i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e7

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Short Communication

Thermal control influence on energy efficiency in

domestic refrigerator powered by photovoltaic

Maamar Ouali a,b,*, Med Ali Djebiret a, Randha Ouali c, Mehdi Mokrane a,
Nachida Kesbadji Merzouk a, Ahcene Bouabdallah b
a
Unit
e de D
eveloppement des Equipements Solaires, UDES, Centre de D
eveloppement des Energies Renouvelables,
EPST-CDER, Tipaza, Algeria
b
Laboratory of Thermodynamics and Energy Systems LTSE/USTHB, Algiers, Algeria
c
University of Saad Dahleb Blida 1, Blida, Algeria

article info abstract

Article history: This paper studies the importance of temperature control in household refrigerator on the
Received 27 February 2016 environmental and economic plan. Refrigerator energy consumption is greatly affected by
Received in revised form room temperature, door opening and thermostat regulation. A household refrigerator
11 June 2016 powered by photovoltaic energy was tested in laboratory to determine the effect of thermal
Accepted 14 June 2016 regulation on energy consumption. Our investigation reveals that there is a difference in
Available online xxx minimal average temperature between the thermostat and the evaporator for three
different thermostat positions. This difference in temperature was justified by three pa-
Keywords: rameters: the bad contact between the thermostat bulb and the surface of the evaporator,
Domestic refrigerator thermostat thermal inertia and the error due to the mechanical control of the thermostat.
Energy efficiency Finally, this work allows us an estimate of the energy saving by the kWh electricity price in
Thermal control the Middle East and North Africa region (MENA) Vs Europe region depending on the
Photovoltaic number of refrigerators. The energy optimization decreases the aggressive methods of
Techno-economic study electricity production. The Energy Efficiency and Solar Energy present an important
alternative on the three planes Energy, Economic and Environmental (3E).
2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC.

world-wide. With an average annual electricity consumption

Introduction
Improving energy efficiency is one of the most powerful in-
struments for protecting the environment [1]. Refrigerator is
one of the most common household appliances in the world.
1,4 billion domestic refrigerators and freezers are in use
of 450 kWh each, altogether they account for almost 14% of
the total electricity consumption from the residential sector
and cause worldwide annual greenhouse gas emissions of 450
million tons of CO2eq. The annual greenhouse gas emissions of
the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region and Europe

* Corresponding author. Unite
de De

veloppement des Equipements Solaires, UDES, Centre de De

veloppement des Energies Renouvel-
ables, EPST-CDER, Tipaza, Algeria.
E-mail addresses: ouali_maamar@yahoo.fr (M. Ouali), djebiret@gmail.com (M.A. Djebiret), bellatreche_randa@yahoo.fr (R. Ouali),
mok.mehdi@gmail.com (M. Mokrane), nkmerzouk@gmail.com (N.K. Merzouk), abouab2002@yahoo.fr (A. Bouabdallah).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.06.134
0360-3199/ 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC.

