Indian, East Indian, and African trading posts founded
by private individuals and trading companies. In the 18th century the British took Gibraltar,
established colonies along the Atlantic seacoast, and began to add territory in India. With its
victory in the French and Indian War (1763), it secured Canada and the eastern Mississippi
Valley and gained supremacy in India (Britannica, 2004). By 1776 the American colonies were
controlled by governors appointed by the British government and by 1783, North American
colonists got their independence by establishing the Constitution of the United States.

After that, the British began to build power in Malaya and acquired the Cape of Good Hope,
Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and Malta. The English settled Australia in 1788, and subsequently New
Zealand. Aden was secured in 1839, and Hong Kong in 1842. Britain went on to control the

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Suez Canal (1875-1956) and after the 19th -century partitition of Africa, it acquired Nigeria,
Egypt, the territories that would become British East Africa, and part of what would become the
Union of South Africa. It must be borne in mind that prior to 1783, Britain claimed full
authority over colonial legislatures, but after the U.S. gained independence, Britain gradually
evolved a system of self-government for some colonies. Hence since Dominion status was given
to Canada (1867), the British Empire started to change into a Commonwealth of independent
nations as later on it was also given to Australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), the Union of
South Africa (1910), and the Irish Free State (1921).

After World War I, Britain secured mandates to German East Africa, part of the Cameroons,
part of Togo, German South-West Africa, Mesopotamia, Palestine, and part of the German
Pacific islands. Yet, the dominions signed the peace treaties themselves (Paris Peace Conference
(1919), where commissions were appointed to study specific financial and territorial questions,
and the Treaty of Versailles, an international agreement signed in 1919) and joined the League
of Nations, an organization for international cooperation established by the Allied Powers so as
to be independent states. The league established a system of colonial mandates, but it was
weakened by the failure of the United States, which had not ratified the Treaty of Versailles
(1919). So, the League ceased its activities during World War II and it was replaced in 1946 by
the United Nations.

In 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognized the mentioned dominions as independent

countries within the British empire, referring to the British Commonwealth of Nations.
Following the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004), at the time of its founding, the Commonwealth
consisted of the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, the Irish Free State (withdrew in 1949),
Newfoundland (which became a Canadian province in 1949), New Zealand, and the Union of
South Africa (withdrew in 1961) , but after World War II, with British no longer officially
used, the Commonwealth was joined by more countries.

2.2.2. Membership.

So, regarding membership, we may define the Commonwealth as the association of 54 states
consulting, co-operating and working together in the common interest of their peoples and in
promotion of international understanding and world peace. With a total population of 1.7 billion
people, the Commonwealth represents almost one-third of the worlds population and one-third

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of the membership of the United Nations. (Secretariat, 2003). These 54 country members1 are
listed now in alphabetical order in terms of dates of joining.

Thus Antigua and Barbuda (1981), Australia (1931 Statute of Westminster-), The Bahamas
(1973), Bangladesh (1972), Barbados (1966), Belize (1981), Botswana (1966), Brunei
Darussalam (1984), Cameroon (1995), Canada (1931 Statute of Westminster-), Cyprus (1961),
Dominica (1978), Fiji Islands (1970 rejoined in 1997), The Gambia (1965), Ghana (1957),
Grenada (1974), India (1947), Jamaica (1962), Kenya (1963), Kiribati (1979), Lesotho (1966),
Malawi (1964), Malaysia (1957), Maldives (1982), Malta (1964), Mauritius (1968),
Mozambique (1995), Namibia (1990), Nauru (1968), New Zealand (1931 Statute of
Westminster-), Nigeria (1960), Pakistan (1947 rejoined 1989 and suspended from the councils
of the Commonwealth in October 1999-), Papua New Guinea (1975), St Kitts and Nevis (1983),
St Lucia (1979), St Vincent and the Grenadines (1979), Samoa (1970), Seychelles (1976), Sierra
Leone (1961), Singapore (1965), Solomon Islands (1978), South Africa (1931 Statute of
Westminster; rejoined 1994 having left in 1961), Sri Lanka (1978, originally Ceylon),
Swaziland (1968), Tonga (1970), Trinidad and Tobago (1962), Tuvalu (1978), Uganda (1962),
United Kingdom, United Republic of Tanzania (1961), Vanuatu (1980), Zambia (1964),
Zimbabwe (1980 suspended from the councils of the Commonwealth in March 2002-).

2.2.3. Organization.

The organization of the Commonwealth entity is carried out by a general board known as
ComSuper (Commonwealth Superannuation Administration), which has its origins in the
Superannuation Fund Management Board. Following www.comsuper.gov, the Board was
formed in Melbourne on 20 November 1922 under the authority of the Superannuation Act 1922
to deal with the general administration and working of the first superannuation scheme for
Commonwealth employees. The Board directly hired staff to assist it in administering the
scheme, and this is where the Commonwealth internal organization began.

1
We also provide the list in chronological order, thus India, Pakistan (1947; Pakistan withdrew in 1972, but rejoined
in 1989); Ceylon (1948; now Sri Lanka); Ghana (1957); Nigeria (1960); Cypress, Sierra Leone (1961); Jamaica,
Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, Western Samoa (1962); Kenya, Malaysia (1963); Malawi, Malta, Tanzania, Zambia
(1964); Gambia, Singapore (1965); Barbados, Botswana, Guyana, Lesotho (1966); Mauritius, Nauru (special status),
Swaziland (1968); Tonga (1970); Bangladesh (1972); Bahamas (1973); Grenada (1974); Papua New Guinea (1975);
Seychelles (1976); Solomon Islands, Tuvalu (special status), Dominica (1978); St. Lucia, Kiribati, St. Vincent and the
Grenadines (1979); Zimbabwe, Vanuatu (1980); Belize, Antigua and Barbuda (1981); Maldives (1982); St. Kitts-
Nevis (1983); Brunei (1984); South Africa (rejoined 1994); Cameroon, Mozambique (1995). The last significant
British colony, Hong Kong, was returned to Chinese sovereignty in 1997.

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The Commonwealth has a Secretariat which has its origins in the mentioned board. As this
employed the staff directly, there was no separate administration agency, and so the President of
the Board was the head of the Agency. The main head agents since 1922 have been Mr FJ Ross
(1922-1930), Mr P Rees (1930-1950), Mr NS Swindon (1950-1952), Mr RG Parker (1952-
1954), Mr NS Swindon (1954-1960), Mr EA Dundas (1960-1961), Mr JM Henderson (1961-
1964), Mr LK Burgess (1964-1976), Mr RC Davey (1976-1986), Mr GN Vanthoff (1986-1992),
Mr KA Searson (1992-1997), Ms CM Goode (1997-2002), and at present Mr Leo Bator (2002-
present).

The main issue in the current year of operation is getting the new scheme up and working. Then
the date contributions commence, and the Board have to work quickly to issue information to
Commonwealth employees. Ultimately, the President of the Board visits each State Capital to
speak with employees and Commonwealth agencies directly. Every year there is a meeting of
heads of government (the Superannuation Board with an annual report), which circulates among
the different countries. Also, members of the British Royal family make their visits to member
states, and do much to keep alive the symbolic links.

After the WWII (1948), the Commonwealth Board introduced the Defence Force Retirement
Benefits Scheme, created the DFRB Board, and the Chairman of this Board (Mr P Rees). The
scheme was introduced for all military members, and resulted from the introduction of a revised
uniform pay code for the three Services. Administration of the DFRB Scheme was carried out
by the Defence Division of the Dept of Treasury. Administration responsibility for the DFRB
Scheme was transferred to the Superannuation Board in 1959.

During the 1970s, the Office was renamed the Australian Government Retirement Benefits
Office (AGRBO) (1973); and introduced the Defence Force Retirement and Death Benefits Act
which established the Defence Force Retirement and Death Benefits (DFRDB) Scheme. All
running costs for the new scheme were met from AGRBOs annual appropriation. Also, the
Superannuation Act (1976) established the Commonwealth Superannuation Scheme (CSS), the
Superannuation Fund Investment Trust (SFIT) for fund management, and created the position of
Commissioner for Superannuation.

During the early 1980s a range of resource management functions was transferred from the Dept
of Finance. The most significant being that the Commissioner for Superannuation assumed
Departmental Secretary powers and control of the staff of AGRBO. Yet, a major change in the
membership profile occurred with the introduction of the Commonwealth Employees
Redeployment and Retirement Act (1980-81) which provided for retirement at age 55. Also,
during the 1980s a major computer modernisation program saw the shift to on-line contributor

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maintenance and benefits processing, computerised registry, personnel, accounting, and
numerous other administrative processes.

The 1990s saw a period of membership contraction which had its peak in 1990 when large
GBEs like Telecom, Australia Post and CAA established their own schemes. Also, in AGRBO
shortened its name to the Retirement Benefits Office (RBO); the introduction of the
Superannuation Act 1990 which established the Public Sector Superannuation (PSS) Scheme.
The Boards delegated certain of their powers of administration to the Commissioner for
Superannuation and the staff of RBO, and a Secretariat was established within RBO to service
the Boards.

In 1994 RBO changed its name to Commonwealth Superannuation Administration (ComSuper)

to reflect the Offices mission to provide high performance superannuation services for public
sector and military employers and scheme members. ComSuper now administers complex
benefit provisions for nine Public Service and Australian Defence Force superannuation
schemes. In addition, it must now manage an extensive web of accountability relationships in its
daily operations with Boards of Trustees, Scheme Members, Employing Agencies, Government
Ministers, the Departments of Finance and Defence, Investment Advisors, Master Custodians
and Regulatory Authorities.

Also, apart from improving productivity, quality and practice, ComSuper is also adopting a role
in superannuation awareness and promotion by representing industry peak bodies, through a
schools superannuation awareness program, and through retirement and retrenchment
presentations. More recently, ComSupers main premises include a significantly better public
reception area with adjoining interview rooms, new facilities for conducting seminars for
members; an enhanced disaster recovery plan designed into new computing facilities.

2.3. Historical background.

On providing a historical background of the policy of the colonial expansion in general terms,
where we shall analyse first the difference between the concepts imperialism vs. colonialism,
which will lead us to what historians call the two British empires. First of all, it is quite relevant
to differenciate between the concepts imperialism and colonialism so as to better understand
the imperial expansion of Great Britain. Thus, whereas the term imperialism refers to the
principle, spirit , or system of empire, and is driven by ideology, the term colonialism refers to
the principle, spirit, or system of establishing colonies, which is driven by commerce. Hence,

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the worldwide system of dependencies colonies, protectorates, and other territories- that over a
span of three centuries came under the British government.

Secondly, within this policy of imperial expansion and the establishment of new colonies all
over the world, historians make a distinction between two British empires which follows a
temporal classification within different centuries. Thus, according to www.wwnorton.com
(2004), the first British empire is to be set up in the seventeenth century, when the European
demand for sugar and tobacco led to the development of plantations on the islands of the
Caribbean and in southeast North America. These colonies, and those settled by religious
dissenters in northeast North America, attracted increasing numbers of British and European
colonists. Hence, the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries saw the first British
Empire expanding into areas formerly controlled by the Dutch and Spanish Empires (then in
decline) and coming into conflict with French colonial aspirations in Africa, Canada, and India.
With the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the British effectively took control of Canada and India, but
the American Revolution (1776) brought their first empire to an end.

On the other hand, a further phase of territorial expansion that led to the second British Empire
was initiated by the exploratory voyages of Captain James Cook to Australia and New Zealand
in the 1770s. This reached its widest point during the reign of Queen Victoria (18371901). At
no time in the first half of her reign was empire a central preoccupation of her or her
governments, but this was to change in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War (18701871),
which altered the balance of power in Europe.

During the next decades, the British empire was compared to the Roman empire because of its
extension, but the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (up to the present day) were just about to
see the development in the dismantling of the British Empire with the declaration of
independence of the British colonies in India (1947) and Hong Kong (1997). So, one by one, the
subject peoples of the British Empire have entered a postcolonial era, in which they must
reassess their national identity, their history and literature, and their relationship with the land
and language of their former masters (www.wwnorton.com).

2.3.1. The first British empire.

2.3.1.1. XVth and XVIth century.

There is no doubt that the political, social and economic background of the seventeenth-century
Great Britain established the main basis for the policy of colonial expansion in the following

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centuries (the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries). Yet, previous events, which trace back to the
fifteenth century and take place within the field of exploration, mark the beginning of this
colonial adventure on the part of the most powerful empires at that time, thus Scandinavia,
Spain, Portugal, France and Great Britain.

Before British colonists reached the Atlantic Coast of North America, other non-British colonies
did it much earlier. For instance, the Viking Leif Eriksson discovered North America
accidentally on October 9, 1000; then nearly five hundred years later, Portugal, which was a
leading country in the European exploration of the world, began charting the far shores of the
Atlantic Ocean before Spain began.

Yet, in 1492, Cristobal Columbus brought this land to Europes attention on behalf of Spain , the
main colonial power of the day, which focused its efforts on the exploitation of the gold-rich
empires of southern Mexico (the Aztec) and of the Andes (the Inca). Portuguese explorers
(Pedro Alvares Cabral) landed in American coasts (Porto Seguro, Brazil) on April 22, 1500,
eight years later than Spain did.

Yet, after them no serious colonization efforts were made for decades, until England, France,
and Spain began to claim and expand their territory in the New World. In fact, the first French
attempt at colonization was in 1598 on Sable Island (southeast of present Nova Scotia ). Next,
during the 17th century, Dutch traders established trade posts and plantations throughout the
Americas. However, Dutch settling in North America was not as common as other European
nations settlements. Many of the Dutch settlements had been abandoned or lost by the end of
the century, with the exception of the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba , which remain Dutch
territory until this day, and Suriname, which became independent in 1975.

Also, Denmark started a colony on St Thomas in 1671, and St John in 1718, and founded
colonies in Greenland in 1721, which is now a self-governing part of the Kingdom of Denmark.
During the 18th century, the Virgin Islands in the Caribbean Sea were divided into two
territorial units, one English and the other Danish, which were also used as a base for pirates.
Finally, other countries followed such as Russia, whose explorers discovered Alaska in 1732.

2.3.1.2. XVIIth century.

The seventeenth century has its starting point in the death of Elizabeth I (1603) and the
accession of James I to the crown. This period, known as the Stuart Age (1603-1713) and also

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called the Jacobean Era, the age of Cromwell and the Restoration, is characterized by crisis,
civil wars, the Commonwealth and the Restoration, and establishes the immediate background
to the Industrial Revolution and the establishment of the first American colonies.

Therefore, the political background is to be framed upon the Stuart succession line, thus under
the rule of James I (1603-1625). Under his rule, he achieved the unification of the crowns of
England and Scotland, and brought the long war with Spain to an end. Although this greatly
helped the English treasury and also Jamess reputation (as rex pacificus), the policy was, in
part, unpopular because peace meant that both the English and the Dutch had to acknowledge
the Spanish claim to a monopoly of trade between their own South American colonies and the
rest of the world.

His son, Charles I (1625-1642), ruled until civil war broke out in 1642. He became King of
Great Britain and Ireland on his fathers death from 1625 to 1642, but soon friction between the
throne and Parliament began almost at once. For eleven years, Charles ruled without parliament,
a period described as the Eleven Years Tyranny, which led to civil war and his eventual
judicial execution in 1649 (called a regicide). This is the reason why we may note that in the
succession line, there is an eighteen-year interval between reigns (1642-1660), called
Interregnum, when first Parliament and Oliver Cromwell established themselves as rulers of
England.

Next, Cromwell (1642-1660) controlled the political affairs until monarchy was restored by
Charles II (1660-1685); this was followed by his brother, James II (1685-1689) who, in 1668,
fled before his invading son-in-law, the Dutchman William of Orange became William III. Then
William and Mary II (1689-1707) were succeeded by Marys sister, Queen Anne (1702-1713).
Each of their contributions were crucial for the development and administration of the British
empire all over the world.

These events contributed to the most influential change of the seventeenth and early eighteenth
century, that of population. Whereas for the first half of the century the population continued to
grow and, as a result, there was pressure on food resources, land and jobs, and increased price
inflation, the late seventeenth century saw the easing, if not the disappearance of these
problems. Family-planning habits started to change and new methods of farming increased
dramatically. From the 1670s, England became an exporter as opposed to a net importer of
grain. The seventeenth century is also probably the first in English history in which more people
emigrated than immigrated, hence the period of American colonization.

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Yet, undoubtely, the most important step which favoured the imperial expansion was made in
the economic field: the foundation of the Bank of England in 1694. As mentioned above, the
continental wars of James II (1685-1689) and William of Orange, known as William III (1689-
1707), were really expensive, and as a result, England was forced to raise a considerable
national debt. In 1694, the Scotsman William Paterson founded the Bank of England to assist
the crown by managing the public debt, and eventually it became the national reserve for the
British Isles. Yet, in 1697, any further joint-stock banks were forbidden just to secure its
position of prominence in England.

It was this debt that forced the British government to use the colonies as a source of economic
income. In fact, the Secretary of state for the South was established in London so as to deal with
colonial business. Other government departments, such as the treasury, the customs, the
admiralty, and the war office also had representatives in the colonies, where the chief
representative of the Imperial government was the governor, appointed by the king or by the
proprietors with his approval.

The general desire in this century was for the American continent and islands serve as a source
for products and as a market for their manufacturers. Till the end of this century the pressure of
France expansion on almost all sides of the American colonies, except the sea, was a constant
remainder to them of their ultimate dependence on Englands military support and their main
aim was to develop a naval supremacy over France.

So, in North America the establishment of American colonies meant the starting point of British
colonial activity in the Western hemisphere and also, a new place for immigrants to hide from
political and religious crisis in England. The political history of Colonial America will make us
comprehend the preparation of the whole people for the radical change of government they were
so soon to undergo in British colonies, and the strong spirit of democracy which led Britain to
the loss of the American colonies with the Declaration of Independence in 1776.

In the XVIIth century we distinguish two types of earlier colonies: non-British and British;
whereas the first group namely includes Viking, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Dutch and Danish
colonists, the second group is formed by Anglosaxons. Moreover, non-British colonies, namely
French and Dutch, were founded on aristocratic principles and strove vigorously to gain liberal
institutions. Following Daimon (1969), had their political circumstances been different in
Europe, they could have also gained the control of the continent. Yet, Holland was quite
wealthy and had few immigrants, and France had a great number of immigrants but was not

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interested in the snow land. Yet, the struggle for control of this land would continue for more
than a hundred years.

The thirteen British colonies of America were formed under a variety of differing conditions.
The settlement of Virginia was the work of a company of London merchants, that of New
England of a body of Puritan refugees from persecution. Most of the other colonies were formed
through the efforts of proprietors, to whom the king had made large grants of territory. None of
them were of royal or parliamentary establishment and therefore, the government of the mother-
country took no part in the original formation of the government of the colonies, except in the
somewhat flexible requirements of the charters granted to the proprietors.

The colonies were classified into (1) New England colonies, made up by Rhode, Connecticut,
New Hampshire and Massachusetts. Among them, the most famous first colonies were
Plymouth colony (1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1629), which were settled by two
groups of of religious dissenters who escaped religious persecution in England: the Pilgrims and
the Puritans; (2) the rest of British colonies in America followed after Plymouth and
Massachusetts Bay, consisting of Middle colonies, such as New York, Pennsylvania, the three
counites of Delaware, and Maryland, which were namely characterized by a wide diversity, both
religious, political, economic, and ethnic; and (3) the southern colonies which include
Maryland, Virginia, Georgia and the two Carolinas (north and south). Yet, the most important to
mention is Virgina colony, which is considered to be the first permanent settlement in North
America under the name of the English colony of Jamestown (1607), was the first English
colony 2 in America to survive and become permanent and become later the capital of Virginia
and the site of the House of Burgesses.

But the main causes of social decentralization were soon to be noticed. As the colony of
Virginia was so heavily influenced by the cultivation of tobacco and the ownership of slaves, in
1619 large numbers of Africans were brought to this colony into the slave trade. Thus,
individual workers on the plantation fields were usually without family and separated from their
nearest neighbours by miles. This meant that little social infrastructure developed for the
commoners of Virgina society, in contrast with the highly developed social infrastructure of
colonial New England.

2
The settlement was struck by severe droughts in centuries and as a result, only a third of the colonists furvived the
first winter, and even, source documents indicate that some turned to cannibalism. Yet, the colony survived in large
part to the efforts of John Smith, whose moto was No work, no food. He put the colonists to work, and befriended
Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, who supplied the colony with food.

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By this time, the English colonies were thirteen: Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut,
Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Although all these British colonies were strikingly
different, throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries several events took place and
brought relevant changes in the colonies: whereas some of the them sprung from their common
roots as part of the British Empire, others led up to the American Revolution, and to the final
separation from England.

2.3.1.3. XVIIIth century.

The eighteenth century was to witness the most important consequences of the industrial
revolution within the British colonial expansion, both in America and overseas. Although there
was general properity in the Middle and Southern colonies, as well as social and political
struggle, American colonies had to face the arrival of loads of immigrants from Europe. Their
economy, based on the production of rice, indigo and naval stores, was booming in contrast to
the hostile attitude of Indians at the frontier. In the upper south, Virginia and Marylands
tobacco prices were falling and crop failures became very usual. Yet, in New England, the
social and political atmosphere was quite calm, but not the economy since the Sugar Act
imposed taxes and new commercial regulations on them. The main causes which led the thirteen
colonies to revolution are stated as follows:

The first event relates to the French and Indian War (1754-1763), which meant the
American extension of the general European conflict known as the Seven Years War.
The war takes its name from the Iroquois confederacy, which had been playing the
British and the French against each other successfully for decades. Eventually, in the
Treaty of Paris (1763) , France surrendered its vast North American empire to Britain.
During the war the thirteen coloniess identity as part of the British Empire was made
truly apparent, as British military and civilian officials took on an increased presence in
the lives of Americans.

The war also increased a sense of American unity in men who might normally have
never left their colonies to travel across the continent, and fighting alongside men from
decidedly different. However, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at the time
(William Pitt), decided to wage the war in the colonies with the use of troops from the
colonies and tax funds from Britain itself, which was a successful wartime strategy. Yet,

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 this dispute was to set off the chain of events that brought about the American
Revolution.

The Royal Proclamation (1763) was a prohibition against settlement west of the
Appalachian Mountains, on land which had been recently captured from France. In
issuing this decree, the government was no doubt influenced by disgruntled taxpayers
who did not wish to bankroll the subjugation of the native people of the area to make
room for colonists. Yet, for most Americans, it seemed unnecessary to accept an
unproductive piece of legislation stated by a far-away government that cared little for
their needs, although Parliament had generally been preoccupied with affairs in Europe,
and let the colonies govern themselves. The policy change would continue to arouse
opposition in the colonies over the next thirteen years and through a series of measures,
which were to be named as acts.

Thus, the Sugar Act (1764), which increased taxes on sugar, coffee, indigo, and certain
kinds of wine, and it banned importation of rum and French wines; the Stamp Act
(1765-1766), which was carried out by the British Parliament to tax activities in their
American colonies; as a result, the British Parliament passed at least two laws, known
as the Quartering Act. The first one became law on 24 March 1765, and provided that
Britain would house its soldiers in America first in barracks and public houses, and the
second (also called the Intolerable Acts, the Punitive Acts or the Coercive Acts) was one
of the measures that were designed to secure Britains jurisdiction over her American
dominions; the Declaratory Act (1766) was established to secure the dependency of his
Majestys dominions in America upon the crown and parliament of Great Britain. This
act states that American colonies and plantations are subordinated to, and dependent
upon the imperial crown and parliament of Great Britain; and that the King majesty as
full power and authority to make laws and statutes of sufficient force and validity to
bind the colonies and people of America, subjects of the crown of Great Britain.

The Townshend Revenue Act (1767) placed new taxes on glass, lead, paints, paper,
and tea. Therefore, colonial reaction to these taxes was the same as to the Sugar Act and
Stamp Act, and Britain eventually repealed all the taxes except the one on tea. In
response to the sometimes violent protests by the American colonists, Great Britain sent
more troops to the colonies; the Tea Act (1773) gave a monopoly on tea sales to the
East India Company. Since the East Indian Company wasnt doing so well, the British
wanted to give it some more business. The price on this East India tea was lowered so
much that it was way below tea from other suppliers. But the American colonists saw

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 this law as yet another means of taxation without representation because it meant that
they could not buy tea from anyone else (including other colonial merchants) without
spending a lot more money.

Their response was to refuse to unload the tea from the ships in Boston, a situation that
led to the Boston Tea Party in 1773. Angry and frustrated at a new tax on tea,
American colonists (calling themselves the Sons of Liberty and disguised as Mohawk
Native Americans) boarded three British ships (the Dartmouth , the Eleanor, and the
Beaver) and dumped 342 whole crates of British tea into Boston harbor on December
16, 1773. Similar incidents occurred in Maryland, New York, and New Jersey in the
next few months, and tea was eventually boycotted throughout the colonies. The Boston
Tea Party was an amusing and symbolic episode in American history, an example of
how far Americans were willing to go to speak out for their freedom.

The punitive effect of these laws generated a reaction in a great and growing sympathy
for the colonists of Massachusetts, encouraging the neighbouring colonies to band to
together which would help lead to the American Revolutionary War. Eventually, in
1775, under George IIIs reign, the British North American colonies revolted in
Massachusetts due to the previous frustration with the British crown practices, and
namely to their opposition to British economic explotiation and also their unwillingness
to pay for a standing army. Anti-monarchist sentiment was strong, as the colonists
wanted to participate in the politics affecting them.

The next year, representatives of thirteen of the British colonies in North America met in
Philadelphia and declared their independence in a remarkable document, the Declaration of
Independence. The committee had intrusted that task to Thomas Jefferson, who, though at that
time only thirty-three years of age, was chosen for two main reasons: first, because he was held
to possess a singular felicity in the expression of popular ideas and, second, because he
represented the province of Virginia, the oldest of the Anglo-American colonies.

Jefferson, having produced the required document, reported it to the House on the 28th of June,
where it was read, and ordered to lie on the table. After the conclusion of the debate on the
resolution of independence on 2nd July, the Declaration was passed under review. During the
remainder of that day and the two next, this remarkable production was very closely considered
and shifted, and several alterations were made in it, namely the omission of those sentences
which reflected upon the English people, and the striking out of a clause which severely
reprobated the slave-trade.

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The debate on the proposed Declaration came to a termination two days later, on the evening of
the 4th of July. The document was then reported by the committee, agreed to by the House, and
signed by every member present, except General Dickinson. The signature of New York was
not given till several days later, and a New Hampshire member, Matthew Thornton, was
permitted to append his signature on November 4 (four months after the signing). With the help
of their French allies they were eventually able to win the American Revolutionary War against
Great Britain, settled by the Treaty of Paris (1783). So, we can say that the United States of
America was founded in 1776 from British colonies along the Atlantic Coast of North America
and was declared to be independent in 1778.

The debate on the proposed Declaration came to a termination two days later, on the evening of
the 4th of July. The document was then reported by the committee, agreed to by the House, and
signed by every member present, except General Dickinson. The signature of New York was
not given till several days later, and a New Hampshire member, Matthew Thornton, was
permitted to append his signature on November 4 (four months after the signing). With the help
of their French allies they were eventually able to win the American Revolutionary War against
Great Britain, settled by the Treaty of Paris (1783). So, we can say that the United States of
America was founded in 1776 from British colonies along the Atlantic Coast of North America
and was declared to be independent in 1778.

In the rest of the world, interests expanded through the eighteenth century to such extent that in
the early years of the 18th century the East India Company proves successful regarding
commercial interchanges in India and, in fact, a statutory monopoly of trade was established
between England and India (1708). The number and importance of factories made the English
Company have the control on the area (it had three presidencies at Bombay, Calcutta and
Madras) although Bombay was the only absolute possession in French or English hands.
Despite the fact that it was not a pure trading company, it found no rivalry from other European
states in India since the Portuguese and Dutch, which had established their position in India, left
with few and unimportant possessions or factories.

Overseas, during the earlier half of the century the British empire established more successful
trading companies not only in the West Indies but also in Africa (the Royal African Company)
and in the South Sea (the South Sea Company). On the American Continent, the Caribbean
islands not only provided Britain with sugar and slave trade but also with strategic possessions,
which was a crucial issue in the fight between England and France for colonial possessions. In
fact, as stated above, the British government established the Navigation Act (1773) so as to
monopolize the trade of its products (namely tobacco and sugar) and therefore, establish a close

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economic system and guarantee a sheltered market in Britain, not subject to competition from
other colonies, such as those of France, Portugal and Spain.

In the second half of the century, some remaining British colonies were lost temporarily after
the treatise, for instance, the Caribbean islands were controlled by France and Tobago and
Minorca were no longer British. However, the rest of colonies were not economically strong
enough to think of independence even if they had wanted it, as it was the case of South Africa,
which was a military and trading port, a naval station and a port of call. Canada was of greater
economic importance in the sense that its citizens were free to manage their local affairs, so the
demand for self-government did not imply a wish for separation. The colonies were therefore
asking for something like municipal independence.

In 1768, the first British empire reached the second phase of expansion with the exploratory
voyages of James Cook, who undertook the first of three voyages to the Pacific, surveying New
Zealand, modern Australia, Tahiti and Hawaii. His second voyage (1773) made him the first
Britain to reach Antarctica, and his third voyage (1778-1779) led him to discover and name
island groups in the South Pacific, such as the Sandwich Islands. Unfortunately, Cook was
killed on Hawai on 14 February 1779.

Eventually, the colonisation of the Antipodes, that is, Australia and New Zealand took place as
an attempt to find a place for penal settlement after the loss of the original American colonies.
The first shipload of British convicts landed in this largely unexplored continent in 1788, on the
site of the future city of Sydney. Most convicts were young men who had only committed petty
crimes. In the nineteenth century (1819) new settlers were allowed to set up in New South
Wales and by 1858 transportation of convicts was abolished.

2.3.2. The second British empire: XIXth century.

Following the information given in www.wwnorton.com, During the next decades, two great
statesmen brought the issue of imperialism to the top of the nations political agenda: the
flamboyant Benjamin Disraeli (18041881), who had a romantic vision of empire that the
sterner William Ewart Gladstone (18091898) distrusted and rejected. Disraelis expansionist
vision prevailed and was transmitted by newspapers and novels to a reading public dramatically
expanded by the Education Act of 1870.

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Symbolically, the British Empire reached its highest point on June 22, 1897, the occasion of
Queen Victorias Diamond Jubilee, which the British celebrated as a festival of empire. It was a
great moment where the British Empire was compared to the Roman Empire 3 , comparison
which was endlessly invoked in further discussions and literary works, for instance, at the start
of Conrads novel Heart of Darkness (1902) and in Thomas Hardys Poems of Past and Present
(1901).

In 1897 the Empire seemed invincible, but only two years later British confidence was shaken
by the news of defeats at Magersfontein and Spion Kop in the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902).
Those and other battles were lost, but eventually the war was won, and it took two world wars to
bring the British Empire to its end. Those wars also were won, with the loyal help of troops
from the overseas empire.

The political background is namely represented by the accession of Queen Victoria to the throne
when her uncle, William IV dies in 1837. So Victoria would reign from 1837 to 1901 and would
be the longest reigning British monarch. In general terms, during Victorias reign, the revolution
in industrial practices continued to change British life, bringing about urbanisation, a good
communications network and wealth. In addition, Britain became a champion of Free Trade
across her massive Empire, and industrialisation and trade were glorified in the Great
Exhibitions. Yet, by the turn of the century, Britains empire was being challenged successfully
by other nations such as France and Germany on the continent.

We consider worth reviewing the main political benchmarks under her rule since important
changes took place in her colonies. Thus:
From the 1850s, Britain was the leading industrial power in the world. Superseding the
early dominance of textiles, railway, construction, iron- and steel-working soon gave
new impetus to the British economy by expanding territories in Africa (namely
railways).
Yet, the most outstanding event after 1837 was the Great Exhibition in 1851, in which
the British empire was compared to the Roman empire. It was an imperial and industrial
celebration which was held in Hyde Park in London in the specially constructed Crystal
Palace, whose profits allowed for the foundation of public works such as the Albert

3
The Roman Empire, at its height, comprised perhaps 120 million people in an area of 2.5 million
square miles. The British Empire, in 1897, comprised some 372 million people in 11 million square
miles. An interesting aspect of the analogy is that the Roman Empire was long held - by the descendants
of the defeated and oppressed peoples of the British Isles - to be generally a good thing. Children in the
United Kingdom are still taught that the Roman legions brought laws and roads, civilization rather than
oppression, and in the second half of the nineteenth century, that was the precedent invoked to sanction
the Pax Britannica (www.wwnorton.com).

19/ 43
 Hall, the Science Museum, the National History Museum and the Victoria and Albert
Museum.
Other important events were the Crimean War between 1854 and 1856, which at first
was between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, and later Britain and France were
involved. During this war Britain maintained their colonial possessions.
Between 1857 and 1858, there was an Indian Mutiny between Indian soldiers (Hindu
and Muslim) who opposed their British commanders following a series of insensitive
military demands which disrespected traditional beliefs. The mutiny led to the end of
East India Company rule in India and its replacement by direct British governmental
rule.
Following the death of Albert (Victorias husband) in 1861, she had increasingly
withdrawn from national affairs and criticism of the Queen lessened and she resumed
her interest in constitutional and imperial affairs (she was created Empress of India in
1877).
Victorias death in January 1901 was an occasion of national mourning.
Finally, to close the century we find the Boer War (1899-1902) which started as Britain
attempted to annex the Transvaal Republic in southern Africa. In December 1880, the
Boers of the Transvaal revolted against British rule, defeated an imperial force and
forced the British government to recognise their independence. Finally, the peace of
Vereeniging in May 1902 annexed the Boer Republics of Transvaal and the Orange
Free State to the British Empire (which, in 1910, became part of the Union of South
Africa).

Generally speaking, the nineteenth century development and administration of British colonies
was focused on the consolidation of existing colonies and the expansion into new areas,
especially in Africa, India and Canada. Actually, in the early nineteenth century new British
colonies were to be acquired or strengthened because of their strategic value, thus Malaca and
Singapore because of their trading ports of growing importance, and the settlements of Alberta,
Manitobba, and the British Columbia in Canada as potential areas of British migration. The
main causes for other new acquisitions were, among others, the Treaty of Amiens (1802) by
adding Trinidad and Ceylon; the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) with the addition of the Cape of
Good Hope; the War with the United States (1812) brought about the Canadian unity; and the
first Treaty of Paris (1814) gained Tobago, Mauritius, St. Lucia and Malta.

Also, between the years 1857 and 1858 Britain acquired in India the cities of Agra, Bengal and
Assam after some local wars against French influence. Perhaps the Napoleonic Wars brought
about more new acquisitions to the British empire in this century than any other war, since the

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Crimean War (1854-1856), the pacification programs in Africa, and some conflicts in New
Zealand (against the Maoris) made little or no difference to the British empire. Yet, the most
serious conflict was just about to come towards the end of the century with the War in Sudan
(1884) and the Boer War (1881, 1899-1902). So, as we can see, still in the nineteenth century,
Great Britain maintained her political and imperial sovereignty.

In order to control these colonies, the British government created a sophisticated system for
colonial administration: the Colonial Office and Board of Trade (1895-1900). Already in the
1850s, they were ruled by legislative bodies, since the colonies continuously asked for
independence. They were separate departments with an increasing staff and a continuing policy
of establishing discipline and pressure on the colonial goverments. Hence most colonial
governements were left to themselves.

However, these legislative bodies governing the new settlements were soon to be replaced by an
executive body which took over the financial control. This elected assembly would be
represented by the figure of the governor and would be responsible for the colonial government.
Therefore, these settlements became crown colonies, and were subject to direct rule, as we can
see in the African and Pacific expansion where the crown colony system was established. Let us
examine how this new colonial governing body was applied in the colonies of Australia, Asia
and Africa.

In the Antipodes, New Zealand and Oceania were systematically colonized in the 1840s
under the pressure of British missionaries. Yet, territorial disputes were brought up
between the new colonists and the homeland tribes, the Maoris. Hence the Maori Wars
(1840s-1860s) which eventually ended with the withdrawal of British troops and a
peaceful agreement of settlement for the newcomers. In the last quarter of the century,
the British empire took the control over other islands in the Pacific, again because of
missionary pressure and international naval rivalry and, eventually, the Fiji Island was
annexed in 1874. Three years later the governement established a British High
Commission for the Western Pacific Islands (1877) as well as a protectorate in Papua
(1884) and in Tonga (1900). These protectorates were soon to be governed by Australia
and New Zealand.

In Asia , India was conquered and therefore, had an expansion policy. As stated
previously, the suppressed Indian mutiny (1857) gave way to the abolishment of the
East India Company (1858) and, therefore, the local executive body was replaced by
that of the crown. Known as the brightest jewel in the British crown (a Disraelis

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 phrase), India was a strategic settlement for the British empire and her conquest was
justified in terms of benefits and discipline. Further acquisitions (Burma, Punjab,
Baluchistan) provided new crucial settlements in the area in order to set up a new route
in India. Since the opening of the Suez Canal, new territories were under the influence
of Britain within this route: Aden, Somaliland, territories in southern Arabia and the
Persian Gulf. Moreover, further expansion took place with the development of the
Straits settlements and the federated Malay states; Borneo (1880s), Hong Kong (1841);
and adjacent territories in China, Shangai (1860, 1896), which had trading purposes.

Finally, the greatest development of the British Empire took place in Africa in the last
quarter of the century. The reign of Queen Victoria brought about a great enthusiasm
for a similar Roman empire, whose power might extend from the Cape of Good Hope
to El Cairo. This idea fascinated the British citizens who, in Queen Victorias two
jubilees, offered colonial conferences, the search of new areas of opportunity, and the
discoveries and wars for mining wealth in South Africa. In fact, the spread of the British
empire comprised by the nineteenth century nearly a quarter of the land surface and
more than a quarter of the population of the world.

From 1882 onwards Britain controlled Egypt and Alexandria (by force), and a joint
administration half British-half Egyptian was established in the Sudan area in 1899.
Also, on the western coast the Royal Niger Company began the expansion over the area
of Nigeria. By then there were two main British Companies: the Imperial British East
Africa Company, which operated in nowadays Kenya and Uganda, and the British
South Africa Company in the areas now called Rhodesia, Zambia, and Malawi. Hence
the missionary migrations to Africa in the eventual transfer of these territories to the
crown.

2.3.3. The dismantling of the British empire: XXth and XXIst century.

Therefore, by 1897 the Empire seemed invincible, but only two years later British confidence
was shaken by the news of defeats at Magersfontein and Spion Kop in the Anglo-Boer War
(1899-1902). Hence, after the Boer War (1902), the countries of the overseas empire wanted a
greater measure of self-government, and those and other battles were lost. Yet, eventually the
war was won, and it took two world wars to bring the British Empire to its end. Those wars also

22/ 43
were won, with the loyal help of troops from the overseas empire (more than 200,000 of whom
were killed in World War I alone).

After a century of almost unchallenged political security, Britain perceived the aggressive
militarisation of the new German state and Hitlers empire as a threat. Britain and, therefore, her
empire, lost a large part of a generation of young men in the First World War. Yet, after the
First World War the British Empire continued to grow and, in addition to the self-governing
territories of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, it annexed large tracts of
Africa, Asia and parts of the Caribbean. Also, following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire,
Britain included Iraq and Palestine.

Soon nationalist movements were to be strongly felt in India, Egypt and in the Arab mandated
territories. In 1922 Egypt was granted a degree of independence by Britain and full
independence in 1936. Similarly, Iraq gained full independence in 1932. On the other hand,
India achieved its independence in 1947 after the movement of Indian nationalism, boosted by
the 1919 Amritsar Massacre. In 1931, the British Parliament, by means of the Statue of
Westminster, recognized the legislative independence and equal status under the Crown of its
former dominions and the Irish Free State within a British Commonwealth of Nations. The
resultant relationship is sometimes thought to have been a precursor to the post-war British
Commonwealth.

During the Second World War, Britains civilian population found themselves under severe
domestic restrictions, and occasionally bombing. Also, conflict accelerated many social and
political developments and growing nationalist movements impacted both on the British rule of
Empire and on the individual nations of the British Isles. Hence, most of the remaining imperial
possessions were granted independence, for instance, fifty years after Queen Victorias
Diamond Jubilee, India was cut in two to become the Commonwealth countries of India and
Pakistan.

The most recent development in the dismantling of the British Empire was the restoration to
Chinese rule, under a declaration signed in 1984, of the former British crown colony of Hong
Kong, on the southeastern coast of China, where the Union Jack was finally and symbolically
lowered on July 1, 1997. So, one by one, the subject peoples of the British Empire have entered
a postcolonial era, in which they must reassess their national identity, their history and
literature, and their relationship with the land and language of their former masters.

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3. CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND DEVELOPMENT OF LINGUISTIC VARIETIES.

With this background in mind, Chapter 3 shall approach the Commonwealth member states in
terms of their cultural diversity and development of linguistic varieties individually as it is
expected from the association of 54 different states which consult, co-operate and work together
with the aim of promoting international understanding and world peace. Diversity is central to
the Commonwealth. Membership includes people of many different races and origins,
encompasses every state of economic development, and comprises a rich variety of cultures,
traditions and institutions (Secretariat, 2003).

So, we shall try to present an overview of the Commonwealth cultural and linguistic variety by
addressing (1) the Commonwealth principles and values, and how these principles and values
are present in (2) the countries which founded the Commonwealth, namely (a) Canada, (b)
Australia, (c) New Zealand, (d) South Africa, (e) India, and (f) the Caribbean Islands.

3.1. The Commonwealth: principles and values.

The Commonwealth strengths lie in the following principles and values. First of all, among the
three most important principles we include (Secretariat, 2003): first, the combination of the
diversity of its members with their shared inheritance in language, culture and the rule of law;
secondly, seeking consensus through consultation and the sharing of experience; and finally,
sharing a commitment to certian fundamental principles set out in a Declaration of
Commonwealth Principles agreed at the Singapore meeting in 1971 and in followi-up
Declarations and Communiqus.

On the other hand, Commonwealth values are the principles that bind Commonwealth
member countries together and they derive from various Commonwealth Declarations and
Principles agreed upon at various Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings (CHOGMs).
These values are enshrined in the 1991 Harare Commonwealth Declaration (Zimbabwe), which
enshrines common interests and a set of basic principles. At Millbrook (New Zealand) in 1995,
Heads of Government adopted an action programme to fulfil their commitment to the Harare
Principles. At Coolum (Australia) in 2002, Heads of Government committed to The Coolum
Declaration on the Commonwealth in the 21st Century: Continuity and Renewal.(Secretariat,
2003).

Then, Commonwealth values include: respect for diversity, human dignity and opposition to all
forms of discrimination; adherence to democracy, rule of law, good governance, freedom of
expression and the protection of human rights; elimination of poverty and the promotion of

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people -centred development; and finally, international peace and security, the rule of
international law and opposition to terrorism (Secretariat, 2003).

The adherence to democracy, rule of law, good governance, freedom of expression and the
protection of human rights is reflected through the capacity building programme to strengthen
civil society organisations; and by means of documenting good practice. For instance, the
Foundation has produced a document NGO Guidelines for Good Policy and Practice to guide
civil society organisations and is available in ten languages. It is worth mentioning that all
these states have at some time been under British rule so in some of them, English is the first
language; others, with several different languages of their own, find English the most
convenient means of communication.

3.2. The Commonwealth: cultural and linguistic diversity.

3.2.1. Canada.

As mentioned above, Canada was given the dominion status in 1867, and by the time of the
Commonwealth founding, it was one of the state members. It is regarded as a transplanted
society (Maxwell, 1982) as well as Australia and New Zealand since the majority of its
population is of European origin and had to change the already established cultural habits in the
new land. So, it retained a non-indigenous language.

Historically speaking, the first settlement in Canada traces back to the 16th century under the
figure of the Frenchman Jacques Cartir. Therefore, until the eighteenth century most European
immigrants who arrived in Canada came namely from France in opposition to the North
American coast, which received English, Irish and Scottish population. Similarly, it is said that
the bulk of Canadas immigrants arrived namely from Continental Europe in the twentieth and
twenty-first century.

In linguistic terms, Canada has developed a type of Canadian English which is difficult for us to
understand since it is different from other North American varieties. It is regarded as a
homogeneous language, which has not been affected by its nearest linguistic neighbour,
American English. The differences lie mainly in vocabulary and pronunciation, since Canadian
spelling preserves some British forms (theatre, centre, colour, behaviour) and there are no
distinctive grammar features. We also highlight the fact that there are also several words of
Canadian origin (chesterfield).

Regarding its cultural diversity, Canada is nowadays still headed by British population (around
45%), followed by French (25%) and the rest (30%) belong to other nationalities rather than

25/ 43
British or French. The influence of French colonization is still present in culture, since America
has influenced this country through the media. Yet, the French-speaking population, namely set
up in Quebec, has a powerful separatist movement which addresses their affiliation to France.
No literature works are worth mentioning within the neo-colonialism movement in Canada.

3.2.2. Australia.

Following Britannica (2004), Australia has long been inhabited by Aboriginals, who arrived
40,00060,000 years ago. Estimates of the population at the time of European settlement in
1788 range from 300,000 to more than 1,000,000. Widespread European knowledge of
Australia began with 17th-century explorations. The Dutch landed in 1616 and the British in
1688, but the first large-scale expedition was that of James Cook in 1770, which established
Britains claim to Australia. The first English settlement, at Port Jackson (1788), consisted
mainly of convicts and seamen; convicts were to make up a large proportion of the incoming
settlers.

By 1859 the colonial nuclei of all Australias states had been formed, but with devastating
effects on the indigenous peoples, whose population declined sharply with the introduction of
European diseases and weaponry. Britain granted its colonies limited self-government in the
mid 19th century, and an act federating the colonies into a commonwealth was passed in 1900.
Australia fought alongside the British in World War I, notably at Gallipoli, and again in Wor ld
War II, preventing Australias occupation by the Japanese.

It joined the U.S. in the Korean and Vietnam wars. Since the 1960s the government has sought
to deal more fairly with the Aboriginals, and a loosening of immigration restrictions has led to a
more heterogeneous population. Constitutional links allowing British interference in
government were formally abolished in 1968, and Australia has assumed a leading role in Asian
and Pacific affairs. During the 1990s it experienced several debates about giving up its British
ties and becoming a republic.

In linguistic terms, Australian English starts in the second half of the eighteenth century when
pidgin English appeared due to the interrelationship of settlers and Aboriginals. The Aboriginal
vocabulary of Australian English has become one of the trademarks of the national language
(boomerang, jumbuck sheep-). Yet, the number of Aboriginal words in Australian English is
quite small and confined to the naming of plants, trees, animals, and place-names. Nowadays,
though English is the official language, Australian English is known for its preserving nature,
since it still keeps eighteenth and nineteenth-century lexis from the European Continent
(Wessex, Scotland, Ireland). Moreover, it has no regional variation of accent.

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Regarding its cultural diversity, since it is the smallest continent and sixth largest country (in
area) on Earth, lying between the Pacific and Indian oceans, its population was about
19,702,000 in 2002. Among them, most Australians are descendants of Europeans. The largest
nonwhite minority is the Australian Aboriginals. The Asian portion of the population has grown
as a result of relaxed immigration policy. Australia is rich in mineral resources, s the countrys
economy is basically free-enterprise; its largest components include finance, manufacturing, and
trade. Formally a constitutional monarchy, its chief of state is the British monarch, represented
by the governor-general. In reality it is a parliamentary state with two legislative houses; its
head of government is the prime minister.

3.2.3. New Zealand.

New Zealand was originally inhabited by Polinesian population which traced back to the early
Christian centuries. In the eighteenth century it was explored by J. Cook between 1769-1770
and soon it was a target for European settlement in spite of some indigenous Maori resistance.
Then the 19th century saw the arrival of catholic missionaries and English protestants and the
reorganization of New Zealand started. Subsequently, the two races achieved considerable
harmony. Yet, unlike Australia it was a free colony, as in practice it has been self-determining
since 1901.

In linguistic terms, the New Zealand language has been influenced by its Australian neighbours
(bush lawyer, bush telegraph) as well as by the Scottish language, namely in family names
(Dunedin, Murray). From Australia, many Zealanders were influenced by the native Maori
culture, hence many maori words were borrowed on making reference to animals, plants and
local trees (kiwi). In addition, Zealanders created their own vocabulary for some places, roads
and local places (lines).

Regarding its cultural diversity, New Zealand still has a certain attachment to Britain that is
unheard of Australia (BBC news) and contemporary population seem hesitant to use the
pragmatic initiative used in the eighteenth century. The cultural background in New Zealand is
actually conditioned by a society which is egalitarian in the extreme and shows a tendency
towards conformity. Yet, today Maori people are determined to make their contribution to
increase their self-respect and confidence in their own culture. Actually, Maori language is
offered in many secondary schools as an optional second language.

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3.2.4. South Africa.

Before British colonization, certain highlands of East Africa attracted settlers from Europe since
these colonies were confined to coastal enclaves. British penetration of the area began at
Zanzibar in the late 19th century and before WWI most of the European conquest of Africa had
been accomplished. Actually, in 1888 the British East Africa Company established claims to
territory in what is now Kenya. British protectorates were subsequently established over the
sultanate of Zanzibar and the kingdom of Buganda (now Uganda) and in 1919 Britain was
awarded the former German territory of Tanganyika as a League of Nations mandate. Yet, all
these territories achieved political independence in the 1960s.

In linguistic terms, the development of the English language in Africa is related to the term
pidgin, hence pidgin English is commonly spoken in Africa. Traditionally, pidgin languages
are defined as those auxiliary languages that have no native speakers and are used for
communicating between people who have no common language. Actually, we find two different
English versions in Africa: East and West African English.

On the one hand, East African Commonwealth countries had no contact with Britain until the
early twentieth century when they were colonized, so the use of English was limited to military
and administrative vocabulary (white administrators and army officials), still used in the East
African states of Kenya. Yet, in Uganda and Tanzania, Swahili is the used as lingua franca and
goes through ethnic and political boundaries whereas English is the main language of education
(secondary, tertiary). So, we may say that the language of Black Africa is pidgin English, not
standard British or American English (Uganda, Zambia, Simbabwe).

On the other hand, West African Commonwealth countries use pidgin English as a result of the
slave experience of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. For instance, in Sierra Leona,
pidgin English has evolved into Krio, a mixture of English and an African language (Yoruba),
with includes Portuguese elements, which is used everywhere. Brought by traders and
missionaries to Nigeria and Cameroon, it influenced the local pidgin. Recent governments are
trying to establish Krio as the national language of Sierra Leone, even though English is still the
official language.

Regarding its cultural diversity, we highlight the fact that in all African countries the majority of
the population is indigenous, except in those African countries which belong to the
Commonwealth and have European population (Zimbabwe, Zambia and Kenya). Hence, the
most common population group within these countries are the ethnic groups, that is, tribes. This
means that ethnic groups have in common a sense of culture and identity, and therefore, of
distinct religion and language. The new African nations that emerged after the mid-20th century

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were not based on the traditional units of the pre-colonial era. African natural resources (mining,
safari hunting) have attracted people of many different cultures speaking a variety of languages.

3.2.5. India.

Historically speaking, India is the home of one of the worlds oldest and most influential
civilisations of South Asia. By the early seventeenth century, the East India Company was
founded and attracted many European visitors up to the eighteenth century. In linguistic terms, it
was in the nineteenth century that, at the highest peak of the British empire, there was a flood of
English administrators, educators, army officers and missionaries who spread the English
language throughout the sub-continent. Hence by the turn of the century English had become
the prestige language of India.

After a century, the Jewel of the Crown had added many Indian words into the English
language, so as to be able to express different concepts. In addition, Indian English possesses a
number of distinctive stylistic fatures, some of which are inspired by local languages and some
by the influence of English educational traditions (change of heart vs. God is merciful).
Nowadays, even after Indians independence (1947), there are more speakers of English in India
than in Britain (over 70 million). English became the official language of everyday life at any
sphere. It is worth noting that, though the speakers of English belonged to the educated ruling
elite, English is taught at every stage of education in all the states of the country.

Regarding its cultural diversity, India is regarded as a subcontinent rather than a country. Its
wide range of races, languages and religions, art and culture show the cultural wealth that has
developed over many centuries. Yet, there are still strong divisive influences such as caste, the
status of untouchability and linguistic chauvinism. Another important aspect is that over 80 per
cent of the countrys total population are Hindus, and also, that Hinduism is the unifying factor
that has kept the large mass of the peoples of India together.

3.2.6. The Caribbean Islands.

The Commonwealth Caribbean Islands.have a distinctive history. The Encyclopaedia Britannica

(2004) states that permanently influenced by the experiences of colonialism and slavery, the
Caribbean has produced a collection of societies that are markedly different in population
composition from those in any other region of the world. Lying on the sparsely settled periphery
of an irregularly populated continent, the region was discovered by Christopher Columbus in
1492. Thereafter, it became the springboard for the European invasion and domination of the

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Americas, a transformation that historian D. W. Meinig has aptly described as the "radical
reshaping of America."

Beginning with the Spanish and Portuguese and continuing with the arrival more than a
century later of other Europeans, the indigenous peoples of the Americas experienced a series of
upheavals. The European intrusion abruptly interrupted the pattern of their historical
development and linked them inextricably with the world beyond the Atlantic Ocean. It also
severely altered their physical environment, introducing both new foods and new epidemic
diseases. As a result, the native Indian populations rapidly declined and virtually disappeared
from the Caribbean, although they bequeathed to the region a distinct cultural heritage that is
still seen and felt.

During the sixteenth century, the Caribbean region was significant to the Spanish empire. In
the seventeenth century, the English, Dutch, and French established colonies. By the eighteenth
century, the region contained colonies that were vitally important for all of the European powers
because the colonies generated great wealth from the production and sale of sugar. The early
English colonies, peopled and controlled by white settlers, were microcosms of English society,
with small yeoman farming economies based mainly on tobacco and cotton. A major
transformation occurred, however, with the establishment of the sugar plantation system.

To meet the systems enormous manpower requirements, vast numbers of black African slaves
were imported throughout the eighteenth century, thereby reshaping the regions demographic,
social, and cultural profile. Although the white populations maintained their social and political
preeminence, they became a numerical minority in all of the islands. Following the abolition of
slavery in the mid-nineteenth century, the colonies turned to imported indentured labor from
India, China, and the East Indies, further diversifying the regions culture and society. The result
of all these immigrations is a remarkable cultural heterogeneity in contemporary Caribbean
society.

The abolition of slavery was also a major watershed in Caribbean history in that it initiated the
long, slow process of enfranchisement and political control by the nonwhite majorities in the
islands. The early colonies enjoyed a relatively great amount of autonomy through the
operations of their local representative assemblies. Later, however, for ease of administration
and to facilitate control of increasingly assertive colonial representative bodies, the British
adopted a system of direct administration known as crown colony government in which British
appointed governors wielded nearly autocratic power. The history of the colonies from then
until 1962 when the first colonies became independent is marked by the rise of popular
movements and labor organizations and the emergence of a generation of politicians who

30/ 43
assumed positions of leadership when the colonial system in the British Caribbean was
dismantled.

Despite shared historical and cultural experiences and geographic, demographic, and economic
similarities, the islands of the former British Caribbean empire remain diverse, and attempts at
political federation and economic integration both prior to and following independence have
foundered. Thus, the region today is characterized by a proliferation of mini-states, all with
strong democratic traditions and political systems cast in the Westminster parliamentary mold,
but all also with forceful individual identities and interests.

In linguistic terms, we may highlight the fact that the tiny Indian population, once native to the
region, speak creolized forms of the invading European languages, and from this merging we
obtained a Caribbean English and a Caribbean culture. Of all the varieties of Caribbean English,
the most appealing is the Jamaican creole , defined as a language that has evolved from pidgins
used by speakers of unintelligible people. So, we may differenciate two different types of
language: on the one hand, standard English, used in newspapers and news reporting, engages in
conversation, journalists; and on the other hand, Jamaican English, which is virtually
unintelligible to the outsider since this is the language of the streets (originally oral, recently
written).

Regarding its cultural diversity, we may say that the Caribbean is fragmented since each island
has its own strong loyalties and traditions. For example, Trinidad Island is heavily influenced by
French, Spanish, Creole and Indian traditions. The most English of the islands are Jamaica,
Antigua and Barbados. Nowadays, the Caribbean population is namely African and Afro-
European in origin. Despite size, ancestry, language, history and population differences, the
countries of the Caribbean share a common culture, the result of their parallel experiences as
plantation colonies for distant European economic and politic powers. Jamaica has alwasy had a
lively independent culture, namely reflected in this Third World nationalism and reggae music
as the result of a mixed multi-cultural heritage.

4. INTERCULTURAL INFLUENCES AND MANIFESTATIONS: THE NOVELS OF E.M.

FORSTER, D. LESSING AND N. GORDIMER.

With this background in mind, we are ready to address in Chapter 4 the intercultural influences
and manifestations of subject peoples of the British Empire who have reassesed one by one their
national identity, their history and literature, and their relationship with the land and language of

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their former masters (www.wwnorton.com). The already mentioned respect for diversity, human
dignity and opposition to all forms of discrimination is reflected through the creation of
foundation works on gender equality issues; supporting the work of various Commonwealth
professional associations; promotion of cultural diversity by supporting various cultural and arts
awards, including the Commonwealth Writers Prize, the Commonwealth Arts and Crafts
Awards, the Commonwealth Short Story Competition and the Commonwealth Photographic
Awards.

It is within this Commonwealth literary background that we shall approach the novels of (1)
Edward Morgan Forster, (2) Doris Lessing and (3) Nadine Gordimer in terms of life, main
works and style so as to frame their lives in an appropriate social and political context to make
him coincide with the late consequences of the British imperialism.

4.1. Edward Morgan Forster (1879-1970).

Edward Morgan Forster was born in London on January 1 (1879) as the son of an architect, who
died before his only child was two years old. His childhood and much of his adult life was
dominated by his mother and his aunts, though it was the legacy of her paternal great-aunt
(Marianne Thornton) who gave later Forster the freedom to travel and to write. As a teenager he
attended Tonbridge School where he suffered from the cruelty of his classmates. Then he
attended Kings College, Cambridge (1897-1901), where he met members of the later formed
Bloomsbury group (hence his friendship with Virginia Woolf). There he felt free to follow his
own intellectual inclinations and gained a sense of individual uniqueness.

After graduating and travelling in Italy and Greece with his mother, he began to write essays
and short stories for the liberal Independent Review and by 1905 he had spent several months in
Germany as a tutor. Actually, these classical and Mediterranean countries would prepare the
ground for his first novel, Where Angels Fear To Tread (1905) and also would make him lecture
on Italian art and history for the Cambridge Local Lectures Board (1906). Next year he
published The Longest Journey (1907), which was followed by A Room with a View (1908),
based partly on the material from extended holidays in Italy with his mother.

Two years later, he wrote Howards End (1910), a story that centered on an English country
house and dealt with the clash between two families, one interested in art and literature, the
other only in business. The book not only brought together the themes of money, business and
culture, but also established Forsters reputation. Then Forster embarked upon a new novel with
a homosexual theme, Maurice, which shows the picture of British attitudes. It was revised

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several times during his life, and finally published posthumously in 1971. Forster used to hide
his personal life from public discussion, but in 1930 he had a relationship with a London
policeman. This important contact continued after the marriage of his London friend.

Between the years 1912 and 1913 Forster travelled in India and during WWI, Forster spent
some years in Alexandria, where he joined the Red Cross doing civilian war work. From 1914
to 1915 he worked for the National Gallery in London. After WWI, Forster returned to India in
1921, where he worked for a time as a private secretary to the Maharajah of Dewas. It was
there, in India, that he set the scene of his masterwork A Passage to India (1924), an account of
the country under British rule. It was Forsters last novel since he decided to devote himself to
other activities. Thus, for the remaining forty-six years of his life Forster wrote two biographies
Goldsworthy Lowes Dickenson (1934) and Marianne Thornton (1956); the essay collections
Abinger Harvest (1936) and Two Cheers for Democracy (1951), a portrait of India with
commentary The Hill of Devi (1953); and a posthumous publication was the collection of short
stories The Life to Come (1972).

Regarding his contributions, Forster colaborated with reviews and essays to numerous journals,
most notably the Listener and he was an active member of PEN. In 1934 he became the first
president of the National Council for Civil Liberties, and after his mothers death in 1945, he
was elected an honorary fellow of Kings and lived there for the remainder of his life. In 1946
his old college, Kings College, gave him an honorary fellowship, which enabled him to make
his home in Cambridge. Three years later (1949) Forster refused a knighthood. Yet, he was
made a Companion of Honour in 1953 and in 1969 he accepted an Order of Merit. Forster died
on June 7, 1970.

Broadly speaking, Forster was a noted English author and critic, member of Bloomsbury group
and friend of Virginia Woolf. After gaining fame as a novelist, he mainly wrote short stories and
non-fiction, and among his five important novels four appeared before World War I: Where
Angels Fear to Tread (1905), The Longest Journey (1907), A Room with a View (1908), and
Howards End (1910), since A Passage to India (1924) was published after WWI.

In his works his major concern was that individuals should connect the prose with the passion
within themselves. Since he was a novelist, essayist, social and literary critic, his work is
primarily linked to a realistic mode. Forster often criticized in his books one of his favourite
themes: Victorian middle class attitudes and British colonialism through strong woman
characters. Hence his dominant theme is the habitual conformity of people to unexamined social
standards and conventions, for instance, shown in Where Angels Fear to Tread (1905) and A
Room with a View (1908). However, Forsters characters were not one-dimensional heroes and

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villains, and except his devotion to such values as tolerance and sense of comedy, he was
uncommitted.

Other relevant themes for him include homosexuality, clearly shown in the English domestic
comedy Maurice (1971), which was published posthumously; the theme of continuity and the
future of England in The Longest Journey (1907) is reflected in a partly autobiographicl story of
the artist as a young man that predates Joyces classic with a weak idealistic hero (Rickie
Elliot); the need for men and women to achieve a satisfactory life, as it is reflected in Howards
End (1910). This ambitious novel, which brought Forster his major success, centers on an
English country house and deals with the clash between two families, one interested in art and
literature, the other only in business. The book brought together the themes of money, business
and culture.

On the other hand, within his favourite theme, Forsters experiences in India, we include A
Passage to India (1924) and The Hill of Devil (1953). Both of them offer an account of his life
in India , but from different perspectives. Thus, The Hill of Devil (1953) shows a negative
perspective against the vaster scale of India and is told through seriousness and trthfulness,
represented mainly by the British officials (administrators, visitors) and their wives, and the
local Indian army. On the contrary, A Passage to India (1924), is usually regarded as a
masterpiece not only to its linguistic features, but also to the approach to its subject matters,
such as the values of truthfulness and kindness, and a reconciliation of humanity with nature.
There is a subtle symbolism which highlights the religious dimension.

Regarding his style, we may say it is a consistently light and witty style, with a mix of irony and
comedy. These features, together with his personal way to express his view of life, made him
achieve relevance for generations who do not conform to social conventions. He mainly wrote
about the importance of beauty, personal relations, the quest for harmony and non-conventional
attitudes. His characters are elusive but harmonic and the reader may notice a mysterious
attitude beneath his real characters life.

4.2. Doris Lessing (1919-).

Doris Lessing was born Doris May Tayler in Kernashah, Persia (now Iran) to British parents on
22 October, 1919. Both of her parents were British: her father, who had been crippled in World
War I, was a clerk in the Imperial Bank of Persia and her mother had been a nurse. Lured by the
promise of getting rich through maize farming, her family moved to Southern Africa where she
spent her childhood on her fathers farm in what was then Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).

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She lived in Rhodesia until 1949 and, when her second marriage ended, she moved to London
and settled there as a full-time writer.

There she wrote her first novel, The Grass is Singing (1950), which explores the complacency
and shallowness of white colonial society in Southern Africa and established Lessing as a
talented young novelist. Her African experience, trying to live an Edwardian life among
savages, provided her with the appropriate material.The story is about the relationship between
a white woman (Mary Turner), and her black houseboy (Moses). The main theme of this novel
is the great taboo of colour which represents the barrier between the black and white races, and
also the tragic results (death). Lessing addresses this theme as an important issue in the social
and political upheavals of the 20th century regarding culture and society (intense anger,
catastropic outcomes, and social injustice).

After her first novel, she was devoted for nearly ten years to the five books in the Children of
Violence series (1952-69), which are strongly influenced by Lessings rejection of a domestic
family role and her involvement with communism. The five books display her concern about
politics and society in terms of reactions against her white, colonial, middle -class background in
both its social and political aspects. In a sense, the novels are autobiographical in many respects,
telling the story of Martha Quest (1952), a girl growing up in Africa who marries young despite
her desperate desire to avoid the life her mother has led. The second book in the series, A
Proper Marriage (1954), describes the unhappiness of the marriage and Marthas eventual
rejection of it. The sequel, A Ripple from the Storm (1958), is very much a nove l of ideas,
exploring Marxism and Marthas increasing political awareness as well as of love for people.
By the time that this book was written, however, Lessing had become disillusioned with
communism and had left the party.

Her next novel, The Golden Notebook (1962), made Lessing become firmly identified with the
feminist movement. The novel concerns Anna Wulf, a writer caught in a personal and artistic
crisis, who sees her life compartmentalised into various roles (woman, lover, writer, political
activist). Her diaries, written in different coloured notebooks, each correspond to a different part
of herself. Anna eventually suffers a mental breakdown and it is only through this disintegration
that she is able to discover a new wholeness which she writes about in the final notebook.

