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Fig 9.1(a)
Equilibrium line
Fig 9.1(b)
Fig 9.1(c)
x
Horizontal spring oscillation
In Fig 9.1(a), when the mass is pulled, the spring is extended. As the mass is
displaced to the right, the restoring force of the spring acting on the mass is
directed to the left. Hence when it is released, the mass will move back to the left.
In Fig 9.1(b), when the mass is at the point x=0, the restoring force of the spring
=0, since F=kx. This point is called equilibrium point.
However, the mass continues its motion to the left after passing through the
equilibrium point because of its inertia.
In Fig 9.1(c), the spring is compressed as the mass continues its motion to the
left. The restoring force of the spring is now acting to the right.
From Fig 9.1(a) and (b), it shows that the directions of the restoring force, F is
always directed toward the equilibrium point.
The back-and-forth motion of the mass attached to the spring is called simple
harmonic motion.
1
Equations for SHM
By Hookes Law, the restoring force, F on the spring varies with the displacement
x as follow
The restoring force F is proportional directly to the displacement x. The negative sign
indicates that the force, F and the displacement, x always have opposite signs .
The mass, which is performing simple harmonic motion has an acceleration, a
given by
d 2x
a= 2
dt
Definition of SHM
2
Harmonic Vibrators with Small Oscillation
The objects which experienced the oscillating simple harmonic motions are also
called as Harmonic Vibrators With Small Oscillation. The examples are:
i) the crystal quartz in the watch,
ii) the current in an oscillating circuit,
iii) the vibration of the atoms in the molecules or solid and
iv) the simple pendulum.
In figure 9.2, when the particle, P moves from the point R along the circle with
radius A in the anti-clockwise direction, its shadow, Q is moving
simultaneously towards the equilibrium point O along the x-axis.
Figure 9.2
3
The displacement, x verses time t graph can be shown as in figure 9.3
x=Acost
Figure 9.3
d 2 x dv
a= = = -2A cos t
dt 2 dt
Substitute x=A cos t
Figure 9.4
Figure 9.4 shows the graph of acceleration versus displacement, x for the
equation 9.6.
The same graph can be obtained if the equation 9.1, is plotted with restoring
force F versus displacement, x.
F = - kx= - 2x a
The gradient of the graph= 2. Hence the angular velocity can be determined.
The x- intercept = xo= its amplitude of oscillation.
4
General solutions for a=- 2 x
d 2x
For the differential equation, = -2 x, it can be shown mathematically
dt 2
that the solutions are
x= A sin( t + ) (9.7.a)
or x=A cos( t + ) (9.7.b)
where is the angular phase.
5
Figure 9.5 (a), (b), (c) demonstrate how displacement, velocity and the acceleration
change with time. From the graphs it is observed that
i) When t=0, displacement, x=0, the maximum velocity vmax = 2 A and
acceleration, a=0.
ii) When t=T/4, displacement, x=A( maximum), the velocity v =0, and
acceleration, a= - 2 A, ( its negative maximum value).
iii) When t=T/2, displacement, x=0 , the velocity v =- A( its negative
maximum value) and acceleration, a =0.
- A
Fig. 9.6
6
Example 9.1
The equation of motion for a particle oscillating in simple harmonic motion is
given as : x= 5 sin 3t., where x is the displacement in cm.
a) what is its amplitude,
b) Find its period of oscillation,
c) what is its displacement at time t=0.2s
d) Find its maximum velocity,
e) Sketch the graph of displacement against time.
Solution:
a) The amplitude, A= 5 cm.
b) From the equation given, the angular velocity,
2p
=3=
T
Hence the period, T=(2p)/3=2.09s
180o
c) x= 5 sin 3(0.2)= 5 sin 0.6x
p
= 5sin 34.38o
= 2.82 cm.
e) Displacement, x
Example 9.2
The graph below shows the forces acting on a particle of mass, 2kg.
-20N
7
Solution:
a) The particle is following a simple harmonic motion. It is because the force is
proportion to its displacement.
b) The amplitude is 0.1m
c) From the equation F= -m2x
i) The slope of the graph= m2
2x 2 = 20/0.1
= 10 rads-1.
Kinetic energy:
For a simple pendulum which oscillates as a SHM, the kinetic energy, K for the
bob of mass m and its velocity v, is given by
K= mv2
Its velocity, v= A 2 - x 2
The value of K is maximum when x=0, i.e. when the bob of the pendulum is at
the equilibrium point of the SHM.
Hence the kinetic energy at the equilibrium point is
K = m2A2 (9.13)
The variation of K with x is shown in figure 9.7. P and Q are the intersection
points for the graphs K and U. At these points K = U.
8
Potential energy:
The potential energy of a mass suspended from a spring is equal to the amount
of potential energy stored by the spring which is extended by x.
