WaveNet Full Report

Results from
the work of
the European
Thematic
Network on
Wave Energy
Partners
Chalmers University
CRES
Ecole Centrale de Nantes
Edinburgh University
EMU Consult
ESB International
Future Energy Solutions
from AEA Technology
Hammarlund A. Konsult
Instituto Nacional de
Engenharia e Technologia
Industrial (INETI)
Instituto Superior Tecnico
Ponte di Archimede nello
Stretto di Messina SpA
Rambll
Teamwork Technology
University College Cork
ERK5-CT-1999-20001
2000 - 2003
WaveNet Executive summary
Executive summary
The WaveNet was set up as a European Commission Thematic Network to share
understanding and information on the development of ocean energy systems. This report
summarise many of the outputs of the network and is intended to serve as a useful
reference point for those interested in the status and development of the technology, the
challenges faced and the potential for the industry.
Eighteen organisations from nine countries took part in the network. These were
Chalmers University, Sweden
CRES, Greece
Ecole Centrale De Nantes, France
Edinburgh University, UK
EMU Consult, Denmark
ESB International, Ireland
Future Energy Solutions from AEA Technology, UK
Hammarlund A. Konsult, Sweden
Instituto Nacional de Engenharia e Technologia Industrial, Portugal
Instituto Superior Tecnico, Portugal
Ponte di Archimede nello Stretto di Messina SpA, Italy
Rambll, Denmark
Teamwork Technology, the Netherlands
University College Cork, Ireland
The network members worked on a range of work packages, which covered the following
topics
Social planning and environmental impact
Financing and economics
Generic technologies
Research and development
Cooperation with the power industry
There were other work packages too that involved coordinating the network and
promoting wave energy. These are not covered by this report. The sections described by
this report are briefly summarised below.
Generic technologies
Ocean energy devices are still mainly at the research and development stage. They face a
number of different challenges. This section describes the main device types and the
challenges faced by each. From these some generic approaches to R&D can be drawn.
Most wave energy devices will benefit from good control systems. Control systems that
use resonance or phase control are discussed along with their potential benefits and
challenges. Producing good quality electricity to the grid is of prime importance. The
implications that this has for plant design are discussed.
It is particularly challenging to predict the output of wave energy devices in given

situations. This report reviews the available techniques and comments on the state of the
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Executive summary WaveNet
art. Whilst more work needs to be done to understand these issues the work described
here comprises some important foundations.
The issues of monitoring and reporting on prototype systems are discussed in some detail.
The positioning and choice of sensors, the good monitoring and data collation are all
important issues and some clear guidance on sensible approaches are included.
The environment in which these devices will be deployed is a difficult one. This study
includes some methodologies for estimating wave loads and survivability criteria and
discusses some guidelines for the design of marine structures.
Ocean energy devices are capital-intensive projects. In order to be economic they must
operate reliably and at little cost for long periods of time. The issues associated with
maintaining plant are discussed with particular reference to the operation of some
prototype plants such as the Pico OWC plant in the Azores, the Japanese Mighty Whale
floating offshore device and the Dutch-designed Archimedes Wave Swing soon to be
deployed in Portugal.
To enable ocean energy systems to be designed and built in large numbers some
standardisation of the modelling and design methods may be required. This report
discusses some modelling approaches for estimating performance from the wave to the
wire, i.e. from the input energy source to the output electricity demand. Each of the steps
in the wave-to-wire model can be separated and dealt with in different ways.
Methods for modelling device-wave interactions at both large and small sizes are
discussed. Means for performing tank tests of different device shapes and operational
conditions are also described along with appropriate methods of scaling the results to full
device sizes. It is recognised that the implications of real sea conditions with irregular and
random waves on modelling results are important and these effects are also covered.
Research and development
Ocean energy systems are currently at an early stage of development. Most are still
undergoing significant R&D work. This section looks at the R&D requirements for three
different generations of devices. The first-generation devices are defined as the fixed
shoreline systems, several of which have been installed already. The second-generation
devices will be the floating or offshore devices. Fourth-generationa research looks at how
new materials, manufacturing systems and technologies can be applied to the problems of
ocean energy. A section is also included that looks specifically at tidal stream R&D
issues and also lists the activities currently completed or underway in Europe on ocean
energy technology development.
The first-generation R&D includes improving the efficiency and control of wave-to-air
systems, refining the design of the main structures for survivability, energy capture
enhancement and lower material cost.
a
fourth generation research is the term used by the information technology industry to describe
developments that rely on new materials and processes not yet already available
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WaveNet Executive summary
There are still many knowledge gaps for floating devices, these include knowledge of the
ways waves behave and how the resource is characterised as well as on the magnitude of
the loads caused by the marine environment.
The engineering challenges for floating devices include gaining a better understanding of
different types of power take-off systems and how these can be tailored to wave energy,
moorings and flexible electrical connections.
To be successful these new device types require skills from many different fields and so
good multidisciplinary teams are required to bring the development of these ideas
forward.
Looking further into the future there are many issues that could be progressed further
with the use of new materials, novel manufacturing techniques and so on. These include
efforts to improve tank-testing facilities, computer modelling techniques, electrical
conversion and storage, improved bearings and seals. These are considered to be fourth
generation research areas.
Included are a few examples of tidal stream devices currently being developed. These
face some similar challenges including understanding cavitation, corrosion, sealing and
wakes. A section on possible research for tidal stream technologies is included here.
Financing and economics
To compete with other forms of power generation ocean energy devices must be
produced at the right cost. This section discusses some estimates of costs for some
existing device studies. These show that some significant developments in wave energy
have taken place in recent years leading to reductions in costs. There is a clear potential
for wave energy to compete with other forms of generation providing that the R&D can
be successful and that there is a sufficiently strong market pull for the technology.
It is important to understand how finance is raised for projects and how potential
investors might view the technology. The capital asset pricing model is discussed and, by
comparison with some other appropriate industries, appropriate risk factors are chosen.
These then give an indication of the likely required rate of return for ocean energy
projects. These in turn can be used to estimate the likely cost of energy from projects
delivering these rates of return.
The environmental benefits discussed in the sections on environmental impact can be

attributed some economic value. The methods for doing this are discussed and some
values estimated to credit the benefits of this emerging technology.
It is clear that there are economic benefits to using ocean energy providing it can deliver
the rates of return required by investors whilst being competitive with other forms of
energy generation.
Social, planning and environmental impact
Some of the main drivers towards ocean energy are its environmental benefits. Ocean
energy devices produce little CO2 and have the potential to help meeting climate change
challenges by reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases. However, they are not without
their effects on the environment or society. This report looks at the challenges faced in
planning for the large-scale deployment of this technology.
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Executive summary WaveNet
The report considers the public acceptability of the technology with reference to relevant
legal frameworks. It discusses some of the approaches one might take in dealing with the
public, in ensuring that information is available in the public domain, that people are
engaged in the project and that the project is judged fairly on its merits. Some examples
of engaging the public on offshore wind farm developments are included and many
lessons for ocean energy can be learned from these.
The socio-economic benefits of ocean energy are discussed. The development of an

ocean energy industry will bring jobs, help diversify other industries and redeploy skills
from industries, such as shipbuilding, that are in decline. An example looking at the
prospects for Scotland is given to present an idea of the scale of the opportunity for a
particular region.
Ocean energy devices will need to fit in and around other existing and potential sea uses.
These can include ships, military training areas, existing sub-sea cables and pipelines,
fishing, recreation and archaeology among others. Understanding the nature of these
issues and their importance will be helpful to the widespread deployment of the
technology. This report shares some knowledge on these issues and how to tackle them.
In the European Union there are a range of proscribed planning laws. This report outlines
the main types and the legal principles on which they operate. It then discusses the issues
associated with planning for ocean energy with particular reference to environmental
impact assessment for individual schemes, the development of strategic environmental
assessments for regions that may prove suitable for the deployment of the new
technologies. Also covered are the international conventions and declarations for the
protection of species and habitats.
It is to be expected that ocean energy devices will have some environmental impacts. In
many cases these can be minimised and mitigated. The impacts include effects on
mammals, the seabed and local benthos, hydrography and on the coastal processes that
shape and characterise our shores. Other impacts include the airborne and underwater
noise and visual impacts; and these are outlined in the report. There is also the potential
for impacts due to accidents. Some discussion on how to ensure that accidents have
minimal long-term effects is included.
Of course the environment will have an impact on the energy devices too. The devices
can become fouled by debris and encrusted with sea creatures. They will be sensitive to
sea currents, wind and corrosion. These issues are of importance to the design and
operation of the devices and are discussed in this section too.
Ocean energy devices do bring environmental benefits, these are mainly in terms of the
avoidance of emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gasses generated by conventional
power stations. The methodology use in quantifying these benefits is described and some
estimates for the benefits of this technology included.
Cooperation with the power industry
Ocean energy devices will need to interact with existing power systems. The WaveNet
aimed to produce several draft standards for discussion. These will act as a starting point
for the development of standards for ocean energy systems. These standards include
power quality and grid connection, safety and power transmission.
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WaveNet Contents
Contents
A Introduction 1
A1 Social, planning and environmental impact 1
A2 Financing and economics 1
A3 Generic technologies 2
A4 Research and development 2
A5 Cooperation with the power industry 3
A6 Promotion of wave energy 3
A7 WaveNet output 3
A8 Contributors 5
B Generic technologies 7
B1 Introduction 7
B 1.1 Wave energy devices 7
B2 Wave energy plant control and power output prediction 12
B 2.1 Introduction 12
B 2.2 Plant control 12
B 2.3 Review of wave power plant control and output prediction 15
B 2.4 Prototypes control 21
B 2.5 References 28
B3 Plant monitoring and assessment of performance 31
B 3.2 Complete monitoring system 31
B 3.3 Prototypes monitoring 36
B 3.4 References 43
B4 Wave loads and survivability 44
B 4.2 Guidelines for maritime structure design 45
B 4.3 Database of survivability aspects of specific devices 50
B 4.4 Links and references related to survivability of wave energy
devices 94
B 4.5 Literature references 95
B5 Maintenance and reliability 99
B 5.2 Shoreline OWCs 99
B 5.3 Offshore systems 102
B 5.4 Marine current systems 104
B 5.5 References 105
B6 Modelling and standardised design methods 106
B 6.2 Device classification 108
B 6.3 Complementary modelling approaches 109
B 6.4 Wave-device interaction modelling 111
B 6.5 Physical modelling: wave tank experiments 114
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Contents WaveNet
B 6.6 Power Take Off (PTO) modelling 125