The attack for being unfeminine in her depiction of female anger and aggression and the
pressures of social conformity on the individual and mental breakdown revitalised her writing
about the political theme and published Landlocked (1965) and Four-Gated City (1969). These
two works gave the Children of Violence an optimistic ending. Her interest and radical visions
of the self was something that Lessing returned to in her next two novels, Briefing for a Decent
into Hell (1971) and The Summer Before the Dark (1973). Briefing for a Decent into Hell is a

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story about an inner space fiction dealing with madness in which a man, who is found
wandering the streets of London, had no memory of a normal life, while Kate, the central
character of The Summer Before the Dark , achieves a kind of enlightenment through what
doctors would describe as a breakdown.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s Doris Lessing began to explore more fully the quasi-mystical
self-insight and turned almost exclusively to writing fantasy and science fiction developing
ideas which she had touched on towards the end of 'Children of Violence', thus inner-space
fiction with cosmic fantasies (Briefing for a Decent into Hell, 1971), dreamscapes and other
dimensions (Memoirs of a Survivor, 1974), and science fiction probings of higher planes of
existence (Canopus in Argos: Archives, 1979-1983). These reflect Lessings interest, since the
1960s, in Idries Shah, whose writings on Sufi mysticism stress the evolution of consciousness
and the belief that individual liberation can come about only if people understand the link
between their own fates and the fate of society.

In the 1980s, Lessings other novels include The Marriages between Zones, Three, Four and
Five (1980), a story about the nature of the kinds of relationships men and women must make
and the kinds of societies that must be developed. Also, we include two novels under the
pseudonym Jane Somers (The Diary of a Good Neighbour, 1983, in which she made a return to
realist fiction, and If the Old Could..., 1984). Also, The Good Terrorist (1985) and The Fifth
Child (1988). These recent novels have continued to confront taboos and challenge
preconceptions, generating many different and conflicting critical opinions.

For instance, in The Good Terrorist (1985), Lessing returned to the political arena, through the
story of a group of political activists who set up a squat in London (the book was awarded the
WH Smith Literary Award); and The Fifth Child (1988), which is also concerned with
alienation and the dangers inherent in a closed social group. The book depicts a family who
lives within the hedonism and excesses of the 1960s, childbearing and domestic bliss, and
whose fifth child, however, emerges as a malevolent, troll-like and angry figure who quickly
disrupts the family idyll.

Other several nonfiction works include the acclaimed first volume of her autobiography, Under
My Skin (1994), which won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize in 1995, and was followed by
a second volume, Walking in the Shade: Volume II of My Autobiography 1949-1962 (1997). She
was made a Companion of Honour by the British Government in 1999, and is President of
Booktrust, the educational charity that promotes books and reading. Lessings recent fiction
includes Ben, in the World (2000), a sequel to the The Fifth Child, and, more recently, The
Sweetest Dream (2002), which follows the fortunes of a family through the twentieth century,
set in London during the 1960s and contemporary Africa. In the same year she received the

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David Cohen British Literature Prize (2001) and two years later she wrote her latest book, the
grandmothers, a collection of four short novels centred on an unconventional extended family
appeared in 2003.

At present, Doris Lessing lives in London. She is now widely regarded as one of the most
important post-war writers in English. Her novels, short stories and essays have focused on a
wide range of twentieth-century issues and concerns, from the politics of race that she
confronted in her early novels set in Africa, to the politics of gender which lead to her adoption
by the feminist movement, to the role of the family and the individual in society, explored in her
space fiction of the late 1970s and early 1980s

As mentioned above, Lessings fiction is deeply autobiographical, much of it emerging out of

her experiences in Africa. Drawing upon her childhood memories and her serious engagement
with politics and social concerns, Lessing has written about the clash of cultures, the gross
injustices of racial inequality, the struggle among opposing elements within an individuals own
personality, and the conflict between the individual conscience and the collective good. Her
stories and novellas set in Africa, published during the fiftie s and early sixties, decry the
dispossession of black Africans by white colonials, and expose the sterility of the white culture
in southern Africa. In 1956, in response to Lessings courageous outspokenness, she was
declared a prohibited alien in both Southern Rhodesia and South Africa.

Over the years, Lessing has attempted to accommodate what she admires in the novels of the
nineteenth century to the demands of twentieth-century ideas about consciousness and time.
After writing the Children of Violence series (1951-1959), a formally conventional
bildungsroman (novel of education) about the growth in consciousness of her heroine, Martha
Quest, Lessing broke new ground with The Golden Notebook (1962), a daring narrative
experiment, in which the multiple selves of a contemporary woman are rendered in astonishing
depth and detail.

4.3. Nadine Gordimer (1923-).

Nadine Gordimer was born into a well-off family in Springs, Transvaal, a small gold-mining
town in South Africa outside Johannesburg (the setting for Gordimers first novel, The Lying
Days, 1953). Her father was a Jewish jeweler and her mother of British descent, the latter being
a dominant influence on her life since from her early childhood, Gordimer was often kept at
home by a mother who thought she had a heart disease. As a child, Gordimer witnessed how the
white minority increasingly weakened the rights of the black majority so, for these two reasons,

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she began writing at the age of nine. Gordimer was educated in a convent school and spent a
year at Witwaterstrand University (Johannesburg) without taking a degree. Since then she has
been devoted to her writing in South Africa and has lived in Johannesburg since 1948.

Her first short story, Come Again Tomorrow, was published at the age of fifteen in the
childrens section of the liberal Johannesburg magazine Forum and during her twenties, her
stories appeared in many local magazines. For instance, her first collection of short stories, Face
to Face: Short Stories (1949), in which Gordimer has revealed the psychological consequences
of a racially divided society. In 1951 the New Yorker accepted a story, publishing her ever
since. Hence the short story collection The Soft Voice of the Serpent and other Stories (1952),
and her novel The Lying Days (1953) was based largely on the authors own life and depicted a
white girl, Helen, and her growing disaffection toward the narrow-mindlessness of a small-town
life.

Other works in the 1950s and 1960s include her early short story collections Six Feet of the Six
(1956), and the novels Not for Publication (1965); A World of Strangers (1958), in which she
used the perspective of an outsider coming to South Africa (disillusion, fragmented nature of
life); Occasion for Loving (1963), which was concerned with South Africas cruel racial law
through an illicit love affair between a black man and a white woman; and The Late Bourgeois
World (1966). In these novels Gordimer studied the master-servant relations, spiritual and
sexual paranoias of colonialism, and the shallow liberalism of her privileged white compatriots.

In the 1970s we highlight her novels A Guest of Honour (1970), which examines the problem of
new independence in an unidentified African country; Livingstones Companions (1971), a story
in which the historical context of the racial divided society; The Conservationist (1974), with
which Gordimer won early international recognition for her short stories and novels. In it
Gordimer juxtaposed the world of a wealthy white industrialist with the rituals and mythology
of Zulus; also, her novel Burgers Daughter (1979), which was written during the aftermath of
Soweto uprising. In the story a daughter analyzes her relationship to her father, a martyr of the
antiapartheid movement. She was also prolific in her essays, thus On the Mines (1973), making
reference to her birthplace and literary criticism The Black Interpreters (1973), being a study of
indigenous African writing.

In the 1980s she wrote Julys People (1981), a futuristic novel about a white family feeing from
war-torn Johannesburg into the country, where they seek refuge with their African servant in his
village; and also her short story collections, which include: an Oral History from A Soldierss
Embrace (1980), in which Gordimer examines coolly the actions of her protagonist, linking the
tragic events in the long tradition of colonial policy. In the background of the story is the war of
independence in Zimbabwe (1966-1980), where she uses the mopane tree as a symbol of life

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and death; Something Out There (1984), and Jump and Other Stories (1991). Later on, in her
novel The House Gun (1998) Gordimer explored the complexities of the violence ridden post-
apartheid society through a murder trial, where two white privileged liberals, Harald and
Claudia Lindgard, face the fact that their architect-son, Duncan, has killed his friend Carl
Jesperson.

By the turn of the century she wrote The Pickup (2001), whose basic setting reminds in some
points the famous film Les Parapluies de Cherbourg (1962), in which starring Catherine
Deneuve and Nino Castelnuovo, start a love affair, though they belong to different cultures. The
main themes are the background that separates them, sex crossing all the cultural barriers, the
striving for money and success, the good things of life that the West can offer, and the womans
maturation. Finally, her latest book, Loot and Other Stories (2003), is a collection of ten short
stories widely varied in theme and place.

In short, we have seen how Ms. Gordimer rose to world fame for her novels and short stories
that stunned the literary world and made her win the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1991. In
addition to ther twelve novels, ten collections of short stories and essays on topics including
apartheid and writing, Gordimers credits include screenplays for television dramas based on
her own short stories (1981-82), the script for the BBC film Frontiers (1989), and television
documentaries, notably collaborating with her son Hugo Cassirer on the television film
Choosing Justice: Allan Boesak. Winner of eleven literary awards and fourteen honorary
degrees, her most recent novel is entitled The House Gun and a documentary film entitled
Hanging on a Sunrise.

She was a founding member of Congress of South African Writers, and even at the height of the
apartheid regime, she never considered going into exile. Actually, since 1948 Gordimer has
lived in Johannesburg. She has also taught in the USA in several universities during the 1960s
and 70s. Gordimer has written books of non-fiction on South African subjects. Hence most of
Nadine Gordimers works deal with the moral and psychological tensions of her racially divided
home country.

5. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

Literature, and therefore, literary language is one of the most salient aspect of educational
activity. In classrooms all kinds of literary language (poetry, drama, novel, prose, periodicals
newspapers, pamphlets-), either spoken or written, is going on for most of the time. Yet,
handling literary productions in the past makes relevant the analysis of the Commonwealth

39/ 43
literature and, in particular, in English-speaking countries, originally colonies of the British
empire, as reflected in the three authors under study (namely Africa and India). Hence it makes
sense to examine the historical background of the Commonwealth so as to provide a particular
period of time with an appropriate context (imperialism, post-colonial literature).

Currently, action research groups attempt to bring about change in classroom learning and
teaching through a focus on literary production under two premises. First, because they believe
learning is an integral aspect of any form of activity and second, because education at all levels
must be conceived in terms of literature and history. The basis for these assumptions is to be
found in an attempt, through the use of historical events, to develop understanding of students
shared but diverse social and physical environment. This means that literary productions are an
analytic tool and that teachers need to identify the potential contributions and potential
limitations of students before we can make good use of the historical events which frame the
literary period.

So, the Commonwealth may be easily approached to students by familiar issues, such as racism
in South Africa (apartheid), the Gibraltar question, India as the Jewel of the Crown (drawn from
contemporary novels, such as The Jungle Book (1894) or historical figures such as Indira
Ghandi), by establishing a paralelism with the Spanish one (age, literature forms, events). Since
literature may be approached in linguistic terms, regarding form and function (morphology,
lexis, structure, form) and also from a cross-curricular perspective (Sociology, History, English,
French, Spanish Language and Literature), Spanish students are expected to know about the
history of the Commonwealth and its influence in the world.

In addition, one of the objectives of teaching the English language is to provide good models of
almost any kind of literary productions for future studies. Following van Ek & Trim (2001), the
learners can perform, within the limits of the resources available to them, those writing (and
oral) tasks which adult citizens in general may wish, or be called upon, to carry out in their
private capacity or as members of the general public when dealing with their future regarding
personal and professional life.

Moreover, nowadays new technologies may provide a new direction to language teaching as
they set more appropriate context for students to experience the target culture. Present-day
approaches deal with a communicative competence model in which first, there is an emphasis
on significance over form, and secondly, motivation and involvement are enhanced by means of
new technologies. Hence literary productions and the history of the period may be approched in

40/ 43
terms of films and drama representations in class, among others, and in this case, by means of
books (novels: historical, terror, descriptive), paper (essays), among others.

The success partly lies in the way literary works become real to the users. Some of this
motivational force is brought about by intervening in authentic communicative events.
Otherwise, we have to recreate as much as possible the whole cultural environment in the
classroom by means of documentaries, history books, or their familys stories. This is to be
achieved within the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular, the Spanish
Educational System which establishes a common reference framework for the teaching of
foreign languages where students are intended to carry out several communication tasks with
specific communicative goals, for instance, how to locate a literary work within a particular
historical period.

Analytic interpretation of texts in all genres should become part of every literary students basic
competence (B.O.E., 2004). There are hidden influences at work beneath the textual surface:
these may be sociocultural, inter and intratextual. The literary student has to discover these, and
wherever necessary apply them in further examination. The main aims that our currently
educational system focuses on are mostly sociocultural, to facilitate the study of cultural themes,
as our students must be aware of their current social reality within the European framework.

6. CONCLUSION.

Since literature reflects the main concerns of a nation at all levels, it is extremely important for
students to be aware of the close relationship between History and Literature so as to understand
the main plot of a novel, short story, or any other form of literary work. In this unit, we have
particularly approached the issue of the Commonwealth and British Imperialism as a time of
great changes, colonial expansion and wars. For the better, or for the worse.

The aim of this unit was to provide a useful introduction to the Commonwealth from a general
overview regarding its cultural diversity and development of linguistic varieties as well as in
terms of intercultural influences and manifestations which, as we have seen, are namely
reflected in the novels of E.M. Forster, D. Lessing and N. Gordimer. In doing so, we have dealt
with the entity of the Commonwealth in terms of definition; brief history regarding origins,
membership, and organization, that is, its evolution as an international organization up to the
present day; and also from a historical perspective so as to get a general overview of the

41/ 43
development and administration of the British colonial empire from the seventeenth century to
the present day.

Secondly, we have approached in Chapter 3 the Commonwealth country members cultural

diversity and development of linguistic varieties individually, but before we have examined the
Commonwealth principles and values so as to provide a framework to the cultural and linguistic
variety in the countries which founded the Commonwealth, namely Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, India, and the Caribbean Islands. Finally, with this background in mind,
we have approached in Chapter 4 the intercultural influences and manifestations present in the
novels of E.M. Forster, D. Lessing and N. Gordimer by examining their writings in terms of
their own experiences, works, themes and style.

So far, we have attempted to provide the reader in this presentation with a historical background
on the vast amount of literature productions of the Commonwealth, and its further contributions
up to twenty-first century. This information is relevant for language learners, even 2nd year
Bachillerato students, who do not automatically establish similiarities between British, Spanish
and worldwide literary works. So, learners need to have these associations brought to their
attention in cross-curricular settings. As we have seen, understanding how literature developed
and is reflected in our world today is important to students, who are expected to be aware of the
richness of English literature, not only in Great Britain but also in other English-speaking
countries.

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7. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Alexander, M. 2000. A History of English Literature. Macmillan Press. London.

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 116/2004, de 23 de enero. Currculo de la

Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 117/2004, de 23 de enero. Currculo de

Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.

Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European
Framework of reference.

Magnusson, M., and Goring, R. (eds.). 1990. Cambridge Biographical Dictionary. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

Sanders, A. 1996. The Short Oxford History of English Literature. Oxford University Press.

Speck, W.A. 1998. Literature and Society in Eighteenth-Century England: Ideology Politics and Culture
1680-1820. Book Reviews.

Thoorens, Lon. 1969. Panorama de las literaturas Daimon: Inglaterra y Amrica del Norte. Gran
Bretaa y Estados Unidos de Amrica. Ediciones Daimon.

Other sources include:

Microsoft (R). 1997. Encyclopedia Encarta. Microsoft Corporation.

Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (The). 2003. 6th ed. Columbia University Press.

"British Empire." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 2004. Encyclopdia Britannica Premium Service. 28
May 2004 <http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=383356>.

The Commonwealth at a glance: a brief guide to the association, Commonwealth Secretariat, June 2003.

www.bbc.com
www.wwnorton.com

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 UNIT 63

BRITISH INSTITUTIONS. THE PARLIAMENT. THE

GOVERNMENT. POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTO-
RAL SYSTEM. THE MONARCHY.

OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.

2. BRITISH INSTITUTIONS.
2.1. A European framework.
2.2. The Parliament.
2.2.1. A historical background.
2.2.2. The House of Lords.
2.2.3. The House of Commons.
2.2.4. The monarch.
2.3. The Government.
2.3.1. The Central Government.
2.3.1.1. The Cabinet.
2.3.1.2. The monarch.
2.3.1.3. The Civil Services.
2.3.2. The Local Government.
2.4. Political parties and electoral system.
2.4.1. Political parties.
2.4.1.1. Conservative Party.
2.4.1.2. Labour Party.
2.4.1.3. Liberal Democrats.
2.4.1.4. Other parties.
2.4.2. The electoral system.
2.5. The Monarchy.

3. MAIN EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.

4. CONCLUSION.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1/30
1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

The present unit, Unit 63, aims to provide a useful introduction to the British institutions among
which we shall focus on those related to British politics, that is, the main political bodies in
Great Britain: the Parliament, the Government, the main political parties and the British
electoral system, and finally, the Monarchy. In doing so, we shall first locate the British
institutions within a European framework and then we shall move on to analyse British politics
and, therefore, each political body.

So, Chapte r 2, British institutions, will be divided into five main sections which coincide with
the main issues we are going to deal with. Hence, (1) a European framework for British
institutions, and then the main political bodies within British politics, that is, (2) the Parliament
in terms of (a) a historical background and a closer examination of its political elements, that is,
(b) the House of Lords, (c) the House of Commons, and (d) the monarch. Then, we shall review
(3) the Government, in terms of (1) central government, regarding (a) the Cabinet, (b) the
monarch, and (c) the Civil Services; and (2) local governement; then we shall approach (4) the
main political parties and the British electoral system, by reviewing (a) the main political
parties, that is, (i) the Conservative Party, (ii) the Labour Party, (iii) the Liberal Democrats, and
(iv) other lesser parties; and (b) the electoral system; finally, we shall examine the role of (5) the
Monarchy. Actually, all of them are key elements in the way the country is governed, though at
two different levels which are interconnected: the Parliament and the Monarchy.

On the one hand, the Parliament (The House of Commons and Lords), represented by the
government (the cabinet) and its members (ministers, politicians), is in charge of controlling the
country under a parliamentary democracy. On the other hand, Britain is a constitutional
monarchy by means of which the country is governed by the king or queen who accepts the
advice of parliament. Other key elements are the main British political parties (Conservative,
Labour, Centre) which form the goverment, and the British electoral system, which eventually
determines the final outcome on elections.

Chapter 3 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching regarding
the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 4 will offer a conclusion to
broadly overview our present study, and Chapter 5 will include all the bibliographical
references used to develop this account of the British institutions.

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1.2. Notes on bibliography.

An influential introduction to British institutions is based on Bromhead, Life in Modern Britain

(1962); Palmer, Historia Contempornea (1980); Cook & Paston, European Political Facts of
the Twentieth Century (2001), which is a fundamental reference tool for Europe including
leading political figures, statistics, and major events. Other sources include the Encyclopaedia
Larousse 2000 (2000); the Encyclopedia Britannica (2004); and the historylearningsite website
(2004).

The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative

competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most
complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the
guidelines in B.O.E. (2004) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; the Council of Europe, Modern
Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of reference
(1998); and van Ek and Trim, Vantage (2001).

2. BRITISH INSTITUTIONS.

Chapter 2 will provide a general overview of British institutions by first locating them within
(1) a European framework and then within British politics, where we shall examine (2) the
Parliament in terms of (a) a historical background and a closer examination of its political
elements, that is, (b) the House of Lords, (c) the House of Commons, and (d) the monarch.
Then, we shall review (3) the Government, in terms of (1) central government, regarding (a) the
Cabinet, (b) the monarch, and (c) the Civil Services; and (2) local governement; then we shall
approach (4) the main political parties and the British electoral system, by reviewing (a) the
main political parties, that is, (i) the Conservative Party, (ii) the Labour Party, (iii) the Liberal
Democrats, and (iv) other lesser parties; and (b) the electoral system; finally, we shall examine
the role of (5) the Monarchy.

2.1. A European framework.

Broadly speaking, we consider relevant to locate British institutions (essential bodies in a

society: education, health, politics) within a European framework since, in 1971, Britain

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eventually became a member of the European Community (now European Union) along with
the Irish Republic and Denmark. This event was to be achieved under the Conservative
government of Prime Minister Edward Heath (1970-1974), who re-opened negotiations with the
EEC despite the French opposition to Britains integration in the Common Market (Laurosse,
2000; vol. 7:2614). Later on, the drive for deeper integration continued under John Majors
service and in 1993 the Parliament eventually passed the Maastricht Treaty. This treaty resulted
in the transformation of the EEC to the European Union (EU) and promoted closer economic
and political union through the establishment of a European currency and central bank, and
harmonisation of defence, foreign and social policies.

The European Union is run not by one body but by a series of institutions with their own remit:
the Council of Ministers (the most senior), the European Commission, the European Parliament,
and the European Court of Justice. These institutions were created in the 1960s and have
developed as the most important bodies in the European Union and, as such, they have the
ability to impose its will as part of the supranational nature of the EU, where member states
ability to create domestic policy is inferior to that of the European Union. Yet, to what extent do
these European institutions act on British politics?

For instance, the Council of Ministers (the Europeans union most powerful decision-
making body) is made up of the foreign ministers of member states, who discuss and
eventually decide on the policies created by non-elected civil servants and by a non-
elected Commission. Before 1986, just one country represented in the Council could
veto a policy but in 1986 Qualified Majority Voting was introduced. This is a system
whereby each country has been given a block of votes dependent on its size
(www.historylearningsite.co.uk). and, therefore, Britain, France and Germany have 19
votes each (as the largest member states) whereas other countries such as Luxembourgh
has 2 votes. In total, there are 87 votes in the Council and 62 are needed to secure a
majority1 .

The European Parliament is an elected body where members of it are known as

Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) and are elected by voters within a
member state. Yet, the European Parliament is not a legislative body so it cannot
introduce any policies, but rather to be consulted on issues and influence changes to

1
Yet, Britain has suffered rebuffs using this QMV system. Britain was overruled on the principle of a 48
hour week in 1993. In 1996, the Major government, in retaliation for the EU banning the sale of British
beef as a result of the BSE scare, introduced a policy of non-co-operation with the EU. However, this was
doomed to fail and was no more than gesture politics as the Council of Ministers did not need Britains 10
votes to push through policy (www.historylearningsite.co.uk).

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 those policies. This is only done by the Commission which initiates the whole process.
In this sense, what power does the European Parliament have? The European
Parliament has two theoretical powers: first, to reject the annual budget of the European
Union with a centralised currency (the Euro) so as to bring the whole concept of a
Europe working together; and secondy, it has the theoretical right to dismiss the
European Commission if two-thirds of MEPs vote for this. Actually, there are 626
MEPs (elected for 5 years) who have been allocated a higher number of seats in terms
of being more populated member states. So, those who belong to a political party, tend
to sit with all those from a similar party, hence the British Tories in the Parliament
usually sit with what is known as the European Democratic Group.

Finally, the European Court of Justice is the body that most undermine British political
sovereignty. When Britain signed the Treaty of Rome in 1957, simply by doing this the
government put European law above British law. Though the Treaty of Rome has no
validity in itself, what it stated was brought into British law by an Act of Parliament
the European Communities Act in 1972. Therefore, all British domestic law has to be
in synch with European Union law. The European Court will decide if it is or is not.
The first time this affected Britain was in 1991 when the House of Lords used the 1972
Act to adjudge the 1988 Merchant Shipping Act to be contrary to European Union law
(known as the Factortame Case)2 .

2.2. The Parliament.

Following the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004), the Parliament is defined as the legislative
assembly of Britain and of other governments modeled after it 3 . Actually, as the supreme
legislature of the United Kingdom the British Parliament consists of the monarch, the House of
Lords, and the House of Commons. Hence the highest positions in the government are filled by
members of the directly elected parliament whereas the head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, is
subject to Parliament since she represents a constitutional Monarchy with no executive power.

Regarding the Members of Parliament (MPs), originally, representation in parliament was not
directly linked to population, but among the great reforms of the XIXth century was the

2
This is the Factortame Cases summary: the EEC Treaty is the supreme law of this country taking
precedence over Acts of Parliament. Our entry [Britain] into the EEC meant (subject to our undoubted but
probably theoretical right to withdraw from the Community all together) Parliament surrendered its
sovereign right to legislate contrary to the provisions of the Treaty on matters of social and economic
policy.

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abolition of rotten boroughs and, as a result, the concept of population equality for all
parliamentary ridings. The meeting point of the Members of Parliament is the Houses of
Parliament, though its officia l name is the Palace of Westminster, which contains offices,
committee rooms, restaurants, bars, libraries, some places of residence, and the famous clock
tower, Big Ben at the north end of the building by Westminster Bridge. Since the British
Parliament is divided into two houses, it contains two larger rooms where the House of
Commons and Lords meet.

Cabinet ministers are always in Parliament, though formerly, they were often in the House of
Lords. The activities of Parliament in Britain are more or le ss the same as those of Parliament in
any wester democracy, for instance, it makes new laws, gives authority for the government to
raise and spend money, and keeps close eye on government activities, among other tasks. Note
that both the executive and legislative branches of British government derive their power from
the House of Commons (unlike the system in the United States).

Parliament is now virtually the only source of legislation although the main, but very limited,
exception is legislation under the prerogative. This power to legislate is especially important
when providing that Acts of Parliament alone can authorise the levying of taxes. Together, these
Articles are vital in ensuring that the executive accounts to Parliament, and both give Parliament
some leverage over the Government, which constantly needs grants of taxation. Because of the
effect of the Parliament Acts (1911-49) and convention, the House of Common is of far greater
importance in these matters than the House of Lords.

But, as with the first function, one can exaggerate the power of Parliament. In reality,
Parliament largely reacts to legislation initiated by the Government. It does not initiate its own
legislative programme reflecting its own policies, and few Acts are passed which are not
sponsored by Government Ministers. As before, British constitution is said to enshrine the idea
of Parliamentary Government. This does not mean that Parliament governs but that the
Government must work through Parliament.

Then, since their roots trace back to the thirteenth century, let us examine what type of activities
were carried out in the past as well as in the present by offering (1) a historical background to
the British Parliament together with a closer examination of the elements that made it up, that is,
(2) the House of Lords, (3) the House of Commons, and (4) the monarch.

3
It is worth remembering that government functions through three bodies: the legislative, which makes
laws; the executive, which puts laws into effect and plans policy; and the judiciary, which decides on

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2.2.1. A historical background.

National councils to advise the monarch date back before the Conquest, but the origin of the
modern parliament is generally dated to 1265, when Edward I (1239-1307), before acceding to
the throne in 1272, called together an assembly at Westminster where the union of the Great
Council and the Kings Court gave way to the creation of two bodies that treated with and
advised the king. It is worth remembering that the thirteenth century held some events which led
to the Loss of Normandy, partly responsible for the separation of England and Normandy in the
year 1204, when Normandy was confiscated to King John (1199-1216) by King Phillip II of
France.

This event had far reaching social, linguistic and, for our purposes, political consequences, since
the properties in French soil of the barons living in England would be confiscated (Decree of
Rouen, 1204). So, those having properties on both sides of the Channel had to decide which one
to choose. As a result, the loss of Normandy gave the English nobility a new collective feeling
of their insular identity, and soon considered themselves as English. This event established a
community of interests with the English speaking lower classes which later may result in a
reaction against the continental Norman-French.

Yet, this nationalistic feeling did not extend to the King and courtly nobility. Henry III (1207-
1272) married Eleanor of Provence, who brought with her to England a host of French relatives
so as to be surrounded by French nobles and prelates. Therefore, French knights in charge of
castleries oppressed the barons of Norman-English origin. This gap between the aristocracy
(nobility at court) and the barons (rural nobility) was the reason for the Barons War (1258-
1265), in which the barons rebelled so as to claim a greater participation in and supervision of
royal government. Hence the creation of these two bodies to treat with and advise the king.

Over the next several centuries, there was a struggle between Parliament and the monarch for
supremacy and, in the fourteenth century, Parliament was split into two houses: on the one hand,
the lords, who were not only the nobility but also high officials of the church (hence they are
regarded as spiritual and temporal); and on the other hand, the knights and burgesses.
Eventually, the British Parliament is composed of two houses: commoners were first summoned
to advise Edward I and, as the concept of democracy grew, power gradually shifted from the
hereditary House of Lords to the elected House of Commons. In the same century Parliament
also began to present petitions (bills) to the king, which with his assent would become law
(still current today).

cases that arise out of the laws.

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Robert Walpole was the first party leader to head the government as prime minister (172142)
and this led to the Civil War between Charles I (born 1600, accession 1625, died 1649) and
supporters of parliamentary rights. After James II (born 1633, accession 1685, died 1689) was
deposed by the Glorious Revolution, the monarch was made permanently subordinate to
Parliament. The relative power of the hereditary House of Lords diminished relative to the
House of Commons and is now largely a formality since in 1999 the hereditary peers lost their
right to sit in the House of Lords. Still, under Tony Blairs policy this hereditary condition is
still supressed.

2.2.2. The House of Lords.

As seen, the House of Lords traces its origins to councils of nobles that were called by the
kings of England before the Conquest. English monarchs continued to assemble the barons at
intervals until Edward I called the first meeting of the modern Parliament in 1265. Over the
centuries, power has shifted to the House of Commons. Until recently, any peer could claim the
right to sit in the House of Lords, but recent reforms have made membership in that house
selective. Like the House of Commons, the House of Lords meets in the Houses of Parliament
in Westminster.

The House of Lords is defined as the upper house of Britains bicameral Parliament
(Britannica, 2004), where the arrangement of the seats in the Lords chamber is similar to that in
the Commons. Long, straight blocks of benches face each other with Government supporters
on one side and opposition parties on the other. As mentioned above, it was the house of the
aristocracy from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and, still until the twentieth century
(1999), its membership included clergy, hereditary peers, life peers (peers appointed by the
prime minister since 1958), and the judges of the Supreme Court of Judicature (Britains final
court of appeal).

Though the Supreme Court of Judicature predates the House of Commons and dominated it for
centuries, its power has gradually diminished. Its power to affect revenue bills was constrained
by the Parliament Act of 1911, and in 1949 its power to delay by more than a year the
enactment of any bill passed by the Commons was revoked. In 1999 the hereditary peers lost
their right to sit in the House of Lords, though an interim reform retains their voice in a more
limited fashion. The bodys chief value has been to provide additional consideration to bills that
may be not be well formulated.

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There are over 1200 members in the House of Lords, among whom some are life peers, that is,
former members whose sons and daughters cannot be accepted from hereditary links; and also, a
great amount of judges or bishops who are hereditary peers (over 775) and are there because of
their ancestors since they are heads of aristocratic families. Since their ancestors were mere
advisors to the king, at present the House of Lords is still a forum for public discussion where,
as the monarch, they have no power on decision-making and the Lords must agree with the
proposal.

Though the Lords power is now limited, they may approve or reject proposals to amend bills,
after discussions which include statements of the Governments wishes, made by a minister
from the front bench. Also, after a short period (6 months), a proposal may become a law with
or without the Lords agreement. Yet, sometimes important matters are ignored by the Lords in
the open since the members of the House of Commons do not depend on party politics for their
position.

2.2.3. The House of Commons.

The House of Commons is defined as the popularly elected lower house of the bicameral
British Parliament (Britannica, 2004). The House of Commons is one of the oldest democratic
institutions in the world, and its origins go back to the late 13th century, when landholders and
other property owners began sending representatives to Parliament to present grievances and
petitions to the king and to accept commitments to the payment of taxes. In particular, it was
the Simon de Montfort Parliament that first met in Westminster Hall.

In the fourteenth century, the House of Commons met on its own for the first time (1341), and
in 1363 the first Clerk of the Parliament, Robert de Melton, was appointed. In 1376 there came
the Good Parliament which stated the importance of good governance, and the following year,
in 1377, the first Speaker of the House of Commons was elected, Thomas Hungerford. In the
fifteenth century Nicholas Maudit, the first Serjeant at Arms of the House of Commons, was
appointed (1415); and in 1523 came the first request for free speech from a Speaker, Thomas
More.

The seventeenth century has its starting point in the death of Elizabeth I (1603) and the
accession of James I (1603-1625) to the crown, followed by his son, Charles I (1625-1642), who
ruled until civil war broke out in 1642; Cromwell (1642-1660), until monarchy was restored by
Charles II (1660-1685); and the abdication of James II (1685-1689) who was followed by the
reign of the Dutchman William of Orange (William III) and his wife Mary (1689-1707). This
period, known as the Stuart Age (1603-1713) and also called the Jacobean Era, the age of

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Cromwell and the Restoration, which is characterized by crisis, civil wars, the Commonwealth
and the Industrial Revolution.

In 1605 there was an attempt to blow up the Houses of Parliament, known as the Gunpowder
Plot, which was organised by Robert Catesby to remove the anti-Catholic Monarchy which was
in place. However, the plot failed, and Guy Fawkes was arrested for placing the explosives in
the cellar under the House. Catesby was executed in 1605, and Fawkes was executed in early
1606. From 1640 to 1660 there was the British Civil War, when the Kings authority was
challenged by Parliament and Charles I was executed. This led to the running of the country by
the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell.

In 1668 the Bill of Rights was published, which gave Parliament further powers and protected
the debates of the Parliament to ensure that they were free and unhindered. The so called
Glorious Revolution took place between 1688 and 1689, and led to the abdication of James II
(1685-1689) who, in 1668, fled before his invading son-in-law, the Dutchman William of
Orange became William III, taking then the crown in joint sovereignty with his wife Mary
(1689-1707). James was forced to abdicate following concerns over his strong religious beliefs.
The term Glorious Revolution refers to the lack of violence which was involved in the change of
Monarch. In 1689 the Declaration of Rights was published on February 13th.

The early eighteenth-century political background is to be framed upon the Georgian succession
line, thus under the rule of Queen Anne (1701-1714), who was Marys sister; her German
cousin, who became George I (1714-1727); George II (1727-1760), and George III (1760-
1820), king of Great Britain and Ireland. Since William favoured foreign policy, in 1701 he
entered England into the League of Augsburg which later became known as The Grand Alliance
and consequently, he was involved in the War of the Spanish Succession. After eight years of
war, William was able to hold the alliance together. In contrast to his ability to handle foreign
affairs, William had trouble holding down the fort at home, where a majority of reforms were
brought about by Parliament, such as the passing of the Bill of Rights and the freedom of the
press.

When he died in 1701, England and Scotland were unified under Marys sister Anne (1702-
1714). She was the second daughter of King James, but Protestant. Events in her reign included
the War of Spanish Succession, Marlboroughs victories at Blenheim, Ramilies, Oudenarde and
Malplaquet, the replacement of the Tories with a Whig government in 1703. Yet, the most
important event took place in 1707, the Act of Union where she presided over the union of the
parliaments of Scotland and England into the parliament of Great Britain (1 May 1707).
Controversially the Scots had been forced into the union through a variety of English measures

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and legislation but received, in return, a bribe of 398,085 and, eventually, in 1707 the Scottish
Parliament was abolished, and the Scottish members instead returned members to the House of
Commons at Westminster.

The nineteenth-century political background is still to be framed upon the Georgian succession
line in the first quarter, thus under the rule of George III (1760-1820), king of Great Britain and
Ireland; and his son, George IV (1820-1830), who was succeeded by his brother, William IV.
Yet, the nineteenth-century political background is namely represented by the accession of
Queen Victoria to the throne when her uncle, William IV dies in 1837. She would reign from
1837 to 1901 and would be the longest reigning British monarch. The passing of the crown
introduced new ideals concerning such issues as the Church, Parliament, and foreign policy.
Generally speaking, each monarch also had their own personality that determined how the
British Common would interact with their monarch and, therefore, these factors combined
dictated the making of British history in the nineteenth century.

In the early nineteenth century, Cobbetts Parliamentary History (1806) first appeared, which
was one of the first proper records of the Houses of Parliament, although prior to this there had
been coverage in the newspapers of the activities in the House. In 1811, William Cobbett sold
the business to Thomas Curson Hansard, which initially was simply a report of the statements
made in the House copied from papers and checked by a Member of the House. This further
developed into being a complete record of all that is said in the Houses of Parliament, and is still
known today as Hansard.

In 1812 Spencer Perceval was assassinated, the only Prime Minister in history to be murdered,
but twenty years later, the Great Reform Act was published in 1832 (next Reform Acts would
take place in 1867 and 1884), which removed rotten boroughs and increased the number of
individuals entitled to vote. For the first time the seats for the House of Commons were
distributed according to population. This Reform Act, passed by William IV, secured the
passage by agreeing to create new peers to overcome the hostile majority in the House of Lords
and to make Parliament a more democratic body. The Reform Act, also known as the
Representation of the People Act, aimed to extend the voting rights and redistribute
Parliamentary seats. As a result, Pocket and Rotten boroughs were abolished, and seats were
redistributed on a more equitable basis in the counties. Unfortunately, in 1834 the Houses of
Parliament were badly damaged by fire, with only Westminster Hall remaining relatively
undamaged.

The House of Commons was the less powerful house until 1911, when the Reform Bill of that
year gave it the power to override the House of Lords. The party with the greatest representation

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in the Commons forms the government, and the prime minister chooses the cabinet from the
partys members. During the WWII (1941) the House of Commons chamber was destroyed by
enemy action, and temporarily the MPs met in the House of Lords until their chamber was
rebuilt. During the 1970s and 1980s the media entered the House of Commons since radio
coverage began in 1978, and television in 1989. Also, the 1990s are characterized by the
election of the first woman Speaker, Betty Boothroyd, in 1992.

As stated above, the House of Commons is part of the legislative process of British politics and
because it alone has the power to levy taxes and allocate expenditures, it is Britains chief
legislative authority. According to Britannica (2004), in the early 21st century there were 659
members, elected from single -member districts in the House of Commons, which is seen as a
cradle of democracy where even a government with a huge parliamentary majority can see that
majority dwindle if party members vote against the government (as the 2004 tuition fee issue
demonstrated).

With the exception of by-elections, every MP in the Commons has to go before their
constituents every 5 years. The main function of the Commons is to scrutinise government bills
and vote on them and, therefore, having a vital input in to how laws are made in this country.
The Commons finally fulfils this role by receiving public petitions which are then sent to the
relevant Minister who is expected to print a reply or they may even be debated if urgent. The
petition is an increasingly popular way of raising the political profile of an issue. It is also a way
of allowing a small degree of participation by the electorate in the business of Parliament.

Another important function of the House of Commons as the most important political forum in
the country is to be able to exchange views between spokes people for the Government and the
opposition when in session where, when in session. This idea of a political forum in theory is
taken further in reality in that following a General Election, the choice of Government is a
matter for the Commons in the senses that (1) the leader of the party with the greatest number of
MPs is expected to become Prime Minister; and (2) that Prime Minister then chooses the
political heads of the Government (the Cabinet and Ministers) from existing Commons
Members of Parliament (though there are also about 25 out of about 120 chosen from the House
of Lords). However, the most important Cabinet positions are given to serving MPs from the
House of Commons.

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2.2.4. The monarch.

The United Kingdom has not an absolute monarchy, but constitutional. This means that the
monarchy is apolitical and impartial, that is, symbolic and ceremonial as Walter Bagehot
stated in the nineteenth century. In the same way, this is even more true in the twenty-first
century where the monarchy has even less power than before. The relationship between
Parliament and the monarch is to be found in the Royal Prerogative, which is the term given to
the formal powers of the Crown within the executive process of British politics.

The Royal Prerogative are the powers of the Crown and are part of common law. Hence the
work of the monarch within the remit of the royal prerogative is seen as being on behalf of
elected ministers, that is, that the work that it does in politics is largely symbolic since the
Queen reigns but does not rule.The monarch is above the law and has crown immunity. The
legal immunity conferred by the Royal Prerogative may extend to institutions and servants of
the Crown. Cabinet ministers may try to use crown immunity to avoid the release of
parliamentary documents as they are servants of the Crown.

2.3. The Government.

The Commons have often been regarded as a direct broker of Governments. Yet, the choice is
now largely determined by the electorate, so that the Government is really settled on election
night and not a week or so later when Parliament actually assembles. The basis may be, first, the
Westminster model, whose powerf flows from the electorate to Parliament which chooses and
controls the executive; and secondly, the Whitehall model, by means of which the electorate
chooses the Government and Parliament is there to confirm that choice as an electoral college
and then to serve Government and ensure it works effectively in accordance with its mandate.
The role of MPs is on this view to facilitate and improve a governments programme by
exploring and testing them but ultimately approving them. In short, Parliament is a critical
rather than governmental body.

In general, the word government is defined as the formal institutional structure and processes
of a society by which policies are developed and implemented in the form of law, binding on
all. The government has legislative (law making), executive (law enforcing) and judicial (law
interpreting) functions, with decision power exercised by majority within Parliament.
Government usually operates under the restrictive nature of a constitution whether it be written

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or not. A constitution often puts limitations on goverment, telling the incumbent government
what it can do but, more importantly, what it cannot do (www.historylearningsite.co.uk).

Within Britain, the House of Lords have the final say in interpreting British unwritten
constitution though the European Courts are likely to play a more increased role in this aspect as
Europe becomes more integrated. So, the word government in Britain refers to the party in
power in the House of Commons and also to individuals who have specific power within certain
fields, such as the government of transport and the government of education, among others.
Within Britain, the government has the right to levy taxes, declare war, in itiate both foreign and
domestic policies, control the military, and so on. Yet, it is difficult to determine how far these
will be eroded in the future.

Following Bromhead (1962), effective power belongs to the Government, which is part of
Parliament and responsible to it, but which also normally dominates it. The Government
consists of about a hundred politicians under the Prime Minister, appointed to their offices, as
ministers, whips 4 , etc. by the Queen on his advice. A modern Government is arranged in about
fifteen departments, each with its ministerial head, normally entitled, for example, Secretary of
State for Social Services. The number changes from time to time, as departments are split or
joined together. All the heads of departments are members of the House of Commons. Nearly
every head of department has under him one, two or three ministers of state, and at a lower
level one, two or three parliamentary under-secretaries. Some of the offices have special titles,
but the word minister is commonly used to describe all these office-holders.

Moreover, regarding the Government policy, we must distinguish between (1) central and (2)
local governement. Let us start by presenting the elements which govern the central
government, that is, (a) the Cabinet, (b) the monarch, and (c) the Civil Services; and then, we
shall move on to those regarding the local one.

2.3.1. The Central Government.

2.3.1.1. The Cabinet.

Among the people who forms the Cabinet, we include the Prime Minister, the ministers heads
of departments) and other positions. Thus:

4
A whip is a member of Parliament who is responsible for making other members of his party to attend
at voting time.

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 The most outstanding person in the Cabinet is the minister, who is the leader of the
winning party that has formed the government on having most MPs. As Bromhead
(1962) states the Cabinet consists of the sixteen to twenty-four senior ministers whom
the Prime Minister has appointed as members of it. These are the heads of the
departments together with a few others. The Cabinet meets about once a week in
Number 10 Downing Street, a rather ordinary house which also contains the Prime
Ministers personal office. He lives on the top floor. Number 10 is not really as small as
it looks; there are big extensions behind the house, and the whole group of buildings is
used by the Cabinet Secretariat as well as the Prime Ministers own civil service group
and political officers.

Yet, following Bromhead (1962), although the word minister is used as a generic
term, nearly all the ministers who are heads of departments now have the title
Secretary of State. For instance, the Foreign Secretary in the Foreign Office to deal
with Britains international relations; the Home Secretary in the Commonwealth
Office in charge of Britains home problems law and order, namely-; the Secretary of
State for Environment in the Department of the Environment; the archaic title
Chancellor of the Exchequer for the minister in charge of finance; and the Lord
Chancellor who is in charge of Justice. Several other archaic offices survive, but are
now used for new purposes. In addition, social services absorbed insurance and health.

No minister of any rank is allowed to indicate disagreement with any aspect of settled
Government policy, either in Parliament or on any public platform outside. If even a
junior minister should criticise Government policy during a political meeting in a
schoolroom far from London on a Friday evening, the local press will report this
indiscretion, the Opposition will hear of it, and in the next week the Prime Minister will
have to answer an embarrassing question in the House of Commons.

Also, if any minister disagrees with any aspect of his Governments settled policy he
must hide his disagreement and give loyal support. A policy which as been settled
without a ministers knowledge, at a meeting where he was not present, is binding on
him because he shares the whole Governments responsibility for all policy. If he will
not accept his share of that responsibility he must resign. The requirement of ministerial
solidarity does not extend to matters about which the Government as such does not have
a settled policy, or where the Governments policy is to leave the decision to a free vote
of the House of Commons, with each individual MP voting according to his own
preference.

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 Other positions within the Government are to be held by MPs or peers, two MPs of the
party in power, who are appointed Law Officers for England and two for Scotland; then
there are Whips in both Houses, concerned with managing the business. Note that all
these share in the whole Governments responsibility.

Hence British government has traditionally been called Cabinet government, because of the
collectivity of its members. The term dates from the nineteenth century, before the huge
increase in the number of political ministers and under-secretarie s of the lower levels. The
oldest departments, notably Foreign and Defence, have their main offices in Whitehall, which is
the name of the street which runs from Trafalgar Square to the Palace of Westminster, where the
two Houses of Parliament have their home. The practice of describing the British Government
as Whitehall comes from the location of these old departments in this street.

2.3.1.2. The monarch.

The relationship between the monarchy and the British system of government was admired for
more than two hundred years for its combination of stability with adaptability, along with its
avoidance of arbitrary power (Bromhead, 1962). This relationship still survives, but only in a
formal sense. As it is often said: she reigns but does not rule. Actually, the State as a legal
entity is commonly called the Crown. The Queen is its embodiment; all ministers and officers
of the central government are her servants. For legal purposes there are no British citizens, but
only subjects.

As a constitutional monarch the Queen appoints the Prime Minister; normally the leader of the
party with a majority in the Commons; but it seems to be accepted that the politicians should
arrange things so that she does not have to make a real choice herself. Having appointed a Prime
Minister the Queen appoints other ministers and public servants on his/her advice, and gives the
Royal Assent to bills passed by Parliament. The absence of a written constitution would make it
difficult to claim that any advice was unconstitutional; and if the Queen should go against her
ministers they could claim that her action was itself unconstitutional (Bromhead, 1962:17).

2.3.1.3. The Civil Services.

According to Bromhead (1962:21),when we speak of the Government we tend to think of the

ministers, who are politicians. But we must not forget that each department has a large staff of

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professional civil servants who do most of the work of running the department on the ministers
behalf. The Civil Service is wholly non-political. Those of its members who are in any way
concerned with administration are forbidden to be candidates for Parliament or to give public
support to any political party, though they may vote at elections. When a new government
comes into office the same civil servants must work for the new ministers, who a few weeks
before led the attack on the old ministers policies.

Once a civil servant has an established post he has almost complete security of tenure, and can
in practice only be removed for improper conduct. Promotion is not automatic according to
seniority, but selective, and based on the recommendation of superior officers. A civil servant
does not necessarily remain in the same department all through his career; in fact when a
department has a vacancy in one of its top posts it is very likely that it will be filled by someone
brought in from another department.

2.3.2. The Local Government.

In Britain local government authorities, commonly known as councils, derive their existence
and their powers and functions from Parliament and the central government. Parliament can take
powers away or add to them, and it can even abolish any particular authority, or group or class
of authorities, if it wants to. Actually, following Bromhead (1962:61-62), although the United
Kingdom is a unitary state, not a federal one, a very large part of the public services are
administered by local authorities, which together employ more than two million people. The
central government employs only one-third as many. Scotland and Northern Ireland have their
own systems, which are not quite the same as that of England and Wales, though the differences
are only superficial.

Since the modern local government system is almost entirely the result of decisions by the
national Parliament, most of the tasks that local councils perform are tasks which the central
authorities have told them they must perform, and which are supervised and given some
financial assistance. Hence many of the activities of local authorities are in fact supervised,
advised or controlled by the central government, but there is no single agency of control for any
particular local authority or class of authorities. In each area the elected council and its offices
have direct relations with the various central government departments though these may have
regional offices through which some of the central-local relations are conducted5 .

5
Traditionally, the most important local area is the county. England has been divided into counties for
more than 1,000 years, commonly known as shires and, later on, at various dates between 1100 and
1970 nearly all large and medium-sized towns were given their own charters of incorporation, either as

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Local authorities are allowed to impose taxes on their residents in only one form a tax
collected from all people who occupy land or buildings, based on an objective assessment of the
value. These local taxes are called rates. Every house, shop, etc., has a rateable value
assessed by officials of the central government. The local tax is imposed by each local authority
as a percentage of the rateable value. The rates for county and district purposes are collected by
officers of the districts, and the district must hand over to the county the proportion due to it.
Hence some areas are more prosperous than others.

The first recent change in local government affected London when the London Government Act
of 1963 created a new county of Greater London. Since then the city of London has been
synonymous with commerce, banking and finance. Later on, the Local Government Act of
1972 completely reorganised the whole system, bringing a new structure into effect in April
1974. Although the central Parliament has these powers of life and death over local authorities,
and has used them recently, it has never exercised any detailed supervision through any office of
the nature of prefect or local governor.

Every county, district and parish has its council, elected by the inhabitants. Any person who is
entitled to vote in parliamentary elections may now vote in local elections too. The number of
members of a council depends on the population ofr the area, but is not related to it according to
any definite formula. Most of the new county councils have between 40 and 100 members,
district councils 30 to 50, parish councils 5 to 20. The arrangements for the election of the
councillors are rather complicated, and are not the same for all types of councils. Members of
county councils are elected for three years at general elections taking place every three years.
With district councils there may be an election every year. Councillors are not paid for their
work, but they may receive an attendance allowance and expenses on a very generous scale in
counties and districts.

Every local council has its presiding officer, and this post is filled by the vote of the whole
council, for ony one year at a time. The presiding officer of a county or district council is called
the Chairman, but in a district which is a borough or city he is called Mayor or Lord Mayor. The
mayor has many formal duties, as the first citizen of his town. He has a chain of office, which he
wears on official occasions. In modern times it has been thought that the mayor needs to have a
female consort on social and formal occasions, and in most towns the mayor appoints a woman
to be his mayoress.

Moreover, all local councils work through committees. Each council has a committee for each
of the main sections of its work; the general management of the schools in a county or a

boroughs or as cities. The title of city has no real significance; it is merely a title of distinction given

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metropolitan district is under the control of the education committee of the country or district
council. Some of the committees consist only of members of the council (with the parties
represented in the same proportion as in the whole council), and some of them have in addition
a few coopted members- people who do not belong to the council but have been chosen by the
whole council to assist the committee with their special knowledge or other qualifications.

Actually, the local authorities appoint their own staffs and the type of people who run local
councils are usually public citizens, such as shopkeepers, businessmen or housewives, and many
are industrial workers. By now, two-party government is a usual characteristic of important
local councils, with the Labour Party opposed by Conservatives, though there may also be some
Liberals or Independents. The strength of party discipline among non-Labour members varies
from place to place, and it depends on the way the parties are balanced.

2.4. Political parties and electoral system.

Broadly speaking, the field of politics is dominated by a number of different types of party
systems, for instance, (a) one-party system means that the position of the ruling party in one-
party state is guaranteed in a constitution and all forms of political opposition are banned by law
(Cuba, North Korea, China, Iraq); (b) two-party system indicates that it is a state in which just
two parties dominate (America); (c) the multi-party system suggests that this is a system in
which more than two parties have some impact in a states political life and in which no party
can guarantee an absolute majority (Germany, Italy); and finally, the dominant-party syste refers
to a party which is quite capable within the political structure of a state, to become dominant to
such an extent that victory at elections is considered a formality. In Britain, in particular, the
party system refers to the way the political parties of the day interact with one another within
the politically competitive nature of Westminster and beyond.

2.3.1. Political parties.

In Britain there are many political parties but throughout the whole of England, there are three
dominant political parties: Labour, Conservatives and Liberal Democrats. These are expanded
on in the regions by the addition of the Scottish National Party (SNP) in Scotland, Plaid Cymru
inWales and the various Unionist parties and Sein Fein of Northern Ireland. Yet, in terms of
electoral success, Britain has frequently been referred as a two-party state (similar to America)
whereas in terms of pure definition, it is defined as a classic multi-party state in which just a

at some time as a sign of a towns special importance (Bromhead, 1962:62).

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handful of parties have any political or electoral significance due to the electoral system, for
instance, (1) the Conservative Party, (2) the Labour Party, (3) the Liberal Democrats, and (4)
other lesser parties.

2.3.1.1. Conservative Party.

Following Bromhead (1962:30-31), theConservatives have always been the party of the Right,
identified with the existing social order. The partys M.P.s alone elect their leader. Conservative
values accept leadership in principle, and the partys leader, once in office, is accepted as the
director of its policies. As Prime Minister he chooses and dismisses ministers, moves them from
one department to another, with some consideration for the need to include among them
representatives of the main strands of opinion in the party, and expects their loyal support.
When in Opposition he does the same with his Shadow Cabinet.

The partys Central Office is responsible to the leader. The M.P.s are expected to observe
discipline and to vote with the Party at whipped votes on several nights a week, usually at 10
p.m., and it is assumed that hope of promotion to ministerial office provides them with an
incentive for obedience. There is scope for an M.P. to try to influence his leaders policies by
presenting arguments to Whips (and through them to ministers) and by speaking and seeking
support at party M.P.s specialist groups and at the M.P.s weekly general meeting.

Outside Parliament the party has more than a million individual members who pay annual
subscriptions, with an association for each constituency (reconstructed when constituency
boundaries are changed). The most important function of an association is to choose the partys
candidate for the next election, and then to keep in close touch with him as an M.P. if he is
elected. The chief officers of the association have most influence; if the M.P. abstains or votes
the wrong way in Parliament he may be asked to explain his action to a general meeting of the
association or of its executive committe, and the ultimate sanction is a decision not to re-adopt
him as candidate at the next election.

When a constituency needs a new candidate, there are usually several dozens of applicants,
some local people, some from other areas, most of them already on the national list of approved
candidates. Two or three officers of the association may choose up to twenty of the aspirants for
itnerview, as though they were applicants for an ordinary job. Eventually, they reduce the list to
about three or four for interview at a full meeting of the associations executive committee,
which has usually between 50 and 100 or more members. The committee hears the aspirants
speak and answer question, one by one, then votes by exhaustive ballot until one is the winner.
Males aspirants wives come in with them because the Conservatives world is full of social

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events. It can adapt itself to a woman M.P. (or mayor, prime minister or monarch) but a man
alone is incomplete.

The National Union of Conservative Association is the partner, in London, of the Central
Office, on whichit may exert pressure. Each autumn a few representatives of each local
association go, with the M.P.s and national leaders, to a four-day conference at a seaside town.
There, with continuous television coverage, each section of the nations business is debated for
an hour or two, on the basis of a motion formed from several local proposals, and voted on,
usually by a show of hands with a conclusion supportive of the national leadership.

Those who go to the conference are the most dedicated Tories, and some opinions voiced there
have been critical of the leaders for their readiness to compromise. In Mrs Thatcher the M.P.s
chose the kind of leader favoured by the activists, and her radical policies have in general been
well supported. Tory purists welcome the privatisation of sections of the nationalised industries,
the sale of council houses, the rhetoric of the states withdrawal from direction of the economy.
They also favour a strong stance on the pursuit of the national interest, and a high priority for
defence and law and order. They would be critical of an M.P. showing weakness on these
matters (they call it wetness). But many of these activities are also local councillors, and
unhappy about the governments current interference with such autonomy as the councils have
traditionally enjoyed.

2.3.1.2. Labour Party.

Following Bromhead (1962: 31-32), the Labour Partys internal structure is in most ways like
the Conservatives, but big differences arise from Labours attempts to give much more real
power to ordinary members. Labours annual conference is the supreme policy-making body of
the party, and the parliamentary leaders are expected to follow its general policies when in
power or in opposition. During each annual conference the sections of the party choose, by vote,
their 28 representatives on the National Executive Committee (N.E.C.) which makes decisions
week by week. The N.E.C. includes the leader and, usually, several ministers (when in power)
or shadow ministers who, in opposition, are elected by the M.P.s. Relations between the N.E.C.
and Labour cabinets in office have often produced bitter arguments, much publicised in the
newspapers.

The annual conference is attended by delegates fromthe constituency parties, trade unions and
other bodies affiliated to the Labour Party. Each delegations voting weight depends on the
number of party members represented. In most trade unions most of the union members are
automatically affiliated to the Labour Party. The union hands over some of the union

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subscriptions to the party. Any union member may contract out of party membership, but
many do not know of this; in 1984 the Trades Union Congress agreed to the Conservative
governments demands that this right to contract out should be made more effective.

Ain recent years the conference has voted for withdrawal from Europe, unilateral nuclear
disarmament, massive new nationalisations, increased trade union power, abolition of the House
of Lords and other left-wing policies. It has also required each sitting Labour M.P. to face a
contested re-selection process during the life of a Parliament, and changed the rules for
choosing the party leader, so that the Labour M.P.s votes have only the same weight in this
process as the constituency party delegations, and the unions more weight than either. The new
system was first used in 1983, when Neil Kinnock succeeded Michael Foot after the election
defeat.

One old Labour Party rule survives: Communist Party members are not eligible for
membership though there are some Communist trade union officials. Lately, however, many
local parties have b become dominated by left-wingers, including some belonging to a highly
organised and disciplined group calling itself Militant.

2.3.1.4. Liberal Democrats.

There have never been a centre party in British politics up to 1918, but a lesser important ally of
the Liberals grown up to their left. Hence the policies of the party are regarded as in the centre
or slightly left of the centre. In the inter-war years, there was a disastrous division of the
Liberals, which caused the decline of this party as a centre party as well as a complete split in
1913. Later on a second centre party was created in 1981, that is, the Social Democratic Party.
However, after 1983 the Liberal Democrats stayed as the only serious party of the centre. It was
then when this party was formally established as a union of Liberals (as well as the Social
Democrats).

Among the main features, we may hightlight that the Liberal Democrats Party has always been
strongly in favour of the United States; it emphasizes the defence of the environment more than
other parties; and is in favour of giving greater powers to local government and the reform of
the electoral system. Its voters belong to all social classes, namely from the middle class. Also,
the money to support the party consists mostly of private donations, although this party is much
poorer than Labour and Conservative parties.

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2.3.1.5. Other parties.

Among other lesser political parties, we may include:

(1) Nationalist parties, which are namely the party of Wales, Plaid Cymru, which
emphasizes Welsh cultural autonomy as much political autonomy; and the Scottish
National Party (SNP), which supports a separate Scottish Parliament with powers to
raise its own taxes, and is willing to consider total independence from the UK. Both of
them fight for the devolution of governmental powers, and usually have a few MPs in
the second half of the twentieth century, but well under half of the total number of MPs
from their respective countries.

(2) Parties in Northern Ireland, which are mostly represented by the Protestant or the
Catholic communities. There is one large comparatively moderate party on each side,
and one or more other parties of more extremist views on each side. Moreover, the
Alliance Party asks for support from both communities.

(3) Britains Green Party, which is supported by environmentalists and was slower to
develop than the Greens in some other European countries.

(4) The Communist Party, which reflected aims of the Soviet Union in the 1980s. In 1990
the Partys congress decided to abandon the name Communist, and seemed doubtful
whether it would continue to exist as a political party.

(5) Finally, on the extreme right-wing we find the National Front Party, which has been
called the British National Party (BNP) since the 1980s. It has been related to a racist
attitude.

2.3.2. The British electoral system.

Following Bromhead (1962:24-8), the foundations of the electoral system were laid in the
Middle Ages. Since then numerous Acts of Parliament have modified the system but never in a
systematic way, for instance, the passing of the Great Reform Bill (1832) by means of which
seats are given to large new towns (Birmingham, Manchester) whic h have until now been
represented in Parliament, and the franchise is made uniform throughout the country; the
introduction of male workers in the franchise in 1867; the introduction of the secret ballot in
1872; the introduction of male rural labourers in the franchise in 1884; the Womens suffrage in
1918 by means of which women are given the right to vote; also, all adults get the right to vote
in 1928; and the minimum voting age was lowered to eighteen in 1970.

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Fundamentally the system still has its ancient form, with each community electing its (now)
one representative to serve as its Member of Parliament until the next general election. If an
M.P. dies or resigns his seat a by-election is held to replace him. Any British subject can be
nominated as a candidate for any seat on payment of a deposit, though peers, clergymen,
lunatics and felons in prison are disqualified from sitting in the House of Commons. There is no
need to live in the area or to have any personal connection with it, and less than half of the
candidates are in fact local residents. There are usually more than two candidates for each seat,
but the one who receives most votes is elected.

The franchise (right to vote) became universal formen by stages in the nineteenth century;
hence the rise of the Labour Party. Womens suffrage came in two stages (1918 and 1928), and
in 1970 the minimum voting age was reduced to eighteen. Since 1948 each voter has had only
one vote, which hemay cast at his place of registration; if he knows that he will be unable to
vote, because he is ill or has moved away or must be away on business, he may apply in
advance to be allowed to send his vote by post.

Two changes were introduced in 1984. Until then any candidate who received more than 12
per cent of the votes had his deposit of 150 pounds returned to him; otherwise he lost his
deposit. When the figure of 150 pounds was first used it was more than a mans average wage
for a year: enough to deter irresponsible candidatures. By 1984, because of inflation, it was
about a weeks wage. Huge numbers of individual candidates had stood for election, happy to
sacrifice their deposits as a small price for some publicity.

Voting is not compulsory, but in the autumn of each year every householder is obliged by law
to enter on the register of electors the name of every resident who is entitled to vote. Much work
is done to ensure that the register is complete and accurate, and each register is valid for one
year beginning towards the end of February. People who are just too young to vote are included
in the list, so that they may vote at any election which may be held after their eighteenth
birthday. It is only possible to vote at the polling station appropriate to ones address.

The most important effect of the ele ctoral system, with each seat won by the candidate with
most votes, has been to sustain the dominance of two main rival parties, and only two. One
forms the Government, the other the Opposition, hoping to change places after the next general
election. The Prime Minister enjoys one special advantage: he can choose the date of an
election, with only three or four weeks notice, at any time that seems favourable to this party,
up to five years after the last. Many opinion polls, over many years, have indicated that most of
the British people would prefer to use their most fundamental right, that of voting, in a system
which would give fair representation.

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In Britain, when a partys selectors are choosing a single candidate, they tend to exclude
people of minority groups or with characteristics different from the usual; and this tendency is
strongest in seats which a party expects to win. Yet women candidates do not get fewer votes
than men in similar situations; their results, where they have been chosen, conform to the party
voting patterns. The electors vote for a party, not caring much about the individual candidate.

2.5. The Monarchy.

The Monarchy is the oldest institution of government in the United Kingdom. Until 1603 the
English and Scottish Crowns were separate, but after this date one monarch reigned in the
United Kingdom. The twentieth century coincided with the accession of Queen Victorias son,
Edward VII (1841-1910) to the crown, and his reign was known as the Edwardian Age (1901-
1910) or the age of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Edward was the only British monarch
who reigned for nine years at the beginning of the modern age in the early years of the 20th
century.

He was replaced on his death by King George V (1865-1936), who replaced the German-
sounding title with that of the English Windsor during the First World War. Actually, the
Windsor title remained in the family under the figure of Edward VIII, Duke of Windsor (1894-
1972) and, as we know, the family name is still present in the current Royal Family. At present,
the British monarchy is represented by the Queen Elizabeth II and the Windsor Age.

Historically speaking, the English Crown up to the Union of the Crowns in 1603 is long and
varied. The concept of a single ruler unifying different tribes based in England developed in the
eighth and ninth centuries in figures such as Offa and Alfred the Great, who began to create
centralised systems of government. Following the Norman Conquest (1066), the machinery of
government developed further, producing long-lived national institutions including Parliament.

The Middle Ages saw several fierce contests for the Crown, culminating in the Wars of the
Roses, which lasted for nearly a century. The conflict was finally ended with the advent of the
Tudors, the dynasty which produced some of England's most successful rulers and a flourishing
cultural Renaissance. The end of the Tudor line with the death of the 'Virgin Queen' in 1603
brought about the Union of the Crowns with Scotland.

The Scottish Crown has a ric h and complex history. From a number of local rulers governing
separate territories and peoples, a single king emerged by the beginning of the twelfth century to
govern most of what is todays Scotland. The thirteenth century was a time of instability for the
Scottish Crown in the face of internal fighting and the Wars of Independence with England. A

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sense of nationhood and a stable monarchical succession really developed from the fourteenth
century onwards, culminating in the Stewart dynasty. In 1603 a member of this dynasty, King
James VI, succeeded to the English Crown.

The Union of the Crowns was followed by the Union of the Parliaments in 1707. Although a
new Scottish Parliament now determines much of Scotlands legislation, the two Crowns remain
united under a single Sovereign, the present Queen. The last four hundred years have seen many
changes in the nature of the Monarchy in the United Kingdom, and from the end of the 17th
century, monarchs lost executive power and they increasingly became subject to Parliament,
resulting in todays constitutional Monarchy. Actually, the main royal prerogatives within
British politics are:

(1) the Queen has the right to appoint and dismiss a Prime Minister. However, in the present
century this is convention as opposed to reality. In fact, after an election, the Queen
chooses the leader of the majority party to lead the Commons. Theoretically, the monarch
can exercise powers of appointment and dismissal.

(2) The monarch has other powers of appointment for ministers, peers, senior officials, head of
BBC, and senior civil servants, who are chosen by the Prime Minister; only the Order of
the Garter and the Order of Merit are at the personal disposal of the Queen. Therefore, a
vast amount of power with regards to senior appointments rests with the Prime Minister.

(3) The Queen opens and dissolves Parliament.

(4) She also approves all statutes of law. Actually, the date of a general election is set by the
Prime Minister and the Queen, in the State Opening of Parliament, simply reads out the
proposed bills for the next 5 years of a government and plays no part in deciding them. No
monarch has refused to give the Royal Assent to a government bill (passed at this stage by
both the Commons and Lords) since 1707. Now it would appear to be completely untenable
that the Queen would refuse to sign a government bill that had passed the Commons, select
committees, the Lords etc.