E = m2A2 (9.14)
m2A2 = m[2(A2 x2 )] + U
Energy
Total Energy
E = K + U= m2A2
U = m2x2
K= m[2(A2 x2 )]
Figure 9.7
9
From equation 9.12, if x= A sin t, the kinetic energy,
K= m[2(A2 A2sin 2t )]
= m2A2(1 sin 2t )
= m2A2(1 cos 2t ) (9.16)
The variations of K and U with time, is shown in the figure 9.8 where T is
the period time for one oscillation.
The total energy, E is constant and it does not change with time, t.
E= m2A2
U= m2 sin 2t
K = m2cos 2t
t
Figure9.8
Example 9.3
A steel strip, clamped at one end, vibrates with a frequency of 20 Hz. On the free
end, a small object of mass 2g is attached. If the amplitude of the oscillation is
5mm,
find ( a ) the velocity of the object when it passes through the zero position,
( b ) the acceleration of the object at its maximum displacement,
( c ) the maximum kinetic and potential energy of the object.
Solution
The oscillation of the steel strip is a SHM, with y as the displacement.
( a ) The velocity , v,= A 2 - y 2 .
When the end of the strip passes through the zero position
y=0; and the maximum speed vm is given by
vm= A,
10
maximum K = mvm2 = x(2x10-3 ) x 0.6282 = 3.94 x10-4 J
Example 9.4
A helical spring with a particle of mass 200g suspended from its free end, is
extended by 2.00 cm. If the mass is oscillating in vertical plane,
a) Prove that the mass is in simple harmonic motion, and
b) Find i) the period of the motion.
ii) the frequency of its oscillation.
iii) the maximum velocity of the particle
iv) the maximum kinetic energy of the particle.
Solution:
a)
The downward force on the spring= the weight of the mass=mg
The restoring force of the spring=kx ,
where k is a constant of the spring in Nm-1.
Thus, mg =kx = k x (2.00x10-2)........(i)
If the mass is x m below its original position at some instant and is moving
downwards, then the extension=( x + 2.00x10-2 )m,
the net downward force =mg k( x + 0.02)
= mg kx0.02 kx = - kx
Using F=ma = - kx
k
The acceleration, a = - x
m
Compare with the equation of SHM, a= -2x , then the mass suspended from
the helical spring is oscillating with SHM.
b)(i)
k g
From equation (i), =
m 0.02
g g
Acceleration, a = x = - 2x, where 2= .
0.02 0.02
2p
Period T = = 0.02 / g = 4.52x10-2 s
1 1
(ii) Frequency, f= = = 22 Hz.
T 4.52 x10-2
11
( iv ) The maximum kinetic energy,
K= mv2 = (200x10-3)x(2.76)2
= 0.76J
Equilibrium Line
x
Figure 9.9 Motion of mass attached to the spring on smooth surface.
The figure 9.9 shows the motion of a mass attached to the spring on a smooth,
frictionless surface.
When the spring is stretched by amount x, from its equilibrium point, the
restoring force of the spring, F will act in the opposite direction .The same thing
happens when the spring is compressed.
The force, F which acted on the mass is proportional directly to the displacement,
x and always acting towards its equilibrium point.
The negative sign indicates that F is always in the opposite direction to the
displacement.
F = - kx = ma
k
Hence the acceleration, a.= - x (9.19)
m
12
Compare with the equation of SHM: a= -2 x
k
2=
m
k
The angular velocity, = (9.20)
m
m
The period, T= 2 (9.21)
k
Example 9.5
Solution:
Using Hookes Law: F= - kx and
the equation for SHM: F= -m2 x
m2 =k
k
=
m
= 3.56 Hz.
13
Figure 9.10 Simple Pendulum
In figure 9.10, the weight of the bob, mg can be resolved into two
perpendicular components.
The component tangential to the circular path =mg sin is the restoring force,
F, which acted on the bob to bring it back to its equilibrium position.
F = mg sin (9.22)
x
In NOP sin =
l
From Newtons second Law
x
F = ma = - mg sin = - mg
l
[The negative sign indicates F and x act in opposite directions]
x
Hence, the acceleration, a = - g (9.23)
l
l
and the period , T =2 (9.25)
g
Example 9.6
14
i) The value of g, the acceleration due to gravity,
ii) The period of oscillation if the experiment is done in the moon,
where its gravitational field strength is only 1/6 of that of the earth.
Solution:
i) The period, T=35.9/20=1.795s
l
Using T =2
g
l
T 2 = 4 2
g
l 80 x10-2
g= 4 2 ( 2 ) = 4p 2
T 1.7952
-2
= 9.80 ms .
l
ii) From T 2 = 4 2
g
T2 g = constant
(T2 g) moon = (T2 g) earth
T2 (1/6)g = (1.795)2 g
T= 4.40s
(c) Oscillation of liquid in a U tube.