B 6.7 References 127
C Research and development 129

C1 Introduction 129
C 1.1 Task titles 129
C2 Review of Ocean Energy projects within the European Union 130
C 2.1 Introduction 130
C 2.2 EU activity in Ocean Energy R&D 131
C3 R&D Requirements for fixed devices 141
C 3.2 TAPCHAN 141
C 3.3 The Oscillating Water Column 143
C 3.4 Probabilistic modelling of OWC performance 153
C 3.5 Research requirements for fixed devices 172
C4 R&D requirements for floating wave energy devices 175
C 4.2 Definitions 176
C 4.3 Location 178
C 4.4 Buoyant WECs 179
C 4.5 Knowledge gaps 182
C 4.6 Engineering considerations 187
C 4.7 General requirements 192
C 4.8 Floating WECdevice review 193
C5 Research requirements for fourth-generation wave energy
devices 194
C 5.1 Primary and secondary objectives 194
C 5.2 Survival 194
C 5.3 Achieving reliability of components 200
C 5.4 Cost reduction 203
C 5.5 Computer simulation 205
C 5.6 Tank testing versus full-scale trials 206
C 5.7 A reciprocating-flow wind tunnel 210
C 5.8 High-pressure oil research 213
C 5.9 Direct electrical generation 215
C 5.10 Storage and the grid interface. 216
C 5.11 Reverse power flow in slender grids 216
C 5.12 Compression leg moorings 218
C 5.13 Bearings 218
C 5.14 Sealing 220
C 5.15 Seawater pumps and filters 221
C 5.16 Materials research 222
C 5.17 Conclusions 223
C 5.18 Summary of proposed research items 223
C6 Tidal stream devices 225
C 6.1 Tidal stream pilot plants 225
C 6.2 Tidal stream pilot plant at the Straits of Messina 227
C 6.3 Research requirements for tidal stream energy 244
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WaveNet Contents
C7 Research strategy and action plan 263

C 7.1 Research requirements and barriers to development 263
C 7.2 Strategy for development 265
C 7.3 Action plan 267
D Financing and economics 269

D1 Financing of wave energy projects 269
D 1.1 Introduction 269
D 1.2 Risk and return 269
D 1.3 Risk in the capital markets 270
D 1.4 The capital asset pricing model 273
D 1.5 RRR on a wave power project 276
D 1.6 RRR and discount rate 277
D2 Economics of wave energy 278
D 2.1 Introduction 278
D 2.2 Potential market for wave energy 278
D 2.3 Economics of wave energy devices 278
D 2.4 The market for wave energy 289
D 2.5 Market status of wave energy 292
D 2.6 Environmental economics 296
E Social, planning and environmental impact 305

E1 Public acceptability 305
E 1.1 Introduction 305
E 1.2 Background 305
E 1.3 Experiences from wind energy 310
E 1.4 Wave energy 316
E 1.5 General conclusions 316
E2 Socio-economic benefits of wave energy 318
E 2.2 Background 318
E 2.3 Background to the opportunities in Scotland 319
E 2.4 Job opportunities in Scotlands home market 319
E 2.5 Employment multipliers 323
E 2.6 Comparison with wind energy 324
E 2.7 Technology competitiveness 325
E 2.8 Diversification of rural economies 326
E 2.9 Conclusions 326
E3 Conflicts of interest 327
E 3.2 Barriers arising from competing uses 327
E 3.3 Areas with restricted or prohibited access 328
E 3.4 Areas with conflicting uses 331
E 3.5 Conflicts of interestgeneral conclusions 333
E 3.6 General references 334
E4 Planning 336
E 4.2 International and EU policies, rules and regulations 338
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Contents WaveNet
E 4.3 National rules and regulations 341

E 4.4 Conclusions and recommendations 350
E5 Environmental impact 351
E 5.2 Environmental impact 352
E 5.3 Impacts from environment on wave energy converters 367
E 5.4 Environmental benefits of wave energy 369
E 5.5 General conclusions 372
E 5.6 General references 374
F Cooperation with the power industry 378