(5) The monarch has the right to grant pardons and input some sentences although this power
is actually exercised by the Home Secretary.

(6) The monarch, via proclamations or Orders in Council, may declare war or treaties, without
the input of the Houses of Commons or Lords, although the declaration of war and the
signing of treaties is done by the Prime Minister acting on behalf of the Crown. For
instance, the 2003 declaration of war against Iraq was done by a Prime Minister and not by

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 the monarch. One is a democratically elected politician accountable to the electorate via an
election; the other is in the position by a quirk of birth.

3. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

History is one of the most salient aspects of educational activity since it is going on for most of
the time. Yet, what do students know about British history in this period and in particular about
British politics? At this point it makes sense to examine the political background of Great
Britain within its history so as to provide an appropriate context for current politicians who are
familiar to students through the media in their own country. However, the question is How
much do students know about the British political system? or How can we make British
politics relevant to students in the classroom?

In fact, Spanish students are expected to know about the political field of Britain and its
influence in the world through the image of outstanding political figures, such as Tony Blair at
present in relationship to the Spanish ones. Currently, action research groups attempt to bring
about change in classroom learning and teaching through a focus on social events under two
premises. First, because they believe learning is an integral aspect of any form of activity and
second, because education at all levels must be conceived in terms of history. The basis for
these assumptions is to be found in an attempt, through the use of historical events, to develop
understanding of students shared but diverse social and physical environment.

Learning involves a process of transformation of participation itself which has far reaching
implications on the role of the teacher in the teaching-learning relationship. This means that
historical events, for our purposes, political ones, are an analytic tool when making students
aware of the relevance of British politics in the world, and in particular, in Spain regarding
current events (Aznar and Blairs friendship). Moreover, todays new technologies (the Internet,
DVD, videocamera) and the media (TV, radio, cinema) may provide a new direction to
language teaching as they set more appropriate context for students to get key information.

So, motivation and involvement are enhanced by means of new technologies and the media.
Hence the history of the period may be approched in terms of films and drama representations in
class, among others, and in this case, by means of books, newspapers, magazines or TV news,
among others. But how do twenty-first-century British politics tie in with the new curriculum?
Spanish students are expected to know about the international panorama and the influence of the

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British political system in Europe, regarding its main policy or the main political figures
(politicians, political parties, the Queen). The success partly lies in making this reality closer to
students so as to recreate as much as possible the whole social and political environment in the
classroom. Some of this motivational force is brought about by eliciting information about
recent events in which Britain has been involved.

Hence it makes sense to examine relevant figures such as John Major, Margaret Thatcher, Tony
Blair, and Queen Elizabeth II, among others so as to compare them with the corresponding
figures in Spain and their roles in both British and Spanish politics. This is to be achieved
within the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular, the Spanish
Educational System which establishes a common reference framework for the teaching of
foreign languages where students are intended to locate social, political and cultural events
within a particular historical period (B.O.E., 2004).

In short, the knowledge about British culture (history and literature) should become part of
every literary students basic competence (B.O.E., 2004). There are hidden influences at work
beneath the textual surface: these may be sociocultural, inter and intratextual. Students have to
discover these, and wherever necessary apply them in further examination. The main aims that
our currently educational system focuses on are mostly sociocultural, to facilitate the study of
cultural themes, as our students must be aware of their current social and political reality within
the European framework.

4. CONCLUSION.

On reviewing the issue of Unit 63, we have tried to provide an overall view of the British
institutions, namely the Parliament, the Government, the main political parties and the British
electoral system, and finally, the Monarchy. Hence we have started by locating the British
institutions within a European framework so as to move on to analyse British politics and,
therefore, each political body.

So, Chapter 2 has examined the main British institutions individually, that is, the Parliament in
terms of historical background and its political elements, that is, the House of Lords, the House
of Commons, and the monarch. Then, we have reviewed the Government, in terms of central
government, regarding the Cabinet, the figure of the monarch, and the Civil Services; and then
the local government. Moreover, we have also approached the main political parties and the
British electoral system, by reviewing the main political parties (Conservative Party, Labour

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Party, Liberal Democrats, and other lesser parties) and the British electoral system; finally, we
have examined the role of the current Monarchy within British politics.

In Chapter 4 we have established a link between the British institutions and the classroom, that
is, a link between the political situation in Britain and the main educational implications in
language teaching regarding the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting and how to
make our students aware of how much they know about the political history of Great Britain. At
this point, we hope to offer fruitful conclusions on this presentation, and we shall close it by
presenting all the bibliographical references used to develop this account of the British
institutions.

So far, we have attempted to provide the reader in this presentation with a historical, social and
cultural background on the British political panorama throughtout the centuries. This
information is relevant for language learners, even ESO and Bachillerato students, who do not
automatically establish similiarities between British and Spanish political reality. So, learners
need to have these associations brought to their attention in cross-curricular settings through the
media. As we have seen, understanding how history reflects the main events of a country is
important to students, who are expected to be aware of the richness of English culture at a
general level.

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5. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 116/2004, de 23 de enero.

Currculo de la Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autnoma de la
Regin de Murcia.

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 117/2004, de 23 de enero.

Currculo de Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.

Bromhead, Peter. 1962. Life in Modern Britain. Longman.

Cook, C. and J. Paxton. 2001. European Political Facts of the Twentieth Century.
Palgrave.

Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A

Common European Framework of reference.

Palmer, R. 1980. Historia Contempornea, Akal ed., Madrid.

van Ek, J.A., and J.L.M. Trim, 2001. Vantage. Council of Europe. Cambridge
University Press.

Other sources:

Enciclopedia Larousse 2000. 2000. Editorial Planeta.

"British Empire." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 2004. Encyclopdia Britannica

Premium Service. 28 May 2004
<http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=383356>.

www.historylearningsite.co.uk

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 UNIT 64

THE UNITED STATES INSTITUTIONS. THE CONSTITU-

TION. TERRITORIAL ORGANIZATION. THE
PRESIDENT. THE CONGRESS. POLITICAL PARTIES
AND ELECTORAL SYSTEM.

OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.

2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND.
2.1. Colonial America: a political history.
2.1.1. Earlier non-British colonies.
2.1.2. British colonists: the thirteen colonies.
2.1.2.1. New England colonies.
2.1.2.2. Middle colonies.
2.1.2.3. Southern colonies.
2.1.3. The British colonies: from union to revolution.
2.1.4. The Declaration of Independence (1776).
2.2. The struggle for Constitution (1776-1789).
2.2.1. The War of Independence (1778-1783).
2.2.1.1. Social consequences.
2.2.1.2. Economic consequences.
2.2.1.3. Political consequences: the establishment of Constitution.

3. THE UNITED STATES INSTITUTIONS.

3.1. Political basis.
3.1.1. The Constitution: fundamental laws.
3.1.2. Territorial organization: federal system.
3.2. Political powers: a federal Government.
3.2.1. National Government.
3.2.1.1. Executive power: the President.
3.2.1.2. Legislative power: the Congress.
3.2.1.3. Judicial power: the Supreme Court.
3.2.2. State Government.
3.2.3. Local Government.
3.3. Political parties and electoral system.
3.3.1. Political parties: two-party system.
3.3.1.1. Democratic Party.
3.3.1.2. Republican Party.
3.3.2. The electoral system.

4. MAIN EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.

5. CONCLUSION.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

The present unit, Unit 64, aims to provide a useful introduction to the United States institutions
among which we shall focus on those related to North American politics, not only in terms of
political basis regarding the Constitution and territorial organization, but also in terms of
political powers regarding the main political bodies, that is, the President, the Congress and
finally the main political parties and electoral system. In doing so, we shall first locate the
United States institutions within a historical framework and then we shall move on to analyse
each political body.

Chapter 2 namely analyses the period which ranges from the roots of Colonial America to the
establishment of the Constitution (1788). So, on examining this period, we shall approach the
political history of (1) Colonial America regarding (a) earlier non-British colonies, (b) the
thirteen British colonies, including (i) New England colonies, (ii) Middle colonies, and (iii)
Southern colonies; (c) the British colonies from their unity to revolution, and (d) the Declaration
of Independence (1776). Moreover, we shall offer an account of (2) the struggle for Constitution
within the already independent American colonies from (a) the War of Independence (1778-
1783) regarding its aftermath in terms of (a) social, (b) economical, and (c) political
consequences, the latter setting up the basis for the establishment of the Constitution in 1789.

Hence in Chapter 3 the analysis of the United States institutions will be divided into three main
sections which coincide with the main issues we are going to deal with. Hence, (1) the political
basis, that is, (a) the Constitution on which fundamental laws are based, and (b) the territorial
organization of the United States federal system; (2) the political powers of federal government
at three different levels: (a) National Government regarding (i) executive power through the
figure of the President; (ii) legislative power through the Congress; and (iii) judicial power
through the Supreme Court. Then, we also examine (b) the State Government and (c) the
Municipial Government. Finally, we approach the organization of (3) political parties and the
electoral system, by examining the main (a) political parties within the US two-party system: (i)
the Democratic Party and (ii) the Republican Party; and (b) the US electoral system.

Chapter 4 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching regarding
the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 5 will offer a conclusion to
broadly overview our present study, and Chapter 6 will include all the bibliographical
references used to develop this account of the U.S. institutions.

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1.2. Notes on bibliography.

An influential introduction to U.S. institutions is based on the writings of Blaustein, The United
States Constitution: A Model in Nation-Building (1984); Hearst Report, The American Publics
Knowledge of the U.S. Constitution. A National Survey of Public Awareness and Personal
Opinion (1987); and Palmer, Historia Contempornea (1980). Other relevant sources include
the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004); Larousse 2000 (2000); as well as the following reliable
and informative websites: historylearningsite.com (2004) and wikipedia.com (2004), both.

The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative

competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most
complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the
guidelines in B.O.E. (2004) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; the Council of Europe, Modern
Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of reference
(1998); and van Ek and Trim, Vantage (2001).

2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND.

Chapter 2 namely analyses the period which ranges from the roots of Colonial America to the
establishment of the Constitution (1788). So, on examining this period, we shall approach the
political history of (1) Colonial America regarding (a) earlier non-British colonies, (b) the
thirteen British colonies, including (i) New England colonies, (ii) Middle colonies, and (iii)
Southern colonies; (c) the British colonies from their unity to revolution, and (d) the Declaration
of Independence (1776). Moreover, we shall offer an account of (2) the struggle for Constitution
within the already independent American colonies from (a) the War of Independence (1778-
1783) regarding its aftermath in terms of (a) social, (b) economical, and (c) political
consequences, the latter setting up the basis for the establishment of the Constitution in 1789.

2.1. Colonial America: a political history.

The political history of Colonial America will make us comprehend the preparation of the whole
people for the radical change of government they were so soon to undergo in British colonies,
and the strong spirit of democracy which stood behind the labors of congresses and conventions
and gave the cue to the work which they were to perform. We namely aim to offer a brief
account of this political evolution from the works of historians as an essential preliminary to the

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next chapter, where we shall analyse how the United States of America was founded in 1776
from British colonies along the Atlantic Coast of North America.

2.1.1. Earlier non-British colonies.

Before British colonists reached the Atlantic Coast of North America, other non-British colonies
did it much earlier. For instance:

1. On October 9, 1000 part of North America was discovered accidentally and was given
the name of Vinland (Wineland) by the Viking Leif Eriksson, who established there a
short-lived colony.

2. Nearly five hundred years later, Portugal, which was a leading country in the European
exploration of the world, began charting the far shores of the Atlantic Ocean before
Spain began. Yet, Portuguese explorers (Pedro Alvares Cabral) landed in American
coasts (Porto Seguro, Brazil) on April 22, 1500, eight years later than Spain did.

3. In 1492, Christopher Columbus brought this land to Europes attention on behalf of

Spain, the main colonial power of the day, which focused its efforts on the exploitation
of the gold-rich empires of southern Mexico (the Aztec) and of the Andes (the Inca).
Portugal, then, was limited by the Treaty of Tordesillas to the lands east of Brazil. Yet,
after them no serious colonization efforts were made for decades, until England, France,
and Spain began to claim and expand their territory in the New World.

4. Moreover, other explorers came from France. In fact, the first French attempt at
colonization was in 1598 on Sable Island (southeast of present Nova Scotia ). This
colony went unsupplied and its twelve survivors returned to France in 1605. The next
and first successful colony was Acadia founded in 1603 with its town of Port Royal,
now Annapolis.

5. Also, during the 17th century, Dutch traders established trade posts and plantations
throughout the Americas. However, Dutch settling in North America was not as
common as other European nations settlements. Many of the Dutch settlements had
been abandoned or lost by the end of the century, with the exception of the Netherlands
Antilles and Aruba, which remain Dutch territory until this day, and Suriname, which
became independent in 1975.

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 6. We also find explorers from Denmark, who started a colony on St Thomas in 1671, St
John in 1718, founded colonies in Greenland in 1721, which is now a self-governing
part of the Kingdom of Denmark. During the 18th century, the Virgin Islands in the
Caribbean Sea were divided into two territorial units, one English and the other Danish,
which were also used as a base for pirates.

7. Other countries followed such as Russia, whose explorers discovered Alaska in 1732.

2.1.2. British colonists: the thirteen colonies.

Therefore, we distinguish two types of earlier colonies: non-British and British; whereas the
first group namely includes Viking, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Dutch and Danish colonists,
the second group is formed by Anglosaxons. Moreover, non-British colonies, namely French
and Dutch, were founded on aristocratic principles and strove vigorously to gain liberal
institutions. Following Daimon (1969), had their political circumstances been different in
Europe, they could have also gained the control of the continent. Yet, Holland was quite
wealthy and had few immigrants, and France had a great number of immigrants but was not
interested in the snow land. Yet, the struggle for control of this land would continue for more
than a hundred years.

The thirteen British colonies of America were formed under a variety of differing conditions.
The settlement of Virginia was the work of a company of London merchants, that of New
England of a body of Puritan refugees from persecution. Most of the other colonies were formed
through the efforts of proprietors, to whom the king had made large grants of territory. None of
them were of royal or parliamentary establishment (the nearest to this being the colony of New
York, which was appropriated from its Dutch founders by the kings brother) and therefore, the
government of the mother-country took no part in the original formation of the government of
the colonies, except in the somewhat flexible requirements of the charters granted to the
proprietors.

The earliest of these, that of Virginia, was under the supreme government of a council residing
in England and appointed by the king, who likewise appointed a council of members of the
colony, for its local administration. Thus all executive and legislative powers were directly
controlled by the king, and no rights of self-government were granted the people. Virginia
formed the only British colony in America of which the monarch thus retained the control.

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We shall approach the division of colonies by their geographical location, and not on their order
of settlement. Yet, we shall remind our readers that the first colonies were those of Jamestown
(1607) and Plymouth (1620), established respectively by John Smith and the Pilgrims.

2.1.2.1. New England colonies.

New England colonies are made up by Rhode, Connecticut, New Hampshire and Massachusetts,
but we shall namely concentrate on the latter one due to its historical relevance. We must take
into account that New England was the next successful English colony established after that of
Jamestown. It was settled by two groups of of religious dissenters who escaped religious
persecution in England: the Pilgrims and the Puritans.

Both of them demanded church reform and elimination of Catholic elements remaining in the
Church of England. Yet, whereas the Pilgrims wanted to leave the Church of England, the
Puritans wanted to reform it by setting an example of a holy community thorugh the society
they were to build in the New World (this is relevant information for The Scarlett Letter).

1. The Pilgrim Fathers: Plymouth colony (1620).

In August 1620 a group of men and women left England on the deck of the Mayflower
from the Port of Plymouth to the New World. On board there was a group known as the
Pilgrim Fathers, or the Pilgrims, who were attempting to escape religious persecution in
their country, England. Before they landed in North America on 21 December in
Massachusetts (although they had been aiming for Virginia), they wrote a declaration
called the Covenant, which is considered to be a draft of the Constitution of the United
States.

2. The Puritans: Massachusetts Bay Colony (1629).

The second group (around 400 people), the Puritans, aimed to reform the Anglican
Church by creating a new, pure church in the New World, where they created a deeply
religious, socially, and politically innovative culture that still lingers on in the modern
United States. Though they fled from religious repression in England, they did not seek
to establish toleration in America, but the Puritan social ideal of the nation of saints,

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 an intensely religious, thoroughly righteous community that would serve as an example
for all of Europe and stimulate mass conversion to Puritanism.
Politically, Puritan society was by no means a democracy nor a theocracy since officials
had no responsibility to the people since their function was to serve God by best
oberseeing the moral and physical improvement of the community. Socially, the Puritan
society was tightly knit where no one was allowed to live alone for fear that their
temptation would lead to the moral corruption of all of Puritan society. Although some
characterize the strength of Puritan society as repressively communal, others point to it
as the basis of the later American value on civic virtue, and an essential foundation for
the development of democracy.

2.1.2.2. Middle colonies.

The rest of British colonies in America followed after Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay,
consisting of Middle colonies, such as New York, Pennsylvania, the three counites of Delaware,
and Maryland, which were namely characterized by a wide diversity, both religious, political,
economic, and ethnic.

2.1.2.3. Southern colonies.

Southern colonies include Maryland, Virginia, Georgia and the two Carolinas (north and south).
The Carolinas were created by a group of English Lords who wanted a new colony in the south
become profitable like that of the north. In the south it was Georgia, which was a key contested
area namely established on stric t moralistic principles, where slavery was forbidden as well as
alcohol and other forms of immoral attitudes. However, the colonists were unhappy about the
puritanical lifestyle, and complained that their colony could not compete economically with the
Carolina rice plantations. Georgia initially failed to prosper, but once the restrictions were lifted
it became as prosperous as the Carolinas.

Yet, the most important to mention is Virgina colony, which is considered to be the first
permanent settlement in North America under the name of the English colony of Jamestown
(1607), was the first English colony in America to survive and become permanent and become
later the capital of Virginia and the site of the House of Burgesses. Virginia was named upon
Elizabeth I of England, the Virgin Queen. Jamestown colony It supported itself through
tobacco farming and the venture was financed and coordinated by the London Virginia
Company (a joint stock company), which hoped to follow in the footsteps of the Spanish

7/40
colonists by finding gold. A lack of social bonds in the community was to be felt in the fact that
all the initial colonists, and most of the additional colonists, were male. Without wives or
children to protect, the colonists had little incentive to protect their settlement or work towards
its long-term growth.

The settlement was struck by severe droughts in centuries and as a result, only a third of the
colonists furvived the first winter, and even, source documents indicate that some turned to
cannibalism. Yet, the colony survived in large part to the efforts of John Smith, whose moto was
No work, no food. He put the colonists to work, and befriended Pocahontas, daughter of Chief
Powhatan, who supplied the colony with food.

But the main causes of social decentralization were soon to be noticed. As the colony of
Virginia was so heavily influenced by the cultivation of tobacco and the ownership of slaves, in
1619 large numbers of Africans were brought to this colony into the slave trade. Thus,
individual workers on the plantation fields were usually without family and separated from their
nearest neighbors by miles. This meant that little social infrastructure developed for the
commoners of Virigina society, in contrast with the highly developed social infrastructure of
colonial New England.

2.1.3. The British colonies: from union to revolution.

By this time, the English colonies were thirteen: Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut,
Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Although all these British colonies were strikingly
different, throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries several events took place and
brought relevant changes in the colonies: whereas some of the them sprung from their common
roots as part of the British Empire, others led up to the American Revolution, and to the final
separation from England.

Although there was general properity in the Middle and Southern colonies, as well as social and
political struggle, they had to face the arrival of loads of immigrants from Europe. Their
economy, based on the production of rice, indigo and naval stores, was booming in contrast to
the hostile attitude of Indians at the frontier. In the upper south, Virginia and Marylands
tobacco prices were falling and crop failures became very usual. Yet, in New England, the
social and political atmosphere was quite calm, but not the economy since the Sugar Act

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imposed taxes and new commercial regulations on them. Let us examine the main causes which
led the thirteen colonies to revolution.

The first of those events was the Great Awakening, which unified the colonies in
religious terms. This was a Protestant movement which took place in the 1730s and
1740s and began under the figure of Jonathan Edwards, a powerful Massachusetts
speaker and attracted a large amount of followers. Two new movements appeared from
his ideas, the colonies called themselves the New Lights, and those who did not were
called the Old Lights. The result was the establishment of a number of universities, now
counted among the Ivy League, including Kings College (now Columbia University)
and Princeton University. The Great Awakening may also be interpreted as the last
major expression of the religious ideals on which the New England colonies were
founded. Religiosity had been declining for decades, in part due to the negative
publicity resulting from the Salem witch trials.

The second event relates to the French and Indian War (1754-1763), which meant the
American extension of the general European conflict known as the Seven Years War.
The war takes its name from the Iroquois confederacy, which had been playing the
British and the French against each other successfully for decades. Eventually, in the
Treaty of Paris (1763) , France surrendered its vast North American empire to Britain.
During the war the thirteen coloniess identity as part of the British Empire was made
truly apparent, as British military and civilian officials took on an increased presence in
the lives of Americans.

The war also increased a sense of American unity in men who might normally have
never left their colonies to travel across the continent, and fighting alongside men from
decidedly different. Both the British and colonists triumphed jointly over a common foe
and their loyalty to the mother country was stronger than ever before. However, the
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at the time (William Pitt), decided to wage the
war in the colonies with the use of troops from the colonies and tax funds from Britain
itself, which was a successful wartime strategy. Therefore, the British, the most heavily
taxed of any in Europe, pointed out angrily that the colonies paid little to the royal
coffers. This dispute was to set off the chain of events that brought about the American
Revolution.

The military struggle, indeed, was preceded by a long and fierce political contest, of
which it formed the inevitable conclusion. For this contest the people of America had

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 been prepared, not by their years of war, but by their years of peace, for the whole
political history of the American colonies is a history of instruction in the principles of
democracy, and the republic of the United States was only in an immediate sense the
work of the men of the Revolution, but in its fullest sense was the work of the colonists
of America from their first entrance upon the trans-Atlantic shores.

The Royal Proclamation (1763).

The Royal Proclamation was a prohibition against settlement west of the Appalachian
Mountains, on land which had been recently captured from France. In issuing this
decree, the government was no doubt influenced by disgruntled taxpayers who did not
wish to bankroll the subjugation of the native people of the area to make room for
colonists. Yet, for most Americans, it seemed unnecessary to accept an unproductive
piece of legislation stated by a far-away government that cared little for their needs,
although Parliament had generally been preoccupied with affairs in Europe, and let the
colonies govern themselves. The policy change would continue to arouse opposition in
the colonies over the next thirteen years and through a series of measures, which were to
be named as acts.

The Sugar Act (1764).

Hence, this act put a three-cent tax on foreign refined sugar and increased taxes on
coffee, indigo, and certain kinds of wine, and it banned importation of rum and French
wines. Not only had affected taxes to a certain part of the population (including
merchants), but also were they enacted without the consent of the colonists. This was
one of the first instances in which colonists wanted a say in how much they were taxed.

The Stamp Act (1765-1766).

Another act that followed was the Stamp Act, which was carried out by the British
Parliament to tax activities in their American colonies. The Act was passed by the
parliament on March 22, 1765 and was to be effective November 1. The act met with
great resistance in the colonies and was finally repealed on March 18, 1766. It increased
American concerns about the intent of parliament, and added to the growing separatist
movement that twelve years later would result in the American Revolution.

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 Quartering Act (1765-1774).

As a result, the British Parliament passed at least two laws, known as the Quartering
Act. The first one became law on 24 March 1765, and provided that Britain would
house its soldiers in America first in barracks and public houses. Yet, if soldiers
outnumbered the housing available, he would quarter them in other types of housing
(inns, livery stables, ale houses, victuallinghouses, and the houses of sellers of wine)
requiring any inhabitants to provide the soldiers with food, alcohol and utensils on not
paying any thing for the same. The second Quartering Act (also called the Intolerable
Acts, the Punitive Acts or the Coercive Acts) was quite similar in substance to the
Quartering Act of 1765. It was settled on 2 June 1774, and was one of the measures that
were designed to secure Britains jurisdiction over her American dominions.

Declaratory Act (1766).

The Declaratory Act was established to secure the dependency of his Majestys
dominions in America upon the crown and parliament of Great Britain. This act states
that American colonies and plantations are subordinated to, and dependent upon the
imperial crown and parliament of Great Britain; and that the King majesty as full
power and authority to make laws and statutes of sufficient force and validity to bind
the colonies and people of America, subjects of the crown of Great Britain.

Townshend Revenue Act (1767).

The Townshend series of laws named for Charles Townshend, British Chancellor of the
Exchequer (Treasurer), placed new taxes on glass, lead, paints, paper, and tea.
Therefore, colonial reaction to these taxes was the same as to the Sugar Act and Stamp
Act, and Britain eventually repealed all the taxes except the one on tea. In response to
the sometimes violent protests by the American colonists, Great Britain sent more
troops to the colonies.

Tea Act (1773).

Another act, the Tea Act, gave a monopoly on tea sales to the East India Company. In
other words, American colonists could buy no tea unless it came from that company.
Why? Well, the East Indian Company wasnt doing so well, and the British wanted to
give it some more business. The Tea Act lowered the price on this East India tea so
much that it was way below tea from other suppliers. But the American colonists saw
this law as yet another means of taxation without representation because it meant that

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 they could not buy tea from anyone else (including other colonial merchants) without
spending a lot more money.

The Boston Tea Party (1773).

Their response was to refuse to unload the tea from the ships in Boston, a situation that
led to the Boston Tea Party in 1773. Angry and frustrated at a new tax on tea, American
colonists (calling themselves the Sons of Liberty and disguised as Mohawk Native
Americans) boarded three British ships (the Dartmouth, the Eleanor, and the Beaver)
and dumped 342 whole crates of British tea into Boston harbor on December 16, 1773.
Similar incidents occurred in Maryland, New York, and New Jersey in the next few
months, and tea was eventually boycotted throughout the colonies. The Boston Tea
Party was an amusing and symbolic episode in American history, an example of how far
Americans were willing to go to speak out for their freedom.

Coercive Acts (1774).

As a result, this amusing and symbolic episode in the American Colonies of Boston and
Massachusetts was defined as Intolerable Acts (also called the Coercive Acts or
Punitive Acts) by the English. The Coercive Acts were a series of laws passed by the
British Parliament in 1774 in response for the growing unrest of the colonies which
included: the Quartering Act, the Quebec Act, Massachusetts Government Act, the
Administration of Justice Act, and the Boston Port Act.

The punitive effect of these laws generated a reaction in a great and growing sympathy
for the colonists of Massachusetts, encouraging the neighbouring colonies to band to
together which would help lead to the American Revolutionary War.

In 1775, under George IIIs reign, the British North American colonies revolted in
Massachusetts due to the previous frustration with the British crown practices, and
namely to their opposition to British economic explotiation and also their unwillingness
to pay for a standing army. Anti-monarchist sentiment was strong, as the colonists
wanted to participate in the politics affecting them.

2.1.4. The Declaration of Independence (1776).

The next year, representatives of thirteen of the British colonies in North America met in
Philadelphia and declared their independence in a remarkable document, the Declaration of
Independence. The committee had intrusted that task to Thomas Jefferson, who, though at that

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time only thirty-three years of age, was chosen for two main reasons: first, because he was held
to possess a singular felicity in the expression of popular ideas and, second, because he
represented the province of Virginia, the oldest of the Anglo-American colonies.

Jefferson, having produced the required document, reported it to the House on the 28th of June,
where it was read, and ordered to lie on the table. After the conclusion of the debate on the
resolution of independence on 2nd July, the Declaration was passed under review. During the
remainder of that day and the two next, this remarkable production was very closely considered
and shifted, and several alterations were made in it, namely the omission of those sentences
which reflected upon the English people, and the striking out of a clause which severely
reprobated the slave-trade.

The debate on the proposed Declaration came to a termination two days later, on the evening of
the 4th of July. The document was then reported by the committee, agreed to by the House, and
signed by every member present, except General Dickinson. The signature of New York was
not given till several days later, and a New Hampshire member, Matthew Thornton, was
permitted to append his signature on November 4 (four months after the signing). With the help
of their French allies they were eventually able to win the American Revolutionary War against
Great Britain, settled by the Treaty of Paris (1783). So, we can say that the United States of
America was founded in 1776 from British colonies along the Atlantic Coast of North America
and was declared to be independent in 1778.

2.2. The struggle for Constitution (1776-1789).

The struggle for Constitution has its roots in the Declaration of Independence and its outcome
(the Constitution) after the War of Independence (1778-1783). So, we shall review (1) the War
of Independence (1778-1783) regarding (a) its aftermath in terms of (i) social, (ii) economical,
and (iii) political consequences which eventually shall prepare the ground for the final
establishment of the Constitution in 1789.

2.2.1. The War of Independence (1778-1783).

The War of Independence, also known as the American Revolution, was first regarded as a civil
war against Britain, but when other countries entered the confrontation, namely France (1778),
Spain (1779) and the Netherlands (1780), it became an international war. Initial confrontations

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were mixed (the British being successful at Brandywine but suffering badly at Saratoga), but the
situation improved for the colonists when these three countries utilized the opportunity caused
by the confrontation to declare war on Britain as well. Eventually, by 1782, the British
campaign was crumbling.

The British Parliament demanded an end to the war, largely due to its high expenses. The Prime
Minister, now Lord North, resigned and, on 3 September 1783, treaties were signed at
Versailles. Britain retained Canada and the West Indian Islands but the thirteen rebellious states
were formally recognised as the United States of America. On the other hand, France retained
their West Indian Islands and were given Tobago in addition, and Spain recovered Florida after
twenty years of British control (but later sold it to the Netherlands).

Therefore, the aftermath of the war was particularly felt in the national division of the states due
to the political struggle over slavery and the spread into new territories (the West). Hence, the
North representing the modern, industrial, and business-minded states versus the South, which
represented the cultures, colonial and aristocratic states. Yet, in general, the main consequences
following the loss of the American colonies were to be noticed at all levels. For instance:

2.2.1.1. Social consequences.

In social terms, the United States exerted an irresistible attraction on visitors and therefore,
immigrants, namely from Germany and Ireland. Between the 1830s and 1840s, population grew
at an amazing rate attracted by an efficient network of economic and cultural richness in the
new land. The German did well whereas the Irish immigrants were not rich enough to buy land.
Hence they had to take the menial and unskilled labour needed by the expanding economy, and
as a result, they suffered discrimination in towns and cities (their discrimination is compared to
the free blacks in the North).

Another important issue to be highlighted is that of Northern blacks. Since they possessed
theoretical freedom, they suffered discrimination at all social levels (politics, employment,
education, religion, and even in cemeteries). Yet, their situation improved between the 1830s
and 1850s under the Age of Reform, where a great variety of ideals and movements flourished
in favor of women rights, pacifism, abolition of imprisonment, capital punishment, improving
working classes conditions, and a better education, among others. Yet, a vast majority of
Americans did not support these changes. The Reform reflected the sensibility of a small
number of people.

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2.2.1.2. Economic consequences.

Economically, after the War of Independence two different economic models towards
capitalism developed, thus represented by North and South ideals. On the one hand, the North,
supported by the Middle West, based its economy on industry and farming in order to set up
tariffs to protect themselves against rival European products; on the other hand, the South,
namely aristocratic, based its economy on cotton production in big plantations, and therefore,
free trade of slaves. Slavery did not exisst in the Northern states, so the North found it difficult
to accept the attitude of the South.

2.2.1.3. Political consequences: the esta blishment of Constitution.

Political consequences were felt both on the continent, in Britain and in the American colonies.
Let us examine the most relevant events in both parts.

In in the British Empire, there was an increasing interest in the east. The East India
Company had long been the main agent of Imperial expansion in southern Asia and
exercised many governmental functions. Although the company maintained sole
responsibility for trade and patronage, in 1784 under the India Act, a Board of Control
was established to oversee the revenue, administration and diplomatic functions of the
company as well as the aspects of its military expansion.
Yet, the new target of Britain was not only the East, but also the colonisation of the
Antipodes so as to establish penal colonies (1788). The colonisation of Australia and
New Zealand began with the desire to find a place for penal settlement after the loss of
the original American colonies. The first shipload of British convicts landed in
Australia in 1788, on the site of the future city of Sydney1 .
Regarding the American colonies, the resolution on the settlement in the West was to be
realized by a Federal government, which was established according to the interests of
the North states. Until 1789, the United States was governed by the Articles of
Confederation, which created an extremely weak central government. The United States
had no power to levy taxes; for income, it relied essentially on money from the states. In
addition, the government of the United States had no central executive branch, making
its already weak government further divided and lacking strong leadership. The
government of the United States under the Articles was also weak with regards to

1
The majority of these convicts were young men, many of whom had committed only petty crimes. New
South Wales opened to free settlers in 1819. By 1858, transportation of convicts was abolished.

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 foreign affairs, and during this period Britain and Spain treated the United States like a
third-rate power.

Therefore, since the South was afraid of a possible centralized government, they started
to think about the possibility of breaking with the Union and replaced the Articles of
Confederation with a stronger central government. Then 55 state delegates met in
Philadelphia between May and September (1787) in the Constitutional Convention, that
is, an Assembly that drafted the Constitution of the United States. Hence the
Constitution was adopted as a direct response to the Articles of Confederation and as a
result, it was eventually ratified by all the states between 1787 and 1789, in the same
year that George Washington was elected President of the United States (Larousse,
2002, vol. 6).

3. THE UNITED STATES INSTITUTIONS.

Hence in Chapter 3 the analysis of the United States institutions will be divided into three main
sections which coincide with the main issues we are going to deal with. Hence, (1) the political
basis, that is, (a) the Constitution on which fundamental laws are based, and (b) the territorial
organization of the United States federal system; (2) the political powers of federal government
at three different levels: (a) National Government regarding (i) executive power through the
figure of the President; (ii) legislative power through the Congress; and (iii) judicial power
through the Supreme Court. Then, we also examine (b) the State Government and (c) the
Municipial Government. Finally, we approach the organization of (3) political parties and the
electoral system, by examining the main (a) political parties within the US two-party system: (i)
the Democratic Party and (ii) the Republican Party; and (b) the US electoral system.

3.1. Political basis.

3.1.1. The Constitution: fundamental laws.

Following the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004), the Constitution of the United States is defined
as the fundamental law of the U.S. federal system of government and a landmark document of
the Western world. Moreover, it established the division of powers: executive, legislative and

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judicial, hence a strong executive branch was created for the first time to give the government
the power to tax. Yet, it did not established the respective political institutions of the states nor
the federal state, and hence the division of political authority (national, state, local).

This document represents the supreme law of the United States of America, and it is the oldest
comprehensive written national constitution on Earth still in force. Actually, it has served as a
model for a number of other nations constitutions. So, completed on 17 September, 1787 and
officially adopted on 4 March, 1789, the new Constitution of the United States created a more
unified government in place of what was then a group of independent states. Actually, the
remainder of the constitution consists of seven articles, thus:

Article One describes the legislative branch, that is, the Congress and outlines its
powers and limits.
Article Two describes the executive branch, that is, the presidency.
Article Three describes the judicial branch, that is, court system, including the Supreme
Court.
Article Four describes the relationship between the states and the federal government.
Article Five describes the process of amendment.
Article Six establishes the Constitution and the laws and treaties of the United States
made in accordance with it as the supreme law of the land.
Article Seven describes the method of ratification.

However, the authors of the Constitution were keenly aware that changes would be needed from
time to time if the Constitution was to endure and keep pace with the growth of the nation. So
they permitted the passing of amendments. Also, the ensured that an overly-rigid requirement of
unanimity could not block action desired by the vast majority of the people , so they devised a
dual process by which the Constitution could be revised. Actually, the Constitution has been
amended on only eighteen occasions since 1789.

It is worth noting the relatively small number of amendments to the Constitution. Though it was
ratified in June 1788, Congress proposed 12 amendments in September 1789, out of which 10
were simultaneously ratified by the states, commonly known as the Bill of Rights, and their
adoption was certified on 15 December, 1791. The eleventh proposal, relative to the
compensation of members of Congress, remained unratified until 1992 when the legislatures of
enough states finally approved it and, as a result, it became the Twenty-seventh Amendment
despite more than two centuries of pendency. On the other hand, a twelfth proposal pertains to

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the apportionment of the United States House of Representatives after each decennial census.
As for the ten known as the Bill of Rights, they remain as they were written two centuries ago:

The first guarantees freedom of worship, speech, and press; the right of peaceful
assembly; and the right to petition the government to correct wrongs.
The second guarantees the right of citizens to bear arms.
The third provides that troops may not be quartered, or garrisoned, in private homes
without the owner's consent.
The fourth guards against unreasonable searches, arrests, and seizures of property.
The fifth amendment forbids trial for a major crime except after indictment by a grand
jury. It prohibits repeated trials for the same offense, forbids punishment without due
process of law, and provides that an accused person may not be compelled to testify
against himself.
The sixth guarantees a speedy public trial for criminal offenses. It requires trial by an
unbiased jury, guarantees the right to legal counsel for the accused, and provides that
witnesses shall be compelled to attend the trial and testify in the presence of the
accused.
The seventh assures trial by jury in civil cases involving anything valued at more than
20 U.S. dollars.
The eighth forbids excessive bail or fines, and cruel or unusual punishment.
The last two of the ten amendments contain very broad statements of constitutional
authority.
The ninth declares that the listing of individual rights is not meant to be comprehensive;
that the people have other rights not specifically mentioned in the Constitution.
The tenth provides that powers not delegated by the Constitution to the federal
government nor prohibited by it to the states are reserved to the states or the people.

It is worth mentioning that the Bill of Rights and subsequent amendments have placed
fundamental human rights at the center of the U.S. legal system. The majority of the seventeen
later amendments stem from continued efforts to expand individual civil or political liberties,
while only a few are concerned with amplifying the basic governmental structure drafted in
Philadelphia in 1787 (http://sources.wikipedia.org). Thus,

The eleventh Amendment (1795) clarifies judicial power over foreign nationals, and
limits ability of citizens to sue states.
The twelfth (1804) changes the method of presidential elections. (1865)

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 The thirteenth (1865) abolishes slavery.
The fourteenth (1868) defines United States citizen and includes the privileges and
immunities, due process and equal protection c lauses; regulation of congressional
elections; restrains states from infringing upon consititutional protections such as the
Bill of Rights and other fundamental rights of citizens and persons under the
jurisidiction of the United States.
The fifteenth (1870) ensures right of former slaves to vote.
The sixteenth (1913) creates the income tax.
The seventeenth (1913) establishes the direct election of Senators.
The eighteenth (1919) establishes the prohibition of alcohol.
The nineteenth (1920) establishes the womens right to vote.
The twentieth (1933) gives details of presidential succession.
The twenty-first (1933) repeals prohibition of alcohol.
The twenty-second (1951) limits president to two terms.
The twenty-third (1961) grants electors to District of Columbia.
The twenty-fourth (1964) abolishes poll taxes.
The twenty-fifth (1967) establishes more presidential succession rules.
The twenty-sixth (1971) establishes the right of eighteen-year-olds to vote.
The twenty-seventh (1992) limits congressional pay raises.

3.1.2. Territorial organization: federal system.

The United States of America is situated in the North American continent. Its area include the
United States share of the Great Lakes, that is, 3,675,031 sq miles (9,518,287 sq km), so it is
considered to be the fourth largest country in the world. Thus, it is limited by Canada to the
north and Mexico in the south, and covers the full width of it both in a horizontal and vertical
direction. Actually, it is limited by the sea from left to right (from the Atlantic Ocean to the
Pacific Ocean) and it is limited to the north by Alaska (on the edge of the Artic), and to the
south by the Pacific and tropical Hawaii.

Regarding its population, this country had 287,602,000 in 2002, and it includes people of
European and Middle Eastern ancestry, African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, Pacific
Islanders, American Indians (Native Americans), and Alaska Natives. The national language is
predominantly English, though other European, African and Asian languages are also present,

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as Spanish or Chinese in guettos. Similarly, there are several religions, such as Protestantism,
Roman Catholicism, Judaism, and Islam, too.

This vast country is characterized by providing a wide variety of landscapes (tropical forests,
desert, Artic areas, empty spaces, metropoli) and natural resorts, for instance, the highest
mountain is McKinley (6.194 m); its main rivers are Mississippi, Missouri, Grande del Norte,
Arkansas, Colorado, and Columbia; and the main lake is Michigan (17,800 km2). Actually, the
United States is said to represent, serve and protect the American people at home and abroad,
hence its high standard of living. Its capital is Washington D.C. but other main cities include
New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, Philadelphia, San Diego, Phoenix, Dallas, San
Antonio, and Detroit. The present currency is the dollar and its official language is English,
commonly known as American English (AmE) in opposition to British English (BrE).

The territorial organization is based on the Constitution, which established a government under
a federal system, which shared governmental powers with 48 contiguous states occupying the
mid continent, Alaska at the northwestern extreme of North America, and the island state of
Hawaii in the mid-Pacific Ocean. For instance, (listed in alphabetical order), Alabama, Alaska,
Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Hawai,
Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Loiuisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts,
Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire,
New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon,
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont,
Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. Hence the fifty stars on the
United States flag.

Within the federal system, the federal government in Washington D.C. cannot abolish the states
or rearrange their boundaries, but can exercise powers that are delegated or implied by the
Constitution. Also, the American judicial system keeps the federal and state governments within
their proper fields of power. Actually, the federal government has certain constitutional musts
towards the states, such as to respect their territorial unity, not to divide or break up a state
without its consent, to protect the states against invasion and domestic violence, and to
guarantee each state a republican form of government.

Moreover, the Constitution of the United States also places certain limitations on the states, such
as not to interfere in foreign relations, to issue paper money or discriminate against interstate
commerce. The Constitution also places certain obligations on the states in their relations with
each other by means of which each state must respect the legal processes and acts of every other

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state. Finally, no state may discriminate in favour of its own citizens against persons coming
from other states.

3.2. Political powers: a federal Government.

As stated before, the Constitution of the U.S. federal system of government established the
division of powers: executive, legislative and judicial, but not the respective political institutions
of the states nor the federal state, and hence the division of political authority into national, state
and local (or municipal) government. Yet, although the Constitution has changed in many
respects since it was first adopted, its basic principles of government remain the same now as in
1789 in terms of political powers.

Thus, the three main branches of government, that is, executive, legislative and judicial, are
separate and distinct from one another The powers given to each are delicately balanced by the
powers of the other two, where each branch serves as a check on potential excesses of the
others. The Constitution, together with laws passed according to its provisions and treaties
entered into by the president and approved by the Senate, stands above all other laws, executive
acts, and regulations. The courts interpret the laws, and, if it finds them to be unconstitutional,
they are overturned.

Under the federal Government, everybody is equal before the law and is equally entitled to its
protection, in the same way that all states are equal, and none can receive special treatment from
the federal government. Within the limits of the Constitution, each state must recognize and
respect the laws of the others. State governments, like the federal government, must be
republican in form, with final authority resting with the people. Actually, the people have the
right to change their form of national government by legal means defined in the Constitution
itself. Following the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004), the Constitutions separation of the
legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government, the checks and balances of each
branch against the other, and the explicit guarantees of individual liberty were all designed to
strike a balance between authority and liberty. Hence:

Article I vests all legislative powers in the Congress the House of Representatives and
the Senate.

Article II vests executive power in the president.

Article III places judicial power in the hands of the courts.

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 Article IV deals, in part, with relations among the states and with the privileges of the
citizens. Article V with amendment procedure, and Article VI with public debts and the
supremacy of the Constitution.

Article VII stipulates that the Constitution would become operational after being ratified
by nine states.

Moreover, the form of government is based on three main principles, federalism, the separation
of powers and respect for the Constitution and the rule of law. Each American citizen is subject
to two governments, that of his state and that of the Union, and each has its own distinct
function. The states have, under the Constitution, the primary functions of providing law and
order, education, public health and most of the things which concern day to day life. The
Federal government, on the other hand, is concerned with foreign affairs and with matters of
general concern to all the states. So, let us examine how government works at three different
levels: national, state and local.

3.2.1. National Government.

The national government consists of executive, legislative and judicial branches which, in spite
of being interrelated and designed to check and balance one another, each one is different in
political terms. In fact, each one is represented by a different political body, that is, the
executive power is represented by the President as the head of state and government; and
similarly, the legislative power by the Congress and the judicial power, by the Supreme Court.

3.2.1.1. Executive power: the President.

Following the website wikipedia (2004), the President of the United States is the head of state
of the United States. Under the U.S. Constitution, the President is also the chief executive of the
federal government and commander in chief of the armed forces. As the principal elected
representative of the U.S. citizenry, the Presidents principal workplace and official residence is
the White House at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, DC, though many Presidents
have also had their own homes. His official vacation or weekend residence is Camp David in
Maryland.

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Regarding his presidential powers, the office of president of the United States is one of the
most powerful offices of its kind in the world. The president, the Constitution says, must take
care that the laws be faithfully executed. To carry out this responsibility, the president presides
over the executive branch of the federal government a vast organization numbering about 4
million people, including 1 million active-duty military personnel. In addition, the president has
important legislative and judicial powers. Let us examine the figure of the President within the
three main branches.

For instance, within the executive branch itself, the president has broad powers to
manage national affairs and the workings of the federal government. The president can
issue rules, regulations, and instructions called, which have the binding force of law
upon federal agencies but do not require congressional approval. As commander-in-
chief of the armed forces of the United States, the president may also call into federal
service the state units of the National Guard. In times of war or national emergency, the
Congress may grant the president even broader powers to manage the national economy
and protect the security of the United States. In addition, the President is responsible for
preparing the budget of the United States, although the Congress must approve it.

Despite the constitutiona l provision that all legislative powers shall be vested in the
Congress (next section), the president, as the chief formulator of public policy, has a
major legislative role. The president can veto any bill passed by Congress and, unless
two-thirds of the members of each house vote to override the veto, the bill does not
become law. Moreover, much of the legislation dealt with by Congress is drafted at
the initiative of the executive branch. In annual and special messages to Congress, the
president may propose legislation he believes is necessary.

It is worth noting that the most important of these is the annual State of the Union
Address, traditionally given in January. Before a joint session of Congress, the President
outlines the status of the country and his legislative proposals for the upcoming year. If
Congress should adjourn without acting on those proposals, the president has the power
to call it into special session. But beyond this official role, the president, as head of a
political party and as principal executive officer of the U.S. government, is primarily in
a position to influence public opinion and thereby to influence the course of legislation
in Congress.

Regarding the presidential judicial powers, among the presidents constitutional

powers is that of appointing important public officials. Presidential nomination of
federal judges, including members of the Supreme Court, is subject to confirmation by
the Senate. Another significant power is that of granting a full or conditional pardon to

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 anyone convicted of breaking a federal law except in a case of impeachment. The
pardoning power has come to embrace the power to shorten prison terms and reduce
fines.

Furthermore, we must examine the presidential powers in foreign affairs by means of which,
under the Constitution, the president is the federal official primarily responsible for the
relations of the United States with foreign nations. However, we must take into account that
the President has to work through a governmental organization, that is, the Cabinet, which refers
to the heads of eleven departments within the large executive branch. Hence, he appoints
ambassadors, ministers, and consuls - subject to confirmation by the Senate - and receives
foreign ambassadors and other public officials. With the secretary of state, the president
manages all official contacts with foreign governments. Note that since WWII the President has
sat down with world leaders to discuss economic and political issues and to reach bilateral and
multilateral agreements.

With respect to the United States presidential line of succession, it must be borne in mind that
the Presidential office is to be filled upon the death, resignation or removal from office (by
impeachment and conviction) of a sitting President. In case of trouble, the Twenty-fifth
Amendment to the Constitution envisaged a succession line, which was written and ratified to
clarify and specifically outline the process for deeming a President incapable of discharging his
powers and duties, and subsequently elevating the Vice President to the role of Acting President
of the United States. Hence the first three in the long line are vice president of the United States,
speaker of the United States House of Representatives and finally, president pro tempore of the
United States Senate.

The list of Presidents of the United States is well-defined in terms of name, date of taking and
leaving office, and the party they belonged. Thus, George Washington (1789-1797), no party;
John Adams (1797-1801), Federalist; Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809), Democratic Republican;
James Madison (1809-1817), Democratic Republican; James Monroe (1817-1825), Democratic
Republican; John Quincy Adams (1825-1829), Democratic Republican; Andrew Jackson (1829-
1837), Democrat; Martin Van Buren (1837-1841), Democrat; William Henry Harrison (1841-
1841), Whig; John Tyler (1841-1845), Whig; James Knox Polk (1845-1849), Democrat;
Zachary Taylor (1849-1850), Whig; Millard Fillmore (1850-1853), Whig; Franklin Pierce
(1853-1857), Democrat; James Buchanan (1857-1861), Democrat; Abraham Lincoln (1861-
1865), Republican; Andrew Johnson (1865-1869), Republican; Ulysses Simpson Grant (1869-
1877), Republican; Rutherford Birchard Hayes (1877-1881), Republican; James Abram
Garfield (1881-1885), Republican; Chester Alan Arthur (1881-1885), Republican; Stephen
Grover Cleveland (1885-1889), Democrat; Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893), Republican;

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Stephen Grover Cleveland (1893-1897), Democrat; and William McKinley (1897-1901),
Republican, as the last president of the nineteenth century.

The turn of the century coincides with the presidences of Theodore Roosevelt II (1901-1909),
Republican; and William Howard Taft (1909-1913), Republican; Thomas Woodrow Wilson
(1913-1921), Democrat; Warren Gamaliel Harding (1921-1923), Republican; John Calvin
Coolidge Jr. (1923-1929), Republican; Herbert Clark Hoover (1929-1933), Republican;
Franklin Dela no Roosevelt (1933-1945), Democrat; Harry S. Truman (1945-1953), Democrat;
Dwight David Eisenhower (1953-1961), Republican; John Fitzgeral Kennedy (1961-1963),
Democrat; Lyndon Baines Johnson (1963-1969), Democrat; Richard Milhous Nixon (1969-
1974), Republican; Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. (1974-1977), Republican; James Earl Carter Jr.
(1977-1981); Ronald Wilson Reagan (1981-1989), Republican; George Herbert Walker Bush
(1989-1993), Republican; William Jefferson Clinton (1993-2001), Democrat; and finally,
coinciding with the early twenty-first century, the current president of the United States, George
Walker Bush (2001-present day), who is Republican.

3.2.1.2. Legislative power: the Congress.

Following the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004), the Congress represents the legislature of the
U.S., separated structurally from the executive and judicial branches of government. The
historical roots of the United States Congress trace back to the origins of British Parliament,
which eventually served to represent the interests of both the common people and the elite and
to ensure deliberation over legislation. Therefore, the Congress consists of two houses: the
Senate and the House of Representatives, where the former represents the elite members and the
latter, the common people.

A third legislative body is represented by the Committees of Congress, which do most of the
work of preparing legislation. Actually, in both houses of Congress, nearly every piece of
legislation (bill) goes before a standing committee for action so as to, first, recommend (or
report) a bill favourably in its original form; second, report the bill with proposed changes; and
third, fail to report the bill (commonly known as pigeonhole). Among other duties of Congress
we may include to amend the Constitution, conduct investigations, review government actions,
determine Presidential disability, or impeach and try federal officials.

The United States bicameral system is a compromise between the claims for equal
representation among the states (each state is represented by two members of the Senate) and
for equal representation among citizens (each member of the House of Representatives

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represents roughly the same number of people). Each house has powers not held by the other,
and measures need the approval of both houses to become law. Many contemporary federal
systems of government have bicameral legislatures. All U.S. states except Nebraska have
bicameral legislatures (Britannica, 2004).

Historically speaking, the Congress was established by the Constitution of the United States on
succeeding the unicameral congress created by the Articles of Confederation (1781). As stated,
it consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Representation in the Senate is fixed
at two senators per state. Until passage of the 17th Amendment (1913), senators were appointed
by the state legislatures; since then they have been elected directly.

On the other hand, in the House, representation is proportional to each states population; total
membership is restricted (since 1912) to 435 members (the total rose temporarily to 437
following the admission of Hawaii and Alaska as states in 1959). Congressional business is
processed by committees: bills are debated in committees in both houses, and reconciliation of
the two resulting versions takes place in a conference committee. A presidential veto can be
overridden by a two-thirds majority in each house. Congress's constitutional powers include the
setting and collecting of taxes, borrowing money on credit, regulating commerce, coining
money, declaring war, raising and supporting armies, and making all laws necessary for the
execution of its powers. All finance-related legislation must originate in the House; powers
exclusive to the Senate include approval of presidentia l nominations, ratification of treaties, and
adjudication of impeachments.

In short, the Constitution gives Congress all the law-making powers of the federal Government
(Article 1, section 8) to deal with such issues as borrowing money, taxation, or declaring war.
Other expressed powers include foreign and domestic commerce, national defense, coinage, and
the courts. However, the Congress is limited by three elements: the Constitution, the Supreme
Court and the power of public opinion.

3.2.1.3. Judicial power: the Supreme Court.

The judicial power is represented the Supreme Court, which is in charge of interpreting the
meaning of the Constitution and of federal laws. Hence the Supreme Court is said to play a
major policy-making role within the national public matters by judging the acts of the other two
branches, since they are interrelated. However, it must be borne in mind that the Supreme Court
is different from the other two institutions in form, but not in political character or impact on
society. With respect to its organization, the Supreme Court consists of several justices, which

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may range from three to nine judges. Actually, the United States Supreme Court consists of nine
justices, among which the Chief Justice is included. They are appointed for life by the President
with the consent of the Senate, each of whose votes are of equal political weight.

The Supreme Court not only has original jurisdiction over cases including foreign ambassadors,
ministers, consulas and cases to which a state is a pa rty, but also appellate jurisdiction for the
lawer federal courts and from state courts of last resort if a federal question is voived. Note that
there are no committees and, with rare exceptions, all the justices personally hear arguments,
discuss, and vote on every case. There are namely three types of cases that may reach the
Supreme Court: first, those involving litigants of different states; second, the interpretation of
the federal law; and finally, the interpretation of the Constitution.

Below the Supreme Court are the so-called United States Courts of Appeal. They are defined as
three types of special courts which may, first, handle property and contract damage suits against
the United States (US claims Court); second, review customs rulings (US Court of International
Trade); and finally, apply the Uniform Code of Military Justice (US Court of Military Appeals).
In short, each state has at least one federal district court and at least one federal judge, to whom
appeals from district courts are addressed.

3.2.2. State Government.

In the United States, a state government is in charge of supervising most governmental aspects,
such as to maintain law and order and enforce criminal law; to protect property rights and
regulate business; to operate public -welfarre programs, build and maintain most highways; to
operate state parks and forests, and regulate the use of state-owned land. In addition, it has
direct authority over local government, that is, counties, cities, towns, townships, villages, and
school districts.

A state government has independent powers of its own that are authorized by the Constitution.
Actually, the national government has its powers specified in the Constitution and the state
governments retain all the remaining powers, except where the Constitution restricts them. The
independent powers of a state government arose during the colonial period and increased after
the Declaration of Independence (1776). As a result, each former British colony called itself a
state to indicate its sovereign position, since they were organized under a sovereign
government. Each state gave up some of its powers when the Constitution became the supreme
law of the land in 1789.

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The state governments, like the federal government, have three main branches: executive,
legislative, and judicial.Yet, a strong tendency has developed through the years toward
enlarging the activities of the national government in the United States. An increasing
centralization of functions within each state has also occurred. At the same time, cooperation
among all levels of government (national, state, local) has become increasingly important.
Hence it is worth noting that each state has a constitution that sets forth the principles and
framework of its government. Every state constitution includes a Bill of Rights, which contain
provisions of finance, education and other matters. The original thirteen states had constitutions
before the United States Constitution was adopted, and even today, some of them are still in use
(Massachusetts and New Hampshire), though they have been amended often.

3.2.3. Local Government.

Local Government systems differ from one state to another, though they are quite similar since
each state is divided into Counties (on average sixty counties to a state). Within the countries
the towns have their own local governments, namely regarded as cities (note that the amount
of urban self-government bodies are defined as cities, villages, towns, or boroughs).
Then, a city government, with an elected mayor, council and judges, reproduces the state pattern
on a similar scale. However, they also show differences in the way they describe particular
systems, especially with prison issues and criminals.

Local Government is namely divided into three types: mayor-council governments, commission
governments and council-manager governments. The first type refers to the elections of the
mayor and the council, in which the mayor usually controls the actions of the council despite the
fact that the council is nominally responsible for formulating city ordinances (i.e. Boston, New
York City, Philadelphia, Chicago, Seattle).

Regarding the second type, commission governments are made up by a number of

commissioners who are elected by local citizens. These commissioners serve as heads of a city
department, in which the presiding commissioner is generally the mayor (i.e. Tulsa, Otila, Salt
Lake City, Utah). Finally, the council-manager type refers to an elected council which hires a
city manager to administer the city departments. In this type, the mayor, elected by the council
simply chairs it and officiates at important functions (i.e. Des Moines, Iowa, Cincinnati, Ohio).

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3.3. Political parties and electoral system.

3.3.1. Political parties: two-party system.

Following the website wikipedia (2004), political parties of the United States traditionally
divide the available spectrum of choices into two camps. The first is known as the major
parties and the second as the third parties camp. This is due to the fact that the United States
has a two-party system, with the two largest centrist parties dividing the vote between
themselves in the national elections. This is partly a consequence of the first-past-the post
election system, but also due to restrictive ballot access laws imposed on third parties.

Many third parties throughout U.S. history have achieved regional success and some (notably
the Prohibition Party and the Socialist Party) have had major portions of their platforms
incorporated into the major parties platforms. While only the Republican Party has gone on to
become a dominant player in American political life, the overall political platforms of several
third parties have taken root in the American political landscape. So, among the major parties,
we include the Democratic Party, founded in the 1820s and 1830s, and the Republican Party,
founded in 1854.

3.3.1.1. Democratic Party.

Following the website wikipedia (2004), the Democratic Party is a United States political party
which was opposed chiefly by the Whig Party from 1833 to 1856, and from 1856 onward its
main opposition has come from the Republican Party. The symbol of the party is a stylized
donkey in red, white and blue, which appeared for the first time in a political cartoon in
Harpers Weekly titled A Live Jackass Kicking a Dead Lion (by Thomas Nast) on January 15,
1870. Yet, it has never been officially adopted as the partys logo.

Nowadays, the Democratic National Committee (DNC) of the United States provides national
leadership for the United States Democratic Party. It is responsible for developing and
promoting the Democratic political platform, as well as coordinating fundraising and election
strategy. There are similar committees in every U.S. state and most U.S. Counties (though in
some states, party organization lower than state-level is arranged by legislative districts). It can
be considered the counterpart of the Republican National Committee.

The most prominent Democratic -Party figures are Andrew Jackson (1829-1837), Martin Van
Buren (1837-1841), James Knox Polk (1845-1849), Franklin Pierce (1853-1857), James

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Buchanan (1857-1861), Grover Cleveland (1885-1889 and 1893-1897), Woodrow Wilson
(1913-1921), Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1933-1945), Harry S. Truman (1945-1953), John F.
Kennedy (1961-1963), Lyndon Johnson (1963-1969), Jimmy Carter (1977-1981), and more
recently, Bill Clinton (1993-2001).

Historically speaking, and following the website wikipedia (2004), this party traces its origin to
the Democratic -Republican Party founded by Thomas Jefferson in 1793. The Democratic Party
itself was formed from a faction of the Democratic -Republicans, led by Andrew Jackson.
Following his defeat in the election of 1824, despite having a majority of the popular vote,
Andrew Jackson set about building a political coalition strong enough to defeat John Quincy
Adams in the election of 1828. The coalition that he built was the foundation of the subsequent
Democratic party.

In the 1850s, following the disintegration of the Whig Party, the southern wing of the
Democratic Party became increasingly associated with the continuation and expansion of
slavery, in opposition of the newly formed Republican Party. Democrats in the northern states
opposed this new trend, and at the 1860 nominating convention the party split and nominated
two candidates. As a result, the Democrats went down in defeat - part of the chain of events
leading up to the Civil War. After the war, the Democrats were a shattered party, but eventually
gathered enough support to elect reform candidate Grover Cleveland to two terms in the
presidency.

In 1896 the Democrats chose William Jennings Bryan over Cleveland as their candidate, who
then lost to William McKinley. The Democrats did not regain the presidency until Taft and
Roosevelt split the Republican vote and Woodrow Wilson won with a modest plurality in 1912.
The Republicans again took the lead in 1920 by championing laissez-faire regulatory policies.
The stock market crash in 1929 and the ensuing Great Depression set the stage for a more
interventionist government and Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) won a landslide election in
1932, campaigning on a platform of "relief, recovery, and reform".

FDRs New Deal programs focused on job-creation through public works projects as well as
on social welfare programs such as Social Security. The political coalition of labor unions,
minorities, liberals, and southern whites (the New Deal Coalition) allowed the Democrats to
control the government for much of the next 30 years, until the issue of civil rights divided
conservative southern whites from the rest of the party.

The political pendulum swung away from the Democrats with the election of Republican
president Ronald Reagan in 1980. The country seemed ready for political change after a decade
of poor economic performance and the long Iranian hostage crisis in the last year of the Carter

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administration. Riding Reagans coattails, the Republican Party successfully positioned itself as
the party of national strength, gaining 34 seats in the House and gaining control of the Senate
for the first time since 1955.

The Democratic Leadership Council organized by elected Democratic leaders has in recent
years worked to position the Party towards a centrist position. It still retains a powerful base of
left-of-center supporters however, as like the Republicans, the Democrats are generally a catch
all party with widespread appeal to most opponents of the Republicans. This includes organized
labour, educators, environmentalists, gays, pro-choicers, and other opponents of the social
convervatism practiced by many Republicans. In the 1990s the Democratic Party re-invigorated
itself by providing a successful roadmap to economic growth. Led by Bill Clinton, the
Democrats championed a balanced federal budget and job growth through a strong economy.
Labor unions, which had been steadily losing membership since the 1960s, found they had also
lost political clout inside the Democratic Party: Clinton enacted the NAFTA free trade
agreement with Canada and Mexico over the strong objection of the unions.

More recently, in the 2000 Presidential election, some progressives bolted the party to support
the Green Party candidate Ralph Nader, which took votes away from Democratic presidential
nominee Al Gore in many traditionally liberal states; a factor some observers cite as the cause
for his defeat. More observers agree however that the Supreme Court's party line decision
interpreting the hotly disputed Florida election returns in favor of George W. Bush explains
Gores defeat. In the immediate aftermath of the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks, public
opinion in the United States turned bellicose. Democrats found themselves marginalized in
national security debates by Republican exploitation of the new vengeful patriotism.

By 2004, however, Democratic prospects began to rebound in the wake of revelations about
the Bush administrations deceptive claims about the existence of Iraqi weapons of mass
destruction, mismanagement and corruption in the Iraqi occupation, and photographic evidence
of torture by the U.S. Army in the Abu Ghraib prison.

3.3.1.2. Republican Party.

Following the website wikipedia (2004), the Republican Party (often GOP for Grand Old
Party) is a United States political party that was organized in Ripon, Wisconsin on February 28,
1854, as a party against the expansion of slavery. It is not to be confused with the Democratic -
Republican party of Thomas Jefferson or the National Republican Party of Henry Clay. The
official symbol of the Republican Party is a stylized elephant in red, white and blue. Although

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the elephant had occasionally been associated with the party earlier, the first important use of
this symbol appeared in the same cartoon as the Democratic Partys symbol, in the Harpers
Weekly on November 7, 1874.

Following the website wikipedia (2004), the Republican National Committee (RNC) of the
United States provides national leadership for the United States Republican Party. It is
responsible for developing and promoting the Republican political platform, as well as
coordinating fundraising and election strategy. There are similar committees in every U.S. state
and most U.S. Counties (though in some states, party organization lower than state-level is
arranged by legislative districts). It can be considered the counterpart of the Democratic
National Committee. The chairman of the RNC, since July, 2003, is Ed Gillespie .

Among the Republican-Party Presidents we find Abraham Lincoln (1861-1865), Ulysses S.

Grant (1869-1877), Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-1881), James Garfield (1881), Chester A.
Arthur (1881-1885), Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893), William McKinley (1897-1901),
Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909), William Howard Taft (1909-1913), Warren G. Harding
(1921-1923), Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929), Herbert Hoover (1929-1933), Dwight Eisenhower
(1953-1961), Richard Nixon (1969-1974), Gerald R. Ford (1974-1977), Ronald Reagan (1981-
1989), George H. W. Bush (1989-1993), and currently, George W. Bush (2001-present).

Historically speaking, the first convention of the U.S. Republican Party took place on July 6,
1854, in Jackson, Michigan. Many of its initial policies were inspired by the defunct Whig Party
and, since its inception, its chief opponent has been the Democratic Party. Two years later,
John C. Frmont ran as the first Republican for President in 1856, using the political slogan:
Free soil, free labor, free speech, free men, Fremont. The party grew especially rapidly in
Northeastern and Midwestern states, where slavery had long been prohibited, culminating in a
sweep of victories in the Northern states and the election of Lincoln in 1860, ending 60 years of
dominance by Southern Democrats and ushering in a new era of Republican dominance based in
the industrial north.

With the end of the Civil War cam e the upheavals of Reconstruction under Republican
presidents Andrew Johnson and Ulysses S. Grant. For a brief period, Republicans assumed
control of Southern politics, forcing drastic reforms and frequently giving former slaves
positions in government. Reconstruction came to an end with the electon of Rutherford B.
Hayes through the Compromise of 1877. Though states rights was a cause of both Northern and
Southern states before the War, control of the federal government led the Republican Party
down a national line. The patriotic unity that developed in the North because of the war led to a
string of military men as President, and an era of international expansion and domestic
protectionism.