Please cite this article in press as: Ouali M, et al., Thermal control influence on energy efficiency in domestic refrigerator powered by
photovoltaic, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.06.134
2 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e7
are 9.2% and 19.4% respectively [2]. They contribute approxi-
mately 7.2% of the average U.S. household energy consump-
tion [3] and 30e40% in china [4]. A number of countries have
initiated energy labelling programs [5] and MEPS (Minimum
Energy Performance Standards) [6]. The share of class A and B
rated appliances in the European market increased from 10%
in early 90 to roughly 57% in 1999 [7]. The European Label for
household refrigerators and freezers was amended in 2003 by
introduction of two additional efficiency classes (A and
A), which indicate energy efficiency beyond class A [8].
There are a variety of options that can increase the energy
consumption of conventional refrigerators. This consumption
is greatly affected by room temperature, door opening and
thermal regulation. Refrigerators' energy consumption is
highly variable and sensitive to consumer behaviour and
conditions in private homes. Daily energy consumption of one
and the same appliance might vary between a few watt-hours
and 2000 Wh and even more dependent on the respective
operating conditions and appliances [9]. The use of advanced
technologies, such as improved insulation, efficient
compressor, and system optimization has led to energy sav-
ings of 25%, 33% and 42% respectively [10]. For Environmental,
Energetic and Economic (3E) considerations, the household
refrigerators have the possibility to be powered by renewable
energy such as the photovoltaic. If old inefficient models are
replaced by modern energy-efficient ones. The worldwide
annual electricity consumption by domestic cold appliances
could be reduced from 649 TWh to 475 TWh by 2020 and to
413 TWh by 2030. This is despite the expected 27% increase in
the number of cold appliances in use by 2020 and the 62%
increase by 2030 [2]. The objective of this study was to quantify
the economic and energy deficit caused by bad temperature
control in a conventional refrigerator and its technical-
economic influence on photovoltaic power system. This
work allows us an estimate of the energy saving by the kWh
electricity price in the Middle East and North Africa region
(MENA) Vs Europe [11].
The modification of domestic refrigerator evaporator and
the integration of phase change material (PCM) reduced the
energy consumption by 19.9% for the refrigerator compart-
ment and the overall energy by 5.6% after condenser fan
installation [14]. Gupta BL and al studied the influence of the
refrigerator insulation thickness on the optimisation of PV
installation. For 25 mm insulation thickness, the capacity
panel is 320 Wc and 200 Wc for 50 mm [15]. The integration of
PCM on solar vaccine mobile refrigerator can radiuses the
energy consumption for 44% compared with the configuration
without PCM and powered by alternative courant [16]. The
Energy Efficiency and Solar Energy present an important
alternative on the three planes Energy, Economic and Envi-
ronmental (3E). The novelty of this work is the optimization of
refrigerator electrical consummation, without brings great
changes on the apparatus. This optimization allows for ac-
commodating the refrigerator for PV systems.
The term refrigeration may be defined as the process of
removing heat from a substance under controlled conditions.
It also includes the process of reducing and maintaining the
temperature of a body below the general temperature of its
surroundings. Theoretically, a refrigerator is a reversed heat
engine or a heat pump which pumps heat from a cold body
Please cite this article in press as: Ouali M, et al., Thermal control influence on energy efficiency in domestic refrigerator powered by
photovoltaic, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.06.134
and delivers it to a hot body. Now-a-days, all purpose refrig-
eration used the vapour compression cycle. It used for all in-
dustrial purposes from a small domestic refrigerator to a big
air conditioning plant.
During the cycle, a substance called the refrigerant circu-
lates continuously through four stages. The first stage is called
Evaporation and it is here that the refrigerant cools the
enclosed space by absorbing heat. Next, during the
Compression stage, the pressure of the refrigerant is
increased, which raises the temperature above that of the
surroundings. As this hot refrigerant moves through the next
stage.
Condensation, the natural direction of heat flow allows the
release of energy into the surrounding air.
Finally, during the Expansion phase, the refrigerant tem-
perature is lowered by what is called the auto-refrigeration
effect. This cold refrigerant then begins the Evaporation
stage again, removing more heat from the enclosed space.
The photovoltaic solar system
Considering all the new ways to generate electrical power, the
use of solar energy for it has gradually presenting itself as an
important alternative, economically viable and environmen-
tally accepted, well suited for isolated areas, where costs for
installation of conventional systems are relatively high.
Photovoltaic systems are characterized by high reliability and
low maintenance, with its high initial cost often offset by low
operating cost. Through the photovoltaic effect, solar cells
contained in the panels convert the sunlight energy directly
into safe, non-polluting, renewable electrical power and still
requiring minimal maintenance. A typical system of photo-
voltaic solar energy consists of three basic elements: photo-
voltaic modules, charge controllers, and the batteries, when
necessary. The modules consist of the photovoltaic cells, i.e.,
the surfaces that generate electricity, which directly convert
solar energy into that one. These surfaces have no moving
parts that wear out or suffer breakdowns and work without
the use of fuel, without vibration, silently and without
harming the environment. But the charge controller is a de-
vice of fundamental importance to preserve the batteries,
increasing its useful life. Recently, in addition to solar photo-
voltaic systems coupled to batteries, also called autonomous
systems, other systems have been used to direct intercon-
nection to the public electrical power grid, such as occurs in
parallel with generating plants. Thus, the use of accumulator
systems (batteries) is exempted, with advantage in reducing
the investment cost of the system [12,13].
Experimental setup
Photovoltaic refrigeration system
The refrigerator used in our system is a domestic refrigerator
of a useful volume of 160 l. Its compressor average power is
100 W functions with R134a refrigerant. It introduced 0% of
CFC and belongs to the energy category C and the climate class
N Fig. 1. Its energy consumption per day is 0.88 kWh, or
321 kWh per year depending on the supplier.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e7 3

Fig. 1 e Vapor compression refrigerator.