F1 Draft standard for power quality of grid connection 378
F 1.1 Summary 378
F 1.2 Planning 383
F 1.3 Connection conditions 389
F 1.4 Operations 401
F 1.5 Data registration 407
F2 Development of a safety standard for wave power
conversion systems 418
F 2.1 Introduction 418
F 2.2 General safety and risk assessment 420
F 2.3 Site development and planning 422
F 2.4 Design, assembly, manufacture and specification 425
F3 Power transmission from wave power plants 455
F 3.1 Summary 455
F 3.2 Procedures and facilities for power transmission 455
F 3.3 Existing standards for underwater cabling 460
F 3.4 Cost analysis 469
F 3.5 Permissions and safety precautions required 470
F 3.6 Ranking of key issues from questionnaire 472
F 3.7 General conclusions 475
F 3.8 General recommendations 476
G References 477
G1 Appendices 477
G2 References 478
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WaveNet Figures
Figures
Figure B-1 Oscillating water column device ..........................................................8
Figure B-2 Pendulor ..............................................................................................8
Figure B-3 Wave dragon .......................................................................................9
Figure B-4 Pelamis................................................................................................9
Figure B-5 Archimedes Wave Swing...................................................................10
Figure B-6 Seaflow..............................................................................................11
Figure B-7 ENERMAR ........................................................................................11
Figure B-8 LIMPET instrumentation coverage (Boake et al. 2001) .....................37
Figure B-9 Sketch of wave to wire modelling ....................................................110
Figure B-10 Area of dominance of inertia, diffraction and viscous forces in
wave/body interaction ......................................................................113
Figure B-11 Steady drag coefficient for smooth circular cylinder ......................117
Figure B-12 Large amplitude heave motion of a submerged sphere.
A/R=0.5, Z0/R=2. Amplitude of the radiated wave field on
harmonic n reduced by wave amplitude of the fundamental. ...........124
Figure B-13 Large amplitude heave motion of a submerged sphere.
A/R=0.5, Z0/R=2. Energy radiated on higher harmonics reduced
by the total radiated energy..............................................................124
Figure B-14 Grid integration model ...................................................................126
Figure C-1 Porto Cacorro O.W.C., Azores ........................................................133
Figure C-2 OSPREY at float out from John Brown yard, Glasgow, Scotland....134
Figure C-3 Variable Pitch Wells Turbine ..........................................................137
Figure C-4 LIMPET plenum chamber structure.................................................138
Figure C-5139
Figure C-6 The quarter-scale Wave Dragon prior to launching (Feb 2003) ......140
Figure C-7 Schematic view of the tapered channel wave energy device
(TAPCHAN)......................................................................................142
Figure C-8 The TAPCHAN at Toftestallen, Norway December 1986 .............142
Figure C-9 Longitudinal section of an OWC (Pico plant)...................................143
Figure C-10 Top view of OWC with a parabolic collector (Energetech) ............144
Figure C-11 Rear view of the OWC plant on the Island of Pico, Azores ...........146
Figure C-12 Rear view of LIMPET II OWC plant, on the island of Islay,
Scotland ...........................................................................................147
Figure C-13 OWC structure integrated into a breakwater, in Sakata, Japan.....147
Figure C-14 Caisson-type OWC, in Trivandrum, India ......................................148
Figure C-15 Monoplane Wells turbine without guide vanes ..............................148
Figure C-16 400 kW Wells turbine with guide vanes (on the right hand side),
and electrical generator (Pico plant).................................................149
Figure C-17 Wells turbine efficiency versus dimensionless pressure head:
( ) without (solid line) and with valve system (short-dashed
line); ( ) without (long-dashed line) and with controlled valve
(chain line)........................................................................................150
Figure C-18 Impulse turbine with self-pitch-controlled guide vanes ..................151
Figure C-19 Dimensionless plot of Wells turbine power output versus
pressure head: ( ) (solid line), ( ) without (dashed line)
and with valve-controlled flow (chain line) ........................................158
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Figures WaveNet
Figure C-20 Dimensionless plot of flow rate through the Wells turbine
versus pressure head : comparison between experimental
points and the linear relationship = 0.375 ..................................159
Figure C-21 Two-sided annual spectral density (per unit radian frequency
bandwidth), S ,ann ( ) , for the wave climate at the plant site ...........163
Figure C-22 Schematic representation of the oscillating water column.............164
Figure C-23 Chamber pressure standard deviation p versus
KX = KD( a N ) 1 , for the annual wave spectral density S ,ann ........165
Figure C-24 Annual-averaged hydrodynamic efficiency h versus KX ...........165
Figure C-25 (a) Annual-averaged plant efficiency ann (no valve) versus
turbine rotor diameter D and rotational speed N (only positive
values of ann are represented). (b) Gain in efficiency, ann ,
achieved with a control valve system ...............................................167
Figure C-26 (a) Maximum annual plant efficiency versus turbine rotor
diameter: non-controllable rotational speed without (solid line)
and with control valve (long-dashed line); controlled rotational
speed without (chain line) and with control valve (short-dashed
line). (b) Optimal rotational speed versus turbine rotor diameter,
without (solid line) and with control valve (dashed line) ...................168
Figure C-27 (a) Logarithmic-linear plot of maximum annual plant efficiency
versus turbine rotor diameter, in different wave climates (from left
to right) Eann = 10, 15, 20, 30, 40 kW/m; non-controllable
rotational speed and no control valve. (b) Optimal rotational
speed versus turbine rotor diameter for the same set of wave
climates (in the same order from left to right) ...................................170
Figure C-28 Danish Point Absorber ..................................................................177
Figure C-29 Example electronic wave database...............................................178
Figure C-30 Ocean basin ..................................................................................183
Figure C-31 Spectral profile ..............................................................................183
Figure C-32 Offshore buoy (K3~UK).................................................................184
Figure C-33 Nearshore buoy (M1~Ireland) .......................................................184
Figure C-34 Wave profile time history...............................................................185
Figure C-35 Wave energy variability .................................................................185
Figure C-36 Location of the K2 and Pemb. buoys ............................................186
Figure C-37 Time-series wave height measurements from the K2 and
Pemb. buoys showing a time lag between the two...........................186
Figure C-38 A breaking wave............................................................................187
Figure C-39 An air turbine for installation on an oscillating water column .........189
Figure C-40 Root mean square and peak surge forces against wave
amplitude measured by Glen Keller for a range of periods. There
are no dangerous increases at higher levels....................................196
Figure C-41 A sequence of photographs by Jamie Taylor from the 1978
Edinburgh report showing a freak wave hitting a narrow tank
duck. Intervals are 1 second full scale. ............................................198
Figure C-42 Superimposed forces records for various positions round the
nominal break point. Note the strong downward and seaward
effect and the lack of coincidence between extreme wave crest
and extreme force ............................................................................199
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WaveNet Figures
Figure C-43 A ladder raft for testing components and sub assemblies .............202
Figure C-44 Computer predictions by Gregory Payne of contours of
efficiency for a 300 mm buoy on a fixed guide as a function of
slope and wave period. The point absorber effect is evident............206
Figure C-45 Views of a 360-degree tank with complex combinations of
wave and current patterns from any direction ..................................209
Figure C-46 The reciprocating flow wind tunnel can test all the mechanics
and electronics for low-pressure air power take off and
recirculate all the energy produced by the turbine............................212
Figure C-47 A multi-eccentric poppet valve machine driving the turbine test
tunnel ...............................................................................................213
Figure C-48 The booster transformer allows power to be fed from the coast
to the centre without exceeding voltage margins on either side of
the transformers ...............................................................................217
Figure C-49 A section through the magnetic squeeze film bearing
developed by Colin Anderson. Using the full area between duck
and spine keeps the pressures very low ..........................................220
Figure C-50 Marine Current Turbines Artists Impression .................................225
Figure C-51 STINGRAY Test Unit 2002..........................................................226
Figure C-52 Hammerfest Strom Device Concept ..............................................226
Figure C-53 ENERMAR plant location ..............................................................231
Figure C-54 Particular location of the ENERMAR site ......................................232
Figure C-55 General arrangement of installation ..............................................233
Figure C-56 First small model of turbine (Panemone type) for tests in water
tank of Dept. of Naval Architecture of University of Naples..............234
Figure C-57 Model of Kobold turbine installed in the wind-tunnel belonging
to Dipartimento di Progettazione Aeronautica of University of
Naples (3 blades, left; 6 blades, right)..............................................234
Figure C-58 Installation of the turbine in the wind tunnel of Dipartimento di
Progettazione Aeronautica University of Naples ...........................235
Figure C-59 Details of the blade tip with counterweight. Arrangements to
optimise blade pitch angle................................................................235
Figure C-60 Original Kobold turbine (blade articulation 0-90). Gross rotor
power for different blade number configuration (wind-tunnel tests)..235
Figure C-61 Kobold turbine optimization. ..........................................................236
Figure C-62 Kobold turbine prototype particular of attachment system
(with blade mass balance) between blade and arm .........................236
Figure C-63 3D CAD model. Blade, attachment system and mass balance .....237
Figure C-64 Structural analysis of blade ...........................................................237
Figure C-65 Carbon-fibre blades in construction...............................................238
Figure C-66 Blade with arm and steel attachment system ................................239
Figure C-67 Scheme of turbine rotor and electrical generator ..........................240
Figure C-68 Total assembly scheme.................................................................240
Figure C-69 Mechanical overdrive and electrical equipment.............................241
Figure C-70 Turbine rotor on dock ....................................................................241
Figure C-71 Turbine PrototypeNumerical predicted rotor power curves at
different sea current speed...............................................................242
Figure C-72 The KOBOLD unit installed in Messina Strait................................242
Figure C-73 Electrical power produced as coming from measurements
versus current speed........................................................................243
xi
Figures WaveNet
Figure C-74 Kobold turbine producing electrical power (20 kW) .......................243
Figure C-75 The velocity-texture measuring frame is left to drift freely along
a tidal channel with position recorded from GPS receivers at
each end of the upper side. Local deviations from the mean are
recorded from sensors along the side. .............................................249
Figure C-76 The post tensioned sea-bed attachment described for the EC
Patras conference has compressive stresses in the rock and
constant tensions in the vertical wires..............................................253
Figure C-77 A machine tool for grinding the quad ring cams needed for
power conversion in large, vertical-axis tidal rotors. The
Peaucellier linkage constrains the work piece to move along an
arc of very large radius while the slightly non-parallel
parallelogram makes all radial lines meet at the correct point
along the rotor axis...........................................................................256
Figure C-78 A hydrostatic bearing allows 2 degrees of misalignment for the
variable pitch blades ........................................................................258
Figure C-79 The actuator mechanism for moment control and blade
feathering .........................................................................................261
Figure C-80 An artists impression of the vertical-axis tidal-stream generator
proposed by Stephen Salter of Edinburgh University, Scotland. A
50-metre rotor would generate 12 MW in a tidal stream velocity
of 4 metres per second and would weigh 600 tonnes ......................262
Figure D-1 Capital Cost Breakdown for OWCs .................................................283
Figure D-2 Comparison of Capital Cost per Unit Output and Rating for
OWCs...............................................................................................283
Figure D-3 Range of Likely Generating Costs for OWCs (@8 % Discount
Rate) ................................................................................................284
Figure D-4 Capital cost breakdown for Point Absorbers ...................................285
Figure D-5 Comparison of cost per unit output and rating for Point
Absorbers.........................................................................................285
Figure D-6 Range of Likely Generating Costs for Point Absorbers (@8 %
Discount Rate) .................................................................................286
Figure D-7 Improvement in Wave Energy Devices ...........................................287
Figure D-8 Development of Generating Costs for OWCs (@8 % Discount
Rate) ................................................................................................287
Figure D-9 Development of Generating Costs for Offshore Devices (@8 %
Discount Rate) .................................................................................288
Figure D-10 Approximate Distribution of Wave Power Levels...........................289
Figure D-11 Effect of Offshore Wave Power Level on Shoreline/Nearshore
Economic Resource .........................................................................291
Market ..............................................................................................291
Figure D-13 Effect of Offshore Wave Power Level on Offshore Economic
Resource..........................................................................................292
Figure D-14 Effect of Offshore Wave Power Level on Offshore Market ............292
Figure D-15 Comparison of Life Cycle Emissions of CO2 .................................302
Figure D-16 Comparison of life cycle emissions of SO2 ....................................303
Figure D-17 Comparison of life cycle emissions of NOX ...................................303
Figure D-18 Indicative external costs for shoreline OWC devices ....................304
Figure D-19 Indicative external costs for offshore wave energy devices...........304
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WaveNet Figures
Figure E-1 Development in ownership of wind farms in Denmark MW