Left Right
water
Liquid
Figure 9.11
By blowing air gently down the right arm, the liquid there will be lower then
the one on the left with a displacement, x. However, the liquid will
immediately return to the right arm.
The levels of the liquid in the tube will oscillate for a short time before finally
coming to rest. The motion is one example of SHM.
If the equilibrium level for the liquid in both arms of the tube is S. The heights
of the liquid in both arms are h.
When the liquid is displaced in the left arm of the tube, the excess pressure in
the left arm is given
15
P = 2x g where is the density of the liquid and g is the acceleration
due to gravity
Hence ma = 2x g A (9.26)
(2h A) a = -2x g A.
[The minus sign is used because the force and the displacement are always in
opposite direction.]
Hence
g
The acceleration, a = - x
h
g
2 x= x (9.27)
h
= ( g/h)
16
Figure .9.12
In the figure 9.12, a rod is suspended at the center of gravity by a wire NO. If
the rod is rotated by a small angle and then released, it will oscillate back and
forth about the equilibrium axis OP. This oscillating motion is an example of
SHM.
When the rod is rotated by a small angle , a restoring torque, will cause the
rod to return to its equilibrium position OP
where I and are the moment of inertia and the angular acceleration
respectively.
d 2
Hence = I
dt 2
d 2
Consequently, I =k
dt 2
d 2 k
and =- (9.30)
dt 2 I
17
d 2
= = -2
dt 2
I
and the Period, T =2 (9.32)
k
2p
since T =
Example 9.7
A circular disc is suspended with a steel wire with torque per unit radian, k=100
Nm rad-1. When it is displaced with a small angle, it oscillates 10 times in
22.5s, calculate the moment of inertia of the disc.
Solution:
I
Using: T =2 T= 22.5/10= 2.25s
k
I
T 2 = 4 2
k
kT 2 100 x(2.25) 2
I= = = 12.8 kgm2
4p 2 4p 2
9.4 Free oscillation
A free oscillation is an oscillation that is free of any external force while the
system is oscillating.
No energy is lost externally and so the total energy of the system is always
constant.
The total energy, E is given by
E= m2xo2 (1.33)
Displacement, x
Time, t
Figure 9.13
In figure 9.13, the graph displacement versus time shows that the amplitudes
are always constant because the total energy, E is a constant.
18
Every free oscillation system possesses its natural frequency, which is
determined by certain factors.
Free oscillation is one example of prefect SHM. Other examples are simple
pendulum, loaded spring, liquid in U tube and the torsion pendulum.
A damped oscillation occurs when there are external forces disturbing the
oscillation.
Part of the energy of the system is lost since work has to be done to overcome
these force. Therefore the amplitudes of the oscillation would not remain
constant but become progressively smaller. Thus a damped oscillation is not a
prefect SHM .
exponent
load
Water Figure 1.13
water
Figure 9.14
-x0
exponent
Figure 9.15
19
Figure 1.13 shows a damped oscillation. The amplitude is progressively
reduced with time, t.
From the equation, E= m2xo2 , we can deduce that the energy of the system
is also progressively decreasing and becomes zero finally .
If the damping is very strong, the system does not vibrate at all. It is called
over damped motion. Such system takes a long time to come back to its
equilibrium position.
If the mass suspended from the spring is submerged in a very viscous liquid,
such as lubrication oil, the mass will move upward very slowly and then stops.
Critical damping
All these motion are show in figure 9.16. Over damping
Under damping
20
Figure 9.16
9.6 Forced Oscillation and Resonance.
A B
bob
Z
Figure 9.17
In order to keep a system, which is damped, in continuous oscillatory motion
an external periodic forces must be used. Such an oscillation is called forced
oscillation.
The frequency of this force is called the forcing frequency. It is not the natural
frequency of the system.
The three pendulums, X, Y, and Z are initially stationary. The drive pendulum
is set in oscillation by a small displacement.
When the drive pendulum is oscillating, X, Y and Z will start to oscillate with
different amplitudes. However only pendulum Y is oscillating with the same
amplitude as the drive pendulum.
21
When the forcing frequency is same as that of the natural frequency of the
system, then resonance will take place as show in Figure 9.18.
Amplitude
Under damping
Over damping
Driver frequency
Resonance frequency
Figure 9.18
When the frequency of the drive pendulum is increased, the amplitude of the
forced pendulum also increased.
The amplitude of the forced pendulum becomes maximum, if the frequency of
the drive pendulum is the same as the natural frequency of the forced
pendulum.