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As the rural Northern antebellum, economy mushroomed with industry and immigration,
supporting invention and business became the hallmarks of Republican policy proposals. From
the Reconstruction era up to the turn of the century, the Republicans benefitted from the
Democrats association with the Confederacy and dominated national politics albeit with
strong competition from the Democrats during the 1880s especially. With the two-term
presidency of Ulysses S. Grant, the party became known for its strong advocacy of commerce,
industry, and veterans rights, which continued through the end of the 19th century.

The progressive, protectionist, political and beloved William McKinley was the last Civil War
veteran elected President and embodied the Republican ideals of economic progress, invention,
education, and patriotism. After McKinleys assassination, President Roosevelt tapped
McKinleys Industrial Commission for his trust-busting ideas and continued the federal and
nationalist policies of his predecessor. Roosevelt decided not to run again in 1908 and chose
William Howard Taft to replace him, but the widening division between progressive and
conservative forces in the party resulted in a third-party candidacy for Roosevelt on the United
States Progressive Party, or Bull Moose ticket in the election of 1912. He beat Taft, but the
split in the Republican vote resulted in a decisive victory for Democrat Woodrow Wilson,
temporarily interrupting the Republican era.

Subsequent years saw the party firmly committed to laissez-faire economics, but the Great
Depression cost it the presidency with the U.S. presidential election, 1932 landslide election of
Franklin Roosevelt in 1932. Roosevelts New Deal Coalition controlled American politics for
the next three decades, excepting the two-term presidency of World War Two General Dwight
Eisenhower. The post-war emergence of the United States as one of two superpowers and rapid
social change caused the Republican Party to divide into a conservative faction (dominant in the
West) and a liberal faction (dominant in New England) combined with a residual base of
inherited Midwestern Republicanism active throughout the century.

Goldwaters electoral success in the Souther states, and Nixons successful Southern strategy
four years later represented a significant political change, as Southern white protestants began
moving into the party, largely in reaction to Democrats support for the Civil Rights Movement.
Simultaneously, the remaining pockets of liberal Republicanism in the northeast died out as the
region turned solidly Democratic. Richard Nixons political disgrace in the Watergate Scandal,
revelations that he had ordered massive, illegal bombing of Cambodia, and the humilitating
military debacle of the end of the Vietnam War led to the election of centrist Democrat Jimmy
Carter in 1976.

In turn, Carter was defeated by Ronald Reagan in 1980 election due to disappointing economic
performance and public frustration over the long hostage drama in the U.S. Embassy in Iran. In

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the emerging Republican majority, Kevin Phillips, then a Nixon strategist, argued (based on the
1968 election results) that support from Southern whites and growth in the Sun Belt, among
other factors, was driving an enduring Republican electoral realignment. While his predictions
were overstated, the trends he described may be seen in the Goldwater-inspired candidacy, the
1980 election of Ronald Reagan, and the Gingrich-led Republican Revolution of 1994. The
latter was the first time in 40 years that the Republicans secured control of both houses of
Congress.

That year, the GOP campaigned on a platform of major reforms of government with measures,
such as a balanced budget amendment to the Constitution and welfare reform. These measures
and others formed the famous Contract with America, which was passed by Congress.
Democratic President Bill Clinton vetoed many of the initiatives, with welfare reform as a
notable exception. Republican House Members also backtracked on one of the popular
proposals--adoption of term limits. In 1995, a budget battle with Clinton led to the brief
shutdown of the federal government, an event which contributed to Clinton's victory in the 1996
election.

With the election of George W. Bush in 2000, the Republican party controlled both the
presidency and both houses of Congress for the first time since 1952. Conservative
commentators speculate, and Republicans hope, that this may constitute a permanent partisan
realignment. The Republican Party solidified its Congressional margins in the 2002 midterm
elections, bucking the historic trend. It marked just the third time since the Civil War that the
party in control of the White House gained seats in both houses of Congress in a midterm
election (others were 1902 and 1934).

3.3.2. The electoral system.

As stated above, the supreme law of the land, that is, the supremacy of the U.S. Constitution
is confirmed and strengthened by the Supreme Court, but final authority is vested in the
American people, who can change the fundamental law, if they wish, by amending the
Constitution or, in theory at least, by drafting a new one. Actually, the people do not exercise
their authority directly since they delegate the day-to-day business of government to public
officials, both elected and appointed.

Following the website wikipedia (2004), the power of public officials is limited under the
Constitution. Their public actions must conform to the Constitution and to the laws made in
accordance with the Constitution. Elected officials can only continue in office if they stand for

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re-election at periodic intervals (when their records are subject to intensive public scrutiny), and
are re-elected. Appointed officials serve at the pleasure of the person or authority who appointed
them, and may be removed at any time. The exception to this practice is the lifetime
appointment by the President of justices of the Supreme Court and other federal judges, so that
they may be free of political obligations or influence.

Most commonly, the American people express their will through the ballot box. The
Constitution, however, does make provision for the removal of a public official from office, in
cases of extreme misconduct or malfeasance, by the process of impeachment. Article II, Section
4 reads: The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be
removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high
crimes and misdemeanors. So, impeachment is a charge of misconduct brought against a
government official by a legislative body; it does not -as is commonly thought- include
subsequent conviction on such charges.

As set forth in the Constitution, the House of Representatives must bring charges of
misconduct by voting articles of impeachment. The accused official is then tried in the Senate,
with the chief justice of the Supreme Court presiding at the trial. Impeachment is considered a
drastic measure, one that has been used on only rare occasions in the United States. Since 1797,
the House of Representatives has voted articles of impeachment against 15 federal officials: two
presidents, one cabinet member, one justice of the Supreme Court, and eleven federal judges. Of
those impeached, the Senate has convicted only seven--less than half--and all of them judges.

Some examples of impeachment include that of President Andrew Johnson in 1868, who was
impeached over issues relating to the proper treatment of the defeated Confederate states
following the American Civil War. The Senate, however, fell one vote short of the two-thirds
majority necessary for conviction, and Johnson completed his full term in office. Also, in 1974,
as a result of the Watergate affair, President Richard Nixon resigned from office after the
Judiciary Committee of the House recommended impeachment, but before the full House of
Representatives could vote on articles of impeachment.

More recently, in 1998, President Bill Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives
on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice. After a trial, the Senate acquitted Clinton on
both charges, voting not guilty on perjury by a margin of 55-45 and dividing evenly at 50-50 on
obstruction of justice. To remove the president from office would have required a guilty verdict
by a super-majority of 67 votes on either charge in the 100-member Senate.

Regarding the United States presidential elections, these are held every four years through the
United States Electoral College. The President and the Vice President are the only two

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nationally elected officials in the United States. (Legislators are elected on a state-by-state basis;
other executive officers and judges are appointed.) Originally, electors voted for two people for
President. The votes were tallied and the person receiving the greatest number of votes
(provided that such a number was a majority of electors) would be President, while the
individual who was in second place became Vice President.

The ratification of Amendment XII in 1804 clarified the electoral process by directing the
electors to use separate ballots to vote for the President and Vice President. To be elected, a
candidate must receive a majority of electoral votes, or if no candidate receives a majority, the
President and Vice President are chosen by the House of Representatives and Senate
respectively as necessary. Since 1937, with the ratification of Amendment XX, a newly-elected
President, or a re-elected incumbent, is sworn in (usually by the Chief Justice) on January 20 of
the year following the election, an event called Inauguration Day.

The modern Presidential election process begins with the primary elections, during which the
major parties (currently the Democrats and the Republicans) select a nominee to unite behind;
the nominee in turn selects a running mate to join him on the ticket as the Vice Presidential
candidate. The two major candidates then face off in the general election, usually participating
in nationally televised debates at least twice before Election Day and campaigning across the
country to explain their views and plans to the voters. Much of the modern electoral process is
concerned with winning swing states, through frequent visits and mass media advertising
drives.

Moreover, in accordance with Article II, Section 1, Paragraph 8 of the Constitution, upon
entering office, the President must repeat the following oath or affirmation: I do solemnly
swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and
will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United
States. Furthermore, So help me is the sentence with which the oath is traditionally ended as
well as So help me God, although the former is linked to religious reasons.

4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

History is one of the most salient aspects of educational activity since it is going on for most of
the time. Yet, what do students know about the United States history in this period and in
particular about North American politics? At this point it makes sense to examine the political
background of the United States within its history so as to provide an appropriate context for

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current politicians who are familiar to students through the media in their own country.
However, the question is How much do students know about the North American political
system? or How can we make American politics relevant to students in the classroom?

In fact, Spanish students are expected to know about the political field of the United States and
its influence in the world through the image of outstanding political figures, such as Bill Clinton
or George Bush at present in relation to the Spanish ones. Currently, action research groups
attempt to bring about change in classroom learning and teaching through a focus on social
events under two premises. First, because they believe learning is an integral aspect of any form
of activity and second, because education at all levels must be conceived in terms of history.
The basis for these assumptions is to be found in an attempt, through the use of historical
events, to develop understanding of students shared but diverse social and physical
environment.

Learning involves a process of transformation of participation itself which has far reaching
implications on the role of the teacher in the teaching-learning relationship. This means that
historical events, for our purposes, political ones, are an analytic tool when making students
aware of the relevance of U.S. politics in the world, and in particular, in Spain regarding current
events (Aznar and Bushs friendship). Moreover, todays new technologies (the Internet, DVD,
videocamera) and the media (TV, radio, cinema) may provide a new direction to language
teaching as they set more appropriate context for students to get key information.

So, motivation and involvement are enhanced by means of new technologies and the media.
Hence the history of the period may be approched in terms of films and drama representations in
class, among others, and in this case, by means of books, newspapers, magazines or TV news,
among others. But how do twenty-first-century U.S. politics tie in with the new curriculum?
Spanish students are expected to know about the international panorama and the influence of the
U.S. political system in Europe, regarding its main policy or the main political figures. The
success partly lies in making this reality closer to students so as to recreate as much as possible
the whole social and political environment in the classroom. Some of this motivational force is
brought about by eliciting information about recent events in which the United States has been
involved.

Hence it makes sense to examine relevant figures such as George Washington, Franklin Delano
Roosevelt, Ronald Reagan or George Bush among others so as to compare them with the
corresponding figures in Spain and their roles in both U.S. and Spanish politics. This is to be
achieved within the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular, the Spanish

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Educational System which establishes a common reference framework for the teaching of
foreign languages where students are intended to locate social, political and cultural events
within a particular historical period (B.O.E., 2004).

In short, the knowledge about U.S. culture (history and literature) should become part of every
literary students basic competence (B.O.E., 2004). There are hidden influences at work beneath
the textual surface: these may be sociocultural, inter and intratextual. Students have to discover
these, and wherever necessary apply them in further examination. The main aims that our
currently educational system focuses on are mostly sociocultural, to facilitate the study of
cultural themes, as our students must be aware of their current social and political reality within
the international framework.

5. CONCLUSION.

On reviewing the issue of Unit 64, we have tried to provide an overall view of the the United
States institutions, among which we have focused on those related to North American politics,
not only in terms of political basis regarding the Constitution and territorial organization, but
also in terms of political powers regarding the main political bodies, that is, the President, the
Congress and finally the main political parties and electoral system. In doing so, we have
located the United States institutions within a historical framework and then we have offered an
overview of each political body.

So, Chapter 2 has namely analysed the period which ranges from the roots of Colonial America
to the establishment of the Constitution (1788) in terms of political history. So we have
reviewed the political organization of Colonial America up to the Declaration of Independence
(1776). Moreover, we have offered an account of the struggle for Constitution within the
already independent American colonies up to the establishment of the Constitution in 1789.
Then, with this background in mind in Chapter 3 we have approached the United States
institutions from three main perspectives which coincide with the main issues we are going to
deal with. First, the polit ical basis, that is, the Constitution on which fundamental laws are
based, and the territorial organization of the United States federal system; secondly, the political
powers of federal government at three different levels: the National Government regarding the
executive power through the figure of the President; the legislative power through the Congress;
and finally, the judicial power through the Supreme Court. Then, we have also examined the
State Government and the Municipial Government.

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Finally, we approach the organization of political parties and the electoral system, by examining
the main political parties within the US two-party system, that is, the Democratic Party and the
Republican Party; and the US electoral system. Then, Chapter 4 will be devoted to the main
educational implications in language teaching regarding the introduction of this issue in the
classroom setting. Chapter 5 will offer a conclusion to broadly overview our present study, and
Chapter 6 will include all the bibliographical references used to develop this account of the U.S.
institutions.

So far, we have attempted to provide the reader in this presentation with a historical, social and
cultural background on the U.S. political panorama throughtout the centuries. This information
is relevant for language learners, even ESO and Bachillerato students, who do not automatically
establish similiarities between U.S. and Spanish political reality. So, learners need to have these
associations brought to their attention in cross-curricular settings through the media. As we have
seen, understanding how history reflects the main events of a country is important to students,
who are expected to be aware of the richness of North American culture at a general level.

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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Blaustein, Albert P. 1984. The United States Constitution: A Model in Nation-Building. National Forum.

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 116/2004, de 23 de enero. Currculo de la

Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 117/2004, de 23 de enero. Currculo de

Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.

Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European
Framework of reference.

Hearst Report. 1987. The American Publics Knowledge of the U.S. Constitution. A National Survey of
Public Awareness and Personal Opinion. New York: The Hearst Corporation. ED 289 812.

Palmer, R. 1980. Historia Contempornea, Akal ed., Madrid.

van Ek, J.A., and J.L.M. Trim, 2001. Vantage. Council of Europe. Cambridge University Press.

Other sources:

Enciclopedia Larousse 2000. 2000. Editorial Planeta.

British Empire. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 2004. Encyclopdia Britannica Premium Service. 28
May 2004 <http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=383356>.

www.historylearningsite.co.uk

www.wikipedia.com

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 UNIT 65

THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

OUTLINE
1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.
2. A HISTORY OF THE MODERN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED
KINGDOM.

2.1. Ancient times.

2.2. Medieval times.
2.3. Modern times.
2.3.1. The nineteenth century: the 1870 Educational Act.
2.3.2. The twentieth century: other Educational Acts.

3. THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

3.1. Definition: What is education?
3.2. The Education System in the United Kingdom.
3.2.1. The English Educationa l System.
3.2.1.1. State education.
3.2.1.2. Independent schools.
3.2.1.3. The universities.
3.2.1.4. Extracurricular education.
3.2.2. The Educational System in Northern Ireland.
3.2.3. The Educational System in Wales.
3.2.4. The Educational System in Scotland.

4. NEW DIRECTIONS ON LANGUAGE TEACHING.

5. CONCLUSION.
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

The present unit, Unit 65, aims to provide a useful introduction to the Education System in the
United Kingdom as an attempt to offer a general overview of education in each country in terms
of differences and similarities. In doing so, the unit is to be divided into two main chapters: first,
Chapter 2 offers a history of the modern system of education in the United Kingdom so as to
better understand the current educational system in England, Northern Ireland, Wales and
Scotland. In doing so, we have offered a historical overview of education from (1) ancient times
and (2) medieval times, up to (3) modern times, where we have further examined the main
events during (a) the nineteenth century, namely regarding the 1870 Educational Act, and
during (b) the twentieth century, with respect to other Educational Acts up to the present day.

Chapter 3, then, provides a more current and general overview of the Education System in the
United Kingdom by offering first (1) a definition of term education and, secondly, an analysis
of (2) the Education System in the United Kingdom, in which we include an approach to (a) the
English Educational System regarding (i) state education, (ii) independent schools, (iii)
universities, and (iv) extracurricular education; and then (b) the Educational System in Northern
Ireland, (c) the Educational System in Wales, and (d) the Educational System in Scotland,
which is different from the previous ones. Finally, Chapter 4 will be devoted to the main
educational implications in language teaching regarding the introduction of this issue in the
classroom setting; Chapter 5 will offer a conclusion to broadly overview our present study, and
Chapter 6 will include all the bibliography for further references.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

An influential introduction to the Education System in the United Kingdom is based on

Bromhead, Life in Modern Britain (1962); Howatt, A history of English Language teaching
(1984); and Richards, J., & Rodgers, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (1992).
Other sources include the Encyclopaedia Larousse 2000 (2000); the Encyclopedia Britannica
(2004); and the following up-to-date websites: www.historylearningsite.co.uk (2004),
http://en.wikipedia.org; and http://www.know-britain.com.

The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative

competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most

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complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the
guidelines in B.O.E. (2004) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; the Council of Europe, Modern
Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of reference
(1998); and van Ek and Trim, Vantage (2001).

2. A HISTORY OF THE MODERN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED

KINGDOM.

Chapter 2 offers a history of the modern system of education in the United Kingdom so as to
better understand the current educational system in England, Northern Ireland, Wales and
Scotland. In doing so, we have offered a historical overview of education from (1) ancient times
and (2) medieval times, up to (3) modern times, where we have further examined the main
events during (a) the nineteenth century, namely regarding the 1870 Educational Act, and
during (b) the twentieth century, with respect to other Educational Acts up to the present day.

2.1. Ancient times.

Following the website www.know-britain (2004), regarding general education in England, ever
since the existence of man the teaching and learning process has been an integral part of human
experience. The communication of knowledge and practical skills has always been essential to
the development of individuals, groups and wider communities. If this is true of the most
primitive of communities it is all the more so in todays complex society where personal
fulfilment depends to a large extent on one's social role which is often a direct result of acquired
knowledge and the ability to make the most of it. The ability to develop ones critical sense, the
ability to analyse, to see how things and persons relate are all skills that are the result of
education.

Moreover, it was not long before communities realised that if they needed people of ability
then it had to encourage education. After all a society of any kind is not a mere abstraction but a
number of individuals that are in some way are related and interact. The development of society
as a whole depends on the development of each constituent part. Even the Homo Habilis of the
Stone Age had to learn to make rudimentary weapons to defend himself and to hunt for food. He
had to learn how to use the skins of the animals to make basic protective clothing. The
transmission of knowledge and skills (education) allowed him to survive.

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So, we can affirm that education (in the sense of language teaching) traces back to ancient
civilizations. Also, as Richards & Rodgers (1992) state, the function of the earliest educational
systems was primarily to teach religion and to promote the traditions of the people. Thus, in the
Old Testament, one of the aims and methods of education among the ancient Jewish traditions
was to teach their children a foreign la nguage. Yet, it was around the fifth century B.C that in
ancient India the early states of language were written down as a set of rules which, in fact,
became a grammar of Sanskrit whose effects went far beyond the original intentions of the
authors.

2.2. Medieval times.

During the Middle Ages (15th-16th century), the early educational systems of the nations of the
Western world emanated from the Judea-Christian religious traditions, which were combined
with traditions derived from ancient Greece philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
According to Howatt (1984), Christianity in the Middle Ages became a powerful force in the
countries of the Mediterranean region and other areas in Europe. Many monastic schools, as
well as municipal and cathedral schools, were founded during the centuries of early Christian
influence.
Actually, following the website www.know-britain, some of these early schools built by the
time formal education was already taking shape in Britain still survive nowadays. During the
Middles Ages, schools ranged from those organised by the local parish to those connected to
Cathedrals, chantries and monasteries. These gave a very elementary education where pupils
were given religious instruction and were taught to read. From this period we have the first
grammar schools that prepared pupils for entrance into the colleges in Oxford and another very
prestigious institution, Eton College, which was founded by Henry VI in 1440. It is worth
mentioning that both Winchester College and Eton College still exist as very exclusive
institutions.

Apart from those already mentioned there are a number of other ancient schools that still
survive, such as St Pauls School founded in 1509 by John Colet (1467?-1519). All of these
institutions provided specialised knowledge in Latin and Greek necessary for their future studies
in one of the Oxford colleges. Apart from these academically orientated institutions there were
also other forms of formal education especially those of a vocational kind. Apprentices learnt
their trade skills in schools run by the various guilds.

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As we can see, this double choice, dating from the age of primitive man down to the Middle
Ages and the Renaissance, is still present in the modern system of education in England today.
So, from early times we have two separate systems providing different types of education:
academic and vocational. Similarly, we also see existing side by side two types of educational
institutio ns: secular and religious since there has always been a close association between the
Church and education which has survived throughout the ages. Schools run by religious
organisations have always had a profound influence on the development of education and still
offer an invaluable service to the nation.

Teachings, then, centered on grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and
music, and the chief storehouse of learning were the monasteries, which maintained archives
that preserved many manuscripts of the preceding classical culture, and durin g this period
universities were established in several countries, such as Italy, Spain, France and England.
Medieval education also took the form of apprenticeship training in some craft or service. As a
rule, however, education was the privilege of the upper classes, and most members of the lower
classes had no opportunity for formal learning.

During the Renaissance period educators emphasized such subjects as history, geography,
music, and physical training, and taught mostly in Latin grammar schools. Montaigne, among
others, in the sixteenth century and Comenius and John Locke in the seventeenth century,
promoted alternative approaches to education, making specific proposals for curriculum reform
and for changes in the way Latin was taught (Howatt 1984), but since Latin had for so long been
regarded as the classical and therefore most ideal form of language, the role of language study
in the curriculum reflected the long-established status of Latin.

Beginning around the 16th century, French, Italian, and English gained in importance as a result
of political changes in Europe, and Latin gradually became displaced as a language of spoken
and written communication. In the seventeenth century, language study and therefore, education
was to be promoted in subsequent centuries through the fields of philosophy, logic, rhetoric,
sociology, and religion, among others, providing the framework for the main task of linguistic
scholars. This was basically to study and understand the general principles upon which all
languages are built and in doing so, teach them better. Some of those methodological and
theoretical principles and ideas are still used within the field of education nowadays.

Also, during the 17th century there was a rapid growth of scientific knowledge , which gave rise
to its inclusion in courses in the universities of the European countries and led to the exchange
and spread of scientific and cultural ideas throughout Europe. Children entering grammar

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school in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries in England were initially given a
rigorous introduction to Latin grammar (Howatt 1984) and were often met with brutal
punishment. Latin was said to develop intellectual abilities, and the study of Latin grammar
became an end in itself.

2.3. Modern times.

Following www.know-britain (2004), the events that lead directly to the birth of the modern
system of education in England are to be sought mainly in the second half of the 19th-century.
There were certain individuals at the beginning of the 19th century who were in favour of
widespread education, however, for a number of reasons, they did not have the backing either of
the government or of the people. Later on in the century leaders of the Chartist Movement and
the Radicals were in favour of some sort of national system of education. However, it is safe to
say that there was no widespread desire for the education of the population as a whole. In the
social legislation of this period education did not become a real priority until the year of the first
Education Act, 1870. Let us examine the steps that led to the English Modern Educational
System.

2.3.1. The nineteenth century: the 1870 Educational Act.

During the first half of the nineteenth century, several events related to education took place in
Britain. For instance, in August 1833, parliament voted sums of money each year for the
construction of schools for poor children, distributed by the Treasury, the first time the state had
become involved with education. In 1839 government grants for the construction and
maintenance of schools were switched to voluntary bodies, and became conditional on a
satisfactory inspection, and next year, in 1840 the Grammar Schools Act expanded the
Grammar School curriculum from classical studies to include science and literature.

Before 1870, education was largely a private affair, with wealthy parents sending their children
to fee-paying schools. The Forster Elementary Education Act of 1870 required partially state
funded board schools to be set up to provide primary (elementary) education in areas where
existing provision was inadequate. Board schools were managed by elected school boards. The
schools remained fee-paying. The previous government grant scheme established 1833 ended on
December 31, 1870. Then, under the 1880 Elementary Education Act, education became free
up to the age of 10, but was also made compulsory up until that age as well.

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Yet, the 1891 Free Education Act provided for the state payment of school fees up to ten
shillings per week. Later on, the 1893 Elementary Education (School Attendance) Act raised
the school leaving age to 11 and later to 13. The Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf
Children) Act of the same year extened compulsory education to blind and deaf children, and
made provision for the creation of special schools. And finally, by the end of the century, the
Voluntary Schools Act of 1897 provided grants to public elementary schools not funded by
school boards.

2.3.2. The twentieth century: other Educational Acts.

Also, by the turn of the century many changes took place within the field of education. For
instance, the first change occurred in April 1900 when higher elementary schools were
recognised, providing education from the age of 10 to 15. Two years later, the 1902 Balfour
Education Act created Local Education Authorities (LEAs), who took over responsibility for
board schools from the school boards. Grammar schools also became funded by the LEA.
In 1918 the Fisher Education Act made secondary education compulsory up to age 14 and gave
responsibility for secondary education schools to the state. Under the Act, many higher
elementary schools and endowed grammar school sought to become state funded central schools
or secondary schools. However, most children attended primary (elementary) school up until
age 14, rather than going to a separate school for secondary education. Then, after the passing
of the 1929 Local Government Act, Poor Law schools became state funded elementary schools.
Moreover, the Butler Education Act of 1944 established the Tripartite System, and defined the
modern split between Primary and Secondary education at age 11. Finally, education was
made compulsory up to age 15 in 1947.

Then, during the Post-War period, due to the failures of the Tripartite system, the Labour
government of the time requested proposals from all the UKs regions for them to move from
the Tripartite system to Comprehensive Schools. Note that this was an optional reform for the
regions, and as of late 2003 some regions still have the Tripartite System. Education was made
compulsory up to age 16 in 1972. Seven years later, following the 1979 General Election, the
Conservative party regained power in central government, and made two main changes in this
period.

First, though the Labour Party had done some small efforts beforehand, the Conservative Party
achieved the considerable expansion of New Vocationalism. This was seen as an effort to
reduce the high youth unemployment figures, which were seen as one of the causes of the

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rioting that was relatively commonplace at the end of the seventies. Secondly, the introduction
of the Assisted Places scheme which was introduced in 1980, where gifted children who could
not afford to go to fee-paying schools would be given free places in those schools if they could
pass the schools entrance exam.

However, more important changes were just about to happen in the 1980s as for instance the
Education Reform Act of 1988, which made quite a few changes to the system of education.
These changes were aimed at creating an education market so that schools were competing
against each other for customers (pupils), and that bad schools would lose pupils and close,
leaving only the good schools open. The reforms include the following changes:

The introduction of the National Curriculum, which forced schools to teach certain
subjects, as opposed to the choice of subjects being up to the school as had previously
been the case.
The Assessments of the National Curriculum at the key stages 1 to 3 (ages 7, 11, 14
respectively) through what were formerly called SATs. At key stage 4 (age 16), the
assessments were done with the GCSE exam.
The introduction of the so-called League Tables, which started to be compiled showing
statistics for each school, which are published in newspapers so parents can see which
schools are doing well in each area of the country and which arent.
The introduction of formula funding, which basically meant that the more children a
school could attract to it, the more money it got.
Open Enrolment and choice for parents were brought back, so that parents could
(within limits) choose what school their children went to.
The establishment of the OFSTED, an inspection committee which was set up to inspect
schools.
Finally, the choice for schools to be able to opt out of local government control,
becoming opt-out schools and receiving funding direct from central government if
enough of their pupils parents agreed. The enticement for schools was that the
government offered more money than the school would get from the local authority, and
this was seen as a political move given that local authorities were not run by the
Conservative party as a rule, and central government was.

The 1990s are characterized by the New Labours Educational Policies from 1997 onward.
Actually, following the 1997 General Election, the Labour party regained power in central
government. New Labours political ideology meant that most of the changes introduced by the

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Conservatives during their time in power stayed. Hence, the main changes that the Labour
Party stated are as follows:

A new focus on tailoring education to each childs ability substituted the previous
Labour focus on the Comprehensive system. Critics see this as reminiscent of the
original (and proven to have failed) intentions of the Tripartite system.
Comprehensives are being turned into specialist schools (known as Centres of
Excellence), which will teach the National Curriculum subjects plus a few specialist
branches of knowledge (e.g. business studies) not found in most other schools. These
schools will be allowed to select 10% of their pupils.
New percentages since in 1997 there were 196 of these schools, and by August 2002
there were 1000. By 2006 the plan is to have 2000, and the goal is to make all
secondary schools specialist eventually.
The introduction of the concept of Beacon schools, by means of which, in any area of
deprivation, a school that is doing well is marked as a Beacon school, and shares its
ideas and methods with other less successful schools.
The introduction of academies, which are schools that have done so badly as to close,
and have been reopened under the control of central government and local
businesses/interested third parties.
The introduction of Education Action Zones, which are deprived areas run by an
action forum of people within that area with the intention of make that area's schools
better.
The restructuring and renaming of vocational qualifications as follows: GNVQs became
Vocational GCSEs and AVCEs whereas NVQs scope expanded so that a degree-
equivalent NVQ was possible.
The introduction of the New Deal, which made advisors available to long-term
unemployed (in the UK this is defined as being unemployed for more than 6 months) to
give help and money to those who want to go back into Education.
The introduction of set targets for literacy and numeracy hours into schools, such as Set
Truancy targets.
The setting of a maximum class size of 30 for 5-7 year olds.
The introduction of the EMA, which is paid to those between 16 and 18 as an
enticement to remain in full-time education and get A-Levels/AVCEs.
The introduction of Curriculum 2000, which reformed the Further Education system
into the current structure of AS levels, A2 levels and Key Skills.
The abolition of the Assisted Places scheme.

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In the 20th century Education became a sensitive social, economic and political issue in most
European countries. England was no exception. In the history of English education the most
important piece of legislation of the twentieth century was the Education Act of 1944, also
known as the Butler Act. It replaced all previous legislation. It became increasingly clear that
education was of vital importance to the nation and to the individual and the legislation passed
necessarily reflected this conviction. It also reflected political tendencies, as well as the social
and economic needs of the nation.

3. THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

Chapter 3 provides a more current and general overview of the Education System in the United
Kingdom by offering first (1) a definition of term education and, secondly, an analysis of (2)
the Education System in the United Kingdom, in which we include an approach to (a) the
English Educational System regarding (i) state education, (ii) independent schools, (iii)
universities, and (iv) extracurricular education; and then (b) the Educational System in Northern
Ireland, (c) the Educational System in Wales, and (d) the Educational System in Scotland,
which is different from the previous ones.

3.1. Definition: What is education?

On defining the term education we shall follow Howatt (1984), who stated that a thorough
education consists not only of the acquisition of knowledge, but the physical, mental, emotional,
moral, and social development of the individual. Also, following wikipedia (2004), we may say
that education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less
tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, good judgement and wisdom. One of
the fundamental goals of education is to impart culture across the generations. Hence,
according to Howatt (1984), the early Greek aim was to prepare intellectually young people to
take leading roles in the activities of the state and of society, and Romans considered the
teaching of rhetoric and oratory important, with particular attention to the development of
character.

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3.2. The Education System in the United Kingdom.

Similarly, formal education occurs when society makes a commitment to educate people,
usually the young. Formal education can be systematic and thorough, but the sponsoring group
may seek selfish advantages when shaping impressionable young scholars. It is worth
remembering that education in England may differ from the system used elsewhere in the
United Kingdom. Actually, there are two main systems: one covering England, Wales and
Northern Ireland and one covering Scotland.

Basically, the two education systems have different emphases. For instance, on the one hand,
traditionally the English, Welsh and Northern Irish system has emphasised depth of education
whereas the Scottish system has emphasised breadth. Thus English, Welsh and Northern Irish
students tend to sit a small number of more advanced examinations and Scottish students tend to
sit a larger number of less advanced examinations. It should be noted that local English practice
can vary from this general picture although Scottish practice is well nigh universal. So, let us
examine the four main types within the United Kingdom.

3.2.1. The English Educational System.

Before examining the main types of education institutions in England, it is worth introducing
some general considerations regarding the students age, school years (which are closely
related), costs, types of schools, types of examination, details about the academic year in terms
of time, and the different stages within formal education (primary, secondary, tertiary
(university) education and so on).

First of all, regarding age, following Bromhead (1962), education is compulsory for all
children aged 5 to 16 years. Nine-tenths of all children are educated in state schools
(actually run by the local education authorities). In general, the cut-off point for ages is
the end of August, so all children must be of a particular age on the 1st of September in
order to begin class that month.

With respect to the school years the division between primary and secondary education
is at the age of eleven, when almost all children in the state system change schools. At
the age of sixteen about two-thirds of these pupils leave school and get jobs or
apprenticeships (if they can). A large proportion take part-time (or full-time) courses,

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 mainly related to work-skills, in the technical and commercial colleges which are also
operated by local authorities 1 .

Hence, within primary education we the school years are divided into: primary
education, infant School or Primary School, reception years (age 4 to 5), Year 1 (age 5
to 6), Year 2 (age 6 to 7; KS1 National Curriculum Tests England only); Junior School
or Primary School, ranging from year 3 to year 6, that is, Year 3 (age 7 to 8), Year 4
(age 8 to 9), Year 5 (age 9 to 10), Year 6 (age 10 to 11; eleven plus exams in some areas
of England, KS2 National Curriculum Tests).

Within secondary education, we find the Middle School, High School or Secondary
School which ranges from year 7 to year 9, for instance, Year 7 (old First Form; age 11
to 12), Year 8 (old Second Form; age 12 to 13), Year 9 (old Third Form; age 13 to 14;
KS3 National Curriculum Tests, known as SATs (Standard Assessment Tests)). Then,
we find the Upper School or Secondary School from year 10 to year 11, for instance,
Year 10 (known as old Fourth Form, age 14 to 15), Year 11 (old Fifth Form; age 15 to
16 where students take old O Level examinations, modern GCSE examinations).
Finally, we find the Upper School, Secondary School, or Sixth Form College, from year
12 to year 13, for instance, Year 12 or Lower Sixth (age 16 to 17 (AS-level
examinations)), and Year 13 or Upper Sixth (age 17 to 18, where students take A2-level
examinations. Both AS-levels and A2-levels count towards A-levels.).

Regarding costs, the costs for a normal education in the United Kingdom include no
charge for Primary, Secondary Education, and Further (Secondary) Education in either
a sixth form or college. Yet, Primary and Secondary education can also be charged for,
if a fee-paying school is attended by the child in question (i.e. public schools).
Moreover, there is no charge if under 19 in that particular academic year or on a low
income. However, Higher/Tertiary Education (at University) has a tuition fee per year
(around 1,000).

In addition, regarding the types of schools, we find state schools, which are free; private
schools, which have to pay fees; grammar schools, which can be private or public, but
have to pass an exam to enter the school (high level of intelligence); preparatory

1
In some regions of England, pupils attend a Lower (Primary) School before going to, a Middle School between 8
and 12 or, more commonly 9 and 13, and then a High School or Upper School. Other, more vocational qualifications
offered including GNVQs and BTECs.

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 schools, which prepare children (age 7-13 years) for public boarding school (private);
boarding school, where children (age 11/13-18) board termly or weekly; and finally,
public schools, another type of boarding school but for the more elite, which cost much
more than a normal private school (i.e. Eton and Harrow).

Following Bromhead (1962:143), the state system has effectively taken over and
incorporated most of the schools originally founded by churches. Complex laws define
the right of a church to keep some power, including influence over appointment of some
teachers, in a school to whose costs it makes a small contribution. Actually, about
one-quarter of children aged under eleven are in Church of England schools, but there
are few Church of England secondary schools. There is, on the other hand, a whole
range of Catholic primary and secondary schools, including some newly-built. Some
parents prefer not to use the state system but pay for their children to be educated at
independent schools. These account for el ss than one-tenth of all chidren, but this
private sector includes the so-called public schools, some of whose names are known
all over the world, and whose importance is out of proportion to their numbers.

Regarding types of examination, preparation for examination is not the first purpose of
education, but before we go on to look at the various types of schools in detail it may be
useful to mention the main certificates which indicate educational attainments.
Moderately assiduous children take the Certificate of Secondary Education (C.S.E.)
which indicates satisfactory completion of schooling to sixteen. More ambitious
children take the examinations for the General Certificate of Education (G.C.E.) at
ordinary level. This may be taken in any number of subjects, and some children take as
many as ten subjects. Many, after gaining this certificate, leave school to start training
for various careers; the certificate is the required starting-point for many types of
professional training (Bromhead, 1962:144).

Most young people who stay at school after passing their ordinary level examinations
prepare themselves for an attempt to win a certificate at advanced level, usually in only
two or three subjects. During the last years at school the pupils are almost obliged to
specialise in narrow fields, as the advanced level certificate demands intensive study of
the two or three subjects in which the examination is taken. Some people believe that
English education at this level is too higly specialised. In Scotla nd it is much broader
and the Scottish Higher Certificate may well cover five subjects.

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 Also, the examinations for the General Certificate of Education are not conducted by
the state or by any public authority, but by various examining boards, each of which
arranges its syllabus, prepares question-papers, grades the candidates and awards
certificates. In England there are six of these examining boards, each connected with a
university or a group of universities, and certain other boards as well. The examinations
set by the different boards differ in content and arrangement, but not in difficulty. In
practice each school prepares its pupils for the examination of one of the boards.

A student who receives further full-time education after the age of eighteen, either at a
university or at some other college giving training of a special type, can usually receive
a grant from the public authorities to cover his expenses, or almost all of them, unless
his parents have a large income. But the number of young people who can enter
universities is limited by the capacity of the universities, which is less than enough to
take all the young people who have the basic qualifications, in the form of general
certificates at advanced level, for university admission. In practice, therefore, entry to
the universities is competitive. But university degree courses are also available at
polytechnics, and entry to the Open University is less restricted.

Regarding some details about the academic year in terms of time, we may say that the
teaching day is typically divided into seven periods of forty minutes each, and these
include periods for football, hockey and other sports on the playing fields beside the
school buildings, as well as for Physical Education in the gymnasium
(Bromhead:1962:149). Then in general, the academic year begins after the summer
holidays and is divided into three terms, with the intervals between them formed by
the Christmas and Easter holidays. The exact dates of the holiday vary from area to
area, being in general about two weeks at Christmas and Easter, plus often a week or
more at Whitsun, and six weeks in the summer, beginning rather late. Schools outside
the state system decide on their own holiday dates, generally taking a month off at
Christmas and Easter and eight weeks in the summer. The three terms are not
everywhere called by the same names; some schools call the January-March period the
Spring Term, others call it Easter Term, Hilary Term or Epiphany Term. All this
illustrates a very English individualism, harmless enough but confusing and often rather
pointless (Bromhead, 1962:144-5).

Day-schools mostly work Mondays to Fridays only, from about 9 a.m. to between 3
and 4 p.m. Lunch is provided and parents pay part of the cost unless, by a complicated
formula, they show that their income is low enough to entitle them to free childrens

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 meals. For instance, out of 9 million children of all ages in maintained schools in
1977, 5 million took schools meals, 14% of them without payment; the rest brought
their own sandwiches or went home for lunch.

Finally, among the different stages within formal education, we must mention early
childhood education, primary education, secondary education, tertiary education,
quaternary education, higher education, vocational education, post-secondary education,
university, college, and further education regarding independent schools and
extracurricular education.

3.2.1.2. State education.

Following Bromhead (1962:146-150), state education is in two main stages: primary up to the
age of eleven, and secondary from eleven to eighteen. The primary stage is subdivided, with the
period between five and seven years being generally called infants. Nearly all children change
schools at the age of eleven, even if they have to travel a long way to the secondary school.
Boys and girls are together in nearly all primary schools, and at the secondary level only a few
separate schools for boys or girls still survive. The changeover to co-educational secondary
education has been accepted with virtually no opposition.

Everywhere in England the education committee of the local elected council is responsible for
all the schools, except for those which are independent and a few which receive direct grants
from the state and form a special category [independent schools and extracurricular education].
The state schools in inner London are run by the Inner London Education Authority, in outer
London by the London boroughs, in metropolitan counties by the districts. In all of the rest of
England the schools are under the control of the county councils. The education committee of a
council which has charge of schools is known as the Local Education Authority.

State laws provide a general framework within which the schools operate and the central
government provides a large part of the money, but there is only a fairly loose state control over
the schools throughout the country. The Department of Education and Science establishes
standards to which schools ought to conform and it sends out Her Majestys Inspectors, who are
officials of the Department, to visit and make thorough reports on the work of every school
from time to time. They give advice to the teachers and suggest new ideas, but their function is
above all advisory. In every school the head teacher has a great deal of autonomy in deciding
what is to be taught and how the teaching is to be carried out.

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Most primary schools are wholly owned and controlled (technically maintained) by the local
authorities, but about one-third belong to churches, either Anglican or Roman Catholic, having
been founded by religious bodies with the idea of providing not only general education but also
religious instruction according to the ideas of particular denominations. When education became
universal and free these church schools were taken into the general system but kept some degree
of independence. The general principle is that the more money the church contributes towards
the cost of maintaining the buildings the more independence it keeps 2 , the more positions on the
board of managers, the more control over the appointment of teachers.

Within state education the present system (21st century) comprises children ranging between 5
and 11. It is during this time that children attend the primary school and then progress to
secondary school level, which normally means entry into a Comprehensive School. It is worth
noting that before the introduction of Comprehensive Schools the state education system in
England was essentially tripartite and was made up of grammar schools, secondary modern
schools, and secondary technical schools. Officially, a Comprehensive school is defined as the
type of school which is intended to provide all the secondary education of all the children in a
given area without an organisation in the tripartite system.

Among the Comprehensive Schools are also the Voluntary denominational schools (particularly
strong are the Roman Catholic Comprehensive Schools). These schools take all pupils
regardless of ability (except those children with special needs who attend special schools). They
therefore cater for children from a variety of social backgrounds, hence the name
"comprehensive". There is no examination or any other selection process for entry.
Comprehensive Schools, however, have not eliminated distinctions. There is what is called
streaming and setting according to learning ability. This means that students are grouped
together in order to achieve a degree of uniformity in classes.

Secondary schools of all types try seriously to build up the sense that the school is a real
community, with its hierarchy of order and authority. Every school wants a hall, big enough to
accommodate all the pupils, and this is expensive to build. The curriculum for children aged 11
to 16 gives them scope for choice, and the Certificate of Secondary Education enables children
to be examined in skills which are not strictly academic, as well as in the normal academic
school subjects. Actually, local authorities also provide technical and commercial colleges,
which are remarkably active and many-sided institutions, whose work is developing very

2
In the schools not connected with churches, religion is not neglected. In all schools run by local
authorities the day must, by law, begin with prayers, and there is religious instruction, though both the
prayers and the religious teaching are supposed to be Christian without learning towards any particular
type of Christianity.

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rapidly. They are for the most part not like ordinary schools, in that most of their pupils, or
rather their students, are not undergoing full-time courses of instruction.

3.2.1.3. Independent schools.

As mentioned above, outside the state system, we find other British institutions, such as the so-
called independent schools which are of many different types: private schools, which have to
pay fees; grammar schools, which can be private or public, but have to pass an exam to enter the
school (high level of intelligence); preparatory schools, which prepare children (age 7-13 years)
for public boarding school (private); boarding school, where children (age 11/13-18) board
termly or weekly; and finally, public schools, another type of boarding school but for the more
elite, which cost much more than a normal private school (i.e. Eton and Harrow).
According to Bromhead (1962:151-2), in this private-sector of education, most of their pupils
are sent to them because their parents wish to exercise choice and are willing and able to pay
fees. A small proportion of pupils are paid for by local authorities for various reasons. These
reasons may include the absence of a state school with facilities suitable for a child or for its
parents requirements. Yet, the term public school is obviously misleading, because the
schools are in fact private.

Like other British institutions, public schools had changed so much since their founding that
they were unrecognizable by the age of Victoria. Although the seven elite boarding schools
(Eton, Harrow, Westminster, Rugby, Winchester, Charterhouse, and Shrewsbury) and two
London day schools (St. Pauls and Merchant Taylorss) identified as Public Schools certainly
educated many major figures, some historians blame them for doing far more harm than good to
the nation (wikipedia, 2004). Let us briefly examine their history.

Virtually all secondary and tertiary (university) educational institutions in Great Britain were
originally founded to train clergy for the established church, the Church of England (or the
Anglican Church, as it was also known). Since members of the comparatively tiny nobility and
wealthy classes had private tutors, many, if not all, the public schools were intended for the
deserving poor. By the nineteenth century many of these schools had become means of upward
mobility, not for the poor, but for the upper-middle classes, who wished to move their children
into the aristocracy.

By the time Thomas Arnold, the poets father, assumed the headmastership of Rugby, Public
Schools had become characterized by dreadful teaching, archaic curricula, bullying, sexual

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abuse, and dreadful living conditions. Rugby led the way in raising the general moral tone of
Public Schools and for a time even pioneered modern practices of art education for children and
other innovations. Nonetheless, even at their best, Public Schools concerned themselves more
with producing gentlemen than with preparing their graduates for the economic, political, and
technological challenges facing contemporary England.

Moreover, the assimilation of the British business classes to the social pattern of the gentry and
aristocracy had proceeded very rapidly from the mid nineteenth century, the period when so
many of the so-called public schools were founded, or reformed by finally excluding the poor
for whom they had originally been intended. In 1869 they were more or less set free from all
government control and set about elaborating that actively anti-intellectual, anti-scientific,
games-dominated Tory imperialism which was to remain characteristic of them.

Unfortunately, the public school formed the model of the new system of secondary education,
which the less privileged sectors of the new middle classes were allowed to construct for
themselves after the Education Act of 1902, and whose main aim was to exclude from education
the children of the working classes, which had unfortunately won the right to university primary
education in 1870. Knowledge, especially scientific knowledge, therefore took second place to
the maintenance of a rigid division between the classes. The British therefore entered the
twentieth century and the age of modern science and technology as a spectacularly ill-educated
people.

If Public Schools failed to notice the importance of science and technology and hence had little
effect on these fields, they also did little to advance literature and culture. To be fair, one must
add that a few major British authors attended Public Schools: Matthew Arnold of course
attended Rugby, where his father was headmaster, and so did Arthur Hugh Clough. Anthony
Trollope did poorly at both both Harrow and Winchester, William Morris attended Marlborough
for several years, leaving after school riots. Arthur Henry Hallam studied at Eton, and Charles
Lutwidge Dodgson (Lewis Carroll) went to Westminster.

3.2.1.4. The universities.

There are more than forty universities in Britain, which are to be classified into five main
categories: ancient universities (founded before the nineteenth century), red brick universities
(founded in the nineteenth and early twentieth century), glass plate universities (founded in the
years after WWII), new universities (formed when the distinction in status between polytechnic

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colleges and universities was abandoned in 1992), and finally, the open university or distance-
learning university (founded in 1968). It must be borne in mind that the University of London
and the University of Wales are unusual in that their colleges/constituent instit utions are treated
as universities in their own right.

Following Bromhead (1962:157-166), all British universities are private institutions. Each has
its own governing council, including some local businessmen and local politicians as well as a
few academics. The vast majority of British universities are state financed, with only one
private university - the University of Buckingham - where students have to pay all their fees.
However, none of the universities are actually state-owned. British undergraduate students (and
students from other EU countries) have to pay fees and living costs, but every student may
receive from the local authority of the place a personal grant (including lodging and food)
unless his parents are rich. Then their university fees go up to a maximum of approximately
1,000 (assessed on the basis of the income of the student and of the students family).

At this point it is worth noting that students in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland are also
eligible for a means-tested grant, and many universities provide bursaries to poorer students.
International students are not subsidised by the state and so have to pay much higher fees
similar to those paid at Ivy League universities in the USA. In principal all postgraduate
students are liable for fees, though a variety of scholarship and assistantship schemes exist
which may provide support (wikipedia, 2004). Similarly, following Bromhead (1962:158),
the Government gives money to the universitites to cover the cost of buildings and to cover
almost the whole of their current expenditure. The Department of Education and Science does
not exercise direct control, but it can have important influence on new developments through its
power to allocate funds. It takes the advice of the University Grants Committee, a body which is
mainly composed of academics.

The first postgraduate degree is normally that of Master, conferred for a thesis based on at least
one years full-time work; the time actually taken is usually more than a year. Recently there
has been an increase in Masters degrees based mainly on course work and examinations. In
most universities it is only in the science faculties that any large numbers of students stay to do
postgraduate work. Oxford and Cambridge are peculiar in that they give the Master of Arts
degree automatically to any Bachelor who pays the necessary fees at any time after the seventh
year from his first admission to the university, and in Scotland the degree of Master of Arts is
given as a first degree, being equivalent to an English Bachelors degree.

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Following Bromhead (1962:163), each university decides each year how many students it
proposes to admit to each of its courses, and chooses the right number of applicants on the basis
of merit. People who wish to enter a university fill up a long form which they obtain from the
Universities Central Council for Admissions, and name up to five universitites at which they
would like to study particular courses, in their order of preference. For each course at a
unversity, applicants are placed in order of apparent merit and merit is judged by a
combination of examinations marks, school teachers confidential reports and (in some cases)
special written and/or oral tests.

Following wikipedia (2004), British universities tend to have a strong reputation

internationally, although this is limited to a small number of internationally known universities
(notably Oxford, Cambridge and a few of the London colleges). Within Britain a universitys
reputation is sometimes proportional to its age. However this distinction is becoming blurred
with the top red brick universities challenging Oxbridge, a development accelerated by the
introduction of league tables ranking university teaching and research in which Oxford and
Cambridge are sometimes matched or beaten by other universities. Despite this, there is still a
clear two-tier system in operation, with less well-considered universities often struggling to
attract able students, staff and funding. Many of the less highly regarded universities have had
to expand into new areas (such as media studies and sports science) in order to compete3 . Let
us examine the different types of universities and see why they have a special eminence.

Among the most ancient universities founded before the nineteenth century in the
United Kingdom, it is important to mention in order of formation (date of foundation):
the University of Oxford (1249), University of Cambridge (1284), University of St
Andrews (1411), University of Glasgow (1451), University of Aberdeen (1494), and the
University of Edinburgh (1583). Out of the United Kingdom it is relevant to mention
the University of Dublin, founded in 1592 by the Queen Elizabeth I.

Thus, Oxford is regarded as the oldest university in the English-speaking world and
Cambridge, as the second oldest academic institution. According to legend, the latter

3
Hence, recent academic analysis of published statistics has pointed to the existence of 4 groupings of
universities in terms of academic performance: the elites, the top old universities, the other old
universities, and the new universities (ex-polytechnics and others that have achieved university status
since 1992). The elite group consists of Oxford, Cambridge, UCL and Imperial. The other members of the
Russell Group lie in the second tier of 22 universities, along with Bath, Durham, Leicester, Queens
University Belfast, St Andrews, UMIST and York (wikipedia, 2004).

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 was founded in 1209 by scholars escaping Oxford after a fight with locals. Both of them
are often referred to as Oxbridge, a portmanteau which makes reference to its old age.
They are peculiar in that they give the Master of Arts degree automatically to any
Bachelor who pays the necessary fees at any time after the seventh year from his first
admission to the university; and also in that they are referred to together as Oxbridge,
vie for the position of best overall university in the UK.

Also, unlike the most selective American universities, Oxford and Cambridge are public
institutions seeking only the best students, and do not practise legacy preference, that
is, in the case of children of affluent parents who attended Harvard these are far more
likely to be successful in the applications process than those who have no previous link
with the university.

Regarding the University of St Andrews, it was founded in 1413 and is regarded as the
oldest university in Scotland; the university of Glasgow was founded in 1451 as a
School of Divinity, and was part of the citys cathedral. It is said to be the largest of the
three universities in Scotland; these two, together with the University of Aberdeen
(1494) are ecclesiastical foundations, while the University of Edinburgh (1583) is a city
foundation.

With respect to red brick universities, these were founded in the nineteenth and early
twentieth century, and are called like that because of the material with which the outside
was covered (red brick) and because of the industrial period in which they were
founded. They represent those institutions of higher education founded in most of the
biggest industrial towns and in a few other centres. They were also called university
colleges, because they were not universities in their own right among which we include
the universities of London, Durham, Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds,
Sheffield, Bristol, Reading, Nottingham, Leicester, Southampton, Exeter, Hull and
Newcastle upon Tyne. 4

glass plate universities were founded in the years after WWII, each in a campus near a
not-too-large, not-too-industrial town. We refer to the universities of Staffordshire,
York and Lancaster, Sussex, Kent, Warwick, Essex and East Anglia. According to
Bromhead (1962:162), taking the name from the county seems to reflect American
ideas. Each of these new universities, like Keele, has its own approach to teaching.

4
In Wales there are four similar institutions, dating from the same period, united rather uncomfortably
as the University of Wales (Bromhead, 1962:161).

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 Other new universities were formed in the middle 1960s when five hundred local
technical colleges maintained by local authorities gained special prestige under a
further new development in education. Thus, following Bromhead (1962:162), by
1967 then of these had been given charters as new universities, though still
concentrating mostly on science and technology, with languages and social sciences on
a smaller scale. Most of these are in the biggest cities where there are already
established universities, and now some cities have two universit ies each when the
distinction in status between polytechnic colleges and universities was abandoned in
1992).

Among this type of universities we include the University of Aston (Birmingham),

Salford (close to Manchester), Strathclyde (Glasgow), Heriot-Watt University
(Edinburgh), Brunel (London) and the City University of London; also universities at
Bradford (Yorkshire) and Loughborough (near Nottingham). A few others among
these newest foundations are being developed in completely new sites; thus the Bristol
College of Technology has become the University of Bath, in completely new buildings
30 kilometres from its original home. Also, the old Battersea Technical College (South
London) has become the new University of Surrey, at Guildford, 50 kilometres away.

and finally, the open university or distance-learning university which was founded in
1968 and is considered as an independent type of University, though still linked to
formal education.

3.2.1.5. Extracurricular education.

Yet, although the technical and commercial colleges are doing so much in the field of education
for adolescents and adults, there are still other types of adult education which are flourishing in
a different way. The Workers Educational Association is a voluntary organisation, which now
works in collaboration with university extra-mural boards which get funds, ultimately, from the
state. Their main function is the provision of weekly meetings of classes for adults, during the
winter months, for discussion of subjects of the type which are studied in universities, but
without leading to diplomas or certificates (wikipedia, 2004). Also, other extracurricular ways
of education are the Academic Decathlon, the University Interscholastic League (UIL), and the
International Science Olympiad.

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3.2.2. The Educational System in Northern Ireland.

As stated above, the Educational System in the United Kingdom is approached from two
perspectives: one system covers England, Wales and Northern Ireland and one covers Scotland,
where the two education systems have different emphases. Hence the Educational System in
Northern Ireland may differ from the system used elsewhere in the United Kingdom namely in
two aspects: first, that traditionally the English, Welsh and Northern Irish system has
emphasised depth of education whereas the Scottish system has emphasised breadth. Secondly,
English, Welsh and Northern Irish students tend to sit a small number of more advanced
examinations and Scottish students tend to sit a larger number of less advanced examinations.

In general, the cut-off point for ages is the end of August, so all children must be of a particular
age on the 1st of September in order to begin class that month. The school years are divided as
follows: (1) Primary Education, which is divided into (a) Infant School or Primary School and
(b) Junior School or Primary School. The former being subdivided into the reception stage (age
4 to 5), Year 1 (age 5 to 6), Year 2 (age 6 to 7; KS1 National Curriculum Tests, but for England
only); and the latter into Year 3 (age 7 to 8), Year 4 (age 8 to 9), Year 5 (age 9 to 10), Year 6
(age 10 to 11), when students take the Eleven Plus exams in some areas of England; and KS2
National Curriculum Tests).

On the other hand, we find (2) Secondary Education, which is again divided into (a) Middle
School, High School or Secondary School, (b) Upper School or Secondary School, and (c)
Upper School, Secondary School, or Sixth Form College. Regarding the former one, this is
subdivided into Year 7 (old First Form, age 11 to 12), Year 8 (old Second Form, age 12 to 13),
Year 9 (old Third Form, age 13 to 14; KS3 National Curriculum Tests, known as SATs
(Standard Assessment Tests). Regarding the second type, the Upper School, this is subdivided
into Year 10 (old Fourth Form, age 14 to 15), Year 11 (old Fifth Form, age 15 to 16), when
students take the old O-Level examinations, that is, modern GCSE examinations. Finally,
regarding the latter type, that is, Upper School, Secondary School, or Sixth Form College, we
find the following subdivision: Year 12 (or Lower Sixth, age 16 to 17) when students take AS-
level examinations; and Year 13 (or Upper Sixth, age 17 to 18) when students take A2-level
examinations. Note that both AS-levels and A2-levels count towards A-level examinations.

3.2.3. The Educational System in Wales.

Similarly, Wales follow the same educational parameters as England and Northern Ireland.
Following wikipedia (2004), the system of statutory national key stage tests in Wales was,

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until 2000, the same as in England and was managed by the School Curriculum and Assessment
Authority (SCAA). In 2000, the National Assembly for Wales took responsibility for these tests
in Wales, at which point they were developed by test agencies on behalf on ACCAC, whilst the
tests in England were developed for QCA. In 2002, the Welsh Assembly decided to cease the
tests at Key Stage One. Instead, optional teacher assessment materials were provided to schools
in 2003 for use in English, mathematics and Welsh.

These had been adapted from materials that had originally been developed by NFER and the
other test agencies to be used as statutory assessment materials for 2003. At the end of 2003, the
Daugherty Report as commissioned by the Welsh Assembly to undertake a review of the
country's assessment procedures. The interim report by the committee was perceived by the
media as supporting a complete abolishment of the assessments at key stages two and three.

Within the school year organisation the only difference with the previous systems is in
terminology, so it is established as follows: (1) Primary Education, which is divided into (a)
Infant School or Primary School and (b) Junior School or Primary School. The former being
subdivided into the reception stage (age 4 to 5), Year 1 (age 5 to 6), Year 2 (age 6 to 7; but
instead of KS1 National Curriculum Tests as in England, we find the end of Key Stage One
Teacher Assessments); and the latter into Year 3 (age 7 to 8), Year 4 (age 8 to 9), Year 5 (age 9
to 10), Year 6 (age 10 to 11), when students, instead of taking the Eleven Plus exams and KS2
National Curriculum Tests as in England and Northern Ireland, coincide with the End of Key
Stage Two Tests and Tasks).

On the other hand, we find (2) Secondary Education, which is again divided into (a) Middle
School, High School or Secondary School, (b) Upper School or Secondary School and (c)
Upper School, Secondary School, or Sixth Form College. Regarding the former one, this is
subdivided into Year 7 (old First Form, age 11 to 12), Year 8 (old Second Form, age 12 to 13),
Year 9 (old Third Form, age 13 to 14; but instead of taking KS3 National Curriculum Tests,
known as SATs (Standard Assessment Tests), students take the End of Key Stage Three Tests
and Tasks).

Regarding the second type, the Upper School, this is subdivided into Year 10 (old Fourth Form,
age 14 to 15), Year 11 (old Fifth Form, age 15 to 16), when students take the old O-Level
examinations, that is, modern GCSE examinations as in England and Northern Ireland. Finally,
regarding the latter type, that is, Upper School, Secondary School, or Sixth Form College, we
find the following subdivision: Year 12 (or Lower Sixth, age 16 to 17) when students take AS-
level examinations; and Year 13 (or Upper Sixth, age 17 to 18) when students take A2-level
examinations. Note that both AS-levels and A2-levels count towards A-level examinations.

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3.2.4. The Educational System in Scotland.

Finally, regarding Scotland, it namely differs from England, Northern Ireland and Wales in that
instead of emphasizing depth of education and sitting a small number of more advanced
examinations, it emphasizes breadth of education and sitting larger number of less advanced
examinations. Note that, in general, the cut-off point for ages is still the end of August, so all
children must be of a particular age on the 1st of September in order to begin class that month.

However, there is a great difference in the organisation and terminology of school years. For
instance, in Scotland, we namely find three main stages: (1) Nursery School, which comprises
Year 1 (age 3-5), (2) Primary School, which is subdivided into Primary 1 (age range 4-6),
Primary 2 (age range 5-7), Primary 3 (age range 6-8), Primary 4 (age range 7-9), Primary 5 (age
range 8-10), Primary 6 (age range 9-11), and Primary 7 (age range 10-12); and the third and
final stage, (3) Secondary School, which is subdivided into First Year (age range 11-13),
Second Year (age range 12-14), Third Year (age range 13-15), Fourth Year (age range 14-16),
Fifth Year (age range 15-17), Sixth Year (age range 16-18).

It is worth noting that the age ranges specify the youngest age for a child entering that year and
the oldest age for a child leaving that year. Also note that children may leave school at the end
of any school year after they reach 16 years of age and that they may attend Scottish universities
when they are 17. Therefore two sets of national examinations are held. The first set, the
Standard Grade examinations, take place in the Fourth year of secondary school and show basic
education level. The second set, the Higher examinations take place in the Fifth and Sixth years.
A third level, Advanced Higher, is sometimes taken by students intending to study at an English
university and covers the gap between the Scottish Higher level and the English Advanced
level courses (wikipedia, 2004).

4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

As we have seen, since ancient times British education has suffered from the class-based nature
of British society, and even recently, it has been proved that there are three main factors that
affect class educational achievement in British children: class, gender and ethnicity, the former
affecting more than the other two factors. Hence achievement in British Education has been led
by a branch of British Sociology which examines and discusses influencing the achievement of

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pupils who are taught by the British education system from the perspective that British
education is Meritocratic .

Hence, how is this issue linked to our Spanish students? Basically, through the educational
activity, both in and out the classroom, the former being developed in terms of tutorial or
classroom activities and the latter by promoting the right moral attitudes on our students.
Moreover, the issue of the organisation of the Educational System in the United Kingdom is not
unfamiliar for Spanish students, who are taking a similar organisation in terms of types of
schools, years, stages and examinations. Hence it makes sense to examine the historical
background of education within the Anglo-Saxon scope so as to understand why class
distinction in English education is so important.

Currently, educational authorities are bringing about relevant changes for the school reality and,
therefore, students feel how the Spanish educational system is changing. The integration of
Spain into the European Union makes relevant for students to become aware of other
educational system within the European panorama so as to be able to compare and appreciate
the main similarities and differences within each system. It must be borne in mind that the
European Union offers students the possibility of taking a school-year (primary, secondary,
tertiary) in a foreign country so as to improve their personal and professional development.

So, the issue of educational systems may be easily approached to students by the increasing
number of European programs (Comenius, Erasmus, school trips) and technologies (the
Internet, mobile phones, mail) which provide students the opportunity of exchanging
information with other European teenagers and know other cultures. Actually, among the stage
objectives for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato students (stated respectively in RD 112 and RD
113/2002, 13 September) there is a clear reference to the fact of getting acquainted with other
cultures so as to promote respect and, for our purposes, an attitude of critical awareness of other
educational systems.
Thus, E.S.O. objectives (number nine, eleven and fourteen) make reference to first, analyse the
mechanisms and values that govern the functioning of societies, especially those related to the
rights and duties of citizens, adopting open and democratic attitudes and judgements (objective
9); secondly, to know the traditions and cultural patrimony of other countries, value them
critically, and respect the cultural and linguistic diversity as a peoples and countries right
(objective 11); and finally, to develop habits or study and discipline, learning how to make a lot
of effort and act responsibly, as a necessary condition for an efficient achievement of
educational and social tasks, both individually and collectively (objective 14).

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On the other hand, Bachillerato students are expected to first, analyse and value critically the
reality of the current world and of the antecedents and factors that influence upon it (objective
5) and secondly, to use the information and communication technologies to acquire types of
knowledge and transmit information, solve problems and facilitate interpersonal relations,
valuing its use critically (objective 7). So, as we can see Spanish students are expected to know
about the history of education in the United Kingdom and its influence in the world by a wide
range of means (technology, trips, educational programs, classroom, friendship).

The success partly lies in the way this issue becomes real to the users. Some of this motivational
force is brought about by comparing both systems through another European students life at
school. Otherwise, we have to recreate as much as possible the whole cultural environment in
the classroom by means of documentaries, history books, or films. This is to be achieved within
the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular, the Spanish Educational
System which establishes a common reference framework for the teaching of foreign languages
where students are intended to carry out several communication tasks with specific
communicative goals. Broadly speaking, the main aims that our currently educational system
focuses on are mostly sociocultural, to facilitate the study of cultural themes, as our students
must be aware of their current social reality within the European framework.

5. CONCLUSION.

The present unit, Unit 65 has aimed to provide a useful introduction to the Education System in
the United Kingdom as an attempt to offer a general overview of education in each country in
terms of differences and similarities. In doing so, the unit has been divided into two main
chapters: first, a history of the modern system of education in the United Kingdom so as to better
understand the current educational system in England, Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland
from ancient times to modern times. Secondly, we have provided a more current and general
overview of the Education System in the United Kingdom by offering first a definition of term
education and, secondly, an analysis of the Education System in the United Kingdom, in
which we include an approach to the Educational Systems in England, Northern Ireland, Wales,
and Scotland. Finally, Chapter 4 has stated the relevance of this issue within the curricular basis
of E.S.O. and Bachillerato. Now Chapter 5 offers a conclusion to broadly overview our present
study, and finally, in Chapter 6 we will include all the bibliography for further references.

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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 116/2004, de 23 de enero.

Currculo de la Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de
Murcia.

B.O.E. 2004. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 117/2004, de 23 de enero.

Currculo de Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.

Bromhead, Peter. 1962. Life in Modern Britain . Longman.

Council of Europe. 1998. Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common

European Framework of reference.

Howatt, A. (1984). A history of English Language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. 1992. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2nd ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

van Ek, J.A., and J.L.M. Trim, 2001. Vantage. Council of Europe. Cambridge University Press.

Other sources:

Enciclopedia Larousse 2000. 2000. Editorial Planeta.

"British Empire." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia . 2004. Encyclopdia Britannica Premium
Service. 28 May 2004 <http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=383356>.
www.historylearningsite.co.uk
http://en.wikipedia.org
http://www.know-britain.com

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 UNIT 66

CULTURAL DIMENSION OF THE ENGLISH

LANGUAGE NOWADAYS. BRITISH ENGLISH AND
AMERICAN ENGLISH. PRESENCE OF THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE IN SPAIN. ANGLICISMS.
OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CULTURAL DIMENSION: IN AND OUT

THE COMMONWEALTH.