installed power each year.................................................................312
Figure E-2 Assumed profile of contribution to Scottish electricity supply from
marine energy ..................................................................................321
Figure E-3 Estimated jobs created for a given proportion of electricity
demand in Scotland supplied from marine energy (figures in
parenthesis show proportion of UK electricity demand) ...................322
Figure E-4 Estimated jobs in wind energy 1983-2001 based on 10 jobs per
MW in 1983 reducing linearly to 4.5 jobs per MW by 2001 ..............325
Figure E-5 Comparison of Life Cycle Emissions of CO2 ...................................370
Figure E-6 Comparison of Life Cycle Emissions of SO2 ....................................371
Figure E-7 Comparison of Life Cycle Emissions of NOX ...................................371
Figure F-1 Grid code and distribution code boundaries ....................................383
xiii
Tables WaveNet
Tables
Table A-1 WaveNet work packages......................................................................4
Table A-2 WaveNet contributors ...........................................................................5
Table B-1 Data-logging systems .........................................................................34
Table B-2 Telecommunication system characteristics ........................................35
Table B-3 Device types .......................................................................................50
Table B-4 Maintenance on the LIMPET ............................................................100
Table B-5 Maintenance on the Pico Plant .........................................................101
Table B-6 Mighty Whale floating body and mooring system checks .................103
Table B-7 Mighty Whale air turbines and generators checks ............................103
Table B-8 Definitions and dimensionless quantities..........................................112
Table B-9 Froude scaling ratios ........................................................................116
Table B-10 Hydrodynamic models ....................................................................123
Table C-1 Set of nine sea states characterizing the wave climate at the
plant site. Last two rows: annual average power output (no
control valve) and optimal rotational speed for turbine rotor
diameter D = 3.17 m (first line) and D = 2.3 m (second line);
repeated figures for N op indicate that the Mach-number-imposed
limit ND = 380 m/s was reached ......................................................162
Table C-2 ENERMAR plant dimensions............................................................230
Table D-1 Equity of selected UK companies..................................................272
Table D-2 Market risk and total risk of selected UK companies ........................273
Table D-3 Values for Industries in Energy, Materials and Engineering
Sectors .............................................................................................275
Table D-4 Equity of the main UK industrial groupings....................................276
Table D-5 Representative Cost and Performance Estimates for Wave
Power Devices .................................................................................279
Table D-6 Summary of OWC characteristics in representative locations..........284
Table D-7 Summary of offshore device characteristics in representative
locations. ..........................................................................................286
Table D-8 Main SMEs and Governmental Establishments Active in
Deploying Wave Energy in Europe ..................................................294
Table D-9 Main Non-European Companies Active in Deploying Wave
Energy Devices ................................................................................295
Table D-10 Indicative estimates of external costs for fossil-fuel cycles.............297
Table D-11 Possible environmental impacts of near-shore wave energy
devices.............................................................................................298
Table E-1 Employment multipliers for wave energy comparable industries in
Scotland (Scottish Executive, 1998).................................................324
Table E-2 National Planning Rules and Regulations.........................................343
Table E-3, Overview of basic characteristics of offshore wind policies in
selected countries (August 2002, source ) .......................................349
Table E-4 Life-Cycle Emissions from Offshore Renewables.............................367
Table E-5 Avoided emissions from wind power plant........................................370
Table F-1 Nominal distribution voltages............................................................385
Table F-2 Operating voltage range ...................................................................385
Table F-3 Earthing ............................................................................................386
Table F-4 Short circuit ratings ...........................................................................393
xiv
WaveNet Tables
Table F-5 Insulation levels ................................................................................394

Table F-6 Voltage flicker limits ..........................................................................394
Table F-7 Harmonic voltage distortion % ..........................................................395
Table F-8 Total harmonic distortion % ..............................................................396
Table F-9 THVD limits.......................................................................................400
Table F-10 Schedule 1(a) Generating unit data (for all embedded
generators).......................................................................................408
Table F-11 Schedule 1(b) Additional Generating Unit Data 1 (for embedded
generators with Parallel operation) (See also Appendix 9)...............410
Table F-12 Schedule 1(c) Additional Generating Unit Data 2 (For embedded
generators greater than 2 MW in capacity) (See also Appendix 9) ..412
Table F-13 Schedule 2 Demand Forecasts(Generating Units >2 MW not
subject to central dispatch)...............................................................412
Table F-14 Schedule 3 Operational Planning Scheduled Outages .................413
Table F-15 Schedule 4 System Design Information-Embedded Generators.....415
Table F-16 Schedule 5 Load Characteristics for Embedded Generators..........417
Table F-17 Load coefficients and their combinations in the Ultimate Limit
State, ULS, according to DnVs tentative rules for fish farms ...........428
Table F-18 Evolution of Major Submarine Cables (1) (11) ................................459
Table F-19 Relevant IEC Standards .................................................................462
Table F-20 Cable classifications .......................................................................462
Table F-21 Typical Medium Voltage Flexible Industrial Cable Characteristics..468
Table F-22 Cable costs as a function of distance to shore................................470
Table F-23 Issues noted as critical....................................................................473
Table F-24 Issues noted as important...............................................................474
xv
Tables WaveNet
xvi
WaveNet A Introduction
A Introduction
Research and development of wave energy is underway in many EU countries,

including1: Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, the Netherlands,
Sweden and the UK. Several countries have a National Programme and work in this area
is being increasingly funded by industry. As a consequence, there are now several devices
at the demonstration stage, including Oscillating Water Columns, bottom-mounted and
floating devices supported by the EC.
However, much of this work was previously going on in isolation; the ECs European
Wave Energy Conferences are a rare opportunity for exchange of ideas and experience.
Therefore, there was a need to build on the existing R&D activities by forming a
Thematic Network (called WaveNet) for fostering such an exchange.
The WaveNet on wave energy is intended to foster an exchange of ideas and experience.
WaveNet includes members from nearly all countries with wave energy activities. Its aim
will be to promote the development and deployment of wave energy schemes by
addressing the main barriers to their implementation, as outlined below.
A1 SOCIAL, PLANNING AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
The introduction of any new or existing technology can cause significant environmental
impacts, resulting in public objections and delays or reductions in deployment. The
WaveNet aimed to ensure that such effects are minimised for wave energy by identifying
the planning and legal barriers and the social benefit, energy and environmental impact
from the development of the wave energy schemes. Little evaluation of these aspects has
yet been undertaken, so carrying this out on a Europe-wide basis is an innovative
undertaking.
The objectives were

To identify the planning, legal and commercial barriers and the social benefit,
energy and environmental impact from the expected development of wave energy
schemes.
To create recommendation for their development.
A2 FINANCING AND ECONOMICS
Despite the reduction in generating costs over recent years, electricity from wave energy
schemes is still more expensive that that from fossil fuel plants. There has been little or
no exchange of information on the costs of various aspects of wave energy technologies
and ways of reducing these costs. Therefore, WaveNet will take the innovative step of
promoting the exchange of information. This will help wave energy to overcome this
financial barrier by evaluating the financing, economic and monetary issues involved for
1
A Introduction WaveNet
wave energy schemes in various countries. This will include identifying suitable support
mechanisms and ways in which costs can be reduced. The objectives are to evaluate the
financing, economics and monetary issues for developing wave energy schemes.
A3 GENERIC TECHNOLOGIES
There are a number of areas common to the development, for instance

Plant control and power output prediction.
Plant monitoring and assessment of performance.
Loads and survivability.
Maintenance and reliability.
Modelling and Standardised Design Methods.
Working groups will be established to address these areas and to promote the transfer of
technology and know-how from other spheres (e.g. the offshore oil and gas industry).
Therefore, the main objectives are

To co-ordinate activities on generic technology issues concerning the utilisation
of wave and tidal/current energies, so as to facilitate the exchange of experience
and the transfer of knowledge.
To promote the knowledge and technology transfer from the offshore industry and
coastal engineering.
To promote studies on these issues.
The main quantifiable objectives will be production of guidance on standardised design
methods, as well as reports from all the working groups.
A4 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Wave energy devices are at various stages of development, ranging from demonstration
to requiring significant R&D. There is considerable work already underway on all these
aspects in many countries. However, from a European perspective, this work is often
fragmented and conducted in isolation. The WaveNet has taken the innovative step of
promoting the exchange of information on R&D activities and helping to co-ordinate
R&D (e.g. common themes and areas of research), as well as identifying the most
promising technologies.
The objectives are

To identify the current status of wave and tidal energy device development.
To determine the technical barriers to the commercial development of these
devices at different time scales.
To develop a Strategy for Development and an Action Plan.
2
A5 COOPERATION WITH THE POWER INDUSTRY
There are high standards required of would-be generators, which wave energy devices
will have to attain. The objective will be to induce a long-term co-operation with the
power industry (e.g. electricity utilities, wind power industry), in order to involve the
utilities and to learn from the experience of the wind power industry. This interaction
with utilities and the technology- and know-how transfer from wind energy technologies
is an important aspect of the innovation of this Task.
The quantifiable objectives of the WaveNet is to produce