The solar photovoltaic generator is composed of six mod-

ules polycrystalline of type IS75 W/12 V, connected in 2x series
3x parallel to a peak power total of 450 Wc and a voltage of 24 V
Fig. 2, connected to a charging regulator.
The regulation is insured by an electronic device (20 A/20 A)
which manages the photovoltaic system. It helps regulate the
transfer of energy between the subsystems. Refrigerators
functioned with current of the PV generator had a DC/AC
converter, coupled to a system of regulation and control for
better management of the storage system. It provides an
alternative voltage of 230 V/50 Hz.The inverter makes it
possible to feed an apparel of nominal output of 750 W. The Fig. 3 e Regulation and conversion DC/AC: (1) PV input, (2)
storage of energy PV, we uses four solar batteries with a ca- Regulator 20 A/20 A, (3) Inverter 750 W, (4) Output
pacity of 100 Ah flowing 12 V each, with a hybrid mount serial/ 220e230 V/50 Hz.
parallel offering 24 V at the output Fig. 3.

Instrumentations and acquisition system in our facility is quantified through an electromechanical

counter.
The measurement of temperatures was carried out by a The data acquisition was performed by a data logger
thermocouple. During our experiments were used K type (Hydra2700). The evolution of consumption displayed on the
thermocouples. The energy consumed by the refrigerator used computer acquisition was recorded using webcam. We

Fig. 2 e Photovoltaic generator.

Please cite this article in press as: Ouali M, et al., Thermal control influence on energy efficiency in domestic refrigerator powered by
photovoltaic, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.06.134
4 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e7

Fig. 4 e Measurement and instantaneous monitoring of consumption and temperature.

installed a monitoring system in order to monitor the instal- evaporator and the thermocouples intended to control the
lation activity Fig. 4. distribution of temperature in the interior of the refrigerator
Fig. 5.
Thermo mechanical characterization of the refrigerator

The choice of the location of the thermocouples is done on the

basis of the characterization of the thermo-mechanical
refrigerator, namely determination of the operation time of
the compressor, the properties of the thermostat and heat
transfer to the interior of the chamber.
A technical schematic representing the refrigerator in front
view allows you to locate with precision the positioning of the
Results and discussion
Characterization of the thermostat
The temperature control in our refrigerator is ensured by a
bulb thermostat. The action of the thermostat varies

Fig. 5 e Technical schematic of the refrigerator and the location of the thermocouples to the inside of the chamber chilled
(Front and lateral View).

Please cite this article in press as: Ouali M, et al., Thermal control influence on energy efficiency in domestic refrigerator powered by
photovoltaic, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.06.134
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e7 5

according to the internal temperature of the apparatus, when

the temperature in the refrigerator drops, the volume of gas
inside the bulb decreases, causing a direct action on the bel-
lows which slackens, while becoming deformed it acts on the
electrical contacts stopping the compressor. When the tem-
perature goes up, the opposite effect occurs and makes it
possible the compressor to set out again until obtaining the
desired temperature.
The real temperatures affecting the heat transfer are those
measured at the level of the evaporator. However, the control
of the start and the stop of the compressor are managed by the
temperatures measured at the level of the bulb of the ther-
mostat in contact with the evaporator. We are seeing a dif-
ference in minimal average temperatures between the
thermostat and the evaporator for the three thermostat po-
sitions. By contrast, there are no differences between the
maximal temperatures average Table 1. Fig. 6 e Difference between the temperatures measured on
This difference in temperature Fig. 6 is justified by three the evaporator and the thermostat (Empty refrigerator
parameters: Position1).

 The bad contact between the bulb and the surface of the
evaporator which is explained by the presence of air in
the mini-cavities. The air is a poor heat conductor; it
causes a decrease in the heat transfer at the level of this
junction.
 The response time and the thermal inertia of the thermo-
stat. These parameters are characterized by the thermal
diffusivity and the temperature gradient between the cold
source and the bulb. The thermal balance and the envi-
ronment in which we install the probe plays a key role with
respect to the response of the sensor chooses.
 The error due to the mechanical control of the thermostat.
This error is caused by the manipulations of the experi-
mental list. It is eliminated by installing a digital control.

In order to improve the temperature control in the

refrigerator, and the control of compressor operation it is
advisable to use a digital thermostat fitted with thermal Fig. 7 e Difference between the temperatures measured on
probe with a rapid response (thermocouple), and a low the evaporator and the thermostat (Empty refrigerator
thermal inertia. So we approach the maximum temperatures Position 1) in the first and second cycle.
of the evaporator. This procedure will allow saved it power
consumption by the refrigerator decrease by them the oper- Estimate of losses due to the regulating system
ating time of the compressor Fig. 6. In this case, we can
reduce approximately 8 min the operating time of the The operating time of the refrigerator per day according to the
compressor in the first cycle and 2 min in the periodic cycle thermostat temperature conditions is 7.11 h/day with an
that follows Fig. 7. average operating time cycle 4.5 min/cycle. The total number
of cycles is 91/day and the time of primary cycle is 17 min
Fig. 7. The energy consumption is 960 W/day. A Better thermal
control allows decreasing the refrigerator operating time at
Table 1 e Comparison between the average temperatures
of the evaporator and thermostat (empty refrigerator). 3.94 h/day and consumption at 532 W/day. An optimized
temperature control in the refrigerator offers us a gain of
Evaporator Thermostat
428 W/day. This control represents a decrease of 44.6% of the
Position P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P3 electricity consumption of refrigerator.