2.1. The origins of the British colonial empire.

2.1.1. The first British empire.
2.1.1.1. XVth and XVIth century.
2.1.1.2. XVIIth century.
2.1.1.3. XVIIIth century.
2.1.2. The second British empire: XIXth century.
2.1.3. The dismantling of the British empire: XXth and XXIst century.
2.2. Cultural dimension: the Commonwealth.
2.2.1. Definition.
2.2.2. Main principles and values.
2.2.3. Main countries: cultural dimension.
2.3. Cultural dimension: out of the Commonwealth.
2.3.1. Englis h as a native language.
2.3.2. English as a second language.
2.3.3. English as a foreign language.

3. CULTURAL DIMENSION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE NOWADAYS: BRITISH ENGLISH

AND AMERICAN ENGLISH. PRESENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN SPAIN:
ANGLI CISMS.

3.1. British vs. American English: main differences.

3.1.1. Spelling.
3.1.2. Vocabulary.
3.1.3. Grammar.
3.1.4. Punctuation.
3.1.5. Pronunciation.
3.2. Presence of the English language in Spain: anglicisms.
3.2.1. Anglicism: definition.
3.2.2. Presence of the English language in Spain.

4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

5. CONCLUSION.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

The present unit, Unit 66, aims to provide a useful introduction to the cultural dimension of the
English language nowadays from a general overview. Then we shall focus on two specific
manifestations of the English language, that is, the so-called distinction between British English
and American English. Moreover, we shall examine the impact of the English language out of
English-speaking countries by addressing the question of the presence of the English language
in Spain and the introduction of anglicisms. In doing so, it is within the richness of the English
language that we shall approach its cultural diversity and development of its linguistic varieties
not only in English-speaking countries, but also in terms of intercultural influences all around
the world.

So, the unit is to be divided into four main chapters which correspond to the four main tenets of
this unit. Thus, Chapter 2 provides a brief history of the English language cultural dimension in
and out the Commonwealth so as to offer a general overview of the influence of English around
the world. Yet, why do we relate it to the Commonwealth? It must be borne in mind that, though
it originated in England and built from several other languages (Germanic, Norse, French),
English spread worldwide with the rise of British colonialism, from the British Isles to
Australia, Canada, India, South Africa, New Zealand, the United States and elsewhere. Hence
the link to these group of countries under the common heading of Commonwealth.

Then, we shall start by reviewing (1) the origins of the British colonial empire from the
seventeenth century to the present day. Hence we shall review basic notions on (a) the first
British empire, which traces back to the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth century;
(b) the second empire, which ranges the nineneteenth century; and (c) the dismantling of the
British empire in the twentieth and twenty-first century in terms of colonies, and for our
purposes, states members. In doing so, we aim at offering a general overview of those countries
which adopted the English language as a native (mother tongue) or second language, commonly
known as the Commonwealth. So, we shall review (2) the cultural dimension of the English
language within the Commonwealth countries in terms of (a) definition, (b) main principles and
values in terms of cultural diversity, and how these principles and values are present in
linguistic terms in (c) the countries which founded the Commonwealth, namely (i) Canada, (ii)
Australia, (iii) New Zealand, (iv) South Africa, (v) India, and (vi) the Caribbean Islands.

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Finally, we shall approach (3) the cultural dimension of the English language out of the
Commonwealth scope. In doing so, we shall establish three parametres with respect to the way
the English language is used in other countries, for instance, (a) as a native language (as in the
United States), (b) as a second language (as in India), and (c) as a foreign language (as in
Spain). This distinction will prepare the ground for next chapters on the distinction between
British English and American English and the presence of English in Spain.

Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 approaches the cultural dimension of the
English language from two different perspectives: first, regarding two specific manifestations of
the English language: first, the so-called distinction between (1) British English and American
English within the scope of English-speaking countries, in terms of differences in (1) spelling,
(2) vocabulary (3) grammar, (4) punctuation, and (5) pronunciation; and secondly, regarding the
(2) presence of the English language in a non English-speaking country, in particular, in Spain
and the presence of anglicisms. This section shall be approached by offering (a) a definition of
the term anglicism, and examining (b) the presence of the English language in Spain.

Chapter 5 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching regarding
the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 6 will offer a conclusion to
broadly overview our present study, and Chapter 7 will include all the bibliographical
references for further information.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

An influential introduction to the Commonwealth is namely drawn from historical background

of the Victorian period, Imperialism and the Industrial Revolution is based on Thoorens,
Panorama de las literaturas Daimon: Inglaterra y Amrica del Norte. Gran Bretaa y Estados
Unidos de Amrica (1969); the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004); a brief guide to the
association provided by the Commonwealth Secretariat (2003); and the website
www.norton.com. Other important sources in relation to the distinction between British English
and American English, and the presence of English in Spain, that is, anglicisms, include: Pratt,
El Anglicismo en el Espaol Peninsular Contemporneo (1980); Marckwardt, American
English (1980); Algeo & Pyles, The origins and development of the English language (1982);
Bryson, Mother Tongue (1991); and two outstanding webpages www.wikipedia.org (2004) and
www.britannica.com (2004).

The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative

competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most

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complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the
guidelines in B.O.E. (2004) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; and the Council of Europe,
Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of
reference (1998).

2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CULTURAL DIMENSION: IN

AND OUT THE COMMONWEALTH.

Chapter 2 provides a brief history of the English language cultural dimension nowadays, a
question which is closely related to the British empire and the countries which made up the
Commonwealth afterwards. Note that the political history of Colonial America and, in
particular, the loss of the American colonies with the Declaration of Independence in 1776, will
make us comprehend the distinction between British and American English afterwards.
Therefore, we shall review (1) the origins of the British colonial empire from the seventeenth
century to the present day by providing basic notions on (a) the first British empire, which
traces back to the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth century; (b) the second
empire, which ranges the nineneteenth century; and (c) the dismantling of the British empire in
the twentieth and twenty-first century in terms of colonies, and for our purposes, states
members. In doing so, we aim at offering a general overview of those countries which adopted
the English language as a native (mother tongue) or second language, commonly known as (2)
the Commonwealth. So, we shall also review this concept in terms of (a) definition, the
Commonwealths (b) main principles and values, and how these principles and values are
present in (c) the countries which founded the Commonwealth, namely (i) Canada, (ii)
Australia, (iii) New Zealand, (iv) South Africa, (v) India, and (vi) the Caribbean Islands.
Finally, we shall approach the international scope of the English language (3) out of the
Commonwealth. In doing so, we shall establish three parametres with respect to the way the
English language is used in several countries, for instance, (a) as a native language, (b) as a
second language, and (c) as a foreign language, so as to prepare the ground for next chapter.

2.1. The origins of the British colonial empire.

On providing a historical background of the policy of the colonial expansion in general terms, it
must be borne in mind that the term imperialism refers to the principle, spirit, or system of
empire, and is driven by ideology whereas the term colonialism refers to the principle, spirit,
or system of establishing colonies, which is driven by commerce. Hence, the worldwide system

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of dependencies colonies, protectorates, and other territories- that over a span of three
centuries came under the British government will lead us to what historians call the imperial
expansion of Great Britain.

Note that within this policy of imperial expansion and the establishment of new colonies all
over the world, historians make a distinction between two British empires which follows a
temporal classification within different centuries. Thus, according to www.wwnorton.com
(2004), the first British empire is to be set up in the seventeenth century, when the European
demand for sugar and tobacco led to the development of plantations on the islands of the
Caribbean and in southeast North America. These colonies, and those settled by religious
dissenters in northeast North America, attracted increasing numbers of British and European
colonists. Hence, the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries saw the first British
Empire expanding into areas formerly controlled by the Dutch and Spanish Empires (then in
decline) and coming into conflict with French colonial aspirations in Africa, Canada, and India.
With the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the British effectively took control of Canada and India, but
the American Revolution (1776) brought their first empire to an end.

On the other hand, a further phase of territorial expansion that led to the second British Empire
was initiated by the exploratory voyages of Captain James Cook to Australia and New Zealand
in the 1770s. This reached its widest point during the reign of Queen Victoria (18371901). At
no time in the first half of her reign was empire a central preoccupation of her or her
governments, but this was to change in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War (18701871),
which altered the balance of power in Europe.

During the next decades, the British empire was compared to the Roman empire because of its
extension, but the nineteenth and twentie th centuries (up to the present day) were just about to
see the development in the dismantling of the British Empire with the declaration of
independence of the British colonies in India (1947) and Hong Kong (1997). So, one by one, the
subject peoples of the British Empire have entered a postcolonial era, in which they must
reassess their national identity, their history and literature, and their relationship with the land
and language of their former masters (www.wwnorton.com).

2.1.1. The first British empire.

2.1.1.1. XVth and XVIth century.

There is no doubt that the political, social and economic background of the seventeenth-century
Great Britain established the main basis for the policy of colonial expansion in the following

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centuries (the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries). Yet, previous events, which trace back to the
fifteenth century and take place within the field of exploration, mark the beginning of this
colonial adventure on the part of the most powerful empires at that time, thus Scandinavia,
Spain, Portugal, France and Great Britain.

2.1.1.2. XVIIth century.

The seventeenth century has its starting point in the death of Elizabeth I (1603) and the
accession of James I to the crown. This period, known as the Stuart Age (1603-1713) and also
called the Jacobean Era, the age of Cromwell and the Restoration, is characterized by crisis,
civil wars, the Commonwealth and the Restoration, and establishes the immediate background
to the Industrial Revolution and the establishment of the first Americ an colonies.

Under the rule of James I (1603-1625), Britain achieved the unification of the crowns of
England and Scotland, and brought the long war with Spain to an end. Although this greatly
helped the English treasury and also Jamess reputation (as rex pacificus), the policy was, in
part, unpopular because peace meant that both the English and the Dutch had to acknowledge
the Spanish claim to a monopoly of trade between their own South American colonies and the
rest of the world.

Whereas for the first half of the century the population continued to grow and, as a result, there
was pressure on food resources, land and jobs, and increased price inflation, the late seventeenth
century saw the easing, if not the disappearance of these problems. Family-planning habits
started to change and new methods of farming increased dramatically. From the 1670s, England
became an exporter as opposed to a net importer of grain. The seventeenth century is also
probably the first in English history in which more people emigrated than immigrated, hence the
period of American colonization.

Yet, undoubtely, the most important step which favoured the imperial expansion was made in
the economic field: the foundation of the Bank of England in 1694. As mentioned above, the
continental wars of James II (1685-1689) and William of Orange, known as William III (1689-
1707), were really expensive, and as a result, England was forced to raise a considerable
national debt. In 1694, the Scotsman William Paterson founded the Bank of England to assist
the crown by managing the public debt, and eventually it became the national reserve for the
British Isles. Yet, in 1697, any further joint-stock banks were forbidden just to secure its
position of prominence in England.

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It was this debt that forced the British government to use the colonies as a source of economic
income. In fact, the Secretary of state for the South was established in London so as to deal with
colonial business. Other government departments, such as the treasury, the customs, the
admiralty, and the war office also had representatives in the colonies, where the chief
representative of the Imperial government was the governor, appointed by the king or by the
proprietors with his approval.

The general desire in this century was for the American continent and islands serve as a source
for products and as a market for their manufacturers. Till the end of this century the pressure of
France expansion on almost all sides of the American colonies, except the sea, was a constant
remainder to them of their ultimate dependence on Englands military support and their main
aim was to develop a naval supremacy over France.

So, in North America the establishment of American colonies meant the starting point of British
colonial activity in the Western hemisphere and also, a new place for immigrants to hide from
political and religious crisis in England. The political history of Colonial America will make us
comprehend the preparation of the whole people for the radical change of government they were
so soon to undergo in British colonies, and the strong spirit of democracy which led Britain to
the loss of the American colonies with the Declaration of Independence in 1776.

In the XVIIth century we distinguish two types of earlier colonies: non-British and British;
whereas the first group namely includes Viking, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Dutch and Danish
colonists, the second group is formed by Anglosaxons. Moreover, non-British colonies, namely
French and Dutch, were founded on aristocratic principles and strove vigorously to gain liberal
institutions. Following Daimon (1969), had their political circumstances been different in
Europe, they could have also gained the control of the continent. Yet, Holland was quite
wealthy and had few immigrants, and France had a great number of immigrants but was not
interested in the snow land. Yet, the struggle for control of this land would continue for more
than a hundred years.

The thirteen British colonies of America were formed under a variety of differing conditions.
The settlement of Virginia was the work of a company of London merchants, that of New
England of a body of Puritan refugees from persecution. Most of the other colonies were formed
through the efforts of proprietors, to whom the king had made large grants of territory. None of
them were of royal or parliamentary establishment and therefore, the government of the mother-
country took no part in the original formation of the government of the colonies, except in the
somewhat flexible requirements of the charters granted to the proprietors.

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The colonies were classified into (1) New England colonies, made up by Rhode, Connecticut,
New Hampshire and Massachusetts. Among them, the most famous first colonies were
Plymouth colony (1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1629), which were settled by two
groups of of religious dissenters who escaped religious persecution in England: the Pilgrims and
the Puritans; (2) the rest of British colonies in America followed after Plymouth and
Massachusetts Bay, consisting of Middle colonies, such as New York, Pennsylvania, the three
counites of Delaware, and Maryland, which were namely characterized by a wide diversity, both
religious, political, economic, and ethnic; and (3) the southern colonies which include
Maryland, Virginia, Georgia and the two Carolinas (north and south). Yet, the most important to
mention is Virgina colony, which is considered to be the first permanent settlement in North
America under the name of the English colony of Jamestown (1607), was the first English
colony 1 in America to survive and become permanent and become later the capital of Virginia
and the site of the House of Burgesses.

But the main causes of social decentralization were soon to be noticed. As the colony of
Virginia was so heavily influenced by the cultivation of tobacco and the ownership of slaves, in
1619 large numbers of Africans were brought to this colony into the slave trade. Thus,
individual workers on the plantation fields were usually without family and separated from their
nearest neighbours by miles. This meant that little social infrastructure developed for the
commoners of Virgina society, in contrast with the highly developed social infrastructure of
colonial New England.

By this time, the English colonies were thirteen: Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut,
Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Although all these British colonies were strikingly
different, throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries several events took place and
brought relevant changes in the colonies: whereas some of the them sprung from their common
roots as part of the British Empire, others led up to the American Revolution, and to the final
separation from England.

1
The settlement was struck by severe droughts in centuries and as a result, only a third of the colonists furvived the
first winter, and even, source documents indicate that some turned to cannibalism. Yet, the colony survived in large
part to the efforts of John Smith, whose moto was No work, no food. He put the colonists to work, and befriended
Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, who supplied the colony with food.

8/41
2.1.1.3. XVIIIth century.

The eighteenth century was to witness the most important consequences of the industrial
revolution within the British colonial expansion, both in America and overseas. Although there
was general properity in the Middle and Southern colonies, as well as social and political
struggle, American colonies had to face the arrival of loads of immigrants from Europe. Their
economy, based on the production of rice, indigo and naval stores, was booming in contrast to
the hostile attitude of Indians at the frontier. In the upper south, Virginia and Marylands
tobacco prices were falling and crop failures became very usual. Yet, in New England, the
social and political atmosphere was quite calm, but not the economy since the Sugar Act
imposed taxes and new commercial regulations on them. The main causes which led the thirteen
colonies to revolution are stated as follows:

The first event relates to the French and Indian War (1754-1763), which meant the American
extension of the general European conflict known as the Seven Years War. Also, this war
increased a sense of American unity in men who might normally have never left their colonies
to travel across the continent, and fighting alongside men from decidedly different. On the other
hand, the second event, the Royal Proclamation (1763) , which was a prohibition against
settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains , aroused opposition in the colonies over the next
years and through a series of measures, which were to be named as acts. These acts lead to the
declaration of their independence in a remarkable document, the Declaration of Independence.
The committee had intrusted that task to Thomas Jefferson, who was chosen for two main
reasons: first, because he was held to possess a singular felicity in the expression of popular
ideas and, second, because he represented the province of Virginia, the oldest of the Anglo-
American colonies.

The debate on the proposed Declaration came to a termination two days later, on the evening of
the 4th of July. The document was then reported by the committee, agreed to by the House, and
signed by every member present, except General Dickinson. The signature of New York was
not given till several days later, and a New Hampshire member, Matthew Thornton, was
permitted to append his signature on November 4 (four months after the signing). With the help
of their French allies they were eventually able to win the American Revolutionary War against
Great Britain, settled by the Treaty of Paris (1783). So, we can say that the United States of
America was founded in 1776 from British colonies along the Atlantic Coast of North America
and was declared to be independent in 1778.

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In the rest of the world, interests expanded through the eighteenth century to such extent that in
the early years of the 18th century the East India Company proves successful regarding
commercial interchanges in India and, in fact, a statutory monopoly of trade was established
between England and India (1708). The number and importance of factories made the English
Company have the control on the area (it had three presidencies at Bombay, Calcutta and
Madras) although Bombay was the only absolute possession in French or English hands.
Despite the fact that it was not a pure trading company, it found no rivalry from other European
states in India since the Portuguese and Dutch, which had established their position in India, left
with few and unimportant possessions or factories.

Overseas, during the earlier half of the century the British empire established more successful
trading companies not only in the West Indies but also in Africa (the Royal African Company)
and in the South Sea (the South Sea Company). On the American Continent, the Caribbean
islands not only provided Britain with sugar and slave trade but also with strategic possessions,
which was a crucial issue in the fight between England and France for colonial possessions. In
fact, as stated above, the British government established the Navigation Act (1773) so as to
monopolize the trade of its products (namely tobacco and sugar) and therefore, establish a close
economic system and guarantee a sheltered market in Britain, not subject to competition from
other colonies, such as those of France, Portugal and Spain.

In the second half of the century, some remaining British colonies were lost temporarily after
the treatise, for instance, the Caribbean islands were controlled by France and Tobago and
Minorca were no longer British. However, the rest of colonies were not economically strong
enough to think of independence even if they had wanted it, as it was the case of South Africa,
which was a military and trading port, a naval station and a port of call. Canada was of greater
economic importance in the sense that its citizens were free to manage their local affairs, so the
demand for self-government did not imply a wish for separation. The colonies were therefore
asking for something like municipal independence.

In 1768, the first British empire reached the second phase of expansion with the exploratory
voyages of James Cook, who undertook the first of three voyages to the Pacific, surveying New
Zealand, modern Australia, Tahiti and Hawaii. His second voyage (1773) made him the first
Britain to reach Antarctica, and his third voyage (1778-1779) led him to discover and name
island groups in the South Pacific, such as the Sandwich Islands. Unfortunately, Cook was
killed on Hawai on 14 February 1779.

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Eventually, the colonisation of the Antipodes, that is, Australia and New Zealand took place as
an attempt to find a place for penal settlement after the loss of the original American colonies.
The first shipload of British convicts landed in this largely unexplored continent in 1788, on the
site of the future city of Sydney. Most convicts were young men who had only committed petty
crimes. In the nineteenth century (1819) new settlers were allowed to set up in New South
Wales and by 1858 transportation of convicts was abolished.

2.1.2. The second British empire: XIXth century.

Following the information given in www.wwnorton.com, During the next decades, two great
statesmen brought the issue of imperialism to the top of the nations political agenda: the
flamboyant Benjamin Disraeli (18041881), who had a romantic vision of empire that the
sterner William Ewart Gladstone (18091898) distrusted and rejected. Disraelis expansionist
vision prevailed and was transmitted by newspapers and novels to a reading public dramatically
expanded by the Education Act of 1870.

Symbolically, the British Empire reached its highest point on June 22, 1897, the occasion of
Queen Victorias Diamond Jubilee, which the British celebrated as a festival of empire. It was a
great moment where the British Empire was compared to the Roman Empire 2 , comparison
which was endlessly invoked in further discussions and literary works (Conrads Heart of
Darkness (1902); Thomas Hardys Poems of Past and Present (1901)).

In 1897 the Empire seemed invincible, but only two years later British confidence was shaken
by the news of defeats at Magersfontein and Spion Kop in the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902).
Those and other battles were lost, but eventually the war was won, and it took two world wars to
bring the British Empire to its end. Those wars also were won, with the loyal help of troops
from the overseas empire.

The political background is namely represented by the accession of Queen Victoria to the throne
when her uncle, William IV dies in 1837. So Victoria would reign from 1837 to 1901 and would
be the longest reigning British monarch. In general terms, during Victorias reign, the revolution

2
The Roman Empire, at its height, comprised perhaps 120 million people in an area of 2.5 million
square miles. The British Empire, in 1897, comprised some 372 million people in 11 million square
miles. An interesting aspect of the analogy is that the Roman Empire was long held - by the descendants
of the defeated and oppressed peoples of the British Isles - to be generally a good thing. Children in the
United Kingdom are still taught that the Roman legions brought laws and roads, civilization rather than
oppression, and in the second half of the nineteenth century, that was the precedent invoked to sanction
the Pax Britannica (www.wwnorton.com).

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in industrial practices continued to change British life, bringing about urbanisation, a good
communications network and wealth. In addition, Britain became a champion of Free Trade
across her massive Empire, and industrialisation and trade were glorified in the Great
Exhibitions. Yet, by the turn of the century, Britains empire was being challenged successfully
by other nations such as France and Germany on the continent.

Generally speaking, the nineteenth century development and administration of British colonies
was focused on the consolidation of existing colonies and the expansion into new areas,
especially in Africa, India and Canada. Actually, in the early nineteenth century new British
colonies were to be acquired or strengthened because of their strategic value, thus Malaca and
Singapore because of their trading ports of growing importance, and the settlements of Alberta,
Manitobba, and the British Columbia in Canada as potential areas of British migration. The
main causes for other new acquisitions were, among others, the Treaty of Amiens (1802) by
adding Trinidad and Ceylon; the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) with the addition of the Cape of
Good Hope; the War with the United States (1812) brought about the Canadian unity; and the
first Treaty of Paris (1814) gained Tobago, Mauritius, St. Lucia and Malta.

Also, between the years 1857 and 1858 Britain acquired in India the cities of Agra, Bengal and
Assam after some local wars against French influence. Perhaps the Napoleonic Wars brought
about more new acquisitions to the British empire in this century than any other war, since the
Crimean War (1854-1856), the pacification programs in Africa, and some conflicts in New
Zealand (against the Maoris) made little or no difference to the British empire. Yet, the most
serious conflict was just about to come towards the end of the century with the War in Sudan
(1884) and the Boer War (1881, 1899-1902). So, as we can see, still in the nineteenth century,
Great Britain maintained her political and imperial sovereignty.

In order to control these colonies, the British government created a sophisticated system for
colonial administration: the Colonial Office and Board of Trade (1895-1900). Already in the
1850s, they were ruled by legislative bodies, since the colonies continuously asked for
independence. They were separate departments with an increasing staff and a continuing policy
of establishing discipline and pressure on the colonial goverments. Hence most colonial
governements were left to themselves.

However, these legislative bodies governing the new settlements were soon to be replaced by an
executive body which took over the financial control. This elected assembly would be
represented by the figure of the governor and would be responsible for the colonial government.
Therefore, these settlements became crown colonies, and were subject to direct rule, as we can

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see in the African and Pacific expansion where the crown colony system was established. Let us
examine how this new colonial governing body was applied in the colonies of Australia, Asia
and Africa.

In the Antipodes, New Zealand and Oceania were systematically colonized in the 1840s
under the pressure of British missionaries. Yet, territorial disputes were brought up
between the new colonists and the homeland tribes, the Maoris. Hence the Maori Wars
(1840s-1860s) which eventually ended with the withdrawal of British troops and a
peaceful agreement of settlement for the newcomers. In the last quarter of the century,
the British empire took the control over other islands in the Pacific, again because of
missionary pressure and international naval rivalry and, eventually, the Fiji Island was
annexed in 1874. Three years later the governement established a British High
Commission for the Western Pacific Islands (1877) as well as a protectorate in Papua
(1884) and in Tonga (1900). These protectorates were soon to be governed by Australia
and New Zealand.

In Asia, India was conquered and therefore, had an expansion policy. As stated
previously, the suppressed Indian mutiny (1857) gave way to the abolishment of the
East India Company (1858) and, therefore, the local executive body was replaced by
that of the crown. Known as the brightest jewel in the British crown (a Disraelis
phrase), India was a strategic settlement for the British empire and her conquest was
justified in terms of benefits and discipline. Further acquisitions (Burma, Punjab,
Baluchistan) provided new crucial settlements in the area in order to set up a new route
in India. Since the opening of the Suez Canal, new territories were under the influence
of Britain within this route: Aden, Somaliland, territories in southern Arabia and the
Persian Gulf. Moreover, further expansion took place with the development of the
Straits settlements and the federated Malay states; Borneo (1880s), Hong Kong (1841);
and adjacent territories in China, Shangai (1860, 1896), which had trading purposes.

Finally, the greatest development of the British Empire took place in Africa in the last
quarter of the century. The reign of Queen Victoria brought about a great enthusiasm
for a similar Roman empire, whose power might extend from the Cape of Good Hope
to El Cairo. This idea fascinated the British citizens who, in Queen Victorias two
jubilees, offered colonial conferences, the search of new areas of opportunity, and the
discoveries and wars for mining wealth in South Africa. In fact, the spread of the British
empire comprised by the nineteenth century nearly a quarter of the land surface and
more than a quarter of the population of the world.

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 From 1882 onwards Britain controlled Egypt and Alexandria (by force), and a joint
administration half British-half Egyptian was established in the Sudan area in 1899.
Also, on the western coast the Royal Niger Company began the expansion over the area
of Nigeria. By then there were two main British Companies: the Imperial British East
Africa Company, which operated in nowadays Kenya and Uganda, and the British
South Africa Company in the areas now called Rhodesia, Zambia, and Malawi. Hence
the missionary migrations to Africa in the eventual transfer of these territories to the
crown.

2.1.3. The dismantling of the British empire: XXth and XXIst century.

Therefore, by 1897 the Empire seemed invincible, but only two years later British confidence
was shaken by the news of defeats at Magersfontein and Spion Kop in the Anglo-Boer War
(1899-1902). Hence, after the Boer War (1902), the countries of the overseas empire wanted a
greater measure of self-government, and those and other battles were lost. Yet, eventually the
war was won, and it took two world wars to bring the British Empire to its end. Those wars also
were won, with the loyal help of troops from the overseas empire (more than 200,000 of whom
were killed in World War I alone).

After a century of almost unchallenged political security, Britain perceived the aggressive
militarisation of the new German state and Hitlers empire as a threat. Britain and, therefore, her
empire, lost a large part of a generation of young men in the First World War. Yet, after the
First World War the British Empire continued to grow and, in addition to the self-governing
territories of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, it annexed large tracts of
Africa, Asia and parts of the Caribbean. Also, following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire,
Britain included Iraq and Palestine.

Soon nationalist movements were to be strongly felt in India, Egypt and in the Arab mandated
territories. In 1922 Egypt was granted a degree of independence by Britain and full
independence in 1936. Similarly, Iraq gained full independence in 1932. On the other hand,
India achieved its independence in 1947 after the movement of Indian nationalism, boosted by
the 1919 Amritsar Massacre. In 1931, the British Parliament, by means of the Statue of
Westminster, recognized the legislative independence and equal status under the Crown of its
former dominions and the Irish Free State within a British Commonwealth of Nations. The

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resultant relationship is sometimes thought to have been a precursor to the post-war British
Commonwealth.

During the Second World War, Britains civilian population found themselves under severe
domestic restrictions, and occasionally bombing. Also, conf lict accelerated many social and
political developments and growing nationalist movements impacted both on the British rule of
Empire and on the individual nations of the British Isles. Hence, most of the remaining imperial
possessions were granted independence, for instance, fifty years after Queen Victorias
Diamond Jubilee, India was cut in two to become the Commonwealth countries of India and
Pakistan.

The most recent development in the dismantling of the British Empire was the restoration to
Chinese rule, under a declaration signed in 1984, of the former British crown colony of Hong
Kong, on the southeastern coast of China, where the Union Jack was finally and symbolically
lowered on July 1, 1997. So, one by one, the subject peoples of the British Empire have entered
a postcolonial era, in which they must reassess their national identity, their history and
literature, and their relationship with the land and language of their former masters.

2.2. Cultural dimension: the Commonwealth.

As seen above, territorial acquisition began in the early 17th century with a group of
settlements in North America and West Indian, East Indian, and African trading posts founded
by private individuals and trading companies. In the 18th century the British took Gibraltar,
established colonies along the Atlantic seacoast, and began to add territory in India. With its
victory in the French and Indian War (1763), it secured Canada and the eastern Mississippi
Valley and gained supremacy in India (Britannica, 2004). By 1776 the American colonies were
controlled by governors appointed by the British government and by 1783, North American
colonists got their independence by establishing the Constitution of the United States.

After that, the British began to build power in Malaya and acquired the Cape of Good Hope,
Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and Malta. The English settled Australia in 1788, and subsequently New
Zealand. Aden was secured in 1839, and Hong Kong in 1842. Britain went on to control the
Suez Canal (1875-1956) and after the 19th -century partitition of Africa, it acquired Nigeria,
Egypt, the territories that would become British East Africa, and part of what would become the
Union of South Africa. It must be borne in mind that prior to 1783, Britain claimed full
authority over colonial legislatures, but after the U.S. gained independence, Britain gradually
evolved a system of self-government for some colonies. Hence since Dominion status was given

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to Canada (1867), the British Empire started to change into a Commonwealth of independent
nations as later on it was also given to Australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), the Union of
South Africa (1910), and the Irish Free State (1921).

After World War I, Britain secured mandates to German East Africa, part of the Cameroons,
part of Togo, German South-West Africa, Mesopotamia, Palestine, and part of the German
Pacific islands. Yet, the dominions signed the peace treaties themselves (Paris Peace Conference
(1919), where commissions were appointed to study specific financial and territorial questions,
and the Treaty of Versailles, an international agreement signed in 1919) and joined the League
of Nations, an organization for international cooperation established by the Allied Powers so as
to be independent states. The league established a system of colonial mandates, but it was
weakened by the failure of the United States, which had not ratified the Treaty of Versailles
(1919). So, the League ceased its activities during World War II and it was replaced in 1946 by
the United Nations.

In 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognized the mentioned dominions as independent

countries within the British empire, referring to the British Commonwealth of Nations.
Following the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004), at the time of its founding, the Commonwealth
consisted of the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, the Irish Free State (withdrew in 1949),
Newfoundland (which became a Canadian province in 1949), New Zealand, and the Union of
South Africa (withdrew in 1961), but after World War II, with British no longer officially
used, the Commonwealth was joined by more countries.

Yet, at this point, how do we relate the notion of Commonwealth to our current issue? As stated
above, it is the first basis where to frame the cultural dimension of the English language within
all the English-speaking countries. In next section (2.3.) we shall approach the scope of the
English language at an international level in those countries which do not have the English
language as a mother tongue or second language, but as a foreign language.

2.2.1. Definition.

Following the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004), the term commonwealth refers to a body
politic founded on law for the common weal, or good. The term was often used by 17th-
century writers to signify an organized political community, its meaning thus being similar to
the modern meaning of state or nation. For instance, nowadays we talk about the
commonwealth to make distinction in name only regarding the four U.S. states (Kentucky,
Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia) which call themselves commonwealths; Puerto

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Rico, which has been a commonwealth rather than a state since 1952; and its residents, though
U.S. citizens, have only a nonvoting representative in Congress and pay no federal taxes.

Yet, traditio nally, it primarily referred to the Commonwealth of Nations regarding the free
association of sovereign states consisting of Britain and many of its former dependencies who
have chosen to maintain ties of friendship and cooperation. It was established in 1931 by the
Statute of Westminster as the British Commowealth of Nations. Later its name was changed and
it was redefined to include independent nations. Most of the dependent states that gained
independence after 1947 chose Commonwealth membership. Moreover, the British monarch
serves as its symbolic head, and meetings of the more than 50 Commowealth heads of
government take place every two years.

definition, the Commonwealths (b) main principles and values, and how these principles and
values are present in (c) the countries which founded the Commonwealth, namely (i) Canada,
(ii) Australia, (iii) New Zealand, (iv) South Africa, (v) India, and (vi) the Caribbean Islands.
Finally, (3) we shall approach the scope of the English language at an internationa l level in
those countries which do not have the English language as a mother tongue or second language,
but as a foreign language.

2.2.2. Main principles and values.

The Commonwealth strengths lie in the following principles and values. First of all, among the
three most important principles we include (Secretariat, 2003): first, the combination of the
diversity of its members with their shared inheritance in language, culture and the rule of law;
secondly, seeking consensus through consultation and the sharing of experience; and finally,
sharing a commitment to certian fundamental principles set out in a Declaration of
Commonwealth Principles agreed at the Singapore meeting in 1971 and in follow-up
Declarations and Communiqus.

On the other hand, Commonwealth values are the principles that bind Commonwealth
member countries together and they derive from various Commonwealth Declarations and
Principles agreed upon at various Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings (CHOGMs).
These values are enshrined in the 1991 Harare Commonwealth Declaration (Zimbabwe), which
enshrines common interests and a set of basic principles. At Millbrook (New Zealand) in 1995,
Heads of Government adopted an action programme to fulfil their commitment to the Harare
Principles. At Coolum (Australia) in 2002, Heads of Government committed to The Coolum
Declaration on the Commonwealth in the 21st Century: Continuity and Renewal.(Secretariat,
2003).

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Then, Commonwealth values include: respect for diversity, human dignity and opposition to all
forms of discrimination; adherence to democracy, rule of law, good governance, freedom of
expression and the protection of human rights; elimination of poverty and the promotion of
people -centred development; and finally, international peace and security, the rule of
international law and opposition to terrorism (Secretariat, 2003).

The adherence to democracy, rule of law, good governance, freedom of expression and the
protection of human rights is reflected through the capacity building programme to strengthen
civil society organisations; and by means of documenting good practice. For instance, the
Foundation has produced a document NGO Guidelines for Good Policy and Practice to guide
civil society organisations and is available in ten languages. It is worth mentioning that all
these states have at some time been under British rule so in some of them, English is the first
language; others, with several different languages of their own, find English the most
convenient means of communication.

2.2.3. Main countries: cultural dimension.

The Commonwealth is made up by the association of 54 different states which consult, co-
operate and work together with the aim of promoting international understanding and world
peace. Diversity is central to the Commonwealth. Membership includes people of many
different races and origins, encompasses every state of economic development, and comprises a
rich variety of cultures, traditions and institutions (Secretariat, 2003), including their language.
Yet, let us examine the status of the English language under the influence of the Commonwealth
in some countries such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, and the
Caribbean Islands, among others (note that we do not include here other British dominions such
as Gibraltar).

Canada, which was given the dominion status in 1867, is regarded as a transplanted
society (Maxwell, 1982) as well as Australia and New Zealand since the majority of its
population is of European origin and had to change the already established cultural
habits in the new land. So, it retained a non-indigenous language. In linguistic terms,
Canada has developed a type of Canadian English which is difficult for us to understand
since it is different from other North American varieties. It is regarded as a
homogeneous language, which has not been affected by its nearest linguistic neighbour,
American English. The differences lie mainly in vocabulary and pronunciation, since
Canadian spelling preserves some British forms (theatre, centre, colour, behaviour) and

18/ 41
 there are no distinctive grammar features. We also highlight the fact that there are also
several words of Canadian origin (chesterfield).

Australia was long inhabited by Aboriginals until the first English settlement, at Port
Jackson (1788). It consisted mainly of convicts and seamen, who were to make up a
large proportion of the incoming settlers. In linguistic terms, Australian English starts in
the second half of the eighteenth century when pidgin English appeared due to the
interrelationship of settlers and Aboriginals. The Aboriginal vocabulary of Australian
English has become one of the trademarks of the national language (boomerang,
jumbuck sheep-). Yet, the number of Aboriginal words in Australian English is quite
small and confined to the naming of plants, trees, animals, and place-names. Nowadays,
though English is the official language, Australian English is known for its preserving
nature, since it still keeps eighteenth and nineteenth-century lexis from the European
Continent (Wessex, Scotland, Ireland). Moreover, it has no regional variation of accent.

New Zealand was originally inhabited by Polinesian population which traced back to
the early Christian centuries. In the eighteenth century it was explored by J. Cook
between 1769-1770 and soon it was a target for European settlement in spite of some
indigenous Maori resistance. Then the 19th century saw the arrival of catholic
missionaries and English protestants and the reorganization of New Zealand started.
Subsequently, the two races achieved considerable harmony. Yet, unlike Australia it
was a free colony, as in practice it has been self-determining since 1901.

In linguistic terms, the New Zealand language has been influenced by its Australian
neighbours (bush lawyer, bush telegraph) as well as by the Scottish language, namely in
family names (Dunedin, Murray). From Australia, many Zealanders were influenced by
the native Maori culture, hence many maori words were borrowed on making reference
to animals, plants and local trees (kiwi). In addition, Zealanders created their own
vocabulary for some places, roads and local places (lines).

Before British colonization, certain highlands of East Africa attracted settlers from
Europe since these colonies were confined to coastal enclaves. British penetration of the
area began at Zanzibar in the late 19th century and before WWI most of the European
conquest of Africa had been accomplished. In linguistic terms, the development of the
English language in Africa is related to the term pidgin, hence pidgin English is
commonly spoken in Africa. Traditionally, pidgin languages are defined as those
auxiliary languages that have no native speakers and are used for communicating

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 between people who have no common language. Actually, we find two different
English versions in Africa: East and West African English.

On the one hand, East African Commonwealth countries had no contact with Britain
until the early twentieth century when they were colonized, so the use of English was
limited to military and administrative vocabulary (white administrators and army
officials), still used in the East African states of Kenya. Yet, in Uganda and Tanzania,
Swahili is the used as lingua franca and goes through ethnic and political boundaries
whereas English is the main language of education (secondary, tertiary). So, we may say
that the language of Black Africa is pidgin English, not standard British or American
English (Uganda, Zambia, Simbabwe).

On the other hand, West African Commonwealth countries use pidgin English as a
result of the slave experience of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. For instance, in
Sierra Leona, pidgin English has evolved into Krio, a mixture of English and an
African language (Yoruba), with includes Portuguese elements, which is used
everywhere. Brought by traders and missionaries to Nigeria and Cameroon, it
influenced the local pidgin. Recent governments are trying to establish Krio as the
national language of Sierra Leone, even though English is still the official language.

Historically speaking, India is the home of one of the worlds oldest and most
influential civilisations of South Asia. By the early seventeenth century, the East India
Company was founded and attracted many European visitors up to the eighteenth
century. In linguistic terms, it was in the nineteenth century that, at the highest peak of
the British empire, there was a flood of English administrators, educators, army officers
and missionaries who spread the English language throughout the sub-continent. Hence
by the turn of the century English had become the prestige language of India.

After a century, the Jewel of the Crown had added many Indian words into the English
language, so as to be able to express different concepts. In additio n, Indian English
possesses a number of distinctive stylistic fatures, some of which are inspired by local
languages and some by the influence of English educational traditions (change of heart
vs. God is merciful). Nowadays, even after Indians independence (1947), there are
more speakers of English in India than in Britain (over 70 million). English became the
official language of everyday life at any sphere. It is worth noting that, though the
speakers of English belonged to the educated ruling elite, English is taught at every
stage of education in all the states of the country.

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 The Commonwealth Caribbean Islands have a distinctive history. The Encyclopaedia
Britannica (2004) states that permanently influenced by the experiences of colonialism
and slavery, the Caribbean has produced a collection of societies that are markedly
different in population composition from those in any other region of the world. Lying
on the sparsely settled periphery of an irregularly populated continent, the region was
discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492. Thereafter, it became the springboard
for the European invasion and domination of the Americas, a transformation that
historian D. W. Meinig has aptly described as the "radical reshaping of America."

In linguistic terms, we may highlight the fact that the tiny Indian population, once native
to the region, speak creolized forms of the invading European languages, and from this
merging we obtained a Caribbean English and a Caribbean culture. Of all the varieties
of Caribbean English, the most appealing is the Jamaican creole, defined as a language
that has evolved from pidgins used by speakers of unintelligible people. So, we may
differenciate two different types of language: on the one hand, standard English, used in
newspapers and news reporting, engages in conversation, journalists; and on the other
hand, Jamaican English, which is virtually unintelligible to the outsider since this is the
language of the streets (originally oral, recently written).

2.3. Cultural dimension: out of the Commonwealth.

When approaching the cultural dimension of the English language out of the Commonwealth,
we deal with a widespread phenomena: English as a common means to communicate all over
the world. Actually, namely spoken in the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and
103 other countries, English is the second most popular first language (native speakers), with
around 402 million people in 2002 (wikipedia, 2004). Also, it is the most widely used
second and learning language in the world, and as such, many linguists believe, it is no
longer the exclusive cultural emblem of native English speakers, but rather a language that is
absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it grows in use. Others theorise that there are limits
to how far English can go in suiting everyone for communication purposes.

The fact is that English has become the most important and the most spoken language in the
world due to two main reasons: first, in the past, because of the highest number of colonies at
the beginning of the century and, second, nowadays, because of its status as a lingua franca, due
to the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence of the United Kingdom and
later the United States. In fact, it has become the official language of international organisms
such as the European Parliament, the EU Committee, the UNESCO, and NATO, among others.

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This overall influence of the United States throughout the modern world has made English
become by far the dominant language of contemporary science and technology, multinational
industry and commerce, and of computerized information networks. Where possible, virtually
all students worldwide are required to learn some English, and knowledge of English is virtually
a prerequisite for working in many fields and occupations. Higher academic institutions, for
example, require a working command of English. Yet, nowadays, recent figures show that over
320 million people speak English as a mother tongue and further 400 million people use it as a
foreign language. In short, over 700 million people use English nowadays as a first, second or
foreign language and have become international users of English.

Hence English has a lot of varieties which depend on regional, educational, ethnic, attitudinal,
medium and subject matter aspects. In particular, varieties according to the region are called
dialects, which are namely distinguished in phonological terms since we generally recognize a
different dialect from a speakers pronunciation before we notice differences in grammar or
vocabulary. For instance, the main dialects3 of the English language are American English,
Australian English, British English, Canadian English, Caribbean English, Filipino English,
Hiberno-English, Indian English, Jamaican English, Liberian English, Malaysian English, New
Zealand English, Scottish English, Singapore English, and South African English (wikipedia,
2004).

So, figures regarding the use of the English language around the world have been continuously
increasing during the twentieth and twenty-first century. Actually, we may find people who
speak English as a native, second and foreign language. Yet, let us clarify the difference
between these similar but confusing concepts. For instance, a mother tongue is considered to be
the first language (L1) one learns as a child whereas a second language (L2) is acquired under
the need of learning the language of another country. On the other hand, when languages are
acquired in school, it is considered as a foreign language. The acronyms ESL and EFL stand for
the learning of English as a Second and as a Foreign Language.

So, these concepts will help us to establish the three main parametres under which we shall
examine the way the English language is used in countries out of the Commonwealth, for
instance, (a) as a native language in the United States, (b) as a second language in India, and (c)

3
Note that these varieties may, in most cases, contain several subvarieties, such as Cockney within
British English, Newfoundland English within Canadian English and African American Vernacular
English within American English (wikipedia, 2004).

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as a foreign language in Spain (so as to prepare the ground for next chapters on the distinction
between British English and American English; and the presence of English in Spain).

2.3.1. Englis h as a native language.

Regarding the countries that use English as their native language or mother tongue, it is worth
noting that most of those 402 million people (mentioned above) who speak English as their
native language are citizens of the United States (est. 287,602,000 by 2002). Moreover,
regarding its geographic distribution English is regarded as the first language in Australia, the
Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Guyana, Jamaica, New Zealand, Antigua, Saint Kitts and Nevis,
Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom and the United States of America (wikipedia, 2004).

English is also one of the primary languages of Belize (with Spanish), Canada (with French),
Cameroon (with French and African languages), Dominica, St. Lucia and Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines (with French Creole), the Federated States of Micronesia, Ireland (with Irish),
Liberia (with African languages), Singapore and South Africa (with Afrikaans and other Afric an
languages).

2.3.2. English as a second language.

Regarding English as a second language it is worth noting that the estimated number of English
speakers are possibly between 350 and 1,000 million. The reason is that English is not used as a
native language, but as a practical or educated first language within a largely bilingual society or
due to the necessity to use it for some practical purposes due to administrative, professional,
educational or commercial reasons. So, English as a second language is an official language in
Fiji, Ghana, Gambia, Hong Kong, India, Kiribati, Lesotho, Kenya, Namibia, Nigeria, Malta, the
Marshall Islands, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, the Solomon Islands, Samoa,
Sierra Leone, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Moreover, it is the most
commonly used unofficial language of Israel and an increasing number of other countries such
as Switzerland, Norway and Germany (wikipedia, 2004).

2.3.3. English as a foreign language.

Recent figures show that the number of people who speak English as a foreign language
nowadays exceeds 400 million or even more. English has become one of the main aims in
teaching foreign languages so grammars, dictionaries, and manuals on it proliferate nowadays.

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There is also a general raising of consciousness, with new language courses in schools,
regarding the learning of a foreign language, namely English, so as to help people keep pace
with current developments (scientific, technological, educational); and this is to be achieved
predominantly by means of the media (popular programmes on radio and television, songs,
documentaries, press). Current figures show that English is the language most often studied as
a foreign language in Europe (32.6%) and Japan, followed by French, German and Spanish
(wikipedia, 2004).

3. CULTURAL DIMENSION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE NOWADAYS: BRITISH

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH. PRESENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
IN SPAIN: ANGLICISMS.

Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 approaches the cultural dimension of the
English language from two different perspectives: first, regarding two specific manifestations of
the English language: first, the so-called distinction between (1) British English and American
English within the scope of English-speaking countries, in terms of differences in (1) spelling,
(2) vocabulary (3) grammar, (4) punctuation, and (5) pronunciation; and secondly, regarding the
(2) presence of the English language in a non English-speaking country, in particular, in Spain
and the presence of anglicisms. This section shall be approached by offering (a) a definition of
the term anglicism, and examining (b) the presence of the English language in Spain.

3.1. British vs. American English: main differences.

Namely, this section will outline the main differences between British English (more precisely
known as Commonwealth English) and American English (the form of the English language
spoken in the United States) following the website wikipedia (2004). Broadly speaking, it is
worth mentioning that although American and British English are generally mutually
intelligible, there are enough differences to occasionally cause awkward misunderstandings or
complete failures to communicate. George Bernard Shaw said that the United States and United
Kingdom are two countries divided by a common language. A similar comment is ascribed to
Winston Churchill.

Moreover, already in 1877 Henry Sweet predicted that within a century, American English,
Australian English and British English would be mutually unintelligible, but it may be the case

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that increased world-wide communication through radio, television, the Internet, or
globalization has reduced the tendency to regionalisation. This can result either with some
variations becoming extinct (as, for instance, truck has been gradually displacing lorry in much
of the world) or that wide variations are accepted as perfectly good English everywhere as
Received Pronunciation is known.

On the one hand, American English (AmE, abbreviated) refers to the language spoken by U.S.
government officials, network newscasters, etc., rather than to regional dialects. It does not
include Canadian English, which does not fall within this definition of American English in
any case. Canadian pronunciation is similar to that in the United States, but spelling more often
than not takes the Commonwealth form. American English is also used by countries and
organisations, such as Liberia and the Organization of American States, whose use of English is
most influenced by the United States. On the other hand, British English (BrE, abbreviated) is
assumed to be the form of English spoken in southeast England, used by the British
Government and the BBC and understood in other parts of the United Kingdom. The section on
pronunciation assumes the received pronunciation of British English, from which there are
many regional variations.

Yet, let us concentrate on the main differences between both variations. Though there is no
definite agreement in the number of differences, we shall examine the small number that has
entered the standard written language of each nation, namely regarding (1) spelling, (2)
vocabulary (3) grammar, (4) punctuation, and (5) pronunciation.

3.1.1. Spelling.

Within orthographical differences, the most outstanding is spelling. Following wikipedia

(2004), some words shared by all English speakers are spelled one way by Americans but are
spelt differently in other English speaking countries. Many of the differences were introduced,
somewhat artificially, into the United States by Noah Websters dictionary, and have never
spread to other English-speaking countries. In some cases, the American versions have become
common Commonwealth usage, for example program (in the computing sense). Other important
changes include (1) words endings, (2) Greek-derived words, (3) doubled consonants and (4)
other special cases.

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 1. Words ending in:

-our (BrE) vs. or (AmE).

American words ending in or may end in our in British Englis h. For example, in
American English, one would use color, flavor, honor, whereas in British English one
would use colour, flavour and honour. In addition, Americans replace ou with o in
derivatives and inflected forms such as favourite, savoury versus favorite, savory. One
exception to this distinction is glamour, which is usually spelled that way in American
English as well as in British usage. In both systems, the adjectival forms that end in -ous
are spelled without the penultimate u (e.g. glamorous, vigorous, humorous and
laborious). Words in which the stress falls on the our, such as hour, our, flour, velour,
sour, and soury, are the same in both usages.

-re (BrE) vs. er (AmE).

Note the British words centre, fibre, metre, theatre (showing an influence from
French) vs. American center, fiber, meter, theater. The adjectival forms of these
words are the same in both conventions, however; Americans do not write centeral,
fiberous, meteric or theaterical (adjectival forms derived as past participles, however,
are written -ered, as in centered). The British uses meter for a measuring device and
metre for the unit of measure. The British forms are recognizable by Americans and
occasionally found in American texts, though their usage may be considered an
affectation. The British spelling that has perhaps gained the most currency in American
English is theatre. However, theater is still more common in everyday use, and
theatre is generally reserved for more formal settings or for the names of specific
venues (e.g. the Kodak Theatre).

-gue (BrE) vs. g (AmE).

Note the differences between British analogue, catalogue, dialogue vs. American
analog, catalog, dialog. The -gue forms are also relatively common in the United
States. Some -gue forms are common in both British and American usages, such as
demagogue and vogue (as opposed to vog).

-ise (BrE) vs. ize (AmE).

British words, such as colonise, harmonise, realise are set in contrast with the
American ones colonize, harmonize, realize (and derivatives and inflexions therefrom:
colonisation - colonization). This is a somewhat artificial distinction, since the most
authoritative British sources, the Oxford English Dictionary and Fowlers Modern
English Usage, prefer -ize, and most British writers use either freely; however, British

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 editors tend to enforce that the norm is to use -ise as the standard orthographical
practice. Also: British analyse vs. American analyze. It should also be noted that not
all spellings are interchangeable; some words take the -z- form exclusively, for instance
capsize, prize (to value), seize, size, whereas others take only -s-: advertise, advise,
apprise, arise, circumcise, comprise, demise, despise, devise, disguise, exercise,
franchise, improvise, incise, promise, poise, praise, raise, rise, supervise, surmise,
surprise and televise.

-xion (BrE) vs. ction (AmE).

Note that the spellings connexion, inflexion, deflexion, reflexion are now somewhat
rare, perhaps understandably as their stems are connect, inflect, deflect, and reflect and
there are many such words in English that result in a -tion ending. The more common
American connection, inflection, deflection, reflection have almost become the
standard internationally. However, the Oxford English Dictionary lists the older
spellings as the etymological form, since these four words actually derive from the Latin
root xio. Given this, it might be preferable to retain the original spellings. In both
forms, complexion is used in preference to complection, as it comes from the stem
complex in British and in American English, just like crucifix and crucifixion.
British Methodism retains the eighteenth century spelling connexion to describe its
national organisation, for historical reasons.

2. Greek-derived words.

This group includes words derived from Greek which are formed with the clusters a e
(separated) or ae (together: the ash), and o e (separated) or oe (together). Among
the most common names we find: BrE anaemia, anaesthesia, diarrhoea, foetus,
gynaecology, mediaeval, encyclopaedia vs. AmE anemia, anesthesia, diarrhea, fetus,
gynecology, medieval, encyclopedia.

Special cases include the term manoeuvre, which seems to be special since its oe
was not derived from Greek, but was apparently changed to maneuver in American
English on the mistaken belief that it was. British aeroplane and American airplane
is also a special case in that its not a straight ae ? e substitution like the rest, but its
in fact a different word rather than a different spelling. Some words retain the ae in
American usage, such as aesthetic and archaeology, although esthetic and
archeology are also seen. The spelling encyclopedia is commonly used in British
English, although the earlier form encyclopaedia is also used

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coined independently (car vs. automobile, railway vs. railroad). Other sources of difference
are slang or vulgar terms, where frequent new coinage occurs, and idiomatic phrases, including
phrasal verbs. The differences most likely to create confusion are those where the same word or
phrase is used for two different concepts. So, we shall examine how these differences make
reference to grammatical differences and, in particular, morphology, where we may find
relevant changes. For instance, we find five main subdivisions: words with the same form and
different meaning; same form and additional meaning in one variety; same form and difference
in style; different form and same meaning.

Words with the same form and different meaning. For instance, the word pants is
referred to as underpants (BrE) vs. trousers (AmE), and similarly, pavement as
footpath vs. road surface, among others.
Same form and additional meaning in one variety. For instance, the word leader is
referred to as one who commands guides and directs both in BrE and AmE, but it may
also has an additional meaning in British English as an editorial; and similarly, dumb
as mute in both varieties and stupid as the additional meaning in AmE, among
others.
Same form and difference in style . For instance, the word leader is referred to as one
who commands guides and directs both in BrE and AmE, but it may also has an
additional meaning in British English as an editorial; and similarly, dumb as mute
in both varieties and stupid as the additional meaning in AmE; and autumn, which is
common to all styles in BrE, but it is namely used in poetic or formal writing in AmE,
where we use fall instead.
Different form and same meaning, which is the major type wit hin the two varieties.
They are words which may be used almost interchangeably within a wide range of
fields, among which we may mention: food and cooking, clothing and accessories,
household, commerce, transportation, and miscellaneous. For instance, note the words
such as while (BrE) vs. whilst (AmE) (though Whilst is more often used in instruction
manuals, legal documents, etc); pancake vs. crepe, to grill vs. to broil, cooker vs. stove,
jug vs. pithcer, jumper vs. sweater, vest vs. undershirt, purse vs. changepurse, sitting
room vs. living room, garden vs. yard, dustbin vs. garbage can, chemists vs. drug store,
off-licence vs. liquor store, pram vs. baby buggy, caravan vs. mobile home; and
miscellaneous, such as flat vs. apartment. solicitor vs. attorney, pub vs. bar, cupboard
vs. closet, lift vs. elevator, rubbish vs. garbage, petrol vs. gas, taxi vs. cab, handbag vs.
purse, cotton vs. thread, and flyover vs. overpass, among others.
Miscellaneous changes, such as in (1) nouns of direction with -wards: note British
English forwards, upwards, afterwards vs. American forward, upward, afterward.

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 However, there is no real distinction here, as both forms are used in both dialects,
except that afterward is rare in British English. (2) Prepositions, which may differ in
form in the two varieties, for instance, BrE behind, out of, round vs. AmE in back of,
out, around. Also, prepositions (usually of time) which are used identically in some
contexts in both BrE and AmE differ in usage in other contexts, for instance, BrE for
weeks; for ages vs. AmE in weeks; in ages in a sentence like I havent travelled.
Other miscellaneous differences include: twenty to four (BrE) vs. twenty of four (AmE)
and similarly, five past eight vs. five after eight, behind the building vs. in back of the
building, Monday to Friday vs. Monday through Friday, and so on. (3) And finally,
adjectives where the most outstanding change is noticed in the comparative form of the
adjective different, which is usually followed by from in BrE whereas in AmE is
usually followed by than. Regarding adverbs, it is worth noting that adverb placement
is somewhat freer in American English than in British English.

3.1.3. Grammar.

There are many small points of difference in the grammar of the two varieties, though the
influence of American English on British English is such that many of the usages which were
once restricted to the former now appear in the latter. Also, some of the British English usages
are found in American English, withh varying preference, depending on dialect and style. Thus,

Regarding plural formation processes, we may note that singular attributives in one
country may be plural in the other, and vice versa. For example, Britain has a drugs
problem while the United States has a drug problem.
Word order regarding names of American rivers, for instance, the word river usually
comes after the name (for example, Colorado River), whereas for British rivers it comes
before (as in River Thames).
Verbal tenses in the past ending by t. Note the difference between dreamt, leapt,
learnt, spelt (BrE) vs. dreamed, leaped, learned, spelled (AmE). The forms with -ed
are more common in British usage (i.e. the two-syllable form learned [l3:nId], usually
spelled simply as learned, is still used to mean educated, or to refer to academic
institutions), though they are also used in American English.
Other verb past tense forms: note British English words such as fitted, forecasted,
knitted, lighted, wedded vs. American ones: fit, forecast, knit, lit, wed. But the former
forms are also found in American. However, other forms such as lit and forecast are
also the usual forms in British English. Also, the past participle gotten is never used in

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 3. Doubled consonants.

Following wikipedia (2004), British English generally doubles final -l when adding
suffixes that begin with a vowel, where American English doubles it only on stressed
syllables. (Thus American English treats -l the same as other final consonants, whereas
British English treats it irregularly). Hence, British counsellor, equalling, modelling,
quarrelled, signalling, travelled vs. American counselor, equaling, modeling,
quarreled, signaling, traveled. But compelled, excelling, propelled, rebelling in both
(notice the stress difference). When such suffixes are appended to words ending in -eal,
the -l is doubled neither in American nor in British usage: revealing, dealing,
concealed. British writers also use a single l before suffixes beginning with a
consonant where Americans use a double: British enrolment, fulfilment, instalment,
skilful vs. American enrollment, fulfillment, installment, skillful.

4. Other special cases.

Among other cases, we include two main orthographic situations. First, British English
often keeps silent e when adding suffixes where American English doesnt. British
ageing, routeing vs. American aging, routing. Both systems retain the silent e when
necessary to preserve a soft c or g: traceable, judgement (although judgment is also
standard in American English).

The second case refers to nouns ending in -ce with -se verb forms: American English
retains the noun/verb distinction in advice / advise and device / devise (pronouncing
them differently), but has lost the same distinction with licence / license and practice /
practise that British English retains. Americ an English uses practice exclusively for
both meanings, and license for both meanings (although licence is an accepted
variant spelling). Also, British defence, offence, pretence vs. American defense,
offense, pretense.

3.1.2. Vocabulary.

Vocabulary is perhaps the most noticiable field where to find differences between British and
American English. It is worth noting that the differences are in connection with concepts
originating from the nineteenth century to the mid twentieth century, where new words were

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 modern British English, which uses got (as do some Americans), except in an entire
archaic expression such as ill-gotten gains. Yet, British usage retains the form
forgotten. Fitted is used in both conventions as an adjective (fitted sheets are the
same size as the mattress) and as the past tense of fit to suffer epilepsy; however, fit
and fitting are not in ordinary British use for to suffer epilepsy (though that usage is
common within medical circles), with the same effect being achieved by to have a fit or
to throw a fit.
American English favours the past participle proven, whereas it remains proved in
England (except in adjectival use sometimes). American English further allows other
irregular verbs, such as strive (strove - striven), which remain regular in British English,
and often mixes the preterite and past participle forms (spring - sprang (US sprung) -
sprung), sometimes forcing verbs such as shrink (shrank - shrunk) to have a further
form, thus shrunk shrunken (wikipedia, 2004).
In British English the word sat is often used to cover sat, sitting and seated, for
instance, Ive been sat here for ten minutes or Your boyfriend will be sat on the right
side of the table. Not all British people do this, but it is not often heard outside Britain.
Similarly stood can be used instead of standing.
In other verbal tenses, such as the present perfect tense, which is much more common in
British dialects than in American, where the simple past tense is usually used instead.
For example, BrE I've gone in vs. AmE I went. Similarly, the past perfect tense is often
replaced by the past simple tense in the USA; this, even more than the dropping of the
present perfect, is generally regarded as sloppy usage by those Americans who consider
themselves careful users of the la nguage.
On informal occasions, the British use have got, whereas Americans say have", as the
only form to be used in formal writing.
Also, American English allows do as a substitute for have (the full verb, in the sense of
possess), just as for other verbs such as walk or think; in the past, British English did
not allow this, but it is becoming increasingly common. Compare BrE Have you any
coins? Yes, I have vs. AmE Have you any food? or much more common, Do you
have any food? Yes, I do. Note that such substitution is not possible for the auxiliary
verb have in Have you eaten? Yes, I have. for both American and British English.
Similarly, in informal usage, American English often uses the form did +infinitive
where British English would use have/has+past participle. For instance, Did you tidy
your room yet? would be usual American English where most British speakers would
say Have you tidied your room yet?. The have form is regarded as correct in both
countries, however, and is required in all formal contexts.

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 The subjunctive mood is more common in Americ an English in expressions like They
suggested he study for the exam whereas British English would have They suggested
he should study for the exam or even They suggested he studied for the exam. Yet,
these British usages are heard in the United States.

3.1.4. Punctuation.

Punctuation differences are often given in letter-writing, above all, because of the visual effect
of the addition or lack of punctuation markers in the two varieties. For instance,

American students in some areas have been taught to write a colon after the greeting
(Dear Sir: ) while Britons usually write a comma (Dear Sir,). However, this practice
is not consistent throughout the United States, and it would be regarded as a highly
formal usage by most Americans.
Regarding abbreviations, note the difference between BrE: US, UN, Mr, Mrs,
St, Dr whereas Americans tend to write a full point after each letter: U.S., U.N.,
Mr., Mrs., St., Dr., following the rule that a period is used only when the last
letter of the abbreviation is not the last letter of the complete word. However, many
British writers would tend to write without a full stop other abbreviations, such as
Prof, etc, or eg, among others.
Regarding the use of hyphens, it is sometimes believed that British English does not
hyphenate multiple-word adjectives, as in: a first class ticket as this is considered to be
rare and incorrect. So, the most common form takes place in American English, for
instance: a first-class ticket.
Regarding quoting, Brit ish English use single quotation marks () for quotations (though
not on every occasion) whereas Americans start with double quotation marks ().
Moreover, inside the quotation mark, British English places the punctuation inside if it
belongs to the quote whereas American English usually put commas and periods inside
quotation marks.

3.1.5. Pronunciation.

It is a well-known fact that British and American people pronounce differently, though having
the same language. Actually, the most widely current pronunciation of a given word in

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American English may occur in standard British English as a less frequently used variant
(Algeo & Pyles, 1982:225), for instance, either and neither. Yet, both varieties differ in the
pronunciation of vowels and consonants providing numerous instances of allophones,
homophones and specific types of sounds (the r alveolar flap, the t glottal stop).

Actually, common features of British English pronunciation are the pronunciation of vowels
before /r/, which involves the epenthesis of a schwa in between any of the vowels involved and
the following /r/ (i.e. beer, chair, more); the /r/ dropping, which involves the delection of /r/ at
the end of a word in isolation (i.e. far, near) in contrast to the insertion of /r/ at the end of a word
when next word starts by a vowel (i.e. far away, near us). Moreover, the glide cluster reduction
occurs in the environment of homophonous pairs (i.e. whine-wine, pair-pear); suffix vowels,
which concerns dysillabic suffixes in words of four or more syllables (-ary as in secretary, -ory
as in category, -mony as in testimony, -berry as in strawberry); and finally, smoothing referrring
to a monphtongal realization when diphthongs occur in a prevocalic environment (i.e. coward,
player).

On the other hand, regarding common features of American English pronunciation we highlight
the phenomena of, first, Lot Unrounding (a vowel ranging from back to centralized front), and
secondly, tapping, which is the pronunciation of the intervocalic consonant /t/ as a rapid tap
rather than a more deliberate plosive. Yet, let us examine the main differences between the two
varieties regarding vowels and consonants following the website wikipedia (2004).

Regarding vowels, American English generally has a simplified vowel system as

compared to the British dialects. In particular, many Americans have lost the distinction
between the vowels of awl and all, as well as caughtand cot, the so-called cot-
caught merger tending to pronounce all of these with something between a long form of
the sound in cot and the a of father (those two sounds being distinct in British
English.
The long a of father, the famous British broad a, is used in many British RP words,
especially common ones, in two phonetic situations. Firstly, before three of the four
voiceless fricatives, as in path, laugh, pass, past, though not before sh. Secondly,
before some instances of n and another consonant, as in aunt, plant, dance. In most
northern dialects, not to mention Scotis h and Irish, though, the short a is the norm. An
a at the beginning of a word (such as ant) is usually short throughout the country,
just as in the American. Note that Australian usually follows RP in the first case, though
castle and graph, among others, often have the short vowel, and aunt and can't
invariably have the broad one.

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 British Received Pronunciation (RP) has generally lost the long /o:/ as in boat, replacing
it with a diphthong that is close to /au/. Some British speakers still have /o:/, but it
appears only as a result of a lost /r/, in words like force. More northerly and westerly
British speech preserves /o:/. The British diphthong /au/ is enunciated as /ou/ or
sometimes as /o/ in American English.
American speech usually does not soften consonants /n/, /t/ and /d/ with /j/, unlike
British pronunciation in certain cases. This is particularly noticeable in the British
words new, tune and dual, which are respectively pronounced like /nju:/, /tju:n/ and
/dju:al/ whereas in American English we find /nu:/, /tu:n/ and /du:al/.
Most American dialects have not lost the non-prevocalic r. That is, standard
American English preserves the sound of r in all occurrences, whereas British English
only preserves it when it is followed by a vowel (see rhotic r). However, this holds true
neither for all American dialects nor for all British dialects; the dialects of New England
and the American South both exhibit a similar sound change found in southern England.
In England, however, when a former syllable final /r/ appeared before a consonant not
at a word boundary, a schwa was substituted for it, giving British English a new class of
falling diphthongs. The non-rhotic North American dialects do not show this. This
phenomenon also partially accounts for the interlocution of r between a word ending
in a vowel and one beginning with a vowel (such as the idear of it) exhibited both in
some dialects of Britain and in the Boston (USA) dialect of American English. Most
other American dialects interpose a glottal stop where r appears in the Boston
example, and appears to perform the same function of separating adjacent (non-
dipthongized) vowels.
Words ending in -ile and -ine (fertile , docile , missile, turbine) are pronounced with the
last syllable sounding the same as isle for the -ile words in British English, and with a
short, reduced i (rhyming with turtle) in American (although exceptions can be found,
such as reptile, which is pronounced by most Americans so that the last syllable rhymes
with style).
The name of the letter Z is pronounced zed in British English in contrast with the
American English zee, though the words are normally only spelled out when noting the
difference. Other Greek letters are also pronounced differently, for instance, BrE beta
/beata/ whereas the American pronunciation sounds like /baita/, similarly, BrE epsilon
/epp-SIGH-lon/ vs. AmE /Epsa:lon/. Note that American English is more in keeping
with the ancient Greek, whereas the British reflects sound changes in English since the
borrowing as well as being more in keeping with modern Greek.