Draft of a Power Quality of Grid-connected Wave Power Plants standard,
Technical recommendations on wave power plants local grid characteristics.
Recommendations on the use, selection and design of Energy Storage Units.
Draft of a Wave Energy Conversion System safety standard.
Guideline report for the power transmission of Wave Power Plants
A6 PROMOTION OF WAVE ENERGY
In comparison to many other renewables, wave energy is all too often seen to be of minor
importance, leading to problems in obtaining support from a range of people (e.g. the
general public, planner, potential investors, politicians). If wave energy is to assume its
proper place alongside other important renewable energy source, the profile and general
understanding of wave energy by these target audiences need to be raised. The WaveNet
has taken the innovative step to provide a number of means by which this will be done, to
the benefit not only of participants but also those developers outside the WaveNet.
Therefore, the main objective will be to promote wave energy as a renewable source of
energy, capable of significant contribution to electricity production in Europe in the near
future, using several media in order to reach different areas of industry and society.
More information about wave energy can be found at www.wave-energy.net.
A7 WAVENET OUTPUT
The WaveNet output is summarised in Table A-1. The members of WaveNet and their
contributions are listed in Table A-2.
3
Main Task Subtasks Related section

Development of a standard for power
1 Co-operation with F Cooperation with the
quality of grid-connected wave power
power industry power industry
plants.
Development of a safety standard for
wave power conversion systems.
Assessment of the procedures, costs
and facilities for power transmission
Industrial benefit and job creation
2 Social, planning and E Social, planning and
environmental impact Institutional barriers to development environmental impact
of wave energy
Environmental impact of wave energy
schemes
Planning considerations
Financing of wave energy projects
3 Financing and D Financing and economics
economic issues Economics of wave energy
Environmental economics
Current and wave energy device
4 R & D on wave C Research and
development status
energy devices development
R & D requirements for first, second
and third generation devices
Tidal current device development
status and research requirements
Develop strategy and action plan for
R & D for current and wave energy
devices
Plant control and power output
5 Generic technologies B Generic technologies
prediction.
Plant monitoring and assessment of
performance.
Loads and survivability.
Maintenance and reliability.
Modelling and standardised design
methods
Support for Wave Energy events
6 Promotion of Wave
Energy Publications in international Journals
Dissemination of printed material
Development of a Wave-Energy
Internet site
Table A-1 WaveNet work packages
4
A8 CONTRIBUTORS
Task Task
No Organisation Contributors
Leader Participant
indicates main contact (Codes refer to table Table A-1)
Future Energy Solutions from Richard Boud

1 C B, F
AEA Technology, UK Tom Thorpe
University College Cork, Tony Lewis

2 D F
Ireland Brian Holmes
3 Rambll, Denmark Kim Neilsen A B, C

Hans Christian Srensen
4 EMU Consult, Denmark Lars Kjeld Hansen B A, C
Rune Hansen
Instituto Nacional de
Teresa Pontes
5 Engenharia e Technologia E A, E
Paulo Justino
Industrial (INETI), Portugal
Lars Bergdahl
6 Chalmers University, Sweden A, C
Bengt-Olov Sjstrm (deceased)
Teamwork Technology, the Fred Gardner
7 C
Netherlands Hans van Breugel
8 CRES, Greece George Lemonis F A, B
Ponte di Archimede nello

9 Antonio Fiorentino D, E
Stretto di Messina SpA, Italy
10 Edinburgh University, Scotland Stephen Salter D

Antnio Falco
Instituto Superior Tecnico,
11 Antnio Sarmento D, E
Portugal
Luis Gato
Ecole Centrale De Nantes,
12 Alain Clment E
France
13 ESB International, Ireland Pat McCullen A
Hammarlund Consulting,
14 Karin Hammarlund B
Sweden
Table A-2 WaveNet contributors
5
6
WaveNet B Generic technologies
B Generic technologies
Prepared by: Teresa Pontes, INETI, Alain Clment, ECN, Antnio Falco,
IST Portugal, Antonio Fiorentino, Ponte di Archimede, Luis
Gato, IST, Paulo Justino, INETI, Antnio Sarmento, IST
B1 INTRODUCTION
The objectives of Work Package 6 Generic Technologies, are to coordinate activities on

generic technology issues concerning the utilisation of wave and tidal current energies, so
as to facilitate the exchange of experience and the transfer of knowledge.
The five following areas were considered

Plant Control and Power Output PredictionPlant control methods and
strategies, and related energy quality and power output prediction.
Plant Monitoring and Assessment of PerformanceSurvey of monitoring
methodologies for plant performance.
Loads and SurvivabilityWave and current load design criteria based on
measured data at existing power plants and other coastal structures.
Maintenance and ReliabilityExperience on maintenance requirements and on
structure and components wear, corrosion and failure in existing wave and current
power plants is still limited.
Modelling and Standardised Design MethodsSurvey of hydrodynamic and
power take-off modelling tools
The methodology used to carry out this Task consisted on literature review and
compilation of responses to questionnaires. These questionnaires have been sent to
European and non-European developers that have or are planning to soon build and
operate prototypes of wave and marine current power plants.
The device types for which questionnaires have been sent are briefly presented below.
B 1.1 Wave energy devices

B 1.1.1 Shoreline devices
Oscillating Water Column OWC
The OWC device comprises a partly submerged concrete or steel structure, open below
the water surface, inside which air is trapped above the water free surface. The oscillating
motion of the internal free surface produced by the incident waves makes the air to flow
through a turbine that drives and electric generator. The axial-flow Wells turbine,
invented in the late 1970 s, has the advantage of not requiring rectifying valves. It has
been used in almost all prototypes.
7
B Generic technologies WaveNet
Several OWC prototypes have been built in on the shoreline in Norway, China, UK
(LIMPET), Portugal (Pico Island); incorporated in a breakwater (in the harbour of Sakata,
NW Japan) or placed outside it (Trivandrum, India).
LIMPET is a 500 kW plant located in Islay, Scotland. It has two chambers and two
contra-rotating Wells turbines each coupled to a 250 kW induction generator. It is in
operation connected to the electrical grid.
Pico plant is rated 400 kW. It has a single chamber and one Wells turbine coupled to a
synchronous generator. The machine room is prepared for the installation of a second
(variablepitch) turbine and generator. It is also connected to the electrical grid.
A bottom-mounted near shore OWC with parabolic-shaped reflector to concentrate wave

resource on the OWC of approximately 40 m overall width is planned to be built in
Australia at Port Kembla.
Air turbine Valve
Air Water
column
Waves
Figure B-1 Oscillating water column device

Pendulor
The Pendulor device consists of a rectangular box, which is open to the sea at one end. A
pendulum flap is hinged over this opening, so that the action of the waves causes it to
swing back and forth. This motion is then used to power a hydraulic pump and generator.
A 15 kW prototype was tested in Muroran, Japan.
Hydraulic pump
Pendulum
Caisson
Incident waves
Figure B-2 Pendulor
8
B 1.1.2 Offshore devices

Mighty Whale floating OWC
The Mighty Whale is a floating OWC that has the double purpose of extracting wave
energy and providing a calm waters area behind it. It was tested in the Tokyo Bay until
May 2002, being dismantled afterwards.
Wave Dragon
The Wave Dragon is a floating offshore wave energy converter of the overtopping/run-up
type. Two wave reflectors focus the waves, leading to a patented doubly curved ramp.
The waves run up the ramp and overtop into the reservoir, and the resulting hydraulic
head is utilised for power production through a number of propeller turbines.
Figure B-3 Wave dragon

Pelamis
The Pelamis is a semi-submerged, articulated structure composed of cylindrical sections
linked by hinged joints. The wave-induced motion of these joints is resisted by hydraulic
rams that pump high-pressure oil through hydraulic motors via smoothing accumulators.
The hydraulic motors drive electrical generators to produce electricity. Power from all the
joints is fed down a single umbilical cable to a junction on the seabed. Several devices
can be connected together and linked to shore through a single sub-sea cable.
Figure B-4 Pelamis

Archimedes Wave Swing AWS
The AWS consists of an upper part (the floater) of the underwater buoy moves up and
down in the wave while the lower part (the basement or pontoon) stays in position. The
periodic changing of pressure in a wave initiates the movement of the upper part. The
floater is pushed down under a wave top and moves up under a wave trough. To be able
to do this, the interior of the system is pressurised with air and serves as an air spring.
9
Neutral Wave top Wave trough
Figure B-5 Archimedes Wave Swing
The air spring, together with the mass of the moving part, is resonant with the frequency
of the wave. The mechanical power required to damp the free oscillation is converted to
electrical power by means of a Power Take Off system (PTO). The PTO consists of a
linear electrical generator and a gas- (nitrogen-) filled damping cylinder.
IPS Buoy
The basic unit in the IPS-OWEC system is a circular or oval buoy with diameter and
weight adapted to the predominant wave situation at the place of location.
The buoy is held in position by an elastic mooring enabling it to move freely up and
down against a damping water mass contained in the long vertical tubethe acceleration
tubeunderneath the buoy. The relative movement between the buoy itself and the water
mass is transferred by a working piston in the acceleration tube into an energy conversion
system located within the buoy hull.
Production buoys with diameters from 3 to 4 m up to 10 to 12 m can be arranged in

groups from five units or more. Each unit comprises a complete power station.
Alternatively, groups of IPS OWEC Buoys may be connected to a central generation unit.
B 1.1.3 Marine currents
For harnessing marine currents energy, a turbine rotor set normal to the flow direction,
that is mounted on the seabed or suspended from a floating platform has been considered.
There are two conventional rotor concepts having adequate efficiency to be considered:
the axial-flow rotors (propeller-type, horizontal axis) and the cross-flow rotors (Darrieus-
type). The Seaflow system uses a horizontal-axis rotor and will be installed on a mono-
pile driven into the seabed. The Enermar prototype deployed in the Straight of Messina,
Italy, uses a cross-flow three-bladed turbine mounted on a floating cylindrical platform.
10
Figure B-6 Seaflow
Figure B-7 ENERMAR
11
B2 WAVE ENERGY PLANT CONTROL AND POWER