Examples of Resonance
i) When a lorry passes by at a certain speed, the road seems to vibrate
because of resonance. In this case, the frequency of the lorry equals the
natural frequency of the road.
ii) An old bus seems to vibrate at a certain speed when its natural frequency
equals that of the engine. However, if the frequency of the engine is
changed by moving faster or slowly, the vibration will stop. Another way
to stop the vibration is to change the natural frequency of the bus by
reducing the number of passengers.
iii) A house built nearby the airport will vibrate when an airplane flying over
it. The frequency of the noise from the engine of the airplane equals the
natural frequency of the house.
iv) The wind blowing over the sea has a certain frequency. If this frequency is
same as the natural frequency of the bridge, the bridge will vibrate because
of resonance.
SUMMARY
SHM
i) If the force, F acting on an object is proportional to the displacement, x of
the object from its equilibrium point, the object is performing simple
harmonic motion.
This force must always act in a direction towards the equilibrium point of the
object.
22
F= - kx
Or
ii) An object is in simple harmonic motion when its acceleration, a, is directly
proportional to its displacement, x from its equilibrium point or a fixed point
and its direction of motion must always towards this point.
a= -kx .
Acceleration of SHM, a= -2 x
v= A 2 - x 2
Kinetic energy: K = m[ 2(A2 x2 )]
Potential energy: U= m 2 x2
Total energy : E= m 2A2
SHM Systems
System Period,T
Mass attached to a horizontal spring m
T= 2
k
Simple pendulum l
T =2
g
Liquid in a u tube l
T =2
g
Torsion pendulum I
T =2
k
Free oscillation
A free oscillation is an oscillation that is free of any external force while the
system is oscillating.
No energy is lost externally and so the total energy of the system is always
constant.
Damped Oscillation
A damped oscillation occurs when there are external forces disturbing the
oscillation.
Part of the energy of the system is lost to overcome these force. Therefore the
amplitudes of the oscillation become progressively smaller
Types of damped oscillations
23
i. under damped
ii. critically damped
iii. over damped
Forced oscillation: there are external periodic forces to keep the system in
continuous oscillatory motion.
Resonance takes place when the forcing frequency is same as that of the
natural frequency of the system. The amplitude of oscillation is maximum.
TUTORAIL 9
Objective Questions
A. 0.08 C. 0.35
B. 0.13 D. 0.47
4. Two masses P and Q are suspended with two wires separately. The moments of
inertia of both masses are the same. The masses are set into oscillations with
the same angular amplitudes. If the frequency of Q is twice that of P, what is
the ratio of the maximum kinetic energy of P to that of Q?
A. 1/16 C .
B. D. 2
F F F F
24
0 x 0 x 0 x 0 x
a(mms-2) 16 8 0 -8 -16
x(mm) -2 -1 0 1 2
7. The acceleration due to gravity on earth is six times that of the moon. If the
period of a simple pendulum on earth is 1s, what is the period for the same
pendulum on moon?
A.1/6s C. 6s
B 1/ 6 s D. 6 s
A. 1.41cm C. 2.50cm
B. 2.24cm D. 3.54cm
Structured Questions:
.
1. A particle is performing a simple harmonic motion according to the equation
given: y= 10 sin t, where, , is the angular velocity of the particle in rad s -1
and t is the time in second. If the period of the oscillation is 30s, find
25
a.
The amplitude,
b.
The maximum velocity of the particle,
c.
The maximum acceleration of the particle,
d.
The displacement, velocity and acceleration of the particle when t=
15s.
2. An object moving with simple harmonic motion has an amplitude of 2 cm and
a frequency of 20Hz. Calculate
a. the period of oscillation,
b. the acceleration at the middle and end of an oscillation,
c. the velocities at the corresponding instants in (ii).
y(cm)
4
a) Determine
i) the amplitude,
ii) the frequency,
iii) the period and
b) Write the displacement equation in the form of y=yo sin (t + )
7. A particle of mass 0.2kg is performing SHM with amplitude, 0.5m and period,
4s. Determine
a) velocity, b) kinetic energy c) potential energy
at a point + 0.2m from its equilibrium position.
26
8. A uniform wooden rod floats upright in water with a length of 30 cm
immersed. If the rod is depressed slightly and then released, prove that its
motion is simple harmonic and calculate the period.
U(joule)
1.0
Essay Questions:
b) Using the same axes, sketch a set of graphs to show the variations of
the amplitudes of an oscillating particle with the changes in the forced
frequency :
i. under damped oscillation
ii. critically damped oscillation, and
iii. overdamped oscillation.
27
c ) A point- mass is moving with simple harmonic motion. Draw sketch graphs
on the same axes to show the variation with position of
i) the potential energy,
ii) the kinetic energy ,and
iii) the total energy of the mass.
28