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3.2. Presence of the English language in Spain: anglicisms.

European countries (France, Spain, Italy, Germany) tend to pick up words from other countries
for several reasons (historical, social, commercial). Then these foreign words undergo a gradual
process of linguistic borrowing resulting from living English speakers all around the world. In
particular, Spain has mostly adopted this type of words from the United States or Great Britain
in recent decades due to the post-World War consequences and the international dominance of
English. Actually, as society changed new concepts appeared, and new words were created so as
to represent new realities: these particular words taken and adapted from the English language
are called anglicisms.

3.2.1. Anglicism: definition.

Following wikipedia (2004), an anglicism is a word borrowed from English into another
language, but considered by a fair part of influential speakers of that language to be substandard
or undesirable. For an anglicism to be considered as such, we have to meet two premises: first,
that a foreign language takes the English word as a model and adapts it into its own; second,
that this new word is fully adapted to the foreign language so that it becomes linguistically
productive; and finally, that it must be handled by a high percentage of the foreign population.

It must be borne in mind that other words were not considered to be anglicisms and still remain
as foreign words, and also, sometimes an anglicism will have a different meaning than the
original English word (due to abbreviation or other reasons), but in most cases, an expression
incorrectly translated from the English becomes more successful than the original one. Note,
some words were borrowed from English into Spanish centuries ago, such as clown, chocolate,
or caf. These are not anglicisms, but rather are considered perfectly good Spanish words fully
accepted by the Real Academia Espaola. Perhaps the only difference between an anglicism
and a full-fledged Spanish word is the test of time.

3.2.2. Presence of the English language in Spain.

Historically speaking, as stated before, English was inherited from British colonization. The
first wave of English-speaking immigrants was settled in North America in the seventeenth
Century. In this century, there were also speakers in North America of Dutch, French, German,
Native American, Spanish, Swedish and Finnish languages. Nowadays, the most common way
for foreign words to enter another language, for our purposes, from English to Spanish, is

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through the influence of the media (press, radio, television, magazines, the Internet) and the
world of sports, fashion, or travelling through advertising.

So, following Pratt (1980), there is no a clear-cut division between well-known anglicisms and
other similar words which, despite being used in Spain, are still considered foreign words. Yet,
we shall present a list of words that are considered to be anglicisms within all type of
variations:

Words which have been fully adapted from English and keep the same form. This group
namely includes words from the fields of sports, music, fashion, business, food, or
technology, among others. For instance, corner, penalty, CD, radio cassette,
single, catwalk, fashion, top-model, sex-appeal, hot-dog, pudding, sherry,
photo shot, video, the Internet, e-mail, and so on.

Words which have been adapted in form but differ in pronunciation, for instance,
playback, rugby, self-service, bungalow, show, cowboy, snow, hall,
habitat, and telex, among others.

Words which have been fully adapted from English and do not keep the same form, for
instance, mitin (from meeting), estatus (from status), estndard (from
standard), and giski (from whiskey), among others.

Words which have lost their English appearance, and consequently, are to be felt to be
Spanish words with a Spanish source: agenda (vs. agenda), apartamentos (vs.
apartment), evento (vs. event), educacin (vs. teaching process), astro (vs. star),
canal (vs. channel).

Neologisms, which are words derived from words which already existed, but have been
added a prefix or a suffix, for instance, antioxidante, coproduccin, coloquial,
devaluacin, educativo, and so on.

Compound words, that is, compound English source words adapted to Spanish. For
instance, cancin-protesta, ciudad-jardn, hockey-hierba, hombre-rana, perro-
guardin, rascacielos, luna de miel, and so on.

Finally, just to mention those words which are misused due to the influence of
journalistic language. These are words that exist in Spanish with a different meaning
and are slowly acquiring the meaning they have in English. For instance, sophisticated
(Spanish chic, modern vs. English complex), routinary (Spanish ordinary check

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 up vs. English daily), domestic (Spanish referred to household vs. English
national affairs), and so on.

4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

Society and language, and therefore, sociocultural aspects and linguistic knowledge are two of
the most outstanding aspects of educational activity. In the classroom setting all kinds of social
aspects related to language may be approached in terms of spoken or written activities so as to
bring them closer to the students reality. Moreover, we may handle in class those productions
which make relevant the analysis of the cultural dimension of the English language for students
both in the past (History) or at present (social events), for instance, through the use of
anglicisms in sports, fashion, or the use of American English (the so-called speech of Aznar
when he visited President Bush at the White House).

So, the distinction between British English and American English, or the presence of the
English language in Spain is quite familiar for Spanish students, who are surrounded by lots of
anglicisms in the fields of fashion, music, sports, and so on. Yet, how is this issue linked to our
Spanish students? Basically, through the educational activity, both in and out the classroom, the
former being developed in terms of tutorial or classroom activities and the latter by focusing on
sociocultural aspects that exist within the students environment (home, friends, the media).
Hence it makes sense to examine the historical background of the presence of English in Spain,
and therefore, the relationship between Britain and Spain so as to understand this strong
influence.

Currently, educational authorities are bringing about relevant changes for the school reality and,
therefore, students feel how the English language is present in their daily life, when reading
instructions, playing music, buying clothes or watching a football match. The integration of
Spain into the European Union, and its military and business relationship with the United States,
makes relevant for students to become aware of this influence so as to be able to compare and
appreciate the main similarities and differences within each linguistic system.

So, the cultural dimension of the English language may be easily approached to students by the
increasing number of European programs (Comenius, Erasmus, school trips) and technologies
(the Internet, mobile phones, mail) which provide students the opportunity of exchanging
information with other European teenagers and know other cultures using English. Actually,
among the stage objectives for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato students (stated respectively in RD

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112 and RD 113/2002, 13 September) there is a clear reference to the fact of getting acquainted
with other cultures so as to promote respect and, for our purposes, an attitude of critical
awareness of other language systems.

Thus, E.S.O. objectives (2, 11) make reference to first, understand and express oral and written
messages appropriately and with communicative efficiency in the study of a foreign language or
languages, and value the importance of doing so in an open and multicultural society (objective
2); and secondly, to know the traditions and cultural patrimony of other countries, value them
critically, and respect the cultural and linguistic diversity as a peoples and countries right
(objective 11).

Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General Objectives (8, 9, 10), we find a closer
approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying that students are expected to accede
to the knowledge of the culture transmitted by the foreign language, developing respect towards
it and its speakers, to achieve a better understanding between countries (objective 8);
recognise the value of foreign languages as a means of communication between people
belonging to different cultures and as an enriching element for social and interpersonal
relations (objective 9); and use the foreign language as a means of communication with a
ludic and creative attitude and enjoy its use (objective 10).

On the other hand, Bachillerato students are expected to understand and know how to express
oneself fluently and correctly in the foreign language or languages being studied (objective 2);
and also, to use the information and communication technologies to acquire types of
knowledge and transmit information, solve problems and facilitate interpersonal relations,
valuing its use critically (objective 7). Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General
Objectives (6, 7), we find a closer approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying
that students are expected to know the sociocultural aspects of the target language as a means
to improve communication in the foreign language and for the critical knowledge of ones own
culture (objective 6) and also, to value the importance of the study of foreign languages as an
element of understanding and encouragement of respect and consideration towards other
cultures.

Actually, the success partly lies in the way this issue becomes real to the users. Actually, we
have to recreate as much as possible the whole cultural environment in the classroom by means
of documentaries, history books, or films. This is to be achieved within the framework of the
European Council (1998) and, in particular, the Spanish Educational System which establishes a

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common reference framework for the teaching of foreign languages where students are intended
to carry out several communication tasks with specific communicative goals. Broadly speaking,
the main aims that our currently educational system focuses on are mostly sociocultural, to
facilitate the study of cultural themes, as our students must be aware of their current social
reality within the European framework.

5. CONCLUSION.

As we have seen, English usage in other countries has traditionally followed one model or the
other. Throughout most of the Commonwealth, the spoken English has its roots in the British
version, though local expressions abound. In fact, in addition to its use in English-speaking
countries, English is used as a technical language around the world, in medicine, computer
science, air traffic control, and many other such areas of concentrated expertise and
internatio nal user populations. Hence, there are also many surviving dialects and local variations
in English.

For instance, Canadian English, American English and, in particular, British English, which is
also the dialect taught in most countries where English is not a native language. However, there
are a few exceptions where American English is taught, such as in the Philippines and in Japan.
On the other hand, another English-speaking country, Ireland, has another variety often
described as Hiberno-English and differs in some respects from British English, in so far as
phrases and terms often owe their origin to the original Irish language (Gaelic), which allowed
for more variations in word structure.

The language may vary slightly from country to country or even between those countrys states,
provinces and territories, but it is in all cases distinct from American English. It is mostly
interchangeable with British English, and where Britons is used, inhabitants of the
Commonwealth might be a more accurate , if more unwieldy, replacement. Commonwealth
English is also used by countries and organisations, such as Ireland and the European Union,
whose use of English is most influenced by the United Kingdom. In short, English is one of the
official languages of the European Union (UK and Ireland) and, as we have seen, all over the
world.

The aim of this unit has been, then, to provide a useful introduction to the cultural dimension of
the English language nowadays from a general overview by focusing on two relevant
manifestations of the English language, that is, British English and American English.

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Moreover, we have examined the impact of the English language out of English-speaking
countries by addressing the question of the presence of the English language in Spain and the
introduction of anglicisms.

In doing so, Chapter 2 has provided a brief history of the English language cultural dimension
in and out the Commonwealth so as to offer a general overview of the influence of English
around the world by reviewing (1) the origins of the British colonial empire from the
seventeenth century to the present day; (2) the cultural dimension of the English language
within the Commonwealth countries; and also, (3) the cultural dimension of the English
language out of the Commonwealth scope.

Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 has approached the cultural dimension of the
English language from two different perspectives: first, regarding two specific manifestations of
the English language: first, the so-called distinction between (1) British English and American
English within the scope of English-speaking countries, in terms of differences in (1) spelling,
(2) vocabulary (3) grammar, (4) punctuation, and (5) pronunciation; and secondly, regarding the
(2) presence of the English language in a non English-speaking country, in particular, in Spain
and the presence of anglicisms.

So far, we have attempted to provide the reader in this presentation with a historical background
on the English cultural dimension, and its further influence on Spain. This information is
relevant for language learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, who do not automatically
detect differences between different varieties of English. So, learners need to have these
associations brought to their attention in socio-cultural aspects within cross-curricular settings.
As we have seen, understanding how language develops and is reflected in our world today is
important to students, who are expected to be aware of the richness of the English language, not
only in English-speaking countries, but also in Spain.

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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Algeo, J. and T. Pyles. 1982. The origins and development of the English language. Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, Inc.

B.O.E. 2002. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 112/2002, de 13 de septiembre. Currculo

de la Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.

B.O.E. 2002. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 113/2002, de 13 de septiembre. Currculo

de Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.

Bryson, B. 1991. Mother tongue. Penguin Books, London.

Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European
Framework of reference.

Marckwardt, A.H. 1980. American English. Oxford University Press.

Pratt, C. 1980. El Anglicismo en el Espaol Peninsular Contemporneo. Madrid, Gredos.

Thoorens, Lon. 1969. Panorama de las literaturas Daimon: Inglaterra y Amrica del Norte. Gran
Bretaa y Estados Unidos de Amrica. Ediciones Daimon.

Other sources include:

"British Empire." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 2004. Encyclopdia Britannica Premium Service. 28
May 2004 <http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=383356>.

www.wikipedia.org (2004)

www.wwnorton.com

The Commonwealth at a glance: a brief guide to the association, Commonwealth Secretariat, June 2003.

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 UNIT 67

THE MASS MEDIA IN ENGLISH (1): JOURNALISTIC

STYLE. THE PRESS: QUALITY PAPERS AND POPULAR
PAPERS.

OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

2. THE MASSMEDIA IN ENGLISH: JOURNALISTIC STYLE.

2.1. The mass media in English.

2.1.1. Means: press, radio, television.
2.1.2. Aims: the audience.
2.2. Journalistic style.
2.2.1. Aims.
2.2.2. Language.
2.2.3. Main features.
2.2.4. Main genres.

3. THE PRESS: QUALITY PAPERS AND POPULAR PAPERS.

3.1. A brief history of the press.

3.2. The press: common features.
3.3. The press in the United Kingdom.
3.3.1. Main variables.
3.3.2. National press.
3.3.2.1. Quality vs. Popular papers.
3.3.2.1.1. Daily vs. Sunday press.
3.3.2.2. Journals and magazines.
3.3.2.2.1. Weekly vs. Periodical press.
3.3.3. Regional and local papers.
3.4. The press out of the United Kingdom: the U.S.

4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

5. CONCLUSION.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

The present unit, Unit 67, aims to provide a useful introduction to the mass media in English
which comprises the main means of communication: press, radio and television. Yet, we shall
namely concentrate on the former so as to analyse the (1) journalistic style and the press. It is
within the field of journalism that we shall examine the main types of newspapers in Great
Britain, that is, quality papers and popular papers. In doing so, we shall also approach other
general features of journalism in terms of aims, style and language so as to better understand its
scope within the international arena.

So, the unit is to be divided into two main chapters which correspond to the main tenets of this
unit. Thus, Chapter 2 provides a general introduction to (1) the mass media in English and then,
to the journalistic style in particular. So, we shall start by offering a definition of mass media in
English in terms of (a) means (press, radio, television), and main (b) aims regarding the
audience. Next, we focus on the former element, that is, (2) journalistic style and we examine its
(a) aims, (b) language, (c) main features, and (c) main genres.

Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 shall address the Press within the scope of the
English language (in and out the United Kingdom), and shall review its main features, among
which we shall focus on the distinction between quality papers and popular papers. In doing so,
we shall examine (1) the origins of the press, (2) common features of press nowadays; and (3)
the press in the United Kingdom. At this point we shall examine the main newspapers and
magazines in England (South, Midlands, North), Wales, North Ireland, and Scotland regarding
the (a) main variables that mark the difference between them (national vs. regional/local press,
daily vs. Sunday papers, weekly vs. periodical papers). Hence we shall divide the papers
between (b) national papers, including (i) quality vs. popular papers regarding daily vs. Sunday,
and (ii) journals and magazines (women, children, teenage) which refer to other types of press,
such as weekly vs. periodical versions, Then we address the question of (c) regional and local
papers; finally, we shall examine (4) the press out of the United Kingdom at the international
level, namely the United States as the most outstanding English-speaking country.

Chapter 4 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching regarding
the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 5 will offer a conclusion to
broadly overview our present study, and Chapter 6 will include all the bibliographical
references for further information.

2/25
1.2. Notes on bibliography.

An influential introduction to journalism in general is namely based on the Encyclopaedia

Britannica (2004); The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (2003); McLean, Profile UK (1993);
and Vaughan-Rees, In Britain (1995). Specific information about the press and typology is
drawn from Bromhead, Life in Modern Britain (1962); Land, What the Papers Say? A Selection
of newspapers extracts for language practice (1981); Tebel & Zucherman, The Magazine in
America (1741-1990) (1991); and the reliable webpage www.wikipedia.org (2004) and
www.britannica.com (2004).

The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative

competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most
complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the
guidelines in B.O.E. (2002) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; and the Council of Europe,
Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of
reference (1998).

2. THE MASS MEDIA IN ENGLISH: JOURNALISTIC STYLE.

So, the unit is to be divided into two main chapters which correspond to the main tenets of this
unit. Thus, Chapter 2 provides a general introduction to (1) the mass media in English and then,
to the journalistic style in particular. So, we shall start by offering a definition of mass media in
English in terms of (a) means (press, radio, television), and main (b) aims regarding the
audience. Next, we focus on the former element, that is, (2) journalistic style and we examine its
(a) aims, (b) language, (c) main features, and (c) main genres.

2.1. The mass media in English.

2.1.1. Means: press, radio, television.

The mass media comprises three types of modern communication, that is, the press, the radio,
and the television. In terms of percentage, the press is curiously much more demanded than the
radio or television; actually, according to Bromhead (1962:179), the British people buy more
newspapers than any others except the Swedes and Japanese. Figures show that over 80% of
households receive at least one daily nespaper, and despite that fact that people usually get the

3/25
first news from radio or television, newspapers are more and more demanded in terms of
explanatory and background information.

Broadly speaking, following the website britannia.com, within the press, there are about 130
daily and Sunday newspapers, over 2,000 weekly newspapers and some 7,000 periodical
publications in Britain. Thats more national and regional daily newspapers for every person in
Britain than in most other developed countries. The major papers, twelve national morning daily
newspapers (5 qualities and 7 populars) and nine Sunday papers (4 qualities and 5 populars) are
available in most parts of Britain. All the national newspapers use computer technology, and its
use in the provincial press, which has generally led the way in adopting new techniques, is
widespread.

Also, the press in Britain is free to comment on matters of public interest, subject to law. By
the open discussions of all types of goings on, it is obvious that there is no state control or
censorship of the press, which caters to a variety of political views, interests and levels of
education. Newspapers are almost always financially independent of any political party, but
their political leanings are easily discerned. The industry is self regulating, having set up a Press
Complaints Commission in 1991 to handle public complaints. The Commission was established
at the suggestion of a government-appointed committee to promote more effective press self-
regulation and to prevent intrusion into privacy.

Regarding the British broadcasting, that is, radio and television, it has traditionally been based
on the principle that its a public service accountable to the people through Parliament.
Following 1990 legislation, it is also embracing the principles of competition and choice. Three
public bodies are responsible for television and radio throughout Britain. They are: (1) the
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) broadcasts television and radio; (2) the Independent
Television Commission (ITC) licenses and regulates non-BBC television servic es, including
cable and satellite; and (3) the Radio Authority licenses and regulates all non-BBC radio.

On the other hand, television viewing is Britains most popular leisure pastime: 95 per cent of
households have a color television set and 68 per cent have a video recorder. The Government is
not responsible for programming content or the day-to-day conduct of the business of
broadcasting. Broadcasters are free to air programs with the only limitation on their
independence being the requirement that they not offend good taste.

Note that the BBC operates two complementary national television channels and five national
radio services. It also has 39 local radio stations, and regional radio services in Scotland, Wales

4/25
and Northern Ireland. BBC World Service Radio transmits in English and 37 other languages
worldwide. Regular listeners are estimated to number 120 million. BBC World Service
Television, set up in 1992, provides three services: a subscription channel in Europe; a 24-hour
news and information channel available throughout Asia; and a news and information channel
in Africa. Both BBC overseas services have complete editorial independence.

BBC domestic services are financed almost exclusively by the sale of annual television
licenses; World Service radio is financed from a government grant, while World Service
Television is self-funding. Popular television drama programs produced for the BBC are shown
in America and many other countries around the world.

2.1.2. Aims: the audience.

The main aim of mass media elements is not only to transmit information, that is, what, but also
how to do it. It must be borne in mind that news is a representation of the world in language and,
therefore, it imposes a structure of social, political, economic and moral values on whatever is
represented, as well as a different treatment in presentation according to several factors
(political, economic). This means that news is a construct which is to be understood in social
and semiotic terms, and the relevance of the English language in this process of communication
is understood as an international common code to transmit information.

Regarding what to transmit, mass media means report the latest events around the world, from
international to local level. That report traditionally answers the set of wh- questions: what?,
who?, when?, where?, why?, what for? and how?, among others (i.e. how much?, how many?
and so on). The information report must be a complete piece of news or enlarged bits of
information according to a decreasing interest order. On the other hand, how to transmit leads us
to the question of objective and subjective information. This bias can exist because Britain is a
free country with an elected representative government, and the mass media is free putting
forward various points of view to be transmitted through different mediums with their own
structural features.

In short, the aim is to provide as much information as possible to the recipients of the news, that
is, the audience, which is regarded as the market of news in a commercial sense. So, it is
important not only what to write but also how to write it taking into account that each means of
communication has a particular framework and a characteristic mode of address. The
determination of the particular mode of address will depend on the particular type of audience

5/25
since there must be a reciprocity between producer and receiver. As a result, we find the three
main types of communication means: the press, the radio and the television with a common way
of expression: the journalistic style.

2.2. Journalistic style.

The concept journalistic style must not be confused with journalistic language since both of
them refer to mass media means, but in different ways. First of all, the journalistic language
refers to the particular way language is used by the press, radio and television whereas the
journalistic style refers to the ways of expression, that is, informative, literary, and that of public
opinion. Therefore, the latter comprises the three types of media in terms of style whereas the
former does it in terms of language, form and structure.

It must be bear in mind that journalistic communication is expressed by means of written texts
(newspapers and magazines) and oral texts, which are further divided into audio texts (radio) or
audio-visual texts (television, video). Hence, the freedom of press becomes an essential
condition for journalistic communication fulfil a social aim, that is, the possibility of spreading
true sorts of information and opinions without any kind of censorship.

2.2.1. Aims.

The main aims of journalistic communication are three. First, to satisfy the need of informing
about matters of common interest which any well-organised society has; second, to spread the
news; third, though informative objectivity is very difficult to reach, different mass media is
aimed to cultivate the audiences opinion, by interpreting the information spread and by using
different semiotic devices. This is specially felt when they support some particular ideological
or political position, together with the information and their opinions. Hence their
propagandistic purpose to attract converts to the ideology or policy they are interested in, which
is supported by the freedom of press.

2.2.2. Language.

Journalistic language makes reference to the particular channel each means of communication
uses. This means that each text (oral or written) has its own particular rules and ways of

6/25
expression in the sense that each type of text shares some exclusive and general features no
matter how many different channels it has. For instance, within the press, all the different types
of newspapers (national vs. regional/local; quality vs. popular) shall present common features.
Hence there is a threefold formulae called the three cs code, that is, the journalistic language
must be clear, concise and correct.

This is so for the item of news to be understood by any reader no matter what their cultural level
is, and also because in this type of communication the important thing is the content rather than
the form, which must just be a transparent means of transport of the former. Actually, there are
three main aspets that journalistic texts should avoid in style: literalising (adjectives,
metaphores), vulgarising, and technifying (using non comprehensible words for the audience).

2.2.3. Main features.

Similarly, there are six main features of jo urnalistic style which, strictly speaking, are the result
of the linguistic reflection mentioned above. Thus, (1) correctness, since journalistic language is
non-literary and must be close to cultivated colloquial language; (2) conciseness, since short
sentences are often the most appropriate in journalistic language; (3) clarity, since one can
achieve communicative efficiency by using suitable verbs in the active form and the indicative
mood; (4) to hold the attention of the receiver, since articles of an informative nature have a
peculiar structure which is used in order to attract the readers attention from the first line to the
last; (5) language produced in groups. Note that all the messages in collective communication
are produced by different authors, some of them have greater responsibility than others in the
final result which is offered to the receivers; and finally, (6) the use of a mixed language, since
the plurality of concurrent codes drives the different languages to depend on each other. The
leading code (the articulated language in written or oral representation also suffers at the same
time the influence of smaller codes.

It is worth taking into account that the two formulae of journalistic language, previously
mentioned, that is, being general and informative can be applied to the six features (except for
the two latter). Once a text is conceived, it undergoes a process of elaboration before it is edited
so as to transform the text into its own style without interfering directly. Since it is difficult to
inform objectively, the text appearance exposes objectivity by means of extralinguistic signs
whose existence permits us to speak about journalistic semiotic. The following set of semiotic
devices may be used to accompany an item of news in order to guide and judge it, even though

7/25
the linguistic expression may be the narration of events in a totally impartial way (i.e. images in
commercials).

Thus, the context where the text appears (page, radio dials, TV commercial). Actuallly, in
written texts, the most important location is the front page or the first page of each section
(home vs. International policy, domestic life, sports, fashion, culture). Note that the pieces of
news appearing on uneven pages, within each section, are rather relevant. Also, the number of
columns (or radio/TV commercials) expresses the hierarchy which the text allows it. The item
of news is, no matter what their length is, more relevant than the one published in just one place.
Then the way we highlight the news (typeface, height of letters, intonation/emphasis in
radio/TV) is also a sign of importance given by the text. Finally, in audio-visual texts,
photographs and images illustrating a piece of news make it more relevant.

All these manipulations are the editorial staffs responsibility so as to value, depreciate, give
prominence or reduce the importance of the text. As a result, the published text is believed to
present a general journalistic language which gathers several characteristics unique to each type.

2.2.4. Main genres.

Within journalism there is a great variety of genres, which have particular features with regard
to content and expression. Among the most outstanding ones we include: report, interview,
chronicle, editorial, article, column and review. Thus,

(1) reports, which are defined as a vivid narration of what a journalist has seen and heard
about something which must interest public opinion. It may not be of immediate current
affairs, which is what we expect from a piece of news. Sometimes a report may be of
denouncing character, usually with negative connotations (i.e. bad news). Often, reports
are illustrated with photographs.
(2) Interviews, which include dialogues between the journalist and the person whose
opinions or secrets may be interesting for the audience. Note that they are usually
reported in indirect style.
(3) Chronicles, which tell a series of events that have taken place during a certain time
(daily, weekly) and which are interesting to considers (i.e. a session held in Parliament,
Royal events, car races). Like reports, they are usually signed.
(4) Editorial texts are a written piece without signature. They appear in a fixed and
outstanding place, where the view of the paper about an important matter is exposed.

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 The person in charge of the editorial is the newspaper director, radio manager, the
editorial advisor, or TV director.
(5) Articles are written by journalists or collaborators, where within certain length the
authors thought is exposed about any topic which may interest people because it is up-
to-date or for just historical, artistic, scientific, or philosophical reasons. This is said to
be the most subjective journalistic genre, since the quality of the language and the
suggestive strength of the content are very much appreciated.
(6) Columns are a fixed space reserved to reporters or collaborators who, daily or very
often, comments on current matters in a rather subjective tone. There are column
reporters considered as greatly influential on public opinion. Note that columns are the
synonyms of daily or weekly collaborations in radio and television.
(7) Finally, reviews are carried out by journalists or collaborators who judge books, films,
plays, concerts, sports, or any other show through oral or written texts.

3. CULTURAL DIMENSION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE NOWADAYS: BRITISH

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH. PRESENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
IN SPAIN: ANGLICISMS.

Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 shall address the Press within the scope of the
English language (in and out the United Kingdom), and shall review its main features, among
which we shall focus on the distinction between quality papers and popular papers. In doing so,
we shall examine (1) the origins of the press, (2) common features of press nowadays; and (3)
the press in the United Kingdom. At this point we shall examine the main newspapers and
magazines in England (South, Midlands, North), Wales, North Ireland, and Scotland regarding
the (a) main variables that mark the difference between them (national vs. regional/local press,
daily vs. Sunday papers, weekly vs. periodical papers). Hence we shall divide the papers
between (b) national papers, including (i) quality vs. popular papers regarding daily vs. Sunday,
and (ii) journals and magazines (women, children, teenage) which refer to other types of press,
such as weekly vs. periodical versions, Then we address the question of (c) regional and local
papers; finally, we shall examine (4) the press out of the United Kingdom at the international
level, namely the United States as the most outstanding English-speaking country.

9/25
3.1. The origins of the press.

The origins of the press trace back to the invention of the printing press. Basically developed
independently in China and Europe, printing is defined as the process of making multiple copies
of a document by the use of movable characters or letters. Before the invention of printing,
multiple copies of a manuscript had to be made by hand, a laborious task that could take many
years. However, the arrival of printing made possible to produce more copies in a shorter period
of time. Invented by Johann Gutenberg in c1450, the printing press made the mass publication
and circulation of literature possible. It was derived from the presses farmers used to make olive
oil; actually, the first printing press used a heavy screw to force a printing block against the
paper below.

This invention set off a socia l revolution that is still in progress. Moreover, once the problem of
molding movable type was developed, printing spread rapidly and began to replace hand-printed
texts for a wider audience. Thus, intellectual life soon was no longer the exclusive domain of
church and court, and literacy became a necessity of urban existence. What civilization gained
from Gutenbergs invention is incalculable, thus the printing press stoked intellectual fires at the
end of the Middle Ages, helping usher in an era of enlightenment, and even more. This impact
lasted for centuries, and eventually, the nineteenth century saw the emergence of periodicals and
the increase of newspapers. In fact, many more relevant literary figures contributed to them, up
to the present day (Coleridge, Dickens, Kipling, Twain, Huxley, Hemingway, Greene).

3.2. The press: common features.

Though the press in Britain is aimed to guard its freedom to print, there are some rules that
restrict its scope of information. So, among these restricting features we include: (1) the laws of
libel, by means of which a newspaper or periodical can be sued in the law courts for damages if
it publishes a harmful untruth about someone; (2) the Official Secrets Act (OSA), a law which
restricts the reporting of some military and government matters; (3) the government requesting
newspapers not to publish information about a sensitive public matter; (4) legal restrictions on
reporting certain court proceedings or commenting on a trial in progress in case the publicity
would be unfair to the people on trial.

Finally, (5) the influence of the Press Council, an official organisation which was first set up in
1953 with the aim of maintaining high standards in the press. It hears complaints from the
public about the behaviour of journalists and the stories newspapers sometimes print. The

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Council is intended to safeguard the privacy of the individual as well as the freedom of the
press.

3.3. The press in the United Kingdom.

3.3.1. Main variables.

There is a wide variety of newspapers at the level of national vs. regional/local press, which
depend on several variables, among which we shall focus on the distinction between daily vs.
Sunday press, and weekly vs. periodical press. Yet, it is worth noting that the one which actually
marks the difference over other similar European countries is the distinction between quality
papers and the mass-circulation popular tabloids. Hence quality and popular papers will be
classified into daily vs. Sunday papers, and weekly vs. periodical papers. Also, we shall
examine other types of press like magazines.

3.3.2. National press.

Because of the small geographical area of the UK, and the good travel infrastructure, there are
many national newspapers, in contrast to the policy of the United States where most newspapers
are printed and published locally. Actually, out of the 1386 British newspapers
(www.mediauk.com), national papers, based in London, altogether sell more copies than all
the eighty-odd provincial papers combined (Bromhead, 1962:179). Note that UK papers are
generally grouped into three types within the national scope: quality papers (broadsheets),
middle-market tabloids (or semi-popular papers) and popular papers (also called tabloids or
mass market tabloids).

The national press is dominated by large companies, some of which have other interests besides
(commercial television, Canadian forests, package holidays, North Sea oil) as a national
newspaper needs a strong financial base. In one sense its total daily sales in England amount to
13 million, or three papers sold for every four households. Yet their financial position was not
always successful and their financial difficulties were not resolved by the 1980s. So, attempts to
cut their costs by using more efficient production processes have caused several strikes. In
1976-84 all the London national papers had some periods when they were not published.

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On the other hand, most of the significant regional newspapers are evening papers, each
publishing about four editions between about mid-day and 5 p.m. London like every other
important town has one. All these evening papers are semi-popular, but none has a circulation
approaching that of any popular national paper.

3.3.2.1. Quality vs. Popular papers.

Following Bromhead (1962:179), the national uniformity and the difference between quality
and mass papers together correspond with and reflect both the weakness of regional identity
and the gulf between the social classes. With the press, people in all parts of England choose
one or more of the eight national papers according to their preferences which are based on
various factors, among which national sport reports are probably more influential than politics,
and certainly more influential than anything to do with the region.

The contrastive pair quality and popular papers is further extended into a threefold
distinction since a third type, middle -market tabloids, is included in between. Hence we find
three main types of newspapers (also called papers): quality papers (broadsheets), middle -
market tabloids (or semi-popular papers) and popular papers (also called tabloids or mass
market tabloids).

1. Quality papers.

Broadly speaking, they are also called broadsheets because of its size. They are probably the
most famous to readers overseas as they contain a special emphasis on news about business,
political relations, cultural tendencies, scientific, social and political matters at an international
level. They are also characterized by an aura of dignity and stability which is shown in their
semi-academic style and their serious tone, which tends to assume the intelligence of the
readers.

According to Mervill (1981), quality papers show several features which make them unique,
such as: a wide range of international news about culture, economy, science and education; lack
of sensationalism; excellent printing; an analytical and deep approach to news; lack of hysteria;
high cultural standard; unbiased and factural approach; imagination, decency and general
awareness of the problems of human beings; excellent editorial pages; and a detached
orientation from sensationalism and provincialism. In short, quality papers are famous for being
serious, intellectual and cosmopolitan.

12/ 25
Among quality papers main functions we include: first, the fact that they are the reference for
other newspapers which will not produce their own ideas and judgements about a particular
issue without having consulted the opinion of quality newspapers, although they do not say so
in so many wor ds; second, that they are the ideal vehicle for political leaders, social institutions
and national associations when they address leading groups in the country; and finally, that they
are very useful in embassies and diplomatic institutions so as to know about the countrys
situation. Hence the quality press is said to be linked to the certain public voices of democratic
government and be able to fall within a partys doctrine or ideas.

Regarding semiotics, an edition of quality papers might consist of forty pages, of which 20
might deal with foreign and home news and opinion, 8 with business and sports news, and 12
with other features and advertisements. Among these other features there will be theatre and
film reviews, obituaries, TV pages, crosswords and advertisements. Over the past decade, as
competition for readership has increased, the percentage of purely news-orientated pages has
decreased steadily, and many of the quality papers have run competitions for their readers along
the lines of the Bingo competitions first set up by the Daily Mirror and the Sun.

2. Semi-popular papers.

Though traditionally regarded as popular tabloids, the Daily Mail and The Express, are (possibly
thankfully) concerned with a very different readership - that of affluent women and, as a result,
they are framed up within the category of middle -market tabloids. Weekend supplements and
carefully-placed sponsorship ensure that these titles are a cheap alternative to a magazine, while
sports supplements aimed at the husband aim to broaden their readership.

3. Popular papers.

Popular papers, also known as mass-market tabloids and defined as yellow journalism, is
characterized by the use of lurid features and sensationalized news in newspaper publishing to
attract readers and increase circulation (britannica, 2004). Since they respond to their estimates
of the readers interests, they show particular features such as the use of enormous banner
headlines, coloured comics and copious illustrations to thrive on the excitement of the readers.
Also, they include leading items of each day, which are one day political, one day to do with
crime, one day sport, one day some odd happening. They have their pages of political report and
comment, short, often over-simplified but vigorously written and (nowadays) generally
responsible (Bromhead, 1962:183).

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With respect to typograhical resources we highlight the make-up of the first page, which aims to
heighten sensationalism by emphasizing human interest on fantasy and other unusual issues (i.e.
The so-called Page Three girl in The Sun). For instance, usual tools are the unbalanced lay-out
of the pages (large headlines vs. little text), exaggeration of the news (epic on occasions), a
treatment of news which pays little or no attention to the truth and to tact, illogic design and
distribution of spaces, and an unclear division between information and opinion.

With this background in mind, let us examine these main features within each type of paper,
both quality and popular within the further distinction of daily and Sunday press.

3.3.2.1.1. Daily vs. Sunday papers.

1. Daily papers: quality and popular.

Also, the gap in quality is not so much between Labour and Conservative, as between the
levels of ability to read and appreciate serious news presented seriously. At national level,
regarding daily morning papers, five quality newspapers are distinguished: The Times, The
Guardian, the Daily Telegraph, the Financial Times, and The Independent in contrast to the six
popular papers: The Sun, the Daily Mirror, the Daily Express, the Daily Mail, the Morning Star,
and the recent Manchester-based The Sport.

Within the quality group, The Times, though being the UKs oldest national newspaper (founded
in 1785) , is not the most popular of all British newspapers (c. 350,000 readers). Since it had to
suspend its publications in 1978 because the workforce would not accept the managements
plans for modernisation, it has been the paper of the Establishment, which uses it for
announcements of births, marriages and deaths (Bromhead, 1962:185). In 1981 it was taken
over by th Murdoch group, though its editorial independence was guaranteed. Politically
speaking, though it is said to be independent, it is sympathetic to the Conservative Party. Yet, it
has a big minority of non-Conservative readers. Also, it has a reputation for aution in its
attitudes, and its letters to the Editor, which are printed next to the leading articles, are very
influential.

The Guardian, originally called the Manchester Guardian up to 1959, developed into a modern
national paper when moved its base to London, and hence its change of name. It is said to be
equal with The Times In quality, style and reporting (c. 450,000 readers). Politically speaking,
though it is said to be non committed, it has been described as radical since it has been related

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to the Liberal Party and humanitarian attitudes. It has made great progress during the past thirty
years, particularly among intelligent people who find The Times too uncritical of established
interests (Bromhead, 1962:185).

The Daily Telegraph, known affectionately as the Daily Torygraph because of the staunch
support to the Conservative Party, is bought by the majority of Conservative middle -class
readers (c. 1,300,000 readers). It contains much more reading matter than the popular papers
and its circulation is said to be greater than that of The Times and The Guardian because of its
low price.

The Financial Times is a financial newspaper which, incidentally, is not related to The Times in
any way. It has recently shed its old commercial specialism and has become a major quality
paper, enjoying a reputation rivalling The Times. Its circulation, though small (c. 200,000
readers), has grown enormously. Its success in recent years has rivalled the Suns at the opposite
end of the scale (Bromhead, 1962:185).

The Independent is the newest of the broadsheets, and has quickly established a reputation for
unbiased and interesting reporting. It shows the similar large format of the previous newspapers,
similar content, though it pays little or no attention to the activities of the Royal Family, and a
good selection of news.

Moreover, it is worth mentioning that Scotland has two important quality papers, the
Scotsman in Edinburgh and the Glasgow Herald. The Glasgow Daily Record survives: two
other popular papers have disappeared. On Sundays the Sunday Post, of Dundee, claims to be
read by four-fifths of the Scottish population. Scotlands cultural distinctness is refelcted in its
press (Bromhead, 1962:179).

On the other hand, regarding the daily popular press we analyse the main features of: The Sun,
the Daily Mirror, the Daily Express, the Daily Mail, the Morning Star, and the recent
Manchester-based The Sport.

The Sun, which appeared in the mid 1970s, is regarded as the successor of the old Daily Herald,
which was a quasi-official organ of the Labour Party until the 1960s. Following Bromhead
(1962:184), after several changes of status and ownership The Sun was taken over by Mr
Rupert Murdoch, whose first big newspapers were in Australia. Before his firm took over The
Sun it already owned the News of the World, a British Sunday paper which pays special
attention to reports of crimes and whose sales once exceeded 8 million copies. With similar

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features to the daily popular press, it keeps minimum contents such as politics and maximum
about football, sports, horseracing, but above all, pictures and girls built on nudity and bigger
headlines (c.4,200,000 readers).

The Daily Mirror appeared in the 1940s and soon became a serious rival of the Express and
Mail in popupar journalism. Following Bromhead (1962:183), it was always a tabloid, always
devoted more space to pictures. It was also a pioneer with strip cartoons. During the war it was
the Governments fiercest and most effective critic, and at one time Chruchill was tempted to
use the Governments special wartime powers to supress it. He was indeed sorely tempted; but
he left it free. After 1945 it regularly supported the Labour Party. It soon outdid the Express in
size of headlines, short sentences and exploitation of excitement. It also became the biggest-
selling daily newspaper. For many years its sales have been above 4 million; sometimes well
above (c.3,500,000).

The Daily Express and the Daily Mail are the two archetypal popular papers with circa
2,000,000 readers each. Both of them were built up by individual tycoons [rich businessmen]
in the early twentieth century. Both had a feeling for the taste of a newly-literate public: if a
man bites a dog, thats news. The Express was built up by a man born in poverty in Canada. He
built up his newspaper in Britain, not only on crime and human interest stories, but on his
simple message about the greatness of the British Empire. He became a great man in the land, a
close friend and associate of Winston Churchill, a powerful minister in his war Cabinet. The
circulation of the Express at one time exceeded 4 million copies a day. Now the first Lord
Beaverbrook is dead, the paper is searching for a new identity, and the daily sales are not much
more than half of their highest figure. The history of the Daily Mail, with its more conventional
conservatism, is not greatly different. Both of these papers have become tabloids (printed on
smaller sheets of paper) within the past ten years (Bromhead, 1962:183).

The Morning Star belongs to the Communist Party and might well be placed beside the
Express and Mail. But the Morning Stars circulation is said to be about 60,000 only a small
fraction of that of any other national paper; most people would scarcely regard it as a national
paper at all. It supports all strikes, condemns all the social evils it can find and sells more
copies in Eastern Europe (where it is the only permitted British paper) than in Britain.

Finally, just mention a relative newcomer, the Manchester-based The Sport, which deals with
sport news and keeps the same format and style as the other tabloids. It is closely linked with
the pornography industry, and consists mainly of a diet of fanciful stories, any stories or trials

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connected to sex, and a diet of nude women on almost every page, although no pubic hair is
shown. Advertising seems to consist of sex products and services.

2. Sunday papers: quality and popular.

On the other hand, among the Sunday press, we include three qualities and four popular.
According to Bromhead (1962:179) almost no papers at all are published in England on
Sundays except national ones: three quality and four popular based in London. Regarding
the former type, we find The Sunday Times, the Sunday Telegraph, and The Observer whereas
within the second type we include News of the World, the Sunday Mirror, the Sunday People,
and the Sunday Express.

On the one hand, the quality Sunday papers devote large sections to literature and the arts so
as to review new books, the London theatre, new films and music. Also, they bring information
and comments about politics and business throughout the world. They have colour supplements
and are in many ways more like magazines than newspapers. They largely depend on the
advertisements to finance them. On the other hand, popular papers supply quite different
worlds of taste and interest from quality ones. They are famous for reporting scandals, sports,
and legal matters involving sex and violence as daily versions do.

3.3.2.2. Journals and magazines.

3.3.2.2.1. Weekly vs. Periodical press.

Weekly and periodical press refer respectively to journals and magazines. Following Bromhead
(1962:187-8), good English writing is often to be found in the weekly political and literary
journals, all based in London, all with nationwide circulations in the tens of thousands. The
Economist, founded in 1841, probably has no equal anywhere. It has recently adopted a
coloured cover, and has a few photographs inside, so that it looks like Time and Newsweek, Der
Spiegel and lExpress, but its reports have more depth and breadth than any of these. It covers
the worlds affairs, and even its American section is more informative about America than its
American equivalents.

Although by no means popular, it is vigorous in its comments, and deserves the respect in
which it is universally held. Its circulation rose in the 1970s, and reached 240,000 in 1984

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more than half outside Britain. The New Statesman and Spectator are weekly journals of
opinion, one left, one right. They regularly contain well-written articles, often politically
prejudiced. Both devote nearly half their space to literature and the arts. Both lost circulation
after other weeklies had disappeared. It is worth noting that these specialist papers are not
cheap. They live off an infinite variety of taste, ambition, desire to know, create and buy and
their production, week by week and month by month, represents a fabulous amount of effort.

The Times has three weekly Supplements, all published separately. The Literary Supplement
is devoted almost entirely to book reviews and covers all kinds of new literature. It makes good
use of academic contributors, and has at last, unlike the Economist, abandoned its old tradition
of anonymous reviews. The Times Educational and Higher Education Supplements are
obviously specialist, and useful sources for any serious student of these fields of interest. New
Society and New Scientist, both published by the company which owns the Daily Mirror,
sometimes have good and serious articles about sociological and scientific research, often
written by academics yet useful for the general reader.

One old British institution, the satirical weekly Punch, survives, more abrasive than in an
earlier generation yet finding it hard to keep the place it once had in a more secure social
system. Its attraction, particularly for the intellectual youth, has been surpassed by a new rival,
Private Eye, founded in 1962 by people who, not long before, had run a pupils magazine in
Shrewsbury School. It is so scurrilous that some main chains of newsagents will not sell it, but
its scandalous material is admirably written on atrocious paper and its circulation rivals that of
the Economist.

Glossly wekkly or monthly picture magazines cater either for women or for any of a thousand
special interests. Almost all are based in London, with national circulations, and the womens
magazines sell millions of copies, encouraging people to buy new wallpapers, carpets and
equipment for their kitchens and, of course, new clothes. These, along with commercial
television, are the great educators of demand for the new and better goods offered by the
modern consumer-society. For every activity with any human following, there is a magazine,
supported mainly by its advertisers, and from time to time the police bring a pile of
pornographic magazines to local magistrates, who have the difficult task of deciding whether
they are offensive.

There are also other types of magazines which are addressed to young people. For instance, 15-
year-old magazines are Just Seventeen, Smash Hits, Shout, TV Hits, and More, among the best
sold. Other magazines are linked to the radio and, actually, the best-selling magazine is the

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Radio Times which, as well as listing all the television and radio programmes for the coming
week, contains some fifty pages of articles. Other publications include computer magazines (PC
Weekly ), other TV listing magazines, and womens magazines.

3.3.3. Regional and local papers.

Following Bromhead (1962:186-7), local morning papers have sufffered from the universal
penetration of the London-based national press. Only sixteen survive in the whole of England,
and their combined circulation is much less than that of the Sun alone. Among local daily papers
those published in the evenings are much more important. Each of seventy towns has one,
selling one within a radius of 50 to 100 kilometres. The two London evening papers, the News
and the Standard, together sold two million copies in 1980, but they could not both survive, and
merged into one, now called The Standard.

Most local daily papers belong to one or other of the big press empires, which leave their local
editors to decide editorial policy. Mostly they try to avoid any appearance of regular
partisanship, giving equal weight to each major political party. They give heavy weight to local
news and defend local interests and local industries. A Bristol paper must vigorously support the
Concorde aircraft, which is built in Bristol.

A European visitor to Britain may be surprised to see no kiosks on the pavements. Some
people buy their morning or evening papers in shops, others have them brought to their homes
not by the mail service but by boys or girls who want to earn money by doing paper-rounds. In
towns evening papers are sold by elderly men who stand for four hours on the pavement,
stamping their feet to keep warm.

The total circulation of all the provincial daily newspapers, morning and evening together, is
around 8 million: about half as great as that of the eight national papers. In spite of this, some
provicial papers are quite prosperous. They do not need their own foreign correspondents; they
receive massive local advertising, particularly of things for sale; some (not all) of them have
persuaded their printing staffs to accept the efficient production-methods which the London
unions will not accedt on any reasonable terms. If a national papers compositors refuse to work
new machines unless each man is paid larger wages, that national papers costs must rise
beyond reasonable limits.

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The truly local papers are weekly. They are not taken very seriously, being mostly bought for
the useful information contained in their advertisements. But for a foreign visitor wishing to
learn something of the flavour of a local community, the Friday local paper can be useful. Most
of the daily and wekkly newspapers are owned by large companies which also own national
papers, as well as large shares in the regional commercial television companies. The dominance
of these few big firms in the whole world of public information is often criticised, but they have
become sensitive to the criticism and take care to avoid giving cause for complaint.

3.4. The press out of the United Kingdom: the U.S.

The most outstanding example of the press out of the United Kingdom is to be found in the
United States. The reason is that Americans hold the press in high regard and that their
newspapers have gained greater public and professional recognition for offering unbiased and
comprehensive coverage of news, as well as editorial opinion in support of basic principles of
human freedom and social progress. Yet, it is important to highlight the fact that there are hardly
any truly national newspaper since competition with broadcast media (radio, TV) and
restrictions for most dailies to their local or regional area due to nationwide distribution issues,
determine some of the features of American newspapers.

However, they also distinguish three main types of publications: daily, tabloids and magazines.
Following Vaughan-Rees (1995), the most famous daily newspapers include: The New York
Times, which tells news with integrity and completeness, has a virtually nation-wide distribution
due to its high prestige; The Washington Post, which covers national and foreign news, has won
recognition as one of the most influential of the liberal, intellectual newspapers in the country
thanks to its editorial page; The Los Angeles Times, one of the oldest newspapers (founded in
the late nineteenth century), is acknowledged as an independent-minded publication for his
high-regarded editorial position; The Wall Street Journal, a financial daily newspaper, has been
solidly edited since its foundation in the late nineteenth century. It was broadened to include
written summaries of important national and world news, as well as comprehensive articles
interpreting trends in industry; finally, the USA Today, which is the first attempt at a serious
national daily newspaper of general interest.

Among the well-known tabloids, The New York Daily News is the one with the largest
circulation, and among the publication of journals and magazines, these may be la unched
weekly, bi-weeklly, or monthly. Though some of them are consumer magazines, others are
devoted to trade and business. Among periodical papers, the best-selling types include: top mass

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magazines (TV Guide, Readers Digest), womens general magazines (Cosmopolitan, Working
Woman), news and opinion (Time), and business (Business Week, Fortune), among others.

4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

The mass media in English (press, radio, television) or the journalistic style is one of the most
outstanding aspects of educational activity and, for our purposes, the press and the distinction
between quality and popular papers. In the classroom setting all kinds of social and linguistic
aspects of language may be brought to students in terms of means of communication so as to
bring them closer to the worlds reality. Yet, how is this issue linked to our Spanish students?
Basically, through the educational activity, both in and out the classroom, the former being
developed in terms of tutorial or cla ssroom activities and the latter by focusing on sociocultural
aspects that exist within the students environment (home, friends, the media).

We may handle in class news from the British press which make relevant the analysis of it in
comparison to the Spanish press regarding the outstanding differences (size, format, style,
contents). So, the distinction between quality and popular papers may become familiar to
Spanish students thanks to another means of communication, the TV, since certain Spanish
programmes address to British headlines to highlight relevant news in the fields of fashion,
music, sports, and so on. Hence it makes sense to examine the historical background of the press
in English, and check whether the distinction between quality and popular papers has always
been present.

Currently, educational authorities are bringing about relevant changes for the school reality with
the yearly international exchanges of British-Spanish language assistants in schools so as to
promote the learning of the English language with native speakers. Actually, they can make
students aware of certain sociocultural aspects of Britain related to the press and encourage
them to use the British media to get informed through new technologies such as the radio, TV,
or the Internet, since the press is also present there. The integration of Spain into the European
Union makes relevant for students to become aware of the journalistic style so as to be able to
appreciate the main similarities and differences with the Spanish one.

Also, this cultural dimension of the English language may be easily approached to students by
the increasing number of European programs (Comenius, Erasmus, school trips) and
technologies (the Internet, mobile phones, mail) which provide students with authentic material
in context so as to get acquainted with other forms of journalism around Europe. Actually,

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among the stage objectives for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato students (stated respectively in RD
112 and RD 113/2002, 13 September) there is a clear reference to the fact of getting acquainted
with other cultures so as to promote respect and, for our purposes, an attitude of critical
awareness of other language systems.

Thus, E.S.O. objectives (5, 6) make reference to first, Know and value the scientific and
technological development. Its applications and importance in a physical and social
environment (objective 5), and secondly, to obtain, select, deal with and transmit information
using sources, methodologies and technological instruments, included the technologies of
information and communication, proceeding in an organised, autonomous and critical way
(objective 6). Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General Objectives (8, 9, 10), we find
a closer approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying that students are expected to
accede to the knowledge of the culture transmitted by the foreign language, developing respect
towards it and its speakers, to achieve a better understanding between countries (objective 8);
recognise the value of foreign languages as a means of communication between people
belonging to different cultures and as an enriching element for social and interpersonal
relations (objective 9); and use the foreign language as a means of communication with a
ludic and creative attitude and enjoy its use (objective 10).

On the other hand, Bachillerato students are expected to understand and know how to express
oneself fluently and correctly in the foreign language or languages being studied (objective 2);
and also, to use the information and communication technologies to acquire types of
knowledge and transmit information, solve problems and facilitate interpersonal relations,
valuing its use critically (objective 7). Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General
Objectives (6, 7), we find a closer approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying
that students are expected to know the sociocultural aspects of the target language as a means
to improve communication in the foreign language and for the critical knowledge of ones own
culture (objective 6) and also, to value the importance of the study of foreign languages as an
element of understanding and encouragement of respect and consideration towards other
cultures.

Actually, the success partly lies in the way this issue becomes real to the users since theory
about the press only becomes relevant when students may check by themselves the difference
between the main types of press (quality vs. Popular papers, daily vs. Sunday versions, natio nal
vs. Local, journals vs. magazines) in and out the classroom setting. This is to be achieved within
the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular, the Spanish Educational
System which establishes a common reference framework for the teaching of foreign languages

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where students are intended to carry out several communication tasks with specific
communicative goals. One of them being closely related to. Broadly speaking, the final aim is
for students to be aware of their current social reality through the use of the media in the English
language, for our purposes, the press.

5. CONCLUSION.

The journalistic style in Britain has traditionally followed the model we have already presented.
Throughout most of the Commonwealth, the media in English has its roots in the British
version. In fact, English is used as a technical language around the world, in medicine, computer
science, air traffic control, and many other such areas of concentrated expertise and
international user populations. Hence, the relevance of the English language makes of it the
language of the media so as to transmit news all around the world.

As we have seen, the press language may vary slightly from one paper to another, and even
more from journals or magazines, at both national or regional/local level. Hence the aim of this
unit has been, then, to provide first a useful introduction to the mass media in English (press,
radio and television) from a general overview regarding the journalistic style. Then we have
focused on the press, and its two different manifestations : quality vs. popular papers. In doing
so, Chapter 2 has provided a general introduction to the mass media in English (press, radio,
television) and then, to the journalistic style in terms of aims, language, main features, and main
genres.

With this background in mind, Chapter 3 has addressed the Press within the scope of the
English language (in and out the United Kingdom), and the distinction between quality papers
and popular papers. So, we have examined the origins of the press, common features of press
nowadays; and the press in the United Kingdom. At this point we have examined the main
variables that mark the difference between the newspapers (national vs. regional/local press,
daily vs. Sunday papers, weekly vs. periodical papers).

Hence we have divided the papers between national papers, including quality vs. popular papers
(daily vs. Sunday) and journals and magazines, which refer to other types of press, such as
weekly vs. periodical versions, Then we address the question of regional and local papers, and
finally, we have examined the press out of the United Kingdom at the international level,
namely in the United States as the most outstanding English-speaking country.

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So far, we have attempted to provide the reader with a general overview of the media within the
United Kingdom, and its further influence out ot it. This information is relevant for language
learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, who do not automatically detect differences
between different newspapers in English. So, learners need to have these associations brought to
their attention in socio-cultural aspects within cross-curricular settings (Spanish language,
history, technology format, presentation). As we have seen, understanding how the press works
and is reflected in our world today is important to students, who are expected to be aware of the
richness of the English language, not only in English-speaking countries, but also in Spain.

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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

- B.O.E. 2002. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 112/2002, de 13 de septiembre. Currculo de la

Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.
- B.O.E. 2002. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 113/2002, de 13 de septiembre. Currculo de
Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.
- Bromhead, Peter. 1962. Life in Modern Britain. Longman.
- Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework
of reference.
- Land, G. 1981. What the Papers Say? A Selection of newspapers extracts for language practice. Longman, London.
- McLean, A. 1993. Profile UK. Heinemann, Oxford.
- Tebel, J. & M. E. Zucherman. 1991. The Magazine in America (1741-1990). Oxford University Press, New York.
- Vaughan-Rees, M. 1995. In Britain. Richmond Publishing Editors.

Other sources include:

"British Empire." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 2004. Encyclopdia Britannica Premium Service. 28 May 2004
<http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=383356>.

The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright 2003, Columbia University Press

www.wikipedia.org (2004)

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 UNIT 68

THE MASS MEDIA IN ENGLISH (2): RADIO AND

TELEVISION. ADVERTISING IN ENGLISH-SPEAKING
CULTURES: LINGUISTIC AND SEMIOLOGICAL
ASPECTS.

OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

2. THE MASS MEDIA IN ENGLISH: RADIO AND TELEVISION.

2.1. The mass media in English.

2.1.1. Means: press, radio, television.
2.1.2. Aims: the audience.
2.1.3. Broadcasting policy.
2.2. Radio.
2.2.1. A definition: the radio.
2.2.2. A brief history of the radio.
2.2.3. The radio in the United Kingdom.
2.2.4. The radio out of the United Kingdom.
2.3. Television.
2.3.1. A definition: the television.
2.3.2. A brief history of the television.
2.3.3. The television in the United Kingdom.
2.3.4. The television out of the United Kingdom.

3. ADVERTISING IN ENGLISH-SPEAKING CULTURES: LINGUISTIC AND

SEMIOLOGICAL ASPECTS.

3.1. The sources of advertising.

3.1.1. Semiological aspects: the science of signs.
3.1.2. Linguistic aspects: the language of advertising.
3.2. Advertising in English-speaking cultures nowadays.

4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

5. CONCLUSION.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

The present unit, Unit 68, aims to provide a useful introduction to the mass media in English
which comprises the main means of communication: press, radio and television. Yet, we shall
namely concentrate on the two latter, radio and television. It is within the field of broadcasting
that we shall examine the main types of radio and TV channels in Great Britain in terms of
aims, style, and language. In doing so, we shall also approach the question of advertising in
English-speaking cultures as far as linguistic and semiological aspects are concerned so as to
better understand the scope of radio and TV within the international arena.

So, the unit is to be divided into two main chapters which correspond to the main tenets of this
unit. Thus, Chapter 2 provides a general introduction to (1) the mass media in English focusing,
in particular, on radio and television. So, we shall start by offering a profile of mass media in
English in terms of (a) means (press, radio, television), main (b) aims regarding the audience,
and (c) broadcasting policy, regarding the main broadcasting corporations. Next, we shall focus
on (2) radio and (3) television in terms of (a) definition, (b) a brief history of the invention up to
the present day, (b) its organization in the United Kingdom and also, (c) out of it so as to better
understand the scope of the English language within the mass media.

Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 shall address the phenomenon of advertising in
English-speaking countries within the scope of the English language and shall review its main
features in linguistic and semiological aspects. We shall start by examining (1) the sources of
advertising in terms of, first, (a) semiological aspects and (b) linguistic aspects. Within the
former issue, we shall adress the science of semiology, which studies signs in society whereas
within the latter we shall discuss on journalistic language so as to get the main features of the
language of advertising. Finally, we shall analyse the phenomenon of (2) advertising in English-
speaking cultures nowadays.

Chapter 4 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching regarding
the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 5 will offer a conclusion to
broadly overview our present study, and Chapter 6 will include all the bibliographical
references for further information.

2/31
1.2. Notes on bibliography.

An general introduction to mass media in English si namely based on the Encyclopaedia

Britannica (2004); The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (2003); McLean, Profile UK (1993);
and Vaughan-Rees, In Britain (1995). Specific information about radio and television, and their
typology is drawn from Bromhead, Life in Modern Britain (1962); and the reliable sources of
www.wikipedia.org (2004); www.bbc.co.uk (2004); and www.britannica.com (2004). Further
information about advertising is taken from Andren, Rethoric and Ideology in Advertising
(1978).

The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative

competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most
complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the
guidelines in B.O.E. (2002) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; and the Council of Europe,
Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of
reference (1998).

2. THE MASS MEDIA IN ENGLISH: RADIO AND TELEVISION.

Chapter 2 provides a general introduction to (1) the mass media in English focusing, in
particular, on radio and television. So, we shall start by offering a profile of mass media in
English in terms of (a) means (press, radio, television), main (b) aims regarding the audience,
and (c) broadcasting policy, regarding the main broadcasting corporations. Next, we shall focus
on (2) radio and (3) television in terms of (a) definition, (b) a brief history of the invention up to
the present day, (b) its organization in the United Kingdom and also, (c) out of it so as to better
understand the scope of the English language within the mass media.

2.1. The mass media in English.

2.1.1. Means: press, radio, television.

The mass media comprises three types of modern communication, that is, the press, the radio,
and the television (also see: cinema, advertising). In terms of percentage, the press is curiously
much more demanded in Great Britain than radio or television; actually, figures show that over
80% of households receive at least one daily newspaper despite that fact that people usually get

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the first news from radio or television. The reason is drawn from constant complaints to these
two broadcasting varieties for being trivial, boring or simply for being involved in political
arguments and discussions (Bromhead, 1962:192).

However, two main factors have made radio and television become two modern forms of
communication in the twentieth and twenty-first century: technological advances and universal
literacy. Actually, this century has seen the supremacy of the spoken word over the written one
in terms of mass communication thanks to inventors such as Marconi or Baird, who cannot be
held responsible for the relative decline of written language. For the first time since the
invention of the printing press (c.1450), the relevance of written language was no longer
restricted to matters of church and state, but to literature and social issue within the audience,
who are undifferenciated by class, income, and background, among other factors.

Moreover, the far greater immediacy of radio and television (songs, documentaries, daily news)
is drawn from their role as instruments of cultural influence. Actually, many of the most popular
television programmes and documentaries are imports from the United States or Great Britain
(BBC News, BBC documentaries, Discovery Channel, MTV). Hence radio and television are
regarded as the best means to get closer to the anglophone world.

2.1.2. Aims: the audience.

The main aims of the mass media in general deal with what and how to report news. It must be
borne in mind that what refers to the content whereas how refers to the question of transmitting
objective and subjective information. This bias can exist because Britain is a free country with
an elected representative government, and the mass media is free putting forward various points
of view to be transmitted through different mediums with their own structural features.

Hence, the mass media (marked with numbers) are interrelated to the main features of
journalistic style (marked with letters) so as to cover the question of how to transmit
information, for instance, (1) to inform with (a) correctness, since journalistic language is non-
literary and must be close to cultivated colloquial language; (b) conciseness, since short
sentences are often the most appropriate in journalistic language; (c) clarity, since one can
achieve communicative efficiency by using suitable verbs in the active form and the indicative
mood; (2) to cultivate the audiences opinion by (d) holding the attention of the receiver, since
articles of an informative nature have a peculiar structure which is used in order to attract the

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readers attention from the first line to the last; and (3) to spread the news in a (e) language
produced in groups.

Note that all the messages in collective communication are produced by different authors, some
of them have greater responsibility than others in the final result which is offered to the
receivers (particularly, radio and TV commercials); and finally, with (f) the use of a mixed
language, since the plurality of concurrent codes drives the different languages to depend on
each other. The leading code (the articulated language in written or oral representation also
suffers at the same time the influence of smaller codes).

Regarding what to transmit, mass media means report the latest events around the world, from
international to local level. That report traditionally answers the set of wh- questions: what?,
who?, when?, where?, why?, what for? and how?, among others (i.e. how much?, how many?
and so on). The information report must be a complete piece of news or enlarged bits of
information according to a decreasing interest order.

In short, the aim is to provide as much information as possible to the recipients of the news, that
is, the audience, which is regarded as the market of news in a commercial sense. So, it is
important not only what to write but also how to write it taking into account that each means of
communication has a particular framework and a characteristic mode of address. The
determination of the particular mode of address will depend on the particular type of audience
since there must be a reciprocity between producer and receiver.

As a result, we find the three main types of communication means: the press, the radio and the
television with a common way of expression: the journalistic style. Yet, we must take into
account that the most attractive feature that shapes the psychology and behaviour of a radio or
television audience is the fact that it is composed of people in the privacy of their homes, as
opposed to the audience in a theatre or cinema.

2.1.3. Broadcasting policy.

Regarding British broadcasting, that is, radio and television, it has traditionally been based on
the principle that its a public service accountable to the people through Parliament. Following
1990 legislation, it is also embracing the principles of competition and choice (britannia.com).
Yet, it is closely connected to four main factors: (1) the audience (already discussed above); (2)
techniques and materials (since they differ from the press in having a wider capacity for

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coverage of human activities: news bulletins, reports, commentary, discussion); (3) types of
programmes, among which we highlight entertainment (comedy, quizzes, music, dancing
contests), drama (serials, adaptations from famous works of literature, operas, detective stories),
spoken word (news, sports, talk shows, interviews, comedy interviews, phone-ins where a
panel of experts answer questions from a listening audience, and documentaries, among others.

Finally, we emphasize its (4) interdependence since they are not always free of stockholder or
advertiser pressure, though broadcasters in democratic countries take pride of their freedom
from their government. Actually, within the English-speaking scope, there are two main ways of
organizations regarding the relationship between broadcasting systems and their government:
first, a private management, which refers to commercial firms that receive their revenue from
advertising in the form of brief spots broadcast at regular intervals throughout the day or the
sponsoring of one particular programme; and secondly, the establishment of a public
corporation or authority. This means that a given corporation began broadcasting as a monopoly
authorised by the government, but soon they became independent of it, and were supported by
licence fees, paid by radio and TV sets.

Within this type, it is worth mentioning that three public bodies are responsible for television
and radio throughout Britain. They are: (1) the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which
broadcasts television and radio; (2) the Independent Television Commission (ITC), which
licenses and regulates non-BBC television services, including cable and satellite; and (3) the
Radio Authority, which licenses and regulates all non-BBC radio, according to website
britannia.com. Among the three corporations, the BBC is the best known in the world.

In particular, since its foundation on 14 November 1922 under the name of British Broadcasting
Company, and later on as the British Broadcasting Corporation on 1 January 1927, the BBC has
been regarded as the main source of information services because of its reputation and
impartiality in news reporting. Moreover, it got its independence partly by a historical accident
as the result of habit and common agreement of its legal status since it began to broadcast first
to the empire and then to other parts of the world.