OUTPUT PREDICTION
Prepared by: Paulo Justino, INETI, Antnio Falco, IST
B 2.1 Introduction
Power plants in general, namely those supplying energy to electrical grids, require some
sort of control. In the first place, start up, close down and emergency procedures are to be
devised and implement. Secondly, even under so-called normal operating conditions,
control is required to deal (i) with variable grid power requirements and (ii) variations in
power available to the plant. The latter point is particularly critical in wave energy plants,
since wave power, in addition to being oscillatory (as is also the case of tidal energy), is
to a large extent random (and so difficult to predict) with a relatively short timescale.
There is a wide variety of wave energy converters and their control requirements are
diverse. In this section, the major control requirements and problems are identified and
briefly described.
B 2.2 Plant control

B 2.2.1 Resonance and phase control
In general, the power that a converter can absorb from the waves is maximum when it is
tuned to the waves, i.e. when its natural frequency of oscillation is close to the incident
wave frequency. Resonance is then said to occur. This is true for oscillating bodies as
well as for oscillating water columns. It is not easy to match the two frequencies, firstly
because of device constructional problems, and secondly because real waves are irregular
with no well-defined frequency.
Phase control, first proposed for oscillating bodies and later extended to oscillating water
column (OWC) converters, aims to control the power take-off mechanism in such a way
that near-resonance conditions are achieved, and absorbed (or produced) energy is
maximised. This may be done by holding an oscillating body stationary at each end of its
stroke (by means of a brake or similar mechanism) for a (short) period of time.
In real irregular waves, the optimal duration of such periods of time varies from wave to
wave and depend (in a rather complex manner) on the devices dynamic and
hydrodynamic characteristics, on the incident wave itself, and also on the history of the
device motion and its interaction with the waves. This technique is called phase control
by latching. In the OWC version, latching may be implemented by temporarily stopping
the flow of air through the air turbine (typically twice per wave cycle).
Other phase-control methods (apart from latching) have been devised and proposed. The
use of a variable-pitch Wells turbine in OWC plants is one of them.
From the theoretical point of view, phase control is a difficult problem. The first studies
addressed the problem of maximizing the energy absorbed from the waves over a long
period (much larger than the wave period, say a few minutes). The more realistic problem
of maximizing the produced useful energy is more complex since it has to deal with the
12
efficiency of the whole energy-conversion chain. An intrinsic difficulty lies in the fact
that optimal phase control requires the prediction of the incoming waves. Indeed,
memory plays an important role in the device-wave interaction due to causality factors.
In practice such memory extends only over a few wave periods, but this is long enough to
raise difficult problems of wave prediction. The wave-prediction problem, and the limited
capability of the plants own programmable logic controller (PLC) in terms of computing
power, requires the development of sub-optimal methods of phase control.
The practical implementation of phase control is an important problem in wave energy

conversion that has not been satisfactorily solved so far.
B 2.2.2 Optimisation of instantaneous plant performance
Phase control aims to maximise the produced energy over a (relatively) long period of
time, although this may imply stopping (or even reversing) the energy absorption and/or
production over short time intervals. There are other less ambitious control methods
whose object is to maximise the instantaneous power output of the plant.
This is especially the case of OWCs, employing air turbines whose efficiency is strongly
affected by airflow variations. These result from internal aerodynamic stalling losses that
occur under conditions far from the best-efficiency-point. The Wells turbinethe most
popular air turbine in wave energy applicationsis known to be particularly sensitive to
airflow rate. On the one hand, its power output may drastically drop whenever the airflow
rate exceeds a critical value depending on (and approximately proportional to) the turbine
rotational speed. On the other hand, it performs poorly at small flow rates. There two
complementary control methods of addressing these problems.
Firstly, matching the (average rotational) speed to the available wave energy level. In less
energetic seas, the turbine is expected to perform more efficiently at lower rotational
speeds. This requires rotational speed control.
Secondly, the airflow rate through the turbine should be prevented from exceeding the
threshold above which severe internal aerodynamic blade stalling reduces the power
output. This requires controlling the airflow rate through the turbine, either by means of a
controlled relief-valve (to be installed at the top of the OWC air chamber) or by a
controlled valve in series with the turbine.
B 2.2.3 Equipment constraints
There are a number of constraints that can affect the control of a wave energy plant.
Mechanical constraints
These may be rotational speed limits imposed by centrifugal stresses (in rotating
equipment), or limitations in oscillation amplitude in oscillating bodies.
Electrical constraints
These may affect
the maximum power allowed by the generator and the power electronics (short-
term and longer-term limits may be different), and
the range of rotational speeds (or linear velocity in the case of linear generators)
within which the electrical equipment is capable of performing efficiently.
13
B 2.2.4 Electrical grid constraints, energy storage and electric energy quality
The energy absorbed from the waves is intrinsically oscillatory, with a period equal to
one-half of the wave period. These oscillations are passed on to the electrical grid as
power fluctuations that may be (at least partly) smoothed out if energy-storage capability
is available. Modern power electronics can easily overcome the problem of the constant
voltage and frequency required by the grid. What is acceptable in terms of fluctuations in
delivered power depends on grid requirements. In this respect small isolated grids may be
more demanding than large grids.
If the converter is equipped with rotating machinery, energy may be stored as flywheel
kinetic energy, alternating with energy release at other parts of the wave cycle. This
obviously requires variable rotational speed electrical generation. The energy storage
capacity increases with flywheel moment of inertia and with the allowable range of
rotational velocity variation. The rotational speed is controlled by acting, through the
power electronics, on the electromagnetic torque applied upon the generator rotor. The
control strategy to be implemented at the plants PLC has to take into account
the allowable fluctuations in electric power output
the rotational speed constraints (maximum and minimum), and
the effects of rotational speed variation on the conversion energy efficiency of the
various elements that make up the whole energy conversion chain (from wave to
wire).
This may be a relatively complex problem.
The tapered-channel converter (TAPCHAN) has a large capacity of energy storage, and
(at least over a time-scale of several minutes) its low-head water turbine performs as
smoothly as the turbine of a conventional hydroelectric plant.
Other energy storage methods have been, or are being, considered in connection with
wave energy plants (for example electrically connected high-speed flywheels, high-
pressure gas, batteries, etc.).
B 2.2.5 Start-up and close-down procedures
A series of routine procedures should be implemented in the PLC of the plant to

automatically control normal operations of start-up and closedown. Some may be
basically similar to procedures in more conventional plants of comparable size (wind,
small hydro), while others are specific to wave energy applications. The decision to close
down the plant may be related to
routine plant operation schemes (maintenance, monitoring, etc.)
insufficient wave energy level
excessive wave energy (stormy conditions)
malfunction or failure
B 2.2.6 Emergency procedures
Wave power plants should be designed to withstand the extremely harsh conditions that
occur in very high seas. From this point of view, only wind power plants (among
renewable energy technologies) may be comparable. At the present (early) stage of
development of wave energy utilisation, malfunction and failures should be expected.
14
The plant should be equipped with protecting devices (for example fast-operating valves
to isolate OWC air turbines from excessive pressures or the ingestion of green water); the
plants PLC should be able to control such devices.
Other emergency situations may arise that are not directly related to high seas and are
common to more conventional plants. These may be excessive rotational speed,
overheating (generator, power electronics), mechanical malfunction (lubrication,
vibrations), or mechanical breakdown or failure. Over-speeding of rotational power-
equipment should be prevented in cases of electrical grid failure. Emergency procedures
should be implemented in the plants PLC to protect the plant in such emergency
situations.
B 2.3 Review of wave power plant control and output prediction