Tmin ( C) 21 21 24 16 18 20 The estimate of the losses generated by the control system
Tmax ( C) 3.7 5.5 7.5 3.7 5.6 7.7 is evaluated to 2 min per periodic cycle Fig. 7; in this case the
DT jTevpeTtherj number (empty refrigerator, position 1) of cycles is 91cycles
per 24 h Equation (1) represents the temporal loss per year
P1 P2 P3
(1107 h).
4.7 3 3.6
0 0.1 0.2 Time Loss=an time number of cycle 365 (1)

Please cite this article in press as: Ouali M, et al., Thermal control influence on energy efficiency in domestic refrigerator powered by
photovoltaic, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.06.134
6 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 6 ) 1 e7

Multiplying (1) by the average power of 135 W Compressor

Table 2 e Kwh pricing of electricity and the consumption
offered the deficit of annual consumption (2). It is estimated at
deficit.
150 kWh per year.
Country kWh price Consumption Deficit country
Deficit time number of cycle 360 P (2) (V) [11] deficit (V)/year million (V)/year
Egypt 0.031 4.65 139
The household electricity consumption in MENA region is
Bahrain 0.034 5.10 2.3
370 TWh and 934 TWh for Europe. The refrigeration and Algeria 0.037 5.55 72
freezing domestic electricity consumption, in each region Tunisia 0.085 12.75 48
MENA and Europe, present respectively, 60 TWh (9.2%) and Morocco 0.093 13.95 159
126 TWh (12.9%) for the household electricity consumption [2]. Denmark 0.278 41.70 125
Fig. 8. Germany 0.273 40.95 1638
Spain 0.206 30.90 711
Knowing that the price of electricity for one kWh is from
UK 0.175 26.25 840
approximately 0.037V in Algeria Table 2. The cost of this
France 0.145 21.75 718
deficit is regard in Algeria has approximately 5.55 V/year (For
an empty refrigerator 160 l). This loss doesn't reflect the real
price because the pricing of kWh is subsidized by the state. If
this deficit is associated to people number possessing a
refrigerator, the amount of electricity deficit relating a country
is counted by Million Euro per year. On average, one in two
people has a refrigerator in Europe versus one in three for the
MENA Region [2]. This statistic allows us to have the average
number of refrigerator by country. In Algeria the electricity
annual deficit is 72 million V/year.
A comparison of electricity deficit (TWh/year) between
MENA Region and Europe offered us a view about the impor-
tance of temperature control in refrigeration system on the
energetic and economic plan. The electricity deficit is esti-
mated at 20 TWh/year for MENA versus 50 TWh/year for
Europe Fig. 9.

Fig. 9 e Comparison of electricity deficit (TWh/year) MENA

Conclusion Vs Europe. (a) Electricity deficit, (b) Electricity consumption.

The study objective is to propose solutions to reduce the rate

Algeria's population was 39 million (2013). The average num-
of energy consumption of household refrigerators, participa-
ber of a domestic refrigerator is about 13 million. Without
tion in the energy rationalization and preserve the environ-
considering the others appliances of refrigeration and
ment by the reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The
freezing, Algeria can save about 72 million (V)/year.
estimated losses from the control system are evaluated to
The reduction of energy consummation allows a decrease
2 min per periodic cycle and 1107 h/year.
in the capacity of the PV generator and solar batteries. This
The energy deficits are equivalent to 150 kWh/year per
optimization reduces the cost of autonomous PV installations
refrigerator. According to the National Statistics Office (NSO),
and helps the generalization of renewable energies in the
domestic refrigeration sector. The economic gain can be used
to implement three PV central with 5 MW each. This invest-
ment can power 5000 households with electricity. In conclu-
sion, a policy of energy saving is required. This economy is
reflected by adapting our way of life, to live, move and work.

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Please cite this article in press as: Ouali M, et al., Thermal control influence on energy efficiency in domestic refrigerator powered by
photovoltaic, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.06.134