At first, it was declared a public service and given Royal Charter (1927), but when later on a
national broadcasting monopoly came into operation, the BBC was funded by the state. The
BBC gets its financial independence from the licence fee that everybody pays when using a
television, rather than getting it from advertisement or the government. Yet, the latter
(represented by a Board of Governors) not only determines how much this fee is going to be,
but also has the right to veto any BBC programme before it is transmitted, take away the BBCs

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licence to broadcast, and to maintain political impartiality (specially in domestic affairs).
Identified with the principles of democracy and free speech during the WWII, its fame became
international and today, it is still regarded as a reliable source.

2.2. Radio.

2.2.1. A definition: the radio.

Defined as the transmission or reception of electromagnetic radiation in the radio frequency

range, that is, navigation signals, AM and FM broadcasting, television transmissions, cell-
phone communications, and various forms of radar, the term is commonly applied also to the
equipment used, especially to the radio receiver (columbia encyclopaedia, 2003). Information
in radio transmission is imparted to a carrier wave by modulating its amplitude, frequency, or
duration. So, we may refer to AM (in full amplitude modulation) and FM (in full amplitude
modulation), commonly known as radio waves.

Following the website britnica.com (2004), AM is the oldest method of broadcasting radio
programs. Commercial AM stations operate in the frequency range of 535 to 1605 kHz. Because
radio waves of these frequencies are reflected back to the Earths surface by the ionosphere,
they can be detected by receivers hundreds of miles away. In addition to commercial radio
broadcasting, AM is also employed in short-wave radio broadcasts, and in transmitting the
video portion of television programs.

With respect to FM radio waves, developed by American electrical engineer Edwin H.

Armstrong in the early 1930s, FM is less susceptible to outside interference and noise (e.g.,
thunderstorms, nearby machinery) than is AM. Such noise generally affects the amplitude of a
radio wave but not its frequency, so an FM signal remains virtually unchanged. FM is also
better able to transmit sounds in stereo than AM. Commercial FM broadcasting stations transmit
their signals in the frequency range of 88 megahertz (MHz) to 108 MHz.

Moreover, according to Columbia Encyclopaedia (2003), the prime purpose of radio is to

convey information from one place to another through the intervening media (i.e., air, space,
nonconducting materials) without wires and where a transmitter and a receiver are needed for
the propagation and interception of radio waves. Actually, in its most common form, radio is
used for the transmission of sounds (voice and music) and pictures (television). The sounds and
images are converted into electrical signals by a microphone (sounds) or video camera (images),

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amplified, and used to modulate a carrier wave that has been generated by an oscillator circuit in
a transmitter.

2.2.2. A brief history of the radio.

Radio is based on the studies of Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Heinrich Hertz,
Guglielmo Marconi, and others. For instance, Faraday was the first to report induction of an
electric current from a magnetic field. He invented the first electric motor and dynamo,
demonstrated the relation between electricity and chemical bonding, discovered the effect of
magnetism on light, and discovered and named diamagnetism (britannica.com, 2004); Maxwell
developed the mathematical theory of electromagnetic waves, and Hertz devised an apparatus
for generating and detecting them; and finally, Guglielmo Marconi, recognizing the possibility
of using these waves for a wireless communication system, gave a demonstration (1895) of the
wireless telegraph, using Hertzs spark coil as a transmitter and Edouard Branlys coherer (a
radio detector in which the conductance between two conductors is improved by the passage of
a high-frequency current) as the first radio receiver (Columbia Encyclopaedia, 2003).

The effective operating distance of this system increased as the equipment was improved, and
in 1901, Marconi succeeded in sending the letter S across the Atlantic Ocean using Morse code.
In 1904, Sir John A. Fleming developed the first vacuum electron tube, which was able to detect
radio waves electronically. Two years later, Lee de Forest invented the audion, a type of triode,
or three-element tube, which not only detected radio waves but also amplified them. The
beginning of radio telephonythe transmission of music and speechalso began in 1906 with
the work of Reginald Fessiden and Ernst F. W. Alexanderson (Columbia, 2003).

However, it was not until Edwin H. Armstrong patented (1913) the circuit for the regenerative
receiver that long-range radio reception became practicable. The major developments in radio
initially were for ship-to-shore communications. Following the establishment (1920) of station
KDKA at Pittsburgh, Pa., the first commercial broadcasting station in the United States,
technical improvements in the industry increased, as did radios popularity. Particularly in the
United States, the radio receiver became a standard household fixture. Subsequent research gave
rise to countless technical improvements and to such applications as radio facsimile , radar, and
television (Columbia, 2003).

Radios that combine transmitters and receivers are now widely used for communications.
Police and military forces and various businesses commonly use such radios to maintain contact

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with dispersed individuals or groups. Citizens band (CB) radios, two-way radios operating at
frequencies near 27 megahertz, most typically used in vehicles for communication while
traveling, became popular in the 1970s. Cellular telephones, despite the name, are another
popular form of radio used for communication (Columbia, 2003).

2.2.3. Radio in the United Kingdom.

With respect to the radio in the United Kingdom, it is worth mentioning that the AM radio, the
grandfather of the broadcast industry, reshaped the view of the world. In economic terms,
following Bromhead (1962:188), when the spread of radio began, the British were quick to
agree on certain principles. Unlike the press, it should not be financed, even partially, through
commercial advertising; but its programmes should be free from state control, and should
therefore have no state subsidy. The British Broadcasting Corporation (B.B.C.) was set up,
given the monopoly of radio broadcasting, and financed by compulsory annual payments. The
Minister in charge of Posts and Telecommunications appoints the B.B.C.s Board of Governors
and its chairman.

When broadcasters became aware of the artistic potential of the radio in the 1930s, they
developed the nature of the medium and found out about how to establish a special relationship
to their audience. At first, they tended to adopt an artificial style, thinking in terms of a mass
audience, when it was actually composed of small groups or individuals usually at home. Style
had to be adapted then to different audiences, using the voice in such ways so as to hold the
attention of the listeners.

From the start, the programmes were a mixture of news, comment, music, entertainment and
sport, but during the years of WWII it was argued that the BBC established itself as an
unshakeable national institution which had four main aims: to satisfy the hunger of the public
for war news; secondly, to boost morale propaganda and spread it easily; third, to trasmit coded
messages to intelligence agents at home and abroad; and fourth, to give to both troops and
civilians much-needed light relief. It is safe to say that during the war, the radio set (or
wireless) became an indispensable part of any household, and the BBC became a part of
national life. Hence the popularity of certain radio programmes, such as the Light Programme
or the Home Service. These eventually evolved into the BBC national stations we know today.

Let us examine then the main present-day radio stations that most people listen in the morning
while having breakfast or driving to work. Following the website www.bbb.co.uk/info/channels

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(2004), BBC radio channels include: five BBC national channels, over one hundred and fifty
commercial radios (teenagers, music), and thirty-nine local radio stations which address a great
wide variety of themes. Thus,

BBC Radio 1, which is the most popular station in the UK with an average of 11,2
million listeners (usually adults). It began broadcasting in 1967 and since then it has
been devoted to the best new music almost entirely. Its birth was a signal that popular
youth culture could no longer be ignored by the countrys established institutions. It
shows a great emphasis on the latest fashions, although at night and at the weekend
airtime is given to minority interest music and to the music of the last forty years.
BBC 1Xtra, which is devoted to new black music.
BBC Radio 2, which namely broadcasts music and entertainment includes light music
(pop, jazz, folk, country), chat shows and also, some comedy.
BBC Radio 3, whic h is devoted to classical music, jazz, world, arts and drama. There is
little variation on this station since it is generally free from news and comments.
BBC Radio 4 broadcasts a wide variety of programmes dealing with news, current
affairs, plays, comedy, long-running seria ls, quizzes, and chat-shows, among others.
Yet, it is the backbone of the BBCs domestic radio service due to its consumer advice
programmes. It is worth noting that despite a small following, its audience is fully
dedicated.
BBC Radio Five Live, which is devoted to life news and sport. Sometimes we can find
some light music.
Other BBC radio stations include: the BBC World Service, devoted to worlwide news
coverage and regarded as the most objective worldwide news reporting service
available ; BBC 6 Music, where we can listen to the great, the new and no fill music;
BBC 7, devoted to comedy, kids and drama; the BBC Asian Network, which includes,
music, news and views of Asia; and the BBC Five Live Sports Extra, which namely
deals with live sport.
Among the 150 new commercial radio stations, we highlight: the recent Virgin Radio
for teenagers, which namely deals with rock music 24 hours a day and attempts to be a
national station (by entrepreneur Richard Branson); The Archers, a long-running soap
which describes an everyday story of country folk aimed at elderly people (middle -
class).
Local radio stations include: English local radio, Radio Scotland, Radio Wales, Radio
Ulster, Radio Cymru, Radio Foyle, and Radio Nan Gaidheal. It is worth mentioning that
most independent stations are local, among the largest being Capital Radio in London.

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 Also, it is worth remembering the pirate stations, such as Radio Caroline and Radio
London, which began broadcasting from ships moored a few miles offshore, thus
avoiding the ban on land-based stations. Yet, after years of conflict, the monopoly was
finally ended by new legislation in 1972, when the I.B.A. (Independent Broadcasting
Authority) was allowed to set up independent stations financed by advertising.
Finally, just mention the four ways to listen to BBC Radio nowadays: via AM/FM, via
DAB (digital radio), via digital television, and finally, via the Internet.

2.2.4. Radio out of the United Kingdom.

Regarding the radio out of the United Kingdom, as stated above, the BBC World Service
Radio transmits in English and 37 other languages worldwide. Regular listeners are estimated to
number 120 million. BBC World Service Television, set up in 1992, provides three services: a
subscription channel in Europe; a 24-hour news and information channel available throughout
Asia; and a news and information channel in Africa. Both BBC overseas services have complete
editorial independence. BBC domestic services are financed almost exclusively by the sale of
annual television licenses; World Service radio is financed from a government grant, while
World Service Television is self-funding. Popular television drama programs produced for the
BBC are shown in America and many other countries around the world.

Actually, in the United States, radio began as a means of promoting another company, so most
of the broadcasting organisations in the United States are commercial firms which are not linked
to advertising. Among the most important elements in the growth of national broadcasting we
find: AT&T (American Telephone and Telegraph); Westinghouse and GE (General Electric),
which promoted radio and it would mean the expansion of their products. Also, they formed
RCA (Radio Corporation of America), the forefather of the big three commercial radio and
television networks: NBC (National Broadcasting Company), ABC (American Broadcasting
Company), and CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System).

Nowadays, the networks are no longer dominant, and the majority of the radio stations are as
independent of them as of the government. Many of the commercial stations specialize in a
single type of output (news, classical music, sports, black music). Moreover, another US
innovation was the figure of the disc-jockey, who was an integral part of the top 40 radio, in
which a limited play list of records is repeated around the clock, generating a boomign
phonography industry. Finally, just mention the great amount of local stations which broadcast
some neighbourhood gossip with music and spot advertising in between.

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2.3. Television.

2.3.1. A definition: the television.

Television is defined as the electronic system for transmitting still or moving images and sound
to receivers that project a view of the images on a picture tube or screen and recreate the sound
(britannica.com, 2004). Moreover, it is relevant to bear in mind that those moving images are
transmitted by electrical signals and fiberoptic and coaxial cables using the techniques of radio.
Hence, following the Columbia Electronic Encyclopaedia (2003), television has become a
major industry, especially in the industrialized nations, and a major medium of communication
and source of home entertainment. Television is put to varied use in industry, e.g., for
surveillance in places inaccessible to or dangerous for human beings; in science, e.g., in tissue
microscopy; and in education.

2.3.2. A brief history of the television.

The invention of the television by Philo T. Farnsworth in 1927 was not an isolated event. It was
developed as a result of several years of research which correspond to the stages of: (1)
evolution of the scanning process (1900-20s), (2) development of the television camera and
receiver (1930s), (3) development of color television (1950s), (4) broadcast, cable and satellite
television transmission (1960s to 1980s), and finally, (5) television technology innovations
(from 1990s onward). On examining each stage, we shall follow the Columbia Electronic
Encyclopaedia (2003).

1. Evolution of the scanning process (1900-20s).

The idea of seeing by telegraph engrossed many inventors after the discovery in 1873 of
variation in the electrical conductivity of selenium when exposed to light. Selenium cells were
used in early television devices; the results were unsatisfactory, however, chiefly because the
response of selenium to light-intensity variations was not rapid enough. Moreover, until the
development of the electron tube there was no way of sufficiently amplifying the weak output
signals. These limitations precluded the success of a television method for which Paul Nipkow
in Germany received (1884) a patent.

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His system employed a selenium photocell and a scanning disk; it embodied the essential
features of later successful devices (a scanning disk, light-sensitive plates). Although
selenium cells proved inadequate, the development of the phototube made the mechanical disk-
scanning method practicable. In 1926, J. L. Baird in England and C. F. Jenkins in the United
States successfully demonstrated television systems using mechanical scanning disks. While
research remained at producing pictures made up of 60 to 100 scanned lines, mechanical
systems were competitive. These were soon superseded, however, by electronic scanning
methods; a television system employing electronic scanning was patented by V. K. Zworykin in
1928. The 1930s saw the laboratory perfection of television equipment that began to reach the
market in 1945 after World War II.
The modern scanning process, which is the essence of television accomplishment, operates as
do the eyes in reading a page of printed matter, i.e., line by line. A complex circuit of horizontal
and vertical deflection coils controls this movement and causes the electronic beam to scan the
back of a mosaic of photoelectric cells in a 525-line zigzag 30 times each second. Because of
persistence of vision only about 30 pictures need be transmitted each second to give the effect of
motion.

2. Development of the television camera and receiver (1930s).

V. K. Zworykins iconoscope (1923) was the first successful camera tube in wide use. Its
functioning involved many fundamental principles common to all television image pickup
devices (i.e. differing light intensities of various points of a scene, a beam across the cells, an
electrical signal, an amplifier). As a result, the strength of the signal was proportional to the
amount of charge released. The iconoscope provided good resolution, but required very high
light levels and needed constant manual correction. Actually, the first all-electronic TV
appeared in 1932, but solid state imaging devices were first demonstrated in the 1960s.

3. Development of color television (1950s).

Already by the 1950s, several systems of color television have been developed. In the first
color system approved by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), a motor-driven disk
with segments in three primary colorsred, blue, and greenrotated behind the camera lens,
filtering the light from the subject so that the colors could pass through in succession. The
receiving unit of this system formed monochrome (black-and-white) images through the usual

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cathode-ray tube, but a color wheel, identical with that affixed to the camera and synchronized
with it, transformed the images back to their original appearance.

This method is said to be fie ld-sequential because the monochrome image is painted first
in one color, then another, and finally in the third, in rapid enough succession so that the
individual colors are blended by the retentive capacities of the eye, giving the viewer the
impression of a full colored image. This system, developed by the Columbia Broadcasting
System (CBS), was established in 1950 as standard for the United States by the FCC. However,
it was not compatible, i.e., from the same signal a good picture could not be obtained on
standard black-and-white sets, so it found scant public acceptance.

Another system, a simultaneous compatible system, was developed by the Radio Corporation
of America (RCA). In 1953 the FCC reversed its 1950 ruling and revised the standards for
acceptable color television systems. The RCA system met the new standards (the CBS system
did not) and was well received by the public. This system is based on an element-sequential
system. Light from the subject is broken up into its three color components, which are
simultaneously scanned by three pickups. However, the signals corresponding to the red, green,
and blue portions of the scanned elements are combined electronically so that the required 4.1-
MHz bandwidth can be used.

In the receiver the three color signals are separated for display. The elements, or dots, on the
picture tube screen are each subdivided into areas of red, green, and blue phosphor. Beams from
three electron guns, modulated by the three color signals, scan the elements together in such a
way that the beam from the gun using a given color signal strikes the phosphor of the same
color. Provision is made electronically for forming proper gray tones in black-and-white
receivers. The FCC allowed stereo audio for television in 1984.

4. Broadcast, cable and satellite television transmission (1960s to 1980s).

By the 1960s, cable TV systems had been already introduced, followed by recording or
playback machines in the 1980s. It must be borne in mind that television programs may be
transmitted either live or from a recording. The principle means of recording television
programs for future use is videotape recording. Videotape recording is similar to conventional
tape recording except that, because of the wide frequency range4.2 megahertz (MHz)

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occupied by a video signal, the effective speed at which the tape passes the head is kept very
high. The sound is recorded along with the video signal on the same tape.

Moreover, when a television program is broadcast, the varying electrical signals are then
amplified and used to modulate a carrier wave; the modulated carrier is usually fed to an
antenna, where it is converted to electromagnetic waves and broadcast over a large region. The
waves are sensed by antennas connected to television receivers. The range of waves suitable for
radio and television transmission is divided into channels, which are assigned to broadcast
companies or services. In the United States the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
has assigned 12 television channels between 54 and 216 MHz in the very-high-frequency (VHF)
range and 56 channels between 470 and 806 MHz in the ultra-high-frequency (UHF) range.

Most television viewers in the United States no longer receive signals by using antennas;
instead, they receive programming via cable television. Cable delivery of television started as a
way to improve reception. A single, well-placed community antenna received the broadcast
signals and distributed them over coaxial or fiber-optic cables to areas that otherwise would not
be able to receive them. Today, cable television is popular because of the wide variety of
programming it can deliver.

Many systems now provide more than 100 channels of programming. Typically, a cable
television company receives signals relayed from a communications satellite and sends those
signals to its subscribers. The first transatlantic television broadcast was accomplished by such a
satellite, called Telstar, on July 10, 1962. Some television viewers use small satellite dishes to
receive signals directly from satellites. Most satellite-delivered signals are scrambled and
require a special decoder to receive them clearly.

5. Television technology innovations (from 1990s onward).

Among the most outstanding technology innovations, we hig hlight the next great advance in
television: the adoption of digital high-definition television (HDTV) systems, which from the
1990s onward provide sharper, clearer pictures and sound with little interference or other
imperfections and have the potential to merge TV functions with those of computers. Non-
experimental analog HDTV broadcasting began in Japan in 1991. In 1994 the FCC approved a
U.S. standard for an all-digital system, to be used by all commercial broadcast stations by mid-
2002. Although it was hoped that the transition to digital broadcasting would be largely

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completed by 2006, less than a third of all stations had begun transmitting digital signals by the
mid-2002 deadline.

Yet, the wide availability of television has raised concerns about the amount of time children
spend watching TV, as well as the increasingly violent and graphic sexual content of TV
programming. Starting in 1999 the FCC required TV set manufacturers to install V-Chip
technology that allows parents to block the viewing of specific programs; that same year the
television industry adopted a voluntary ratings system to indicate the content of each program.
Therefore, various interactive television systems have been tested or proposed. An interactive
system could be used for instant public -opinion polls or for home shopping. Many cable
television systems use an interactive system for instant ordering of pay-per-view
programming. Others systems poll their subscribers equipment to compile information on
program preferences. Several competing commercial systems have connected televisions to the
Internet.

2.3.3. Television in the United Kingdom.

In contrast to radio broadcasting, television viewing is Britains most popular leisure pastime:
95 per cent of households have a color television set and 68 per cent have a video recorder. The
Government is not responsible for programming content or the day-to-day conduct of the
business of broadcasting. Broadcasters are free to air programs with the only limitation on their
independence being the requirement that they not offend good taste (britannia.com, 2004).
Moreover, figures show that over 70% of UK households now have a video recorder.

Television broadcasting in Britain has expanded to fill every part of every day of the week. For
instance, we may find channels that broadcast for twenty-four hours non-stopping (ITV), others
which broadcast from around six in the morning until after midnight, and the well-known
television news, which is watched every day by more than half of the population. Yet, let us
examine the main channels within the television media in the United Kingdom 1 , on following
the current website www.mediauk.com/directory/tv (2004), which includes: six national
networks (BBC), three commercial television national stations (ITV, Channel 4, Channel 5);
cable, digital, teletext and interactive services.

1
It is worth noting that all non-BBC television stations follow guidelines laid down by the Independent
Television Commission (ITC), who oversee programme content and quality, and make sure that

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 There are six national stations in the UK (excluding satellite, cable and digital channels)
which are broadcast by the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation). Actually, the first
two are carried on regular terrestrial broadcasts: BBC One, BBC Two, BBC Choice,
BBC Four, BBC News24, and BBC Parliament. Note that BBC One and Two
occasionally broadcast regional programming, like news and the occasional local
specia l-interest programme (although BBC1 in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland
has more local programming).

All others are carried on cable networks, digital satellite and digital terrestrial. These
television channels, and the BBCs many radio services, are funded by the television
licence, which, in May 1999, costs around 100 (142) per year. The channels carry no
advertising. The BBC also broadcasts two worldwide television services, BBC World
and BBC Prime, which are not for UK viewers (although BBC World is available on
some satellite systems) and which are funded by advertising. The BBC also has an
interest in UKTV, which broacasts a range of channels on satellite and cable.
Programme content is heavily influenced by the BBCs programme library.

There are three commercial television national stations - ITV (officially Channel 3),
Channel 4, and Channel 5. ITV stands for independent television, a throw-back to the
days when there was only one independent television channel. Its split into different
regional companies, who take national programmes at peak times and broadcast their
own programmes at other times. Each ITV company can also produce national
programming. And if it wasnt confusing enough, ITV is completely national between
0600 and 0930 - GMTV produces ITVs breakfast programmes.

Technically speaking ITV networks and does not broadcast nationally - each
regional company takes the same programmes, but not all are from the same source.
Until recently, each ITV channel was idented as the regional company: so, in Yorkshire,
it would be called Yorkshire TV. In 2002, the decision was made to brand ITV
services in England and Wales as ITV1?: Scottish TV, Grampian TV, and UTV
continue being a part of the ITV network but retain their own brand.

In Wales, Channel 4 is replaced by a Welsh-speaking channel, S4C, which carries

occasional Channel 4 programmes at usually off-peak times. Channel 5 is the latest
terrestrial service. Due to lack of available frequencies, not all the country can receive

advertisers follow a specific and stringent code of conduct. The BBC is currently self-regulating: this is
expected to change to a degree with the formation of a successor to the ITC called OFCOM.

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 the station, and some viewers need a different television aerial. Channel 5 is also carried
on satellite. There are no more terrestrial frequencies available for analogue
broadcasting.

Cable television has yet to expand into many homes in the UK - franchises are
awarded on a local basis to cable companies, who usually provide both television and
telephone services. There are consequently few cable -specific stations - around five or
six outside London, and a further ten or so London-specific channels. Digital Cable
promises widescreen and interactivity; although the major cable companies are
committed to it, its currently available in precious few places.

Digital satellite television was launched in October 1998, on a platform provided by

Sky Digital, part of B Sky B. It is estimated that 1,500,000 people had access to Sky
Digital a year later, in October 1999; in May 2000 the figure is estimated at around
three million. Pricing for digital satellite television rises to a maximum of 34.99 a
month (48). Digital satellite receivers are now available free, subject to a small
installation charge and to keeping the box connected to your telephone line for the
interactive Sky Active service.

Digital terrestrial television launched in mid-November 1998 as a part free, part

subscription model, under the name of On Digital. Unfortunately, the lack of
channels, combined with losses due to piracy and a slightly unwise investment into
league football, meant that the service went into liquidation in early 2002. It was
replaced by Freeview, a consortium including the BBC and broadcast tranmission
specialists Castle Communications, and offers around 30 entirely free channels.
Terrestrial receivers cost a one-off fee of around 99. The frequencies used are the same
band as for analogue television; this means that digital television is currently not
available in certain areas, and that aerials sometimes need to be changed.

Finally, most televisions sold in the UK have teletext, an information service broadcast
with an analogue television picture signal, consisting of around 3,000 pages and close-
caption subtitling. All analogue stations carry some information on teletext; the larger
stations also carry live news, weather, travel and a variety of other infor mation and
programming sources. Teletext adds about 30 (42) to the cost of buying a television.

Note that digital television brings more interactive services: digital teletext (the
successor to the analogue service above), and interactive shopping services.

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 SkyDigitals platform offers Sky Active", a feature-rich service offering shopping, e-
mail, games and information, using the bandwidth available to it - limited interactivity
is also available on digital terrestrial. Cable has the capability of the best interactive
programming and services.

As we can see, although the advent of ITV did not affect television coverage of news and
current affairs, it did cause a change in the style and content of other programmes regarding the
amount of money a television company had to pay for advertising. This meant a high pressure
on ITV from the start to make its output popular. Soon, the BBC responded by making its own
programmes equally accessible to a mass audience. Since then, there has been little significant
difference between BBC and commercial programmes. Their constant competition to attract the
largest audience favours the introduction of quality in terms of content.

This competition brought about the birth of the so-called soap-operas, which are shown at
least twice a week, and unlike American productions, do not show glamorous rich and beautiful
people (i.e. Dallas, Dynasty). Instead, they are set in a working-class area of London showing
ordinary people dramas or police dramas (ITVs Coronation Street, This is Your Life,
Barrymore vs. BBCs EastEnders, Casualty, Neighbours), which do not show an idealized,
sensational or dramatic picture of life. They just depict ordinary lives in relatively ordinary
circumstances. Yet, they are so popular because their viewers can see themselves and other
people they know in these TV stereotypes (i.e. the bad father, the good friend, the wild teenager)
within different situations.

In the early 1960s the increasing popularity of soap operas and light entertainment shows meant
that there was less room for programmes which lived up to the original education aims of
television. The reason was that British preferred this emerging kind of pseudo-realism. In the
early 1990s the BBC spent a great amount of money filming a new soap called Eldorado, which
was set in a small Spanish village with a large number of expatriate British people (though
eventually was a failure). Yet, other channels present learning and culture programmes, whose
success relies on presenting serious and weighty issues which are nevertheless attractive to quite
large audiences (quizz shows).

2.3.4. Television out of the United Kingdom.

Television is a powerful influential vehicle through which the English language establishes links
out of the United Kingdom and viceversa. Actually, the massive amount of programmes

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exported to foreign television networks, together with the imports of Hollywood films have
played an important role in the presentation of the American way of life over Western Europe
and beyond. Thanks to English channels, we may have access to Great Britain news or North
American News (BBC News and CNN news, respectively).

We may find powerful elements within American TV. For instance, it is mostly commercial,
that is, programmes are often interrupted by advertisements since advertisers sponsors pay for it;
the power of news, by means of which television news is incredibly powerful although it lasts
only one hour. Another powerful element is censorship, which occurs in a curious form. For
example, if a programme shows something that certain conservative groups consider offensive,
the advertised products will be boycotted, and as a result, the sponsors wont put any money on
those programmes which may upset conservative groups.

Also, cable TV have gradually become a serious competence for the traditional stations like
ABC or CBS. Viewers can choose to subscribe to dozens of different channels, each of which
specializes on a single area, for instance, CCN Broadcasts only 24 hours a day; the Disney
Channel has children as potential customers; MTV concentrates on pop music; and the Movie
Channel shows nothing but films. Moreover, there are channels which only transmit in the
language of minorites (i.e. Spanish, Chinese, Italian). On the other hand, satellite TV has
become an interesting alternative way to receive television programmes because it is easily seen
everywhere, except for those rural areas where reception is poor and cable TV is not available.

3. ADVERTISING IN ENGLISH-SPEAKING CULTURES: LINGUISTIC AND

SEMIOLOGICAL ASPECTS.

Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 shall analyse the phenomenon of advertising in
English-speaking countries within the scope of the English language and shall review its main
features in linguistic and semiological aspects. As we know, on giving information about the
products, advertisers use many different techniques to get people to buy thing, from appealing to
feelings (vanity, snobbery, beauty, manhood) to the use of clever sayings and puns.

For instance, adverts appeal to emotions in lots of different ways, among which we highlight the
feel-good factor, which appeals our desire to feel good about ourselves (i.e. buying effective
washing-up liquid); the creative consumer, which emphasizes the fact that if a product is too
convenient, people wont buy it (i.e. adding extras to food); sexual attraction, which is one of
the most common and is used to promote anything from deodorant to fast cars; and power and

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influence, which exploit peoples need to feel powerful by showing powerful or influential
people or by telling stories in which problems are solved (i.e. Julio Iglesias-Viceroy; David
Beckam-National Gallery).

Yet, there are potential factors beyond the fact of providing information for the consumer. For
instance, there is a wide range of companies that pay for providing information on the market
about their products, though they are not the most convenient and, therefore, there exist
institutions which receive financial support through advertising. Moreover, the best
advertisement even provide entertainment (photography, slogans, successful commercials) since
they prove genuilely witty and funny. Indeed, advertisements are an integral part of our urban
environment and are a prominent feature of some of the most famous landmarks in the world
(i.e. international countrys flags; Marlboro and the American cowboys; Nessie and Loch Ness;
CocaCola and happy feeling).

Without the advertising agencies support, companies would not probably sell their products as
they do. Advertising companies employ psychologists to analyse potential consumers of a
product. So, they try to sell things by promoting an image that will make people want to buy a
product. The fact is that advertising is big business and no one is immune to its influence. Yet,
why is an image so important when selling products?

We shall try to provide an answer to this question by examining (1) the sources of advertising
(so as to relate them later on to the English-speaking cultures) in terms of, first, (a) semiological
aspects and (b) linguistic aspects. Within the former issue, we shall adress the science of
semiology, which studies signs in society whereas within the latter we shall discuss on
journalistic language so as to get the main features of the language of advertising. Finally, we
shall analyse the phenomenon of (2) advertising in English-speaking cultures nowadays.

3.1. The sources of advertising.

3.1.1. Semiological aspects: semiotics.

The term semiotics2 (also called semiology) is drawn from Greeks mantiks (significant) and
sma (sign), which means a feature of language or behaviour which conveys meaning.
Meaning, then, has a prominent role on the study of signs, that is, what signs refer to, and of

2
Note that French linguists (i.e. Saussure) prefer the term semiology whereas the term semiotics is more widespread in English -
speaking countries (i.e. C.S. Peirce; especially in the USA).

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responses to those signs. Signs are used conventionally within the language system since
semiotics investigates the study of signs in communication processes in general (i.e. oral,
written, paralinguistic ).

Therefore, semiotics concerns itself with the analysis of both linguistic and non-linguistic signs
as communicative devices and with their systems. Therefore, it deals with patterned human
communication in all its modes and in all contexts. When the act of communication is verbal,
the code is the language. Regarding the structured use of the auditory-vocal channel, it may
result in speech, but also non-verbal communicative uses of the vocal tract are possible by
means of paralanguage, such as whistling or musical effects.

However, when we refer to non-verbal communication, visual and tactile modes are concerned.
They may be used for a variety of linguistic purposes such as the use of sign languages. For
instance, the receiver may get the message by sound (as in speech and birdsong), by sight (as in
written language, reading, morse or traffic signs) or by touch (as in the Braille alphabet of the
blind or secret codes).

Within the study of signs, we may distinguish three types: icons, symbols, and indexes. For
instance, from the presence of a red flag or smoke, anyone with the requisite know ledge can
infer the existence of what it signifies, danger or fire. There is an important difference between
both signs, since smoke is a natural sign of fire, causally connected with what it signifies,
whereas the red flag is a conventional sign of danger, which is a culturally established symbol.
These distinctions between the intentional or non-intentional, on the one hand, and between
what is natural and what is conventional, or symbolic, on the other, have long played a central
part in the theoretical investigation of meaning and continue to do so.

Hence, in the twentieth century, and more recently, in this century, the field of linguistics as the
scientific study of language, has seen a quite extraordinary expansion. The study of language
has held a notorious fascination for some the greatest thinkers of the century and their relevant
contributions, namely Ferdinand de Saussure (1916), Edward Sapir (1921), Ludwig
Wittgenstein (1953), Benjamin Lee Whorf (1956), and Noam Chomsky (1972), whose influence
has been felt far beyond linguistics.

As advertising is closely related to semiotics, we need to look at the concept of sign in relation
to adverts within the main theoretical basis of these relevant linguists, and in particular, to
Saussures ideas as it was he who laid the foundation principles of semiotics. However, before

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discussing some relevant concepts, it is necessary for us to draw a distinction between the
concepts of icons, symbols, and indexes in order to accurately deal with the concept of sign.

(1) First, icons are defined as those signs whose signifier bears a close resemblance to the thing
they refer to (i.e. a photo, non-smoking signs, animal-crossing). Thus, a traffic sign which
shows the silhouette of a car and a motorbike would be highly iconic because there is an image
as a reference. Onomatopoeic words are iconic as well, although they are just a few (i.e.
whisper, cuckoo, splash, crash, and so on).

(2) Second, symbols are defined as conventional and culturally established signs, that is, there is
no natural relationship between them and their meanings, that is, between the signifier and the
signified3 . Most words, though, are symbolic signs, thus again traffic signs with no image
references, but colours (i.e. a white background with a red circle around it, which signifies
something is forbidden).

(3) Third, indexes are said to lie between the concepts of icons and symbols. An index is defined
as a sign whose signifier (sound or image) is associated with a particular signified (concept)
because we have learnt it previously, conventionally or culturally. For instance, a thermometer
is an index of temperature as well as a weathercock, a barometer and a sundial; other examples
emerge from films where, for instance, the passing of time is shown by the quick forward
movement of the clock-hands.

It is worth remembering that these three categories are not mutually exclusive. Thus, a sign can
belong to the three types at the same time. For instance, in a TV commercial, we can see a shot
of a woman speaking about make-up products (iconic), the words she uses (symbolic), and the
effect of what is filmed (indexical). Also, with any kind of sign, we may learn cultural
conventions that are necessary to the understanding of any sign, no matter how iconic or
indexical it is. Convention is the social dimension of signs whereby there is an agreement
among the users about the appropriate uses of and responses to a sign.

There are several concepts of the semiology which are worth defining when facing the outcome,
for instance, (1) the product as a sign, which refers to the meaning of the advertisement. This
depends on how signs and its ideological effect are organized. The structures of meaning
created by ads transform our concept of the product. They are presented not as useful objects in
themselves, but as signs to which we attribute qualities of non-material value. For instance, the
slogan Give me a light in a recent Coca-Cola advertisement links drinking Coca-Cola with

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partying and enjoying; (2) the sign as the signifier and the signified together. As stated, the
sign is divided into a signifier (a material entity) and the signified (a mental concept or
reference). In advertising they mean that often ads for cigarettes or cars (very often draw on
images=signifiers) of such concepts (signified) refer to freedom or masculinity.

Also, (3) the distinction between denotation and connotation. The former refers to the literal,
objective meaning of our perception of reality whereas the latter refers to any of the meanings
attributed to an entity by means of conventions and dependent on a particular context (i.e.
perfume, cars, luxury goods in relation to the concepts of freshness, sophistication and
glamour). Note that in advertising there is almost no denotative communication whereas
connotative meanings are used in order to attribute the products those extravalues that make it
into a meaningful sign. Finally, (4) the codes. The formation (encoding) and understanding
(decoding) of messages is made by means of codes which applied to advertising help the
customer to interpret the message (images, speech, gesture) that an advertisement consists of.

3.1.2. Linguistic aspects: the language of advertising4 .

With this theoretical background in mind, then, we shall try to approach the practical field of the
linguistic aspects within the language of advertising since the main aim of communication
means is not only to transmit information, that is, what, but also how to do it. It must be borne in
mind that news is a representation of the world in language and, therefore, it imposes a structure
of social, political, economic and moral values on whatever is represented, as well as a different
treatment in presentation according to several factors (political, economic). This means that
news is a construct which is to be understood in social and semiotic terms, and the relevance of
the English language in this process of communication is understood as an international
common code to transmit information.

Bearing in mind that the main aims of journalistic communication are, first, to satisfy the need
of informing about matters of common interest which any well-organised society has; second, to
spread the news; and third, to cultivate the audiences opinion, by interpreting the information

3
The distinction between signifier and signified will be addressed in next section: Saussure: on the nature of the linguistic sign.
4
The concept journalistic style must not be confused with journalistic language since both of them refer to mass
media means, but in different ways. First of all, the journalistic language refers to the particular way language is used
by the press, radio and television whereas the journalistic style refers to the ways of expression, that is, informative,
literary, and that of public opinion. Therefore, the latter comprises the three types of media in terms of style whereas
the former does it in terms of language, form and structure.

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spread and by using different semiotic devices (via informative objectivity/subjectivity), once an
advertisement is conceived, it undergoes a process of elaboration before it is edited so as to
transform the text into its own style without interfering directly. This means that, for our
purposes, a commercial will be transformed into audio texts (radio) or audio-visual texts
(television, video).

Since it is difficult to inform objectively, the text appearance may expose objectivity by means
of extralinguistic signs whose existence permits us to speak about journalistic semiotic. The
following set of semiotic devices may be used to accompany an item of news in order to guide
and judge it, even though the linguistic expression may be the narration of events in a totally
impartial way (i.e. images in commercials).

Thus, the context where the text appears (page, radio dials, TV commercial). Actually, in
written texts, the most important location is the front page or the first page of each section
(home vs. International policy, domestic life, sports, fashion, culture). Note that the pieces of
news appearing on uneven pages, within each section, are rather relevant. Also, the number of
columns (or radio/TV commercials) expresses the hierarchy which the text allows it. The item
of news is, no matter what their length is, more relevant than the one published in just one place.
Then the way we highlight the news (typeface, height of letters, intonation/emphasis in
radio/TV) is also a sign of importance given by the text. Finally, in audio-visual texts,
photographs and images illustrating a piece of news make it more relevant.

All these manipulations are the editorial staffs responsibility so as to value, depreciate, give
prominence or reduce the importance of the text. As a result, the published text is believed to
present a general journalistic language which gathers several characteristics unique to each type.
For instance, since advertising is said to be expensive, a careful study must be done in advance
so as to provide the foundations for a good advertising campaing. In doing so, it is essential for
an advertiser to handle the following factors.

First of all, (1) language as a powerful device of persuasion and connotation of the writer; (2)
the product, to which the advertiser must be familiar so as to get a successful campaign; (3) the
purpose of the advertisement before launching the campaign, for instance, to improve product
sales, to change the audiences attitude towards the product, to reinforce its reputation, and so
on; (4) the medium, which will be determined by the audience since it must be best suited for
the particular product; and finally, (5) the visual aspect. Actually, when talking about the
language of advertisements, the visual aspect is perhaps the most important element within
printed or broadcasting advertising, that is, headline, subhead, body copy and closing. They may

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differ in the form and specific features of each medium, for instance, broadcasting on radio is
determined by time, content and intonation whereas TV broadcasting allows images.

Yet, the linguistic element is sometimes given greater importance than the visual aspect.
Attention and persuasive power are the two elements that shape the information content of the
commercial. Among the most important linguistic features regarding syntax we include:
readability given by simple, straightforward language, predominant nominal groups, and verbal
groups which are sometimes omitted, though the most frequent tenses are imperative, present
simple and future forms. With respect to lexis, we find a lot of adjectives and adverbs
(keywords), descriptive vocabulary, favouring emotive words with specific connotation, and
assertive uses. Finally, related to style, we can say that it must be persuasive, appreciatory and
hyperbolic so as to persuade the customer.

3.2. Advertising in English-speaking cultures nowadays.

Since the first soap advertisements appeared in the 1960s, advertising has changed considerably.
Nowadays, products receive expensive and highly polished exposure on radio and television,
not only through direct adverts but also indirectly through the sponsorship of televised issues
(sport, food, drinks, fashion). Obviously commercial radio and television depends heavily not
only on advertising revenue, but also on high viewing figures. Efforts are made in the UK to
prevent advertising from becoming intrusive (as Spanish advertising is), that is, to avoid
repetitive and continuous advertising (15-minute gaps).

Also, advertisers have realized that quality is more attractive than quantity, so many companies
spend a lot of money on their television campaigns to create a brand image. Yet, the sums spent
by Guinness, British airways and Coca-Cola, for example, are aimed at using advertising as part
of an overall strategy for their business since these companies do not need to be promoted. In
short, they all aim to crete an image of feeling which they hope will be associated with the
product being advertised, hence the wide variety of adverts: humourous (Barclaycard),
spectacular (British Airways, Pepsi) or ambiguous and intriguing (Guinness). They may be
linked to music (Levis), a spoken cataphrase (Heinneken), feature animals (Dulux, Andrex) or
beautiful people (Weetabix, Martini).

The message may be implicit or direct and relies on the customers mind making a series of
psychological links by association. The study of how symbols and visual/audio aspects work on
the human mind in this way is clearly related to semiology, as we have seen. Actually, it is

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known that certain colours may suit television (Labour political speeches against a red backdrop
vs. Coca-Cola red container), aesthetical images may be pleasing (watches pictured at ten to
two) as well as clothes (Martini and sexy clothes, Corn flakes and white trousers, to indicate
freshness, health and brightness). Obviously these advertising techniques are common to all
cultures.

Also, it is equally true that some associations will be exclusive to one culture and the minds
educated within it. Therefore the markers of an advertisement must try to work out how the
images of their ads might work within the framework of cultural references which constitute the
cultural make-up of the viewing audience. In short, an advert which works in England might not
be effective in other countries, such as Italy or Spain (i.e. the bumbling Spanish waiter in an
English advert, the bowler-hatted Englishman in a Spanish advert). The wrong stereotype may
not be transferred effectively to the country whose inhabitants it is supposed to represent. Hence
the Spanish Cola -Cao ads could be offensive in multi-racial communities in Britain.

In general, as Europe moves towards a more unified cultural identity, such differences tend to
disappear and products and their advertising become more and more cosmpolitan. However, it is
still inevitable that a distinct type of advertising should arise in each culture, and that the
distinctive characteristics which constitute each stereotype should consist not only of the
products advertised but also of the semiotic aspect of the commercial, both on radio or
television.

4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

The mass media in English (press, radio, television) or the journalistic style is one of the most
outstanding aspects of educational activity and, for our purposes, we must establish a distinction
between the press (as a written means) and radio and television (as audio and audio-visual
means). In the classroom setting all kinds of social and linguistic aspects of language may be
brought to students in terms of means of communication so as to bring them closer to the
worlds reality. Yet, how is this issue linked to our Spanish students? Basically, through the
educational activity, both in and out the classroom, the former being developed in terms of
tutorial or classroom activities and the latter by focusing on sociocultural aspects that exist
within the students environment (home, friends, the media).

We may handle in class news from the British radio or television which make relevant the
analysis of it in comparison to the Spanish media regarding the outstanding differences (time,

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intonation, visual images, style, contents). So, radio and television may become familiar to
Spanish students thanks to the similarity in terms of transmitting news in the fields of fashion,
music, sports, and so on. Hence it makes sense to examine the historical background of both the
radio and television in English, and check whether in Spain had the same development.

Currently, educational authorities are bringing about relevant changes for the school reality with
the yearly international exchanges of British-Spanish language assistants in schools so as to
promote the learning of the English language with native speakers. Actually, they can make
students aware of certain sociocultural aspects of Britain related to the radio and television and
encourage them to use the British media to get informed through new technologies, such as the
Internet (through the Aula Plumier), since we can acceed to radio and television on the web.
Also, the integration of Spain into the European Union makes relevant for students to become
aware of the journalistic style so as to be able to appreciate the main similarities and differences
with the Spanish one.

Also, this cultural dimension of the English language may be easily approached to students by
the increasing number of European programs (Comenius, Erasmus, school trips) and
technologies (the Internet, mobile phones, mail) which provide students with authentic material
in context so as to get acquainted with other forms of journalism around Europe. Actually,
among the stage objectives for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato students (stated respectively in RD
112 and RD 113/2002, 13 September) there is a clear reference to the fact of getting acquainted
with other cultures so as to promote respect and, for our purposes, an attitude of critical
awareness of other language systems.

Thus, E.S.O. objectives (5, 6) make reference to first, Know and value the scientific and
technological development. Its applications and importance in a physical and social
environment (objective 5), and secondly, to obtain, select, deal with and transmit information
using sources, methodologies and technological instruments, included the technologies of
information and communication, proceeding in an organised, autonomous and critical way
(objective 6). Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General Objectives (8, 9, 10), we find
a closer approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying that students are expected to
accede to the knowledge of the culture transmitted by the foreign language, developing respect
towards it and its speakers, to achieve a better understanding between countries (objective 8);
recognise the value of foreign languages as a means of communication between people
belonging to different cultures and as an enriching element for social and interpersonal
relations (objective 9); and use the foreign language as a means of communication with a
ludic and creative attitude and enjoy its use (objective 10).

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On the other hand, Bachillerato students are expected to understand and know how to express
oneself fluently and correctly in the foreign language or languages being studied (objective 2);
and also, to use the information and communication technologies to acquire types of
knowledge and transmit information, solve problems and facilitate interpersonal relations,
valuing its use critically (objective 7). Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General
Objectives (6, 7), we find a closer approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying
that students are expected to know the sociocultural aspects of the target language as a means
to improve communication in the foreign language and for the critical knowledge of ones own
culture (objective 6) and also, to value the importance of the study of foreign languages as an
element of understanding and encouragement of respect and consideration towards other
cultures.

Actually, the success partly lies in the way this issue becomes real to the users since theory
about the radio and television only becomes relevant when students may check by themselves a
television guide or the frequency of an English or Scottish radio programme in and out the
classroom setting. This is to be achieved within the framework of the European Council (1998)
and, in particular, the Spanish Educational System which establishes a common reference
framework for the teaching of foreign languages where students are intended to carry out
several communication tasks with specific communicative goals. Broadly speaking, the final
aim is for students to be aware of their current social reality through the use of the media in the
English language.

5. CONCLUSION.

The journalistic style in Britain has traditionally followed the model we have already presented.
Throughout most of the Commonwealth, the media in English has its roots in the British
version. In fact, English is used as a technical language around the world, in medicine, computer
science, air traffic control, and many other such areas of concentrated expertise and
international user populations. Hence, the relevance of the English language makes of it the
language of the media so as to transmit news all around the world.

As we have seen, Unit 68 has aimed to provide a useful introduction to the mass media in
English and, in particular, radio and television. Chapter 2 has provided a general introduction to
(1) the mass media in English in terms of means (press, radio, television), main aims regarding
the audience, and broadcasting policy, regarding the main broadcasting corporations. Next, we
have focused on radio and television in terms of definition, a brief history of the invention up to

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the present day, its organization in the United Kingdom and also, out of it so as to better
understand the scope of the English language within the mass media.

Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 has addressed the phenomenon of advertising in
English-speaking countries has reviewed its main features in linguistic and semiological aspects
by examining the sources of advertising in terms of, first, semiological aspects and linguistic
aspects. Within the former issue, we have adressed the science of semiology, which studies
signs in society whereas within the latter we have discussed the main features of journalistic
language. Finally, we have analysed the phenomenon of advertising in English-speaking
cultures nowadays.

So far, we have attempted to provide the reader with a general overview of the media within the
United Kingdom, and its further influence out ot it. This information is relevant for language
learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, who do not automatically detect differences
between British and Spanish radio and television. So, learners need to have these associations
brought to their attention in socio-cultural aspects within cross-curricular settings (Spanish
language, history, technology format, presentation). As we have seen, understanding how these
means of communication work and are reflected in our world today is important to students,
who are expected to be aware of the richness of the English language, not only in English-
speaking countries, but also in worldwide terms.

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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

- Andren, G. 1978. Rethoric and Ideology in Advertising. Liber Frlag, Stockholm.

- B.O.E. 2002. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 112/2002, de 13 de septiembre. Currculo de la
Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.
- B.O.E. 2002. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 113/2002, de 13 de septiembre. Currculo de
Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.
- Bromhead, Peter. 1962. Life in Modern Britain. Longman.
- Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework
of reference.
- McLean, A. 1993. Profile UK. Heinemann, Oxford.
- Vaughan-Rees, M. 1995. In Britain. Richmond Publishing Editors.

Other sources include:

"British Empire." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 2004. Encyclopdia Britannica Premium Service. 28 May 2004
<http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=383356>.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright 2003, Columbia University Press
www.wikipedia.org (2004)
www.bbc.co.uk (2004)

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 UNIT 69

SOCIETY AND CULTURE. STEREOTYPES AND

EMBLEMS OF ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES.
ENGLISH SONGS AS A VEHICLE OF CULTURAL
INFLUENCE.

OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

2. SOCIETY AND CULTURE.

2.1. Misleading concepts.

2.1.1. Great Britain vs. the United Kingdom.
2.1.2. Society vs. Culture.
2.2. Language: a cultural and social means.
2.3. Society: issue typology.
2.4. Culture: issue typology.
2.5. Society and culture in English-speaking countries.
2.4.1. In the United Kingdom.
2.4.2. Out of the United Kingdom.

3. STEREOTYPES AND EMBLEMS OF ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES.

3.1. Definition: stereotypes and emblems.

3.2. Typology.
3.2.1. Main stereotypes.
3.2.2. Main emblems.
3.3. Stereotypes and emblems in English-speaking countries.

4. ENGLISH SONGS AS A VEHICLE OF CULTURAL INFLUENCE.

4.1. Definition and typology

4.2. English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence
4.2.1. Through the media.
4.2.2. Through education.

5. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.

6. CONCLUSION.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

The present unit, Unit 69, aims to provide a useful introduction to society and culture within the
scope of stereotypes and emblems of English-speaking countries. Moreover, within this general
overview, we shall address the question of English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence. So,
the unit is to be divided into three main chapters which correspond to the main tenets of this
unit.

Thus, Chapter 2 provides a general introduction to the concepts of society and culture in
relation to the English language since there is a link between these three terms within a socio-
cultural context or beyond its boundary. So, we shall start by (1) redefining certain concepts that
may be misleading within this framework, such as that of addressing (a) Great Britain as the
United Kingdom and (b) society vs. culture. Then, we shall offer (2) the cultural and social
connection to the English language as a cultural and social means; (3) a typology of issues to
deal with when we refer to society; and similarly, (4) a typology of issues regarding culture.
Finally, we shall discuss what common features are shared by different (5) societies and cultures
in the English-speaking countries by analysing (a) the countries in the United Kingdom and (b)
out of it at international level.

Next, Chapter 3 shall analyse the phenomenon of stereotypes and emblems in the main English-
speaking countries. In doing so, we shall provide (1) a definition of both stereotypes and
emblems; (2) typology of the main (a) stereotypes and (b) emblems, and (3) an analysis of the
main stereotypes and emblems within the different English-speaking countries. And finally,
with this background in mind, Chapter 4 shall address the phenomenon of English songs as a
vehicle of cultural influence by providing (1) definition and typology and then, stating the
relevance of (2) English songs as as a vehicle of cultural influence (a) through the media and (b)
through education.

Chapter 5 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching regarding
the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 6 will offer a conclusion to
broadly overview our present study, and Chapter 7 will include all the bibliographical
references for further information.

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1.2. Notes on bibliography.

An general introduction to society and culture within English-speaking countries is namely

based on the Encyclopaedia Britannica (2004); The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (2003);
McLean, Profile UK (1993); and Vaughan-Rees, In Britain (1995). Specific information about
stereotypes and emblems is drawn from Bromhead, Life in Modern Britain (1962); and the
reliable sources of www.wikipedia.org (2004); www.bbc.co.uk (2004); and www.britannica.com
(2004).

The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative

competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the most
complete record of current publications within the educational framework is provided by the
guidelines in B.O.E. (2002) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; and the Council of Europe,
Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of
reference (1998).

2. SOCIETY AND CULTURE.

Chapter 2 provides a general introduction to the concepts of society and culture in relation to
the English language since there is a link between these three terms within a socio-cultural
context or beyond its boundary. So, we shall start by (1) redefining certain concepts that may be
misleading within this framework, such as that of addressing (a) Great Britain as the United
Kingdom and (b) society vs. culture. Then, we shall offer (2) the cultural and social connection
to the English language as a cultural and social means; (3) a typology of issues to deal with
when we refer to society; and similarly, (4) a typology of issues regarding culture. Finally, we
shall discuss what common features are shared by different (5) societies and cultures in the
English-speaking countries by analysing (a) the countries in the United Kingdom and (b) out of
it at international level.

2.1. Misleading concepts.

2.1.1. Great Britain vs. the United Kingdom.

There is some confusion about the meaning of these two concepts, and some more, since they
are referred to in several different ways: Britain, Great Britain, the British Isles, the U.K., and
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. What do these names mean?

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Let us start by the distinction between Britain vs. Great Britain . In fact, there is no difference,
just a nuance in meaning since Britain is the ancie nt name of modern Great Britain . Yet, Great
Britain is often referred to as the British Isles, but this is innacurate since Great Britain makes
reference to the island lying off the western coast of Europe, comprising England, Scotland,
Wales, and Northern Ireland (the main territory of the United Kingdom) whereas the British
Isles is the name given to England, Scotland, Wales, the whole of Ireland, and the Isle of Man in
the geography books. Actually, the island of Great Britain is the largest of the British Isles, the
largest island in Europe, and the eighth in the world.

In political terms, the term Great Britain is used to describe the combination of England,
Scotland and Wales, as well as distant outlying islands such as the Isles of Scilly, the Hebrides,
and the island groups of Orkney and Shetland, but does not include (in this sense) the Isle of
Man and the Channel Islands. Yet, following Bromhead (1962:195), the political unit, for
government and administration, is properly called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland. This does not include the southern part of Ireland, which is now an
independent republic and not even a member of the Commonwealth, and to be quite accurate it
does not include the Channel Islands of Jersey, Guernsey and others, which lie off the coast of
Normandy, or the Isle of Man, which lies between England and Ireland. These islands have their
own legislatures and administrations and financ ial systems, but are more closely attached to the
United Kingdom than the independent countries of the Commonwealth in other parts of the
world. Despite that fact that the UK became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland in the 1920s, Great Britain is often used as a synonym of the UK in certain
contexts (i.e. the UK competes in the Olympic Games as Great Britain).

Also, the terms Britain and British refer to the whole of the UK or its predecessors, or
institutions associated with them, and not just Great Britain. For example, United Kingdom
monarchs are often called British monarchs; United Kingdom Prime Ministers are often called
British Prime Ministers. Such usage is generally seen as correct. However, the use of the term
English for British, as in Queen of England is clearly inaccurate. Note that England in a sense
of a separate state has not existed since 1707.

2.1.2. Society vs. culture.

As stated above, society and culture are closely related to language, for our purposes, English.
Imagine the world is a global village where the understanding of the complex and subtle
relationship between these three elements becomes an essential condition for peaceful co-

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existence among its villagers. On the basis of this assumption, society and culture are
interrelated, but play important different roles within the socio-cultural context.

For instance, the term society is defined by the website wikipedia (2004) as a group of
individuals that form a semi-closed system, in which most interactions are with other
individuals belonging to the group. This means that a society is a network of relationships
between people living together in an interdependent and ordered community under physical
borders (versus culture which has symbolic ones). Within the field of social sciences, the term
society is used as synonymous of citizenry of a country as directed through national
institutions concerned with civic welfare (state, government and politics, health and welfare,
education, family). Hence, French society, Spanish society, German society, and so on.

On the other hand, late nineteenth-century anthropologists defined the term culture as the
human nature that could apply to a wide variety of societies. Yet, what does this exactly mean?
Culture has its roots in the universal human capacity to classify experiences, and encode and
communicate them symbolically, that is, people develop common ways of understanding when
living together through the use of symbolic values (to express their ideas), norms (to behave),
and artifacts (to cohabitate with material things). So, values are defined as ideas about what in
life is important; norms, as expectations of how people will behave in different situations.

Note that each culture has different methods that enforce the norms, such as santions or laws;
finally, the third component of culture, artifacts, is derived from the cultures values and norms
(i.e. housing, clothes, food and drink, sports, music). As a result, people living together will
develop a unique culture and viceversa (people living apart from one another develop different
cultures), but it is worth noting that elements of different cultures can easily spread from one
group of people to another. Hence, we can find British clothes in the United States, or Indian
food in Canada.

2.2. Language as a cultural and social means.

When approaching the cultural dimension of the English language out of the Commonwealth,
we deal with a widespread phenomena: English as a common means to communicate all over
the world. Actually, namely spoken in the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and
103 other countries, English is the second most popular first language (native speakers), with
around 402 million people in 2002 (wikipedia, 2004). Also, it is the most widely used
second and learning language in the world, and as such, many linguists believe, it is no

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longer the exclusive cultural emblem of native English speakers, but rather a language that is
absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it grows in use. Others theorise that there are limits
to how far English can go in suiting everyone for communication purposes.

The fact is that English has become the most important and the most spoken language in the
world due to two main reasons: first, in the past, because of the highest number of colonies at
the beginning of the century and, second, nowadays, because of its status as a lingua franca, due
to the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence of the United Kingdom and
later the United States. In fact, it has become the official language of international organisms
such as the European Parliament, the EU Committee, the UNESCO, and NATO, among others.

This overall influence of the United States throughout the modern world has made English
become by far the dominant language of contemporary science and technology, multinational
industry and commerce, and of computerized information networks. Where possible, virtually
all students worldwide are required to learn some English, and knowledge of English is virtually
a prerequisite for working in many fields and occupations. Higher academic institutions, for
example, require a working command of English. Yet, nowadays, recent figures show that over
320 million people speak English as a mother tongue and further 400 million people use it as a
foreign language. In short, over 700 million people use English nowadays as a first, second or
foreign language and have become international users of English.

Hence English has a lot of varieties which depend on regional, educational, ethnic, attitudinal,
medium and subject matter aspects. In particular, varieties according to the region are called
dialects, which are namely distinguished in phonological terms since we generally recognize a
different dialect from a speakers pronunciation before we notice differences in grammar or
vocabulary. For instance, the main dialects1 of the English language are American English,
Australian English, British English, Canadian English, Caribbean English, Filipino English,
Hiberno-English, Indian English, Jamaican English, Liberian English, Malaysian English, New
Zealand English, Scottish English, Singapore English, and South African English (wikipedia,
2004).

So, figures regarding the use of the English language around the world have been continuously
increasing during the twentieth and twenty-first century. Actually, we may find people who

1
Note that these varieties may, in most cases, contain several subvarieties, such as Cockney within
British English, Newfoundland English within Canadian English and African American Vernacular
English within American English (wikipedia, 2004).

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speak English as a native, second and foreign language. Yet, let us clarify the difference
between these similar but confusing concepts. For instance, a mother tongue is considered to be
the first language (L1) one learns as a child whereas a second language (L2) is acquired under
the need of learning the language of another country. On the other hand, when languages are
acquired in school, it is considered as a foreign language. The acronyms ESL and EFL stand for
the learning of English as a Second and as a Foreign Language.

So, these concepts will help us to establish the three main parametres under which we shall
examine the way the English language is used in countries out of the Commonwealth, for
instance, (a) as a native language in the United States, (b) as a second language in India, and (c)
as a foreign language in Spain (so as to prepare the ground for next chapters on the distinction
between British English and American English; and the presence of English in Spain).

English as a native language.

Regarding the countries that use English as their native language or mother tongue, it is worth
noting that most of those 402 million people (mentioned above) who speak English as their
native language are citizens of the United States (est. 287,602,000 by 2002). Moreover,
regarding its geographic distribution English is regarded as the first language in Australia, the
Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Guyana, Jamaica, New Zealand, Antigua, Saint Kitts and Nevis,
Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom and the United States of America (wikipedia, 2004).

English is also one of the primary languages of Belize (with Spanish), Canada (with French),
Cameroon (with French and African languages), Dominica, St. Lucia and Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines (with French Creole), the Federated States of Micronesia, Ireland (with Irish),
Liberia (with African languages), Singapore and South Africa (with Afrikaans and other African
languages).

English as a second language.

Regarding English as a second language it is worth noting that the estimated number of English
speakers are possibly between 350 and 1,000 million. The reason is that English is not used as a
native language, but as a practical or educated first language within a largely bilingual society or
due to the necessity to use it for some practical purposes due to administrative, professional,
educational or commercial reasons. So, English as a second language is an official language in
Fiji, Ghana, Gambia, Hong Kong, India, Kiribati, Lesotho, Kenya, Namibia, Nigeria, Malta, the
Marshall Islands, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, the Solomon Isla nds, Samoa,

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Sierra Leone, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Moreover, it is the most
commonly used unofficial language of Israel and an increasing number of other countries such
as Switzerland, Norway and Germany (wikipedia, 2004).

English as a foreign language.

Recent figures show that the number of people who speak English as a foreign language
nowadays exceeds 400 million or even more. English has become one of the main aims in
teaching foreign languages so grammars, dictionaries, and manuals on it proliferate nowadays.
There is also a general raising of consciousness, with new language courses in schools,
regarding the learning of a foreign language, namely English, so as to help people keep pace
with current developments (scientific, technological, educational); and this is to be achieved
predominantly by means of the media (popular programmes on radio and television, songs,
documentaries, press). Current figures show that English is the language most often studied as
a foreign language in Europe (32.6%) and Japan, followed by French, German and Spanish
(wikipedia, 2004).

2.3. Society: issue typology.

In this section we shall introduce a typology of issues within the concept of society taking into
account that they deal with national institutions and civic welfare. Moreover, implicit in the
meaning of society is that its members share some mutual concern or interest in a common
objective: collective citizenry. This is the reason why peoples of many nations become united
by common politic al and cultural traditions, beliefs, or values which, sometimes, are also said to
be part of society. Yet, when used in this context, the term is being used as a means of
contrasting two or more societies whose representative members represent alternative
conflicting and competing worldviews.

Then, since social sciences (also called social studies) comprise the scientific study of the
human aspects of the world, we namely distinguish the following topics: history, state,
government, politics, law, economics, business, and finally, communication and the media .

History is often used as a generic term for information about the past, though sometimes
it is used as the name of a field of study, that is, human history, which is the recorded
memory of past human societies. There are two main ways of classifying it: (1) by
location (Africa, America, Asia, Europe, Oceania, Antarctica); (2) by date (centuries,

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 decades, periodization); by academic classification (prehistory, ancient history, modern
history, early modern history); and miscellaneous classifications (history of literature,
history of art, history of cinema, military history).

The state is defined as a sovereign political entity in international law and international
relations, that is, not being subject to any higher political authority (in casual language,
a country) as well as in terms of domestic conditions, specifically in relation to the
role of the monopolization of force, political philosophies, and ideal roles within a
country. The definition of state comprises the political subdivisions of some countries
(confederation, federal, regime). Finally, it is worth mentioning that the legal criteria for
statehood are not obvious, but a document quoted on the matter (Montevideo
Convention, 1933, artic le 1) states that the state as a person of international law should
possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory;
(c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states.

Hence, next element to be included is government, which is defined as an organization

that has the power to make and enforce laws for a certain territory (wikipedia, 2004).
This means that it is the dominant decision-making arm (the policy elite) of the state so
as to create, enforce and control a territory via bureaucratic hierarchy (police, military
forces, justice). This control is exerced through such activities as collecting taxes,
controlling entry and exit to the state, preventing encroachment of territory by
neighbouring states and preventing the establishment of alternative governments within
the country.

Typical methods of maintaining support and legitimacy include providing infrastructure

for justice, administration, transport, social welfare; holding ele ctions for important
posts within the state; limiting the power through laws and constitutions. Hence
governments are related to the fields of economics, education, health, science, territory
and war and have various forms of government. Actually, a government in a developed
state is likely to have sub-organisations known as offices, departments, or agencies,
which deal with the mentioned fields, and are headed by politically appointed officials,
often called ministers or secretaries. Ministers may in theory act as advisors to the head
of state, but in practice have a certain amount of direct power in specific areas.

Politics, then, deal with the process and conduct of decision-making for groups
[Labour vs. Conservative Party in UK; Democrats vs. Republicans in US]. Although it
is usually applied to governments, political behavior is also observed in corporate,

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 academic, religious, and other institutions. The political behavior of a given policy,
leader or party is studied by political sciences, which examines the acquisition and
application of power, that is, the ability to impose ones will on another.

Laws are concerned with politics and jurisprudence, that is, rules of conduct which
proscribe specified relationships among people and organizations, as well as
punishments. In short, law is the formal codification of customs within the legislative
bodies through legislation, regulation of statues and resolution of disputes (British
Educational Laws; Statue of Westminster).

Economics, a term coined in around 1870 by Alfred Marshall, is defined as the social
science that deals with the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and
services, in terms of trade offs between competing alternatives as observed through
measurable quantities such as price and output. Political economy explicitly brings
political considerations into economic analysis and therefore tends to be more
normative. Some mainstream universities (such as the University of Toronto and many
in the United Kingdom) have a political economy department rather than an economics
department.

business refers to commercial activities and interests through the figure of enterprises,
and is usually defined as industry (hence fishing business or fishing industry).
Similarly, the word trade may be used to refer to business and industry. Actually,
people establish businesses in order to perform economic or industrial activities. With
some exceptions (such as cooperatives, corporate bodies, non-profit organizations and
institutions of government), businesses exist to produce profit. In other words, the
owners and operators of a business have as one of their main objectives to receive or
generate a financial return for their time, effort and capital. Businesses are classified
into service businesses (transport, shops), distributors, manufacturers, partnerships,
corporations (limited companies), sole proprietorhips. Hence the famous Time Warner,
Walt Disney Company, Twentieth Century Fox, News Corporation and Hollywood
Planet, among others.

communication and the media . Communication is the process of exchanging

information usually via a common system of symbols. This process is usually carried
out by the mass media, which comprises radio, television, movies, magazines,
newspapers and, more recently, the World Wide Web. Since the media reaches a mass
audience, techniques such as advertising and propaganda have been increasingly

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 developed by companies to make vast fortunes (BBC, Nike, Coca-Cola companies,
among others).

2.4. Culture: issue typology.

Since the term culture refers to values, norms and elite consumption of goods and activities,
culture is often identified with civilization, as a complex web of shifting patterns that link
people in different regions, and link social formations of different scales. So, a typology of
issues regarding culture is likely to include all the elements that reflect the stratified character of
a society in terms of religion, visual arts and design, literature, fashion, housing, hobbies, and
entertainment, among others.

We shall start by the issue of religion since it deals with values. Actually, religion is
defined as the belief in the divine, supernatural, or sacred that results in worship. This
phenomenon often provokes a conflict between relig ion and anti-religion advocates
(hence the conflict in Northern Ireland between Catholics and Protestants; and more
recently, between islamism and Western societies).