B 2.3.1 Resonance, phase and optimum control
As discussed above the power that a converter can absorb from the waves is maximum
when its natural frequency of oscillation is close to the incident wave frequencythis
situation is usually called resonance. This is true for all wave power converters
(oscillating bodies, oscillating water columns). If the converters natural frequency is not
tuned to the incident waves it is necessary to achieve phase control in order to maximise
the power absorbed.
For oscillating bodies phase control aims to tune the excitation force (force applied to the
body when it is in the presence of the incident waves and stays still in its undisturbed
position) and bodys velocity. Thus the work done by the excitation force on the body
will always be positive.
For the oscillating water column phase control searches that the diffraction flow rate (flux
of air displaced by the incident waves when the air chamber pressure stays at the
atmospheric level) is in tune with the air chamber pressure. Again the work done by the
incident wave upon the chamber free-surface sea level will always be positive.
In order to have optimum control it is needed to apply not only phase control but also
amplitude control. This means that in order to absorb the maximum power available from
the waves it is necessary to have phase control and to control the velocity amplitude for
the oscillating bodies or the pressure amplitude for the oscillating water column. As it is
known, Eidsmoen and Falnes (1992), for each phase difference between excitation force
and velocity or diffraction flow rate and pressure there is an optimum value for velocity
amplitude or pressure amplitude, which maximises the absorbed power from sea waves.
Two different control procedures are usually usedthe continuous reactive control
(phase and amplitude control) and the discrete latching control (phase control).
The first of these controls was proposed in the mid 1970 s by Salter et al. (1976), Salter
(1976), and independently by Budal and Falnes (1977), (1975). By controlling the power-
take-off equipment optimum control, i.e. phase and amplitude control were proposed.
Sometimes reactive control is also named as load control. For oscillating bodies this
means that the devices motion can be controlled, in a continuous way, by applying a load
to the body (usually done by the power take-off equipment). For mathematical simplicity
if the load is assumed to be linear in the velocity amplitude mathematical expressions can
15
be derived to compute the load-time dependence (in regular waves), Eidsmoen and Falnes
(1992).
Usually to apply reactive control to the oscillating water column it is necessary to have a
variable-pitch Wells turbine, Sarmento et al. (1990), and in this way pressure and
turbines flow rate can be controlled independently. Since it is known that for optimum
control the device has to deliver power to the waves (if the natural frequency for the
device doesnt match the incident wave frequency), two major drawbacks on this kind of
control can be devised (see Sarmento et al. (1990), Nichols and Crossley (1996),
Perdigo and Sarmento (1989))
in order to apply optimum control it will be necessary to predict the exciting force
or the diffraction flow rate for the time interval for which we do want to apply
optimum control. This means that the control is not causal, Eidsmoen and Falnes
(1992), Sarmento et al. (1990), Hoskin et al. (1985).
as stated if we do want to maximise the absorbed power from the sea waves it is
predicted by the theory, Eidsmoen and Falnes (1992), Korde (1995), Perdigo
(1998), that the device needs to deliver power to the waves, i.e., for some time
intervals the power take-off equipment will have to deliver energy to the sea. This
can very much decrease the power take-off efficiency, Sarmento et al. (1990), and
thus the overall efficiency for the device would be seriously compromised.
As it will be seen later sub-optimal control strategies try to overcome these drawbacks.
Budal and Falnes (1978) proposed first the latching control as an approximate phase
control for oscillating bodies. It can be regarded as a way of shifting the natural
frequency of the device in order to match the incident wave frequency. For the oscillating
body this type of control consists of the latching of the device in certain positions for
some time intervals, and in this way the exciting force and body velocity attempt to be in
phase, Eidsmoen (1995a), Eidsmoen (1995b), Eidsmoen (1995c), Budal et al. (1981),
Korde (2002). For the oscillating water column a throttle valve can be used in order to
stop the air flow through the turbine so that the diffraction flow rate and pressure are in
phase, Hoskin et al. (1985), Justino et al. (1993), Nichols et al. (1991). Latching control is
also referred for other devices, Greenhow et al. (1984), Oltedal (1985). This control
method also has the disadvantage that to optimise the absorbed power from sea waves it
is necessary to predict the exciting force or the diffraction flow rate.
So far we have referred the optimisation of the absorbed power from sea waves.
Nevertheless the main goal should be to produce the maximum possible electrical power.
In order to achieve this goal it must be possible to incorporate into the mathematical
model (that describes the dynamic behaviour for the device) the power take-off losses
that can occur at the devices mechanical and electrical equipment. A more general model
is needed and it is no easy task to find a control algorithm that maximises the devices
power production. Even for this algorithm to find an optimum for the produced energy it
is necessary to predict the incident wave (or the exciting force/diffraction flow rate) due
to the devices hydrodynamic behaviour.
B 2.3.2 Feedforward, feedback and feedback-feedforward algorithms
The feedforward algorithm aims to predict the incident wave in order to compute the
exciting force or the diffraction flow rate. Naito and Nakamura (1985) proposes a
feedforward control system that uses the wave elevation at a point A, some distance apart
16
from the device and this way the incident wave at the body can be estimated some time
into the future (Naito uses the knowledge of the incident wave at the body to compute its
optimal heaving motion. Thus, the knowledge of the optimum motion allows him to find
the control force that should be applied to the body).
Eidsmoen (1995b) presents a latching phase control strategy for a heaving buoy wave
energy converter. He studies two cases: a) when the oscillation is unconstrained and b)
when it is. He also finds that in irregular waves the excitation force must be predicted a
certain time into the future.
Hotta et al. (1985) also needs to use feedforward control in order to increase the absorbed
wave energy by (throttle valve) phase control for an oscillating water column device.
They use two wave gauges that measure the wave elevation in front of the device at two
different distances. The signals from these gauges are fed into a computer that computes
the position that the throttle valve should take (open or close).
A critical step on these feedforward control algorithms is the chosen prediction method.
Belmont et al. (1998) present two methods (the fixed point and the fixed time method) to
predict the incident wave profile. These two methods require sensing of the sea surface
remote from the prediction site. The authors did not reach a conclusion about each
method is most suited to use with wave energy devices. Other authors try to by-pass the
prediction problem using feedback algorithms.
Feedback algorithms use past and present state/control variables information to decide the
values that control variable(s) should take. Feedback algorithms for sub-optimal reactive
control have been proposed by Korde (1991a), (1991b) and Masubuchi and Kawatani
(1985). Other sub-optimal strategies with different objectives can be included in feedback
algorithms. Vakalis et al. (1985), Vakalis and Sarmento (2000), Perdigo (1998), define
the basis for an on-line control procedure for variable pitch-angle turbines. These
strategies aim to maximise not the absorbed power from the waves but the produced
power from the turbine (nevertheless there is not yet a final proven strategy on this
matter).
These strategies should take into account the hydrodynamic behaviour of the oscillating
water column as well as the turbine aerodynamic performance. Rotational speed control
(for the oscillating water column device) proposed by Yu et al. (1994), Justino and Falco
(1998) could also be considered as feedback algorithms. In both papers control laws for
the turbine (and generator) rotational speed are proposed. For the work done by Yu et al.
only the only measurements required to apply the feedback control law are the turbines
pressure drop, its angular velocity and the generators control parameter (at their
operating voltage), i.e., readily available plant variables can be measured in order to
apply the control algorithm.
The rotational speed control will be further developed. Other feedback control algorithms
have been proposed. The use of a throttle and by-pass valve to prevent the aerodynamic
stalling for the turbine had been studied in Falco and Justino (1999), Falco et al.
(2001), Justino and Falco (2000), Alcorn et al. (2000). In Falco et al. (2001) and
Justino and Falco (2000) it is discussed feedback control strategies to be applied to a
relief valve (this subject will be later discussed).
17
Other types of control algorithms can be regarded as feedback-feedforward strategies.

Chartry et al. (1998) proposed two sub-optimal control strategies that are described as
feedback-feedforward strategiesthe Fixed Frequency Feedback-Feedforward and the
Self-Adaptive Feedback-Feedforward algorithm. These strategies aim to find a sub-
optimal turbine flow rate that maximises the power absorbed from the waves.
The first strategy is well suited to regular waves, i.e. the control variable (that allows the
computation of the sub-optimal turbine flow rate) should take a fixed value that is
dependent on the incoming wave frequency. For irregular waves considered as a single
varying frequency signal the second strategy is better suited, since the control variable is
tuned to the incident wave instantaneous frequency. In order to find this frequency the
control uses a robust Extended Kalman Filter. However, this work done by Chartry et al.
only searches for energy absorption optimisation doesnt take into consideration the
turbine efficiency.
B 2.3.3 Optimisation of instantaneous plant performanceair valve control for

oscillating water column
It is known that the main goal of the reactive/latching strategies or most of the
feedback/feedforward control was to maximise the produced (or in certain cases the
absorbed) power over a period of time. There are other less ambitious control methods
whose object is to maximise the plant instantaneous power output. This is especially the
case of oscillating water columns employing air turbines whose efficiency is strongly
affected by airflow variations. The Wells turbinethe most popular air turbine in wave
energy applicationsis known to be particularly sensitive to air flow rate. Turbine
efficiency drops drastically when the airflow rate exceeds a critical value depending on
(and approximately proportional to) the turbines rotational speed. One way to prevent
this drop on instantaneous power output is to install at the top of the oscillating water
column air chamber a controlled relief valve or to use a valve in series with the turbine
(throttle valve).
The use of a relief valve or throttle valve to prevent or reduce the aerodynamic blade
losses at the turbine rotor blades has been proposed in the already above mentioned
works. Numerical simulations show that the use of control valve may provide a way to
substantially increase the amount of energy produced by the plant, especially for very
energetic sea states, Falco and Justino (1999). The use of a relief or throttle valve is
theoretically similar from the turbines point of view (for the turbines performance), but
the use of one or other valve maybe considered different in terms of hydrodynamic
performance. Indeed, a relief or throttle valve should be used depending on whether the
wave energy absorbing system is over-damped or under-damped by the turbine, Falco
and Justino (1999). Nevertheless Alcorn et al. (2000) concluded that a relief valve could
be used more effectively (with better system efficiency) than a throttle valve in most
situations. This conclusion may be due to the efficiency study having been performed for
an over-damped system.
In Justino and Falco (2000), a numerical algorithm is proposed for the relief valve
control. Different valve response times were considered and the results for the average
power output are compared with an ideal valve control. Falco et al. (2001) simulated
numerically the performance of an oscillating water column equipped with a relief valve.
Continuous and step-wise valve area changes are considered and some parameters as
valve response time, valve control algorithm, number of identical valve elements and
18
signal noise level were analysed. It was concluded that a substantial increase in the
amount of electrical energy produced can be achieved with a controlled relief valve and
that the energy production was found not to depend markedly on valve time response and
signal noise level in chamber air-pressure measurements.
B 2.3.4 Rotational speed control
Rotational speed control is another sub-optimal control procedure that can be devised for
oscillating water column plants equipped with a Wells air turbine. It is known that the
critical value for airflow rate (above which turbine stalling occurs) depends on (and
approximately proportional to) the turbine rotational speed. Matching the (average
rotational) speed to the available wave energy level increases the turbine performance (in
less energetic sea states the turbine is expected to perform more efficiently at lower
rotational speed). The rotational speed control was first proposed by Yu et al. (1994). For
this control strategy only past and present values for the turbines pressure drop,
rotational speed and the generators control parameter are required. They also stated that
the control, i.e. the rotational speed variation, has very little effect on the hydrodynamic
behaviour, however the turbine-generator efficiency is quite sensitive to this control.
Justino and Falco (1995) devised several rotational speed-control laws. These control
laws must satisfy the following conditions and requirements
rotational speed should stand within the range of velocities for which the turbine-
generator set can operate.
rotational speed should approximately match the sea conditions in order to
maximise the turbine efficiency.
variations in electrical power output should not exceed what is acceptable to the
grid. Allowing the rotational speed to change will smooth the power delivered to
the grid since rotational speed variations for the rotating parts will allow to store
energy under the form of kinetic energy (if the power available from the turbine is
greater/less than the one absorbed by the generator then the rotational speed will
increase/decrease and thus the power delivered to the grid does not need to match
the power oscillations for the turbine).
For these control laws only past and present information on, rotational speed and
electromagnetic torque (imposed by the generator to the shaft) need to be known as well
as the need to evaluate periodically the sea state. Justino and Falco (1998) published
further work where a new control strategy was devised. This law circumvents the need to
evaluate the sea state. In it the electromagnetic torque is made proportional to the
rotational speed square (a law derived from turbo-machinery dimensional analysis).
Falco (2002) proposes a new stochastic approach to the problem. He found that as in
Justino and Falco (1998) the electromagnetic torque should be proportional to the square
of the rotational speed if the turbine performance is to be maximised (neglecting the
oscillating water column hydrodynamic performance). Taking into consideration the
overalls plant performance, Falco, finds that the optimal control law should be
Le = C N where Le is the electromagnetic torque, N the rotational speed, C and are
constants that depend on the systems hydrodynamic, aerodynamic and mechanical
characteristics but remarkably not on the sea state.
19
B 2.3.5 Electrical grid constraints, energy storage and electric energy quality
For wave energy devices there is little literature published on the subject. Nevertheless,
some control algorithms proposed by Justino and Falco (1995), (1998) and Beattie et al.
(1995), try to look to some extent at the problem of electric power output quality. Beattie
et al. (1995) look at several options in terms of energy storage and control techniques to
provide stable power output. Due to the oscillating nature of the resource they foresee
that the main impacts on the device regarding power quality are
swings in reactive power which can be compensated by high speed compensation
swings in real power which require energy storage devices (flywheel or batteries)
and control techniques (as the peak trough smoothingthe power peaks are cut
off at an arbitrary level and the troughs are filled).
They propose the solution of an electrical converter with a flywheel as the best solution
for real power smoothing. For the different control strategies studied, those which cut-off
the power peaks and fill the troughs seem to offer the best solution for minimum cost.
It should be noted that these problems for wave power are similar to the ones found in
wind power. For wind power in Sheinman and Rosen (1991), Estanqueiro (1999), some
material regarding the way these problems are tackled can be found.
20
B 2.4 Prototypes control

Device: Oscillating water column Pico plant
Rotational speed The Pico plant has a monoplane fixed-pitch Wells turbine. The
control generator is of the wound rotor, induction type, with a Kramer
link. The turbo-generator set can operate between 750
(generators synchronous speed) and 1500 rpm. The Kramer
link is an asynchronous interface between the rotor of the
induction generator and the existing transmission system. It is
essentially composed by a rectifier that transforms the slip
frequency ranges and currents into DC voltages and currents,
and an inverter that transforms DC voltages and currents in
synchronous frequency voltages and currents. By controlling
the inverter it is possible to control the electromagnetic torque
and, therefore, the speed of the set turbo-generator. Based on
strategies (above mentioned) developed for this type of control
the inverter can be programmed. Thus a relation between
rotational speed and electromagnetic torque is implemented (it
is possible to have several control strategies upload on the
inverter).
Equipment The Wells turbine can operate safely up to 1500 rpm.

constraints Nevertheless if the rotational speed exceeds 1400 rpm a fast-
acting valve mounted in the turbine duct will isolate it. The
generator can operate as a motor until 750 rpm and can produce
power between 750 and 1500 rpm.
Electrical grid The generator as a rated power of 400 kW and EDA (electrical
constraints, energy utility for the Azores islands) stated the rate of change for the
storage and power active power cannot go beyond 50 kW/s. The control strategies
quality devised for the rotational speed control should take this
condition into consideration. As stated the flywheel effect for
the turbo-generator set will allow some kinetic energy storage
thus smoothing the power delivered to the grid.
Operation conditions The plant should operate for most of sea states. The air chamber
pressure is measured to allow an assessment of the current
operable conditions. The PLC based on the pressure root mean
square (estimated over the last 5 min.) decides to start-up, close
down or restart the plant. The start-up and restart operations are
similar (for the restart operation the sluice gate should be
already open). Sequence of operations
Check the connection to the grid, power to the auxiliary

systems, etc.
Open sluice gate.
21
Connect the generator (while keeping its torque at zero level).
Open fast-acting valve.
Activate generator control system: impose instantaneous

electrical torque as a prescribed function of the instantaneous
rotational speed.
To close-down the sequence of operations are
Close the fast-acting valve.
Disconnect the generator and its control system as soon as its

rotational speed is less than 750 rpm.
Deactivate the valves actuators.
Emergency The emergency proceedings are related to: grid failure,

procedures vibrations in the turbo-generator bearings, equipment heating
(generator and bearings), lubrication and over speeding. Sensors
for vibrations, equipment heating and lubrication are installed at
the generator and turbine bearings. The PLC checks
continuously the values given by these sensors and if they are
greater than a certain value the PLC perform an emergency
shutdown procedure. The PLC and power electronics allow the
grid failure and turbine over speeding to be checked. The
emergency shutdown procedure is similar to the closedown
sequence followed by: close sluice gate.
22
Device: Oscillating water column LIMPET plant
Rotational speed There is a large rotating mass (~1250 kg m2) with each of the two
control turbines
The electromagnetic torque is determined through the following

scheme
If the turbine speed falls below a set minimum value the demand
torque is zero
When the turbine speed is between a minimum and a action value

the demand torque varies linearly from zero to the maximum
available
When the rotational speed is greater than the action speed the
maximum available torque is drawn
Equipment Safety is paramount and self-imposed limits are enforced to

constraints ensure safe operation of the plant. These are mainly based around
the upper operating speed of the turbines, theoretically 1500 rpm
but currently set at 1250 rpm. If the turbine speed should approach
the set maximum limit then the vane and butterfly valves will be
shut.
Electrical grid The control system senses the condition of the grid and
constraints, energy disconnects the plant if deviates outside these parameters
storage and power
quality Grid Voltage within 10 %
Grid Frequency within +1 % to 6 %
Documents that describe the requirements for power quality
P28 Planning Limits for Voltage Fluctuations Caused By

Industrial, Commercial and Domestic Equipment in The United
Kingdom
G54 Planning levels for harmonic voltage distortion and the

connection of non-linear equipment to transmission systems and
distribution networks in the United Kingdom
Operation The air chamber pressure is measured and if there is enough

conditions energy for a given time interval the plant starts in the following
sequence
Operate the vane valve to check function
Operate the butterfly valve to check function
Starts generator 1 and motors to a set speed. Generator 1 then
23
enters production
Open valves to allow air flow
Starts generator 2 and motors to a set speed Generator 2 then

enters production
Normal stop, there is no fault on grid or on the inverter or

generator.
Normal stop sequence