The field of visual arts and design is extremely broad, but essentially it is any art that
you can see, excluding performance. Actually , we divide both categories into
subcategories, so visual arts are classified into three main types: (1) traditional or fine
arts such as batik, drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, film,
ceramics, textile art; (2) contemporary art, which includes: avant garde, comic books
and strips, computer generated art (digital or electronic), conceptual art, depliage, e-
mail art, found art, graffiti (also called DAIM, Street Art or Taging), installation art,
interactive art, internet art, mail art, media art, pop art, public art, transfer art, and video
art; and (3) body art which comprises tattoo, body modification, body piercing, and
scarification (wikipedia, 2004). On the other hand, design is classified into architecture,
cabinet making, commercial art (visual communication), fashion design, graphic design
(marketing), heraldry (design of coats-of-arms or armorial achievements), illustration,
industrial/product design, interior design/decoration, art stencils, or web design.

Literature is often defined as the historical account of the world (sometimes explicitly,
others implicitly) through the vision of learned writers. Hence literature is traditionally
presented through authors (Shakespeare, Dickens, Hemingway, Greene), a period
(Medieval literature, modern literature) or timeline classification (Elizabethan literature,

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 Georgian literature, Victorian literature) so as to give an account of the main historical
events worldwide, for our purposes, in English-speaking countries.

Other well-known literary figures include the Bront sisters (Charlotte, Anne and
Emily), Agatha Christie, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Geoffrey Chaucer, Dr Samuel
Johnson, George Orwell, and J.R.R. Tolkien. Among important poets we shall mention
Robert Burns, Thomas Hardy, John MIlto, Rudyard Kipling, Alfred Tennyson, Dyland
Thomas, and finally, William Wordsworth.

Fashion is also included in the list of cultural elements, since different societies are
distinguished by means of clothes (national, regional, local), customs (Hindus
hairband, uniforms in UK public schools), trends (American youth in the 1960s and
hippy clothes), luxury items (Miami Vice and fast cars), catwalks (Naomi Campbell), or
even the lack of clothes (Australian aborigins).

Housing also marks the difference between cultures depending on the geographical site
of the country we refer to (north, south) and other factors, such as climate (British vs.
Spanish houses), location (city centre vs. countryside), and lifestyle (American country
house vs. modern London flat). For instance, broadly speaking New York is
characterized by the well-known skyscrapers whereas the Hindu city centre is not;
similarly, Hollywood Boulevard is related to mansions whereas the industrial
Manchester is related to red-brick semi-detached houses; and so on.

Hobbies, also called, spare-time pursuits, are practised for interest and enjoyment,
rather than financial reward (collecting stamps, playing chess), though the main aim is
personal fulfillment. They may lead us to acquiring substantial skill, knowledge, and
experience and, also, what is a hobby for someone may be a profession for another
(cooking as a chef, playing football as a professional). Yet, since Middle Ages falconry,
hobbies have changed considerably up to the present day, for instance, todays leisure
times are sports, mountaineering, sailing, or cultural entertainment. It is worth noting
that sometimes the line between a hobby and an obsession can become blurred and get
to documented cases of violence. In fact, people who obsessively pursue a particular
hobby is called anorak in the UK. This name derives from the particular weatherproof
clothing worn by enthusiasts of offshore radio who sometimes would travel from British
ports to visit the ships from which their outcast heroes broadcast during the 1960s and
1970s.

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 However, entertainment is regarded as the most relevant cultural element within the
elite consumption of goods and activities since it comprises a vast list of issues, for
instance, games, chatting, dancing, music, mass media (show business, humor), sex
business, and the king type of entertainment: sports.

o Games in general refer to any type of entertainment. The first one to mention is
gambling, which refers to any behaviour which involves the risk of money or
valuables on the outcome of a game, contest or any other event in which the
outcome of that activity is partially or totally dependent upon chance
(wikipedia, 2004). Gambling is a brain chemistry whose customers become
addictive and acquire a harmful behaviour in some people, and it is also related
to the organized crime, which uses violent methods to get large gambling debts
(The film Casino by Martin Scorsesse). Among the most famous gambling
activities we include: slot machines, poker, blackjack, baccarat, roulette, and
the wheel of fortune (i.e. Las Vegas).

Other types of gambling take place in horse racing, greyhound racing, football
matches, golf, tennis, cricket, baseball, basketball and hockey. In addition many
bookmakers offer odds on a number of non-sports related outcomes (snow on
Christmas Day, the winner in Big Brother). Also, among non-casino gambling
games, we include the lottery, dice-based, card games, coin-tossing, carnival
games, and bar games (put and take, the smack, the drunken mitt).

In Canada and the United States the most common types of bets are on horse
race whereas in the United Kingdom bookmakers offer exotic wagers on horses
at different tracks. Note that the custom for women to wear enormous hats at the
races is worldwide known as a cultural symbol. Also, betting on team sports is
an important service industry in many countries, for instance, millions of
Britons every week. Yet, in Canada and the United States sports betting is
usually illegal (Nevada offers full sports betting and the Canadian provinces
offer government-run sports parlay betting). However, millions engage in it
despite its illegality.

o Chatting, commonly known as chat is a casual conversation, recently adopted

since the establishment of the Internet. The term is associated to online chat
services which offer multi-person chat-room facilities. Today the most

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 popular means of chatting online are instant messaging applications (bluechat,
chat room, IRC, outline chat).

o Dancing is defined as the human movement used as a form of expression or

presented in a social, spiritual or performance setting. It is relevant for our
purposes since it implies social, cultural, aesthetic artistic and moral
constrainsts and range from functional movement (folk dance) to codified
(ballet). Moreover, among the English-speaking countries we may find
historical, traditional, ceremonial and ethnic dances (Americas rocknroll,
Afrikaans ritual dances, Hindu ceremonial dances).

o Music is closely related to dancing and also establishes cultural markers among
different countries since the sounds people accept as music vary according to
historical era, location and cultural and individual taste. It is regarded as a
physical, psychological and social phenomenon, hence its relevance as a vehicle
of culture transmission. Actually, many cultures include strong traditions of
solo performances (Indian classical music) whereas other cultures (Bali)
include strong traditio ns of group performance. All cultures include a mixture
of both in modern classical concerts or religious processions. Nowadays we
have access to music through several media , being the most traditional way to
hear it live, in the presence of the musicians or live music broadcast over the
radio or television. Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded
sounds, for example, a DJ using records for scratching.

Among famous figures who have made major contributions to British music and
are known internationally, we highlight the composers Michael Tippet,
Benjamin Britten, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Arthur Sullivan, William Walton,
Edward Elgar, Henry Purcell, John Blow, John Taverner, Thomas Tallis, and
William Byrd. Among living composers we mention John Tavener, Harrison
Birtwistle, and Oliver Knussen.

Since London is one of the most important cities for music in the world, Britain
is also famous for supporting a number of major orchestras including the BBC
Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, the Philharmonia, the
London Symphony Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra. Hence
London has several important concert halls and is also home to the Royal Opera
House, one of the worlds leading opear houses.

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 Nowadays, the UK, together with the US, is the main leading country in the
music industry. Supporting the rock and roll in the past, it has provided bands
such as The Beatles, the Rolling Stones, The Who, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin,
Status Quo, the Manic Street Preachers, Oasis, Radiohead or the Sex Pistols.
Since then it has also pioneered electronic dance music (acid house, drum and
bass, trip hop) and acclaimed British dance through bands such as Underworld
or Chemical Brothers. Moreover, most musicals are played in the National
Theatre in London.

o The mass media nowadays, together with the advent of the World Wide Web, is
in charge of mark the first era in which any individual could have a means of
exposure from anywhere in the world. Hence, it is also a cultural marker (the
British BBC, the American CNN).

o sex business is considered one the most successful commercial enterprises

within adult entertainment since it is not suitable for children (the US Playboy,
Penthouse, sex advertisements on Londons phone boxes). This industry
represents a large portion of the worlds economy, and has been credited with
driving technological advances in popular media, such as the home video and
live streaming video on the internet, being heterosexual men the first largest
consumers. Though advocating that it educates people about sexuality and
sexual health, this industry operates between legality and illegality in the fields
of striptease, live sex show, peep show, pornography, prostitution, erotic
massage, sex shop, and telephone sex.

o and the king type of entertainment: sports, as it is a major area of human

interest and activity. Considered a large part of our leisure, newspaper and TV
time is given over to it. Actually, a great number of the worlds major
originated in the UK, for instance, football, golf, boxing, rugby, cricket,
snooker, billiards, badminton and curling. Earlier sport men were Roman
gladiators, which fought and killed for the delectation of the audience, Greek
athletes when running for the Olympic Games, and more recently, football.
Actually the entertainment aspect of sport, together with the spread of mass
media and increased leisure time, has led to professionalism in sport. This has
resulted in some conflict, where the paycheck can be seen as more important
than recreational aspects: or where the sport is changed simply to make it more
profitable and popular therefore losing some of the traditions valued by some

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 (wikipedia, 2004). Sport is both related to politics (as an effective contribution
to the demolition of the apartheid policy in South Africa; or the controversial
Gaelic sports with nationalistic overtones) and art (ice skating, Tai chi,
gymnastics, bodybuilding). Yet, nowadays sport stars are the real trigger for the
audience (David Beckam, Manchester United team).

2.5. Society and culture in the English-speaking countries.

So, taking into account the previous comments on society and cultural issues, we shall proceed
to analyse, broadly speaking, how society and culture is present in the English-speaking
countries with a common code: the English language, first, in the United Kingdom and, then,
out of the United Kingdom.

2.5.1. In the United Kingdom.

As stated, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the
UK) is a state (known simply as the United Kingdom, or incorrectly as Great Britain or Britain)
which consists of the formerly self-governing nations of England, Wales, Scotland, and the
province Northern Ireland after a series of Acts of Union. The rest of Ireland left the United
Kingdom in 1922 after its independence as Eire. It is situated just off the north western coast of
mainland Europe, surrounded by the North Sea, the English Channel and the Atlantic Ocean.
Also, under its sovereignty we find the Crown Dependencies of the Channel Islands, the Isle of
Man and a number of overseas territories.

It has three official languages, English, Welsh and Scots Gaelics, though other regional
languages are recognised: Irish Gaelic, Cornish, Scots and Ulster Scots. Yet, many other
unofficial languages are present due to the wide variety of mong religions (Church of England,
Church of Scotland, Roman Catholic, Muslim, Methodist, Hindu, Sikh and Jewish). Its capital is
London and other important cities are Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester and Liverpool. It has an
extension of 244,820 km2 and a population of 59,511,464 and its currency is the pound sterling.

In form, it is a very centralised state with a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary

democracy, with a queen and a Parliament that has two houses: the House of Lords and the
House of Commons. Londons Westminster Parliament holds responsibility for most of the

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UKs political power. The UKs current monarch and head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who
acceded to the throne in 1952 and was crowned in 1953. In modern Britain, the monarchs role
is mainly ceremonial, with the UKs real political power being delegated to the Prime Minister
by Parliament (wikipedia, 2004).

Its legislative power is invested in an elected government, and executive power invested in a
Cabinet lead by the Prime Minister whose power, though carried out in the monarchs name, is
answerable to Parliament and through it the electorate. It is governed from its capital, London.
Yet, in recent years, each of the constituent nations, apart from England, has been granted its
own government, responsible in varying degree for some internal matters.

Regarding economics, the UK is considered as a leading trading power and financial centre
thanks to its essentially capitalist economy, one of the largest of Western Europe. Following
wikipedia (2004), over the past two decades the government has greatly reduced public
ownership by means of privatisation programmes, and has contained the growth of the Welfare
State. Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised, and efficient by European standards,
producing about 60% of food needs with only 1% of the labour force. The UK has large coal,
natural gas, and oil reserves. Services, particularly banking, insurance, and business services,
account for by far the largest proportion of GDP while industry continues to decline in
importance.

Tracing back in history, Stonehenge and other examples of prehistoric culture are what remains
of the earliest inhabitants of Britain. Celtic peoples followed, but after four centuries of Roman
rule, Britain fell prey to invading hordes of Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. Yet, it was not until the
10th century that the country became united under the kings of Wessex. The death of Edward
the Confessor in 1066 marked a turning point in the history of Great Britain since William, duke
of Normandy, invaded England, defeated the Saxon king, Harold II, at the Battle of Hastings
(1066) and introduced Norman French law and feudalism with the so-called Norman conquest
(linguaphone.co.uk).

Since then, following the encyclopaedia wikipedia (2004), Scotland and England have existed
as separate unified entities since the tenth century. Wales, under English control since the
Statute of Rhuddan in 1284, became part of the Kingdom of England by the Act of Union 1536.
With the Act of Union 1707 the separate kingdoms of England and Scotland, having shared the
same monarch since 1603, agreed to permanent union as the Kingdom of Great Britain.. The
Act of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland, which
had been gradually brought under English control between 1169 and 1603, to form the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Yet, in 1922, 26 of the counties of Ireland were formed

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into the Irish Free State (the other six Ulster counties remaining part of the United Kingdom as
Northern Ireland) and the state became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland, the name being officially changed in 1927.

The United Kingdom, the dominant industrial and maritime power of the 19th century, played
a leading role in developing parliamentary democracy and in advancing literature and science.
At its zenith, the British Empire stretched over one quarter of the earths surface. The first half
of the 20th century saw the UKs strength seriously depleted in two World Wars. The second
half witnessed the dismantling of the Empire and the UK rebuilding itself into a modern and
prosperous European nation. The UK is currently weighing the degree of its integration with
continental Europe.

A member of the EU, it has chosen to defer its participation in Euro Zone owing to internal
political considerations. Actually, Blairs controversial meeting in October 1997 with Sinn
Feins political leader, Gerry Adams, was the first meeting in 76 years between a British prime
minister and a Sinn Fein leader. This infuriated numerous factions but was a symbolic gesture
in support of the nascent peace talks in Northern Ireland. In 1998 the Good Friday Agreement,
strongly supported by Tony Blair, held out the promise of peace between Catholics and
Protestants, and talks continue (linguophone.co.uk).

Constitutional reform is also a current issue in the UK. The House of Lords has been subjected
to ongoing reforms and National assemblies with varying degrees of power were created in
Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland in 1999. Further assemblies for the English regions are
also under consideration. According to opinion polls, the monarchy remains generally popular
in spite of recent controversies. Support for a British Republic usually fluctuates between 15%
and 25% of the population. Also, the United Kingdom is a member of the Commonwealth of
Nations (successor organisation to the former Empire), the European Union and NATO. It is
also a permanent member of the UN Security Council and holds a veto power.

Moreover, in terms of nations, regions, counties, areas and districts, the UK is made up of the
four already mentioned nations: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, which are in
turn subdivided. For instance,

England is made up of three regions: the South (from the River Severn in the west, to
the Wash, a bay on the East coast; the Midlands, from the Severn-Wash line to another
line from the estuary of the river Mersey to the Humber estuary in the east; and the
North, from the Mersey-Humber line to the Scottish border.

o Some special features of the South region are: the climate (warmer than in the
other areas), the varied landscape (miles of sea coast with a variety of flat,

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 sandy or stony beaches; a gentle and green inland landscape), coastal resorts
(famous for holidays: Southend, Brighton, Margate), Londons suburbs, the
English Channel, with 35 km from Dover to Calais and the presence of ferries
from Dover, Portsmouth, Plymouth across the Channel, a wide range of trade
and industry work (British aerospace), on land there are grain-growing, milk
production and stock-raising (meat) whereas on the sea we may find boats
sailing from the many harbours. Some places of interest are the prehistoric
monuments of Stonehenge, the Windsors Royal Residence, the famous public
school at Eton, the Canterbury Cathedral, the famous Roman remains at Bath
and the oldest universities in Britain, Oxford and Cambridge.

o Some special features of the Midlands region are: the climate (cooler and wetter
than in the South) and the lack of sea coast. Also, the area where the Industrial
Revolution began, that is, large industrial areas which are very distinct from the
rural ones. The chief cities of the Midlands include: Birmingham as the second
largest city in the UK, and Derby, an enginerring centre where you may find
Rolls Royces aero engines and cars. We also find the Brit ish coal-mining
industry, the industrial are of potteries, and farming. Some places of interest in
the Midlands are the birthplace and burial place of William Shakespeare
(Stratford-on-Avon), the ancient cathedral chruches of Worcester, Gloucester
and Lichfield, in contrast to the fine modern cathedral of Coventry, bombed
during the WWII.

o Among the special features of the North of England, we may say that in general
it gets colder the further north-east you go and wetter in the west. The
landscape is different from the other regions because it is covered by short grass
or low-growing heather. There is also a great contrast between the beautiful
open, hilly countryside and the industrial towns and mining villages. Famous
industrial centres are: Manchester (textiles, cotton goods, and engineering),
Sheffield (steel-making: knives, scissors), Leeds (textile: woollen cloth,
manufacture of coats, womens dresses and mens suits), and Newcastle -on-
Tyne, known for ship-building and ship repairing. Furthermore, the North has
coal natural resources and a chemical industry, the Imperial Chemical
Industries (ICI). It also has two fine sea coasts for its citizens to enjoy
(Blackpool adn Scarborough). Some places of interest to visit are: Hadrians
Wall, the Lake District (a romantic scenery), the small, ancient university of
Durham, the medieval city walls of York, and Chester, another former Roman
city.

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 Scotland is subdivided in 32 council areas, though there are three large geographical
areas: the Highlands, the Lowlands , and the Islands. About five million people live in
these areas (three-quarters of them live in the Central Lowlands). The regions of
Scotland are administered from Edinburgh, the capital. Other important cities are
Glasgow, the chie f industrial and commercial city, and Aberdeen, the chief cattle -
breeding centre. Scotlands geography is famous for Ben Nevis, the UKs highest
mountain (1343 m). There are also many long and deep sea arms, firths, lochs, and a
multitude of islands west and north of Scotland (the Hebrides, Orkney Islands, and
Shetland Islands).

In the Highlands farmers lead a hard and lonely life whereas in the Lowlands life is
much easier (cattle -breeding, seed-potato growing), though some of the traditional
Scottish industries of ship-building and ship-repairing and fishing are declining. On the
other hand, financial assistance is administered by the Scottish Development Agency,
which is in charge of saving jobs, creating new ones and develop and modernise
industry with the help of the UK central government. Places of interest include:
Balmoral Castle, the Edinburgh Festival for music and drama, the Western Isles, the
remote and barren northern islands (Shetlands, Orkneys) and if you catch a glimpse,
perhaps the Loch Ness monster.

Wales is divided into 22 unitary authorities, styles as 10 county boroughs, 9 counties,

and 3 cities. Its capital is Cardiff, located in the south, and overall figures show an
estimated population of 2,8 million. Most of them live in the industrial areas of South
Wales, where the main Welsh industries like coal-mining, iron and steel making, and
tim-plate manufacturing are set up. Though the architectural style is not very attractive,
the Welsh countryside is beautiful. Wales is mostly mountainous, the highest peak
being Snowdon, at 1,085 m above sea level; also, north of the mainland is the island of
Anglesey.

Some special points of interest are the Welsh borders, so popular for tourists. Actually,
most people from London and theWest Midlands, have bought holiday homes in Wales
to spend their holidays. The Welsh language is called Cimru and is spoken with a
distinctive sing-song intonation. Welsh folklore and the language strengthen each
other: a yearly-national festival of poetry and music called Eisteddfod and choirs.
Finally, Wales has an obvious connection with the monarchy since the Prince of Wales
is the title given to the heir to the throne in Britain.

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 Northern Ireland remained united after the independence of southern Ireland in 1922
and since then it is considered a province which nowadays consists of 24 districts, 2
cities and 6 counties. It is often called Ulster and the Six Counties, since there are six
administrative areas in the provice. Its capital is Belfast and is famous for the Orange
Day march that takes place every year on the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne in
1690, where Protestants commemorate the victory of English King William III over the
Irish Catholics. In recent times, there are people in both Northern and Southern Ireland
who believe fiercely that the two parts should be united in one independent state, and
they really work towards this end. Yet, there is a majority in the North who wish to
remain part of Britain and then they work against a united Ireland. There are the two
religions defending their own faiths in the North; each defends its own way of life as
two separate communities: the Republic in the South is namely Catholic whereas the
Protestant Community controls the economic and political life in the North.

Some gentler features of Northern Ireland include the northeastern part of Ireland,
whose landscape is gentle and colour green because it rains a lot. It is mostly hilly since
mountains roll gently down to the sea. The highest peak is the Slieve Donard at 932
metres above the sea. Also, Northern Ireland is a land of lakes, rivers and a varied sea
coast. It is a great place for outdoor sports, and for tourism (when times are peaceful).
Yet, the Northern Irish people are friendly and generous as St Patrick, the patron saint
of Ireland, who is its representative.

2.5.2. Out of the United Kingdom.

So as to offer a general approach to those English-speaking countries out of the United

Kingdom, we shall concentrate on the past member of the Commonwealth, formerly under
control of the British Empire and nowadays, independent from the monarchy of the United
Kingdom. Symbolically they are fifteen sovereign countries known as Commonwealth Realms.
Note that although Britain has no political or executive power over these independent nations, it
retains influence, through long-standing close relations. We shall also talk about Ireland, which
got its independence from the UK.

Yet, traditionally, the Commonwealth of Nations regards the free association of sovereign
states consisting of Britain and many of its former dependencies who have chosen to maintain
ties of friendship and cooperation. It was established in 1931 by the Statute of Westminster as
the British Commowealth of Nations. Later its name was changed and it was redefined to

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include independent nations. Most of the dependent states that gained independence after 1947
chose Commonwealth membership. Moreover, the British monarch serves as its symbolic
head, and meetings of the more than 50 Commowealth heads of government take place every
two years.

What follows is a brief history of the origins of the English-speaking countries. History tells us
that territorial acquisition began in the early 17th century with a group of settlements in North
America and West Indian, East Indian, and African trading posts founded by private individuals
and trading companies. In the 18th century the British took Gibraltar, established colonies along
the Atlantic seacoast, and began to add territory in India. With its victory in the French and
Indian War (1763), it secured Canada and the eastern Mississippi Valley and gained supremacy
in India (Britannica, 2004). By 1776 the American colonies were controlled by governors
appointed by the British government and by 1783, North American colonists got their
independence by establishing the Constitution of the United States.

After that, the British began to build power in Malaya and acquired the Cape of Good Hope,
Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and Malta. The English settled Australia in 1788, and subsequently New
Zealand. Aden was secured in 1839, and Hong Kong in 1842. Britain went on to control the
Suez Canal (1875-1956) and after the 19th -century partitition of Africa, it acquired Nigeria,
Egypt, the territories that would become British East Africa, and part of what would become the
Union of South Africa. It must be borne in mind that prior to 1783, Britain claimed full
authority over colonial legislatures, but after the U.S. gained independence, Britain gradually
evolved a system of self-government for some colonies. Hence since Dominion status was given
to Canada (1867), the British Empire started to change into a Commonwealth of independent
nations as later on it was also given to Australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), the Union of
South Africa (1910), and the Irish Free State (1921).

After World War I, Britain secured mandates to German East Africa, part of the Cameroons,
part of Togo, German South-West Africa, Mesopotamia, Palestine, and part of the German
Pacific islands. Yet, the dominions signed the peace treaties themselves (Paris Peace Conference
(1919), where commissions were appointed to study specific financial and territorial questions,
and the Treaty of Versailles, an international agreement signed in 1919) and joined the League
of Nations, an organization for international cooperation established by the Allied Powers so as
to be independent states. The league established a system of colonial mandates, but it was
weakened by the failure of the United States, which had not ratified the Treaty of Versailles
(1919). So, the League ceased its activities during World War II and it was replaced in 1946 by
the United Nations.

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In the 1920s nationalist movements were to be strongly felt in India, Egypt and in the Arab
mandated territories. In 1922 Egypt was granted a degree of independence by Britain and full
independence in 1936. Similarly, Iraq gained full independence in 1932. On the other hand,
India achieved its independence in 1947 after the movement of Indian nationalism, boosted by
the 1919 Amritsar Massacre. In 1931, the British Parliament, by means of the Statute of
Westminster, recognized the legislative independence and equal status under the Crown of its
former dominions and the Irish Free State within a British Commonwealth of Nations. The
resultant relationship is sometimes thought to have been a precursor to the post-war British
Commonwealth.

During the Second World War, Britains civilian population found themselves under severe
domestic restrictions, and occasionally bombing. Also, conflict accelerated many social and
political developments and growing nationalist movements impacted both on the British rule of
Empire and on the individual nations of the British Isles. Hence, most of the remaining imperial
possessions were granted independence, for instance, fifty years after Queen Victorias
Diamond Jubilee, India was cut in two to become the Commonwealth countries of India and
Pakistan.

The most recent development in the dismantling of the British Empire was the restoration to
Chinese rule, under a declaration signed in 1984, of the former British crown colony of Hong
Kong, on the southeastern coast of China, where the Union Jack was finally and symbolically
lowered on July 1, 1997. So, one by one, the subject peoples of the British Empire have entered
a postcolonial era, in which they must reassess their national identity, their history and
literature, and their relationship with the land and language of their former masters.

So, we shall try to present an overview of the English-speaking countries regarding their society
and cultural variety by addressing, namely (a) the United States, (b) Canada, (c) Australia, (d)
New Zealand, (e) South Africa, (f) India, and (g) the Caribbean Islands.

The United States.

They are a federal republic in North America whose capital is Washington D.C. Its currency is
the so-called U.S. dollar. Following the Encyclopaedia britannica (2004), it comprises 48
contiguous states occupying the mid continent, Alaska at the northwestern extreme of North
America, and the island state of Hawaii in the mid-Pacific Ocean. Its area includes the U.S.
share of the Great Lakes: 3,675,031 sq mi (9,518,287 sq km). Its estimated population in 2002
was around 287,602,000 and includes people of European and Middle Eastern ancestry, African

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Americans, Hispanics, Asians, Pacific Islanders, American Indians (Native Americans), and
Alaska Natives.

Hence the population languages include: English as predominant language and Spanish. Among
the variety of religions we find Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Judaism, and Islamism.
The countrys regions encompass mountains, plains, lowlands, and deserts. Mountain ranges
include the Appalachians, Ozarks, Rockies, Cascades, and Sierra Nevada. The lowest point is
Death Valley, in Calif whereas the highest point is Alaskas Mount MCKinley; also, within
the coterminous U.S. it is Mount Whitney, Calif. Chief rivers are the Mississippi system, the
Colorado, the Columbia , and the Rio Grande. The Great Lakes, the Great Salt Lake, and Lake
Okkechobee are the largest lakes.

The U.S. is among the worlds leading producers of several minerals, including copper, silver,
zinc, gold, coal, petroleum, and natural gas; it is the chief exporter of food. Its manufactures
include iron and steel, chemicals, electronic equipment, and textiles. Other important industries
are tourism, dairying, livestock raising, fishing, and lumbering. It is a republic with two
legislative houses; its head of state and government is the president.

Canada

Canada was given the dominion status in 1867, and by the time of the Commonwealth founding,
it was one of the state members. It is regarded as a transplanted society (Maxwell, 1982) as well
as Australia and New Zealand since the majority of its population is of European origin and had
to change the already established cultural habits in the new land. So, it retained a non-
indigenous language.

Historically speaking, the first settlement in Canada traces back to the 16th century under the
figure of the Frenchman Jacques Cartir. Therefore, until the eighteenth century most European
immigrants who arrived in Canada came namely from France in opposition to the North
American coast, which received English, Irish and Scottish population. Similarly, it is said that
the bulk of Canadas immigrants arrived namely from Continental Europe in the twentieth and
twenty-first century.

In linguistic terms, Canada has developed a type of Canadian English which is difficult for us to
understand since it is different from other North American varieties. It is regarded as a
homogeneous language, which has not been affected by its nearest linguistic neighbour,
American English. The differences lie mainly in vocabulary and pronunciation, since Canadian
spelling preserves some British forms (theatre, centre, colour, behaviour) and there are no

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distinctive grammar features. We also highlight the fact that there are also several words of
Canadian origin (chesterfield).

Regarding its cultural diversity, Canada is nowadays still headed by British population (around
45%), followed by French (25%) and the rest (30%) belong to other nationalities rather than
British or French. The influence of French colonization is still present in culture, since America
has influenced this country through the media. Yet, the French-speaking population, namely set
up in Quebec, has a powerful separatist movement which addresses their affiliation to France.
No literature works are worth mentioning within the neo-colonialism movement in Canada.

Australia

Following Britannica (2004), Australia has long been inhabited by Aboriginals, who arrived
40,00060,000 years ago. Estimates of the population at the time of European settlement in
1788 range from 300,000 to more than 1,000,000. Widespread European knowledge of
Australia began with 17th-century explorations. The Dutch landed in 1616 and the British in
1688, but the first large-scale expedition was that of James Cook in 1770, which established
Britains claim to Australia. The first English settlement, at Port Jackson (1788), consisted
mainly of convicts and seamen; convicts were to make up a large proportion of the incoming
settlers.

By 1859 the colonial nuclei of all Australias states had been formed, but with devastating
effects on the indigenous peoples, whose population declined sharply with the introduction of
European diseases and weaponry. Britain granted its colonies limited self-government in the
mid 19th century, and an act federating the colonies into a commonwealth was passed in 1900.
Australia fought alongside the British in World War I, notably at Gallipoli, and again in World
War II, preventing Australias occupation by the Japanese.

It joined the U.S. in the Korean and Vietnam wars. Since the 1960s the government has sought
to deal more fairly with the Aboriginals, and a loosening of immigration restrictions has led to a
more heterogeneous population. Constitutional links allowing British interference in
government were formally abolished in 1968, and Australia has assumed a leading role in Asian
and Pacific affairs. During the 1990s it experienced several debates about giving up its British
ties and becoming a republic.

In linguistic terms, Australian English starts in the second half of the eighteenth century when
pidgin English appeared due to the interrelationship of settlers and Aboriginals. The Aboriginal
vocabulary of Australian English has become one of the trademarks of the national language

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(boomerang, jumbuck sheep-). Yet, the number of Aboriginal words in Australian English is
quite small and confined to the naming of plants, trees, animals, and place-names. Nowadays,
though English is the official language, Australian English is known for its preserving nature,
since it still keeps eighteenth and nineteenth-century lexis from the European Continent
(Wessex, Scotland, Ireland). Moreover, it has no regional variation of accent.

Regarding its cultural diversity, since it is the smallest continent and sixth largest country (in
area) on Earth, lying between the Pacific and Indian oceans, its population was about
19,702,000 in 2002. Among them, most Australians are descendants of Europeans. The largest
nonwhite minority is the Australian Aboriginals. The Asian portion of the population has grown
as a result of relaxed immigration policy. Australia is rich in mineral resources, s the countrys
economy is basically free-enterprise; its largest components include finance, manufacturing, and
trade. Formally a constitutional monarchy, its chief of state is the British monarch, represented
by the governor-general. In reality it is a parliamentary state with two legislative houses; its
head of government is the prime minister.

New Zealand

New Zealand was originally inhabited by Polinesian population which traced back to the early
Christian centuries. In the eighteenth century it was explored by J. Cook between 1769-1770
and soon it was a target for European settlement in spite of some indigenous Maori resistance.
Then the 19th century saw the arrival of catholic missionaries and English protestants and the
reorganization of New Zealand started. Subsequently, the two races achieved considerable
harmony. Yet, unlike Australia it was a free colony, as in practice it has been self-determining
since 1901.

In linguistic terms, the New Zealand language has been influenced by its Australian neighbours
(bush lawyer, bush telegraph) as well as by the Scottish language, namely in family names
(Dunedin, Murray). From Australia, many Zealanders were influenced by the native Maori
culture, hence many maori words were borrowed on making reference to animals, plants and
local trees (kiwi). In addition, Zealanders created their own vocabulary for some places, roads
and local places (lines).

Regarding its cultural diversity, New Zealand still has a certain attachment to Britain that is
unheard of Australia (BBC news) and contemporary population seem hesitant to use the
pragmatic initiative used in the eighteenth century. The cultural background in New Zealand is
actually conditioned by a society which is egalitarian in the extreme and shows a tendency
towards conformity. Yet, today Maori people are determined to make their contribution to

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increase their self-respect and confidence in their own culture. Actually, Maori language is
offered in many secondary schools as an optional second language.

South Africa.

Before British colonization, certain highlands of East Africa attracted settlers from Europe since
these colonies were confined to coastal enclaves. British penetration of the area began at
Zanzibar in the late 19th century and before WWI most of the European conquest of Africa had
been accomplished. Actually, in 1888 the British East Africa Company established claims to
territory in what is now Kenya. British protectorates were subsequently established over the
sultanate of Zanzibar and the kingdom of Buganda (now Uganda) and in 1919 Britain was
awarded the former German territory of Tanganyika as a League of Nations mandate. Yet, all
these territories achieved polit ical independence in the 1960s.

In linguistic terms, the development of the English language in Africa is related to the term
pidgin, hence pidgin English is commonly spoken in Africa. Traditionally, pidgin languages
are defined as those auxiliary languages that have no native speakers and are used for
communicating between people who have no common language. Actually, we find two different
English versions in Africa: East and West African English.

On the one hand, East African Commonwealth countries had no contact with Britain until the
early twentieth century when they were colonized, so the use of English was limited to military
and administrative vocabulary (white administrators and army officials), still used in the East
African states of Kenya. Yet, in Uganda and Tanzania, Swahili is the used as lingua franca and
goes through ethnic and political boundaries whereas English is the main language of education
(secondary, tertiary). So, we may say that the language of Black Africa is pidgin English, not
standard British or American English (Uganda, Zambia, Simbabwe).

On the other hand, West African Commonwealth countries use pidgin English as a result of the
slave experience of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. For instance, in Sierra Leona,
pidgin English has evolved into Krio, a mixture of English and an African language (Yoruba),
with includes Portuguese elements, which is used everywhere. Brought by traders and
missionaries to Nigeria and Cameroon, it influenced the local pidgin. Recent governments are
trying to establish Krio as the national language of Sierra Leone, even though English is still the
official language.

Regarding its cultural diversity, we highlight the fact that in all African countries the majority of
the population is indigenous, except in those African countries which belong to the

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Commonwealth and have European population (Zimbabwe, Zambia and Kenya). Hence, the
most common population group within these countries are the ethnic groups, that is, tribes. This
means that ethnic groups have in common a sense of culture and identity, and therefore, of
distinct religion and language. The new African nations that emerged after the mid-20th century
were not based on the traditional units of the pre-colonial era. African natural resources (mining,
safari hunting) have attracted people of many different cultures speaking a variety of languages.

India

Historically speaking, India is the home of one of the worlds oldest and most influential
civilisations of South Asia. By the early seventeenth century, the East India Company was
founded and attracted many European visitors up to the eighteenth century. In linguistic terms, it
was in the nineteenth century that, at the highest peak of the British empire, there was a flood of
English administrators, educators, army officers and missionaries who spread the English
language throughout the sub-continent. Hence by the turn of the century English had become
the prestige language of India.

After a century, the Jewel of the Crown had added many Indian words into the English
language, so as to be able to express different concepts. In addition, Indian English possesses a
number of distinctive stylistic fatures, some of which are inspired by local languages and some
by the influence of English educational traditions (change of heart vs. God is merciful).
Nowadays, even after Indians independence (1947), there are more speakers of English in India
than in Britain (over 70 million). English became the official language of everyday life at any
sphere. It is worth noting that, though the speakers of English belonged to the educated ruling
elite, English is taught at every stage of education in all the states of the country.

Regarding its cultural diversity, India is regarded as a subcontinent rather than a country. Its
wide range of races, languages and religions, art and culture show the cultural wealth that has
developed over many centuries. Yet, there are still strong divisive influences such as caste, the
status of untouchability and linguistic chauvinism. Another important aspect is that over 80 per
cent of the countrys total population are Hindus, and also, that Hinduism is the unifying factor
that has kept the large mass of the peoples of India together.

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 The Caribeean Islands

The Commonwealth Caribbean Islands.have a distinctive history. The Encyclopaedia Britannica

(2004) states that permanently influenced by the experiences of colonialism and slavery, the
Caribbean has produced a collection of societies that are markedly different in population
composition from those in any other region of the world. Lying on the sparsely settled periphery
of an irregularly populated continent, the region was discovered by Christopher Columbus in
1492. Thereafter, it became the springboard for the European invasion and domination of the
Americas, a transformation that historian D. W. Meinig has aptly described as the "radical
reshaping of America."

Beginning with the Spanish and Portuguese and continuing with the arrival more than a
century later of other Europeans, the indigenous peoples of the Americas experienced a series of
upheavals. The European intrusion abruptly interrupted the pattern of their historical
development and linked them inextricably with the world beyond the Atlantic Ocean. It also
severely altered their physical environment, introducing both new foods and new epidemic
diseases. As a result, the native Indian populations rapidly declined and virtually disappeared
from the Caribbean, although they bequeathed to the region a distinct cultural heritage that is
still seen and felt.

During the sixteenth century, the Caribbean region was significant to the Spanish empire. In
the seventeenth century, the English, Dutch, and French established colonies. By the eighteenth
century, the region contained colonies that were vitally important for all of the European powers
because the colonies generated great wealth from the production and sale of sugar. The early
English colonies, peopled and controlled by white settlers, were microcosms of English society,
with small yeoman farming economies based mainly on tobacco and cotton. A major
transformation occurred, however, with the establishment of the sugar plantation system.

To meet the systems enormous manpower requirements, vast numbers of black African slaves
were imported throughout the eighteenth century, thereby reshaping the regions demographic,
social, and cultural profile. Although the white populations maintained their social and political
preeminence, they became a numerical minority in all of the islands. Following the abolition of
slavery in the mid-nineteenth century, the colonies turned to imported indentured labor from
India, China, and the East Indies, further diversifying the regions culture and society. The result
of all these immigrations is a remarkable cultural heterogeneity in contemporary Caribbean
society.

The abolition of slavery was also a major watershed in Caribbean history in that it initiated the
long, slow process of enfranchisement and political control by the nonwhite majorities in the

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islands. The early colonies enjoyed a relatively great amount of autonomy through the
operations of their local representative assemblies. Later, however, for ease of administration
and to facilitate control of increasingly assertive colonial representative bodies, the British
adopted a system of direct administration known as crown colony government in which British
appointed governors wielded nearly autocratic power. The history of the colonies from then
until 1962 when the first colo nies became independent is marked by the rise of popular
movements and labor organizations and the emergence of a generation of politicians who
assumed positions of leadership when the colonial system in the British Caribbean was
dismantled.

Despite shared historical and cultural experiences and geographic, demographic, and economic
similarities, the islands of the former British Caribbean empire remain diverse, and attempts at
political federation and economic integration both prior to and following independence have
foundered. Thus, the region today is characterized by a proliferation of mini-states, all with
strong democratic traditions and political systems cast in the Westminster parliamentary mold,
but all also with forceful individual identities and interests.

In linguistic terms, we may highlight the fact that the tiny Indian population, once native to the
region, speak creolized forms of the invading European languages, and from this merging we
obtained a Caribbean English and a Caribbean culture. Of all the varieties of Caribbean English,
the most appealing is the Jamaican creole, defined as a language that has evolved from pidgins
used by speakers of unintelligible people. So, we may differenciate two different types of
language: on the one hand, standard English, used in newspapers and news reporting, engages in
conversation, journalists; and on the other hand, Jamaican English, which is virtually
unintelligible to the outsider since this is the language of the streets (originally oral, recently
written).

Regarding its cultural diversity, we may say that the Caribbean is fragmented since each island
has its own strong loyalties and traditions. For example, Trinidad Island is heavily influenced by
French, Spanish, Creole and Indian traditions. The most English of the islands are Jamaica,
Antigua and Barbados. Nowadays, the Caribbean population is namely African and Afro-
European in origin. Despite size, ancestry, language, history and population differences, the
countries of the Caribbean share a common culture, the result of their parallel experiences as
plantation colonies for distant European economic and politic powers. Jamaica has alwasy had a
lively independent culture, namely reflected in this Third World nationalism and reggae music
as the result of a mixed multi-cultural heritage.

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3. STEREOTYPES AND EMBLEMS IN ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES.

Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 shall analyse the phenomenon of stereotypes
and emblems in the main English-speaking countries. In doing so, we shall provide (1) a
definition of both stereotypes and emblems; (2) typology of the main (a) stereotypes and (b)
emblems, and (3) an analysis of the main stereotypes and emblems within the different English-
speaking countries.

3.1. Definition: stereotypes and emblems.

First of all, the term stereotype (also called clich, archetype, stock character, outgroup
homogeneity) is used metaphorically in modern usage, since it refers to an oversimplified
mental picture of some group of people who are sharing a certain characteristic (or
stereotypical) qualities. The term is thus often used in a negative sense, with stereotypes being
seen by many as illogical yet deeply held-beliefs that can only be changed through education
(wikipedia, 2004). The most common stereotypes include opposites, thus the good vs. the bad,
the teenager vs. the adult, and so on. On the other hand, a national emblem is a symbol that
represents a nation. It may or may not appear on the national flag and it is usually something
from the natural world as an animal or a bird, but can also be any object.

3.2. Typology.

3.2.1. Main stereotypes.

Common stereotypes include (a) groups of people in terms of personality (behaviour),

appearance and dress, and (b) customs and traditions.

Within the first group, people, we include, following wikipedia (2004), the "hard-boiled" or
tough private eye, the aging absent-minded professor, the ditzy busty blonde woman (dumb
blonde), the dowdy librarian (who becomes instantly attractive when she takes her glasses off),
the degenerate aristocrat with top hat, tuxedo, and monocle, the snobbish butler (speaking with a
British English or other European accent), the nerdy scientist (with black wiry-framed glasses,
black bowtie, white coat, speaking in technobabble).

Similar, the short genius schoolkid, who wears glasses and uniform (geek or dork), the
primly dressed schoolmarm with her pointer and Now, class address, the peg-legged pirate
with an eye patch and parrot, the overweight, doughnut-eating cop who believes skateboarding

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is a crime, the prostitute with a heart of gold, the brightly colored court jester, the villain with
black clothes, waxed moustache and generalized Central or Eastern European accent, the jolly
Middle Eastern or South Asian cornershop owner with his collection of trinkets, the picky chef
with his toque and piquant French accent, the overdelivering game show host with his giant
smile, the confrontational gangster in his pinstripe suit from Armani or Versace, the tobacco-
spitting baseball player, the effeminate homosexual male, the butch lesbian, the old lady who
sits on the porch, reminiscing and knitting, the violent, savage Indian warrior or scalper, the
drunken Irishman, the wise and otherworldly African-American who helps a white character in
crisis, and finally, the Anti-Semitic portrayals about the Jews.

Within the second group, customs and traditions, we include, traditions and holidays. For
instance, British pubs are regarded as a tradition, so it is a very typical custom to meet people
there and have some drinks while talking to friends. Regarding holidays, we should highlight
the relevance of national, regional and local bank holidays, such as Guy Fawkes Day on
November 5th , Christmas on 25th December or Halloween on 31st October. Actually, these dates
are accompanied by costumes traditions such as dressing up on Halloween and an occasion for
children to request treats or threatening tricks. Pumpkins are closely associated to this event;
also, Guy Fawkes Day, the Royal National Eisteddfod in Wales which takes place once a year,
or the Orange Day march in Belfast every year. We must not forget the Thanks-Giving Day as
an annual national holiday which celebrates the harvest and other blessings of the past yearon
the last Thrusday in November.

3.2.2. Main emblems.

Among the main emblems we find animals, plants, trees, inanimate objects, symbols and even
people. For instance,

Animals are often associated to different countries as follows: the kangaroo, the
crocodile and the koala represent Australia, and similarly the beaver (Canada), the
condor and huemul (Chile), the lion (England, Czech Republic, Sweden and Finland),
the crocodile (East Timor), the elephant (Laos), the kiwi (New Zealand), a white eagle
(Poland), the golden bicephalic eagle or bear (Russia), the white bicephalic eagle
(Serbia), the garuda (Thailand), the American bald eagle (the United States), and the red
dragon (Wales).

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 Plants are associated to countries as follows: maple leaf (Canada), copihue (Chile), rose
(Engla nd) lily of the valley (Finland), lily (France), bauhinia (Hong Kong),
chrysanthemum (Japan), Kimjongilia (North Korea), peony (Peoples Republic of
China), plum blossom (Taiwan), thistle (Scotland), King protea (South Africa), and
finally, the daffodil or a leek (Wales).

Trees follow the following association: oak (England), birch (Finland), ceiba
(Guatemala), cedar (Lebanon), baobab (Madagascar), lime (Slovenia), and finally, the
real yellowwood (South Africa).

inanimate objects include mate (Argentina), checkerboard (Croatia), the Lion Capital of
Asoka with the spinning wheel (India), harp (Ireland), hammer and sickle (Soviet
Union), and the three Crowns (Sweden).

symbols include the star of David (Israel), star and crescent (Pakistan), serbian cross
(serbia), the patriarchal cross and three mountains (slovakia), and the Yin Yang (South
Korea). Also, flags, heraldry, currency, anthems, buildings and monuments, natural
features, items of food, drink and clothes are included here.

And finally, people references as follows, Marianne (France), Mother Svea (Sweden),
Britannia and John Bull (the United Kingdom), and Columbia, Uncle Sam and Lady
Liberty (the United States). Also, living figures such as Presidents, sport stars as well as
media stars (fashion, music, cinema, radio, TV).

3.3. Stereotypes and emblems in English-speaking countries.

In this section we shall try to provide, in general terms, the main stereotypes regarding (a)
groups of people in terms of personality (behaviour), appearance and dress, and (b) customs and
traditions; together with the main emblems (animals, plants, trees, inanimate objects, symbols
and even people) within English-speaking countries.

In the monthly magazine Think in English (n 56, pg. 23), there is an interesting article about
society untitled How (not) to be a foreigner. In fact, communicating in a foreign language does
not mean the speakers have achieved the whole communicative competence since we have
linguistic, non-linguistic and socio-cultural aspects to overcome. So, a foreign speaker of
English must take into account those social and cultural rules of the English-speaking country to

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eventually fit in it. Actually, if you follow what is considered polite in your society you
shouldnt cause too much offence. Most cases in which outsiders cause scandal are obvious
things like sacrificing animals in the street (regarding Muslim and other minority religions).

However, there are a few thing that are more acceptable in other societies than in Britain and
its better to avoid them. This of course works the other way round too. For example, stretching
in public in Britain and America is not particularly frowned upon but can cause offence in
continental Europe. Anyway, back to Britain; here are the eight things you must avoid if you
want to integrate:

Spitting: in some Mediterranean countries spitting is relatively acceptable, at least for

men This is far from true in the UK and spitting in public should be avoided at all costs.
Only punks ans skinheads spit in Britain.
Talking loudly : you may be surprised to hear that this is the faux-pas of continental
Europeans and Latins that probably causes offence most frequently in Britain. Moderate
your volume.
Stifle that sneeze or cough: for some people as long as you dont actually squeeze or
cough over someone it doesnt matter if you dont put your hand to your mouth when
you sneeze. This is not so in the UK and you should always stifle your sneeze/cough. If
you sneeze, those around you will probably sya Bless you! and you can answer
Excuse me and youre there youve integrated!
Dont dunk: in many countries it is normal to dip or dunk cake and other types of
food in coffee, especially at breakfast. At best this will be considered very childish in
Britain, and at worst rude.
Tnx for yes: this will no doubt seem absurd but I know cases of British people
being highly offended by foreigners making a tnx sound to say yes. You dont have
to say yes or yeah but the sounds that are socially acceptable are uh-huh and
hmmm.
Dont stand too close: this is a faux-pas (mistake of etiquette) particulary associated
with Americans, but other visitors may also commit this mistake. The British like a
good arms lenght distance between them when they talk to each other and, if you want
to fit in, you should respect this.
Watch that contact: cultures that are less emotionally-challenged are happy for
acquaintances (as opposed to family and lovers) to touch each other. Of course, as every
psychologist will tell you, friendly physical contact is very healthy... but the British are
different: avoid hands on shoulders, etc.

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 Finally, kissing: this friendly natural gesture between continental Europeans and Latins
can be quite traumatic for your average Briton. Interestingly, many Enlgish-speaking
natives will join in the kissing with such foreigners but will studiously avoid it with
other English-speaking natives in the same social gathering unwritten rules.

As we can see, every culture has its own rules of etiquette. It is worth remembering that, though
they are invisible since they are not written anywhere, they mark the difference between being
integrated or not in the foreign culture. Let us examine other stereotypes regarding physical
appearance and clothes. For instance, regarding physical appearance, the inhabitants of the
British Isles are associated with a pale, blond, light-eyed and thin appearance as opposed to the
Mediterranean dark complexion and strong constitution. Yet, we find stereotypes that break
with the rule, note the British Pierce Brosnan or the Scottish actor Sean Connery, who is
supposed to have red curly hair and pale face with freckles.

Yet, other stereotypes coincide with the rule in the description of Welsh people as dark hair with
dark eyes as the Welsh Katherine Zeta Jones or the Irish music group the Coors, which are said
to be red-haired with blue eyes or dark-haired with dark eyes.has are described. Also, Australian
people coincide mostly with their description, muscular and tanned people with blond hair and
green eyes, as the character of the famous film Cocrodile Dundee. Yet, it is not so easy to
draw a picture of the typical American since the mix of cultures (called melting pot) there
increases difficulty in this task, as it is not of Spanish people because of the way of featuring
Manuel, the Spanish waiter, in the BBC TV series Fawlty Towers.

Also, the stereotypical dressing proves relevant in the distinction of nationalities and even, in
the creation of literary and film characters. For instance, the Scottish national dress, a tartan
pleated skirt which is worn with a shirt, jacket and tie, and often a waistcoat, with under-
breeches under it. An English stereotype is the English gentleman, dressed in black with a white
shirt and a bow tie, with a black hat, thin moustache, and a binocular; or Sherlock Holmes, who
has been portrayed in his knickerbockers, tweed cape and jacket, deerstalker hat, plus fours and
brogues. Similarly, his assistant, Holmes with his black shiny bowler hat, black suit, waistcoat,
briefcase and umbrella.

We must not forget the stereotype of the English policeman, the bobby in a black uniform and
helment walking the streets in English towns; or the American cowboy, which will be always
remembered in a 10-Gallon hat, leather chaps on the outside part of the legs on the trousers,
leather waist-coast, plaid shirt, neckerchief with a leather accessory with two weights on the
ends; or Hawaia n people dressed in flowery shirts at a beach surrounded by palm trees.

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Regarding stereotypical behaviours it is worth mentioning English people as polite, punctual,
proud and distant; Australiam men as chovinist, Scottish and Irish as loud voices,

Other stereotypes refer to traditions in food and drink or sports. Thus, steroeotypical Australians
sepend their days surfing on a beach while English people play cricket and rugby, Scottish play
golf and Highland games (throwing the hammer, tossing the caber), and Americans play
baseball or basketball. Also, regarding food and dr ink, it is worth mentioning the culture of
cheese since there are over 400 varieties of cheese produced in England (Cheddar, Lancashire
Cheese, Stilton, the smooth Derby, British Parmesan, Gruyere, and so on); English beer (called
ales) which enjoys a fine world-wide reputation (Newcastle Brown Ale, Old Speckled Hen,
Fullers London Pride, OHanlons Port Stout) since they are made with old brewing techniques;
as well as the Scottish whiskey. Regarding sports, the most famous football team in England,
the Manchester United and the most acclaimed football star, David Beckam.

Regarding the main emblems, among the most famous animals are the red Welsh dragon, the
Australian kangaroo, crocodile and koala, the Canadian beaver, the English lion, the New
Zealand kiwi, and the American bald eagle. Regarding plants, we highlight the Canadian maple
leaf, the English rose (hence Elton Johns hymn for Lady Di), the Scottish thistle and the
daffodil or a leek in Wales. Among the trees we include the English oak and the real
yellowwood in South Africa. Moreover, among inanimate objects we include the Lion Capital
of Asoka with the spinning wheel in India, the harp Ireland, and the three Crowns in Sweden.

Symbols include official ones, such as flags, thus the United Kingdom Union Jack which
combines the flags of England, Scotland and North Ireland and is part of the flags of such
Commonwealth nations as Australia, Fiji, New Zealand and Hawaii; the English flag with Saint
George Cross (a red cross and bordered with white since it is not permissible red on blue in
heraldry; the Scottish flag with the Saint Andrew Cross (a diagonal white cross on blue);
Northern Irelands flag with the Sain Patrick Cross (a diagonal red cross on white); the
Australian flag, which has the Union Jack in the upper dial, being the rest blue with white stars
(one big star under the Union Jack, and five on the right).

Regarding heraldry, the crest is automatically included in any grant of arms made in England,
Scotland, or North Ireland (the object placed on top of the helmet, bound into by the wreath of
colours). With respect to currency, we namely find the pound sterling as a sign of England and
Scotland, the Irish pound for the Republic of Ireland, and the dollar as a sign of the United
States and Australia. Following on national symbols, we find anthems, which are hymns or
songs which express patriotic feelings either politically or popularly authorized, hence God

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Save the Queen as the oldest national anthem (1825) or The Star-Spangled Banner in the
United States.

Other symbols include unofficial ones, such as buildings and monuments which are
representative of the English-speaking country, for instance, the Buckingham Palace,
Westminster Palace (or the Houses of Parliament), the Big Ben and Picadilly Circus in England;
Balmoral Castle, Edinburgh Castle, the National Portrait Gallery and the Scottish Museum in
Scotland, Caernarvon Castle in Wales; the White House, the Statue of Liberty and the Empire
State Building in the US, or the Opera House of Sydney in Australia. Among the most
outstanding natural features, we shall mention the river Thames in England, the Loch Ness and
Ben Nevis in Scotland, the region of Snowdonia in Wales, the large Irish meadows with
turberas breeding, and the Grand Canyon in the US.

If items of food, drink and clothes are to be included here we shall mention the Yorkshire
pudding, fish and chips, roast beef with potatoes and English cheese; regarding drinks, we shall
include gin as the English national liquor whereas in Scotland we find whiskey and Scotch
Broth (a soup of vegetables with oats). Moreover, the Irish menu includes an excelent variety of
orchard products meat and fish. The favourite Irish drinks are whisky, liquors with honey,
coffee or chocolate, adn stout, which is a type of dark beer which everybody knows as Guinness
(a national trademark). American food is characterized by hamburgers, fast food and drinks are
represented by coffee and beer.

4. ENGLISH SONGS AS A VEHICLE OF CULTURAL INFLUENCE.

Chapter 4 shall address the phenomenon of English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence by
providing (1) definition and typology and then, stating the relevance of (2) English songs as as a
vehicle of cultural influence (a) through the media and (b) through education.

4.1. Definition and typology.

It is amazing how these relatively short musical compositions for the human voice, that is,
English songs can have such a relevant role in the transmission of culture. Yet, since ancient
times, songs and hymns were related to magic powers and throughout time, they have kept that
magic influence on people. Actually, popular songs are often a part of individual and cultural,
but seldom national, identity. Performers usually often have not undergone formal voice training

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but highly stylized vocal techniques are used. On the other hand, folk songs are often of
anonymous origins since they were public domain and were transmitted orally. These are in fact
the major aspect of national or cultural identity. Folk songs exists in virtually if not every
culture.

There are as many definitions for music as many divisions and groupings of music, many of
which are as hotly contested as, and even caught up in, the argument over the definition of
music. Yet, among the larger genres are classical music, popular music or commercial music
(including pop music, hip hop, rock and roll) and folk music. Also, the term world music is
applied to a wide range of music made outside of Europe and European influence, although its
initial application, in the context of the World Music Program at Wesleyan University, was as a
term including all possible musics, and not excluding European traditions.

Following wikipedia (2004), genres of music are as often determined by tradition and
presentation as by the actual music. While most classical music is acoustical in nature, and
meant to be performed by individuals, many works include samples, tape, or are mechanical,
and yet described as "classical". Some works, for example Gershwins Rhapsody in Blue, are
claimed by both Jazz and Classical Music. As cultures of the world have been in more contact
with each other, their indigenous music styles have often melded to form new styles. For
example, the U.S.-American bluegrass style has elements from Anglo-Irish, Scottish, Irish,
German and some African-American instrumental and vocal traditions, and can only have been
a product of the 20th Century.

4.2. English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence.

4.2.1. Through the media.

Nowadays, the music we make can be heard through several media, the most traditional way is
to hear it live, in the presence, or as one of, the musicians. Live music can also be broadcast
over the radio or television. Some musical styles focus on producing a sound for a performance,
while others focus on producing a recording which mixes together sounds which were never
played "live". Recording, even of styles which are essentially live often uses the ability to edit
and splice to produce recordings which are considered "better" than the actual performance.

In many cultures there is less distinction between performing and listening to music, as virtually
everyone is involved in some sort of musical activity, often communal. Sometime in the middle
20th century, listening to music through a recorded form, such as sound recording or watching a

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music video became more common than experiencing live performance. Sometimes, live
performances incorporate prerecorded sounds (i.e. DJ using records for scratching).

4.2.2. Through education.

Following wikipedia (2004), many people compose, perform, and improvise music with no
training and feel no need for training, including entire cultures. Other cultures have traditions of
rigorous formal training that may take years and serious dedication. Sometimes this training
takes the form of apprenticeship, as in Indian training traditionally take more years than a
college education and involves spiritual discipline and reverence for ones guru or teacher. In
Bali everyone learns and practices together. It is also common for people to take music lessons,
short private study sessions with an individual teacher, when they want to learn to play or
compose music, usually for a fee. The most famous private composition teacher is Nadia
Boulanger.

Also, the incorporation of music performance and theory into a general liberal arts curriculum,
from pre-school to postsecondary education, is relatively common. Western style secondary
schooling is increasingly common around the world. Meanwhile, western schools are
increasingly including the study of the music of other cultures such as the Balinese gamelan, of
which there are currently more than 200 in America. In fact, songs have come to occupy a
central role int he teaching and learning of English as a foreign language for two main reasons.

First of all, singing and musical activities are genrally acknowledged to be an important part of
a hcilds learning process. Most English children, for instance, learn the alphabet through a
simple song and many infants songs (lullabies) involve games, rhymes with numbers, and
rhythmic and melodic patters. Secondly, songs are valuable as potential motivators of students
since they feel attracted by the most famous singers in the worldwide panorama: Madonna,
Britney Spears, Blur, and so on. Since the birth of rock and roll in the 1950s up to the present
day the mantle of stardom has appealed young people and, for our purposes, our students so as
to imitate their idols. Hence since they do not relate learning songs (in terms of linguistic
content form, vocabulary, pronunciation) with hard work, learning comes easily.

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5. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

Society and culture is one of the most outstanding aspects of educational activity and, for our
purposes, it is the vehicle for better understanding and awareness of the English-speaking
countries culture. In the classroom setting all kinds of social and linguistic aspects of language
may be brought to students in terms of cultural awareness so as to bring them closer to the
worlds reality: the relevance of the European and international framework nowadays. Yet, how
is this issue linked to our Spanish students? Basically , through the educational activity, both in
and out the classroom, the former being developed in terms of tutorial or classroom activities
and the latter by focusing on sociocultural aspects that exist within the students environment
(home, friends, the media).

We may handle in class stereotypes and emblems from English-speaking and non English-
speaking countries so as to make relevant the comparison to the Spanish ones regarding
outstanding differences (food, drinks, clothes, traditions, physical appearance). So, many of
these stereotypes may become familiar to Spanish students thanks to the presence of the media
nowadays (press, radio, television, the Internet) in terms of transmitting physical and mental
images. Hence it makes sense to examine the social and cultural background of English-
speaking countries.

Currently, educational authorities are bringing about relevant changes for the school reality with
the yearly international exchanges of British-Spanish language assistants in schools so as to
promote the learning of the English language with native speakers. Actually, they can make
students aware of certain sociocultural aspects of Britain and encourage them to use the British
media to get informed through new technologies, such as the Internet (through the Aula
Plumier), since we can acceed to press, radio and television on the web. Also, the integration of
Spain into the European Union makes relevant for students to become aware of social and
cultural features of other countries so as to be able to appreciate the main similarities and
differences with the Spanish one.

Also, this social and cultural dimension of the English language may be easily approached to
students by the increasing number of European programs (Comenius, Erasmus, school trips) and
technologies (the Internet, mobile phones, mail) which provide students with authentic material
in context so as to get acquainted with other ways of life around Europe and overseas. Actually,
among the stage objectives for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato students (stated respectively in RD
112 and RD 113/2002, 13 September) there is a clear reference to the fact of getting acquainted

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with other cultures so as to promote respect and, for our purposes, an attitude of critical
awareness of other language systems. Thus, E.S.O. objectives (9-13) make reference to:

Analyse the mechanisms and values that govern the functioning of societies, especially
those related to the rights and duties of citizens, adopting open and democratic attitudes
and judgements (objective 9).
Know, respect and value the traditions and the natural, historical and artistic patrimony
of the Region of Murcia, analysing its basic elements and contribute to its conservation
and improvement (objetive 10).
Know the traditions and cultural patrimony of other countries, value them critically, and
respect the cultural and linguistic diversity as a peoples and countries right (objetive
11).
Know the beliefs, attitudes and basic values of our tradition valuing them critically
(objective 12).
And establish relations with other people based on respect and integrate in a
participative way in group activities, developing attitudes of solidarity and tolerance and
reject any type of discrimination, overcoming prejudices with a critical, open and
democratic spirit (objective 13).

Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General Objectives (8, 9, 10), we find a closer
approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying that students are expected to accede
to the knowledge of the culture transmitted by the foreign language, developing respect towards
it and its speakers, to achieve a better understanding between countries (objective 8);
recognise the value of foreign languages as a means of communication between people
belonging to different cultures and as an enriching element for social and interpersonal
relations (objective 9); and use the foreign language as a means of communication with a
ludic and creative attitude and enjoy its use (objective 10).

On the other hand, Bachillerato students are expected to understand and know how to express
oneself fluently and correctly in the foreign language or languages being studied (objective 2);
to use the information and communication technologies to acquire types of knowledge and
transmit information, solve problems and facilitate interpersonal relations, valuing its use
critically (objective 7); and to show interest in integrating oneself fully in ones social and
natural environment and participate respectfully and with solidarity in its development and
improvement (objetive 8).

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Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General Objectives (2, 6, 7), we find a closer
approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying that students are expected to
understand and interpret oral texts critically, written texts, and visuals issued in habitual
communicative situations and by mass media, that is, stereotypes or emblems (objective 2);
know the sociocultural aspects of the target language as a means to improve communication in
the foreign language and for the critical knowledge of ones own culture (objective 6) and also,
to value the importance of the study of foreign languages as an element of understanding and
encouragement of respect and consideration towards other cultures (objective 7).

Actually, the success partly lies in the way this issue becomes real to the users since theory
about society and culture, stereotypes and emblems and songs, only becomes relevant when
students have the opportunity to experience it by their own in and out the classroom setting.
This is to be achieved within the framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular,
the Spanish Educational System which establishes a common reference framework for the
teaching of foreign languages where students are intended to broaden their personal, academic
and professional horizons beyond the frontiers of other European countries (grants, European
programmes, courses) and, for our purposes, in any of the English-speaking countries. Broadly
speaking, the final aim is for students to be aware of their current social reality through the
cultural issue in the English language.

6. CONCLUSION.

As we have seen, Unit 69 has provided a useful introduction to society and culture within the
scope of stereotypes and emblems of English-speaking countries by addressing the question of
English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence. So, Chapter 2 has provided a general
introduction to the concepts of society and culture in relation to the English language and has
established a link between the terms la nguage, society and culture. First, by redefining certain
concepts that may be misleading within this framework (Great Britain vs. the United Kingdom;
society vs. culture); secondly, by establishin the cultural and social connection to the English
language as a cultural and social means; third, listing a typology of issues to deal with when we
refer to society; and similarly, regarding culture; and finally, by discussingt common features
which were shared by different societies and cultures in the English-speaking countries in and
out of the United Kingdom at international level.

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Next, Chapter 3 has analysed the phenomenon of stereotypes and emblems in the main English-
speaking countries by providing a definition of both stereotypes and emblems; a typology of the
main stereotypes and emblems, and an analysis of the main stereotypes and emblems within the
different English-speaking countries. And finally, with this background in mind, Chapter 4 has
addressed the phenomenon of English songs as a vehicle of cultural influence by providing
definition and typology and then, stating the relevance of English songs as as a vehicle of
cultural influence through the media and through education.

So far, we have attempted to provide the reader with a general overview of the influence of
language, society and culture on ourselves through the scope of stereotypes and emblems in and
out the United Kingdom. This information is relevant for language learners, even 2nd year
Bachillerato students, who automatically detect stereotypes between different cultures and, in
other occasions, may not. So, learners need to have these associations brought to their attention
in socio-cultural aspects within cross-curricular settings (Spanish language, history, technology
format, presentation). As we have seen, understanding how stereotypes, language, society and
culture are reflected in our world today through songs is important to students, who are expected
to be aware of the richness of the English language, not only in English-speaking countries, but
also in worldwide terms.

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7. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
- B.O.E. 2002. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 112/2002, de 13 de septiembre. Currculo de la
Educacin Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.
- B.O.E. 2002. Consejera de Educacin y Cultura. Decreto N. 113/2002, de 13 de septiembre. Currculo de
Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.
- Bromhead, Peter. 1962. Life in Modern Britain. Longman.
- Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework
of reference.
- McLean, A. 1993. Profile UK. Heinemann, Oxford.
- Vaughan-Rees, M. 1995. In Britain. Richmond Publishing Editors.

Other sources include:

"British Empire." Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 2004. Encyclopdia Britannica Premium Service. 28 May 2004
<http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=383356>.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright 2003, Columbia University Press
www.wikipedia.org (2004)
www.bbc.co.uk (2004)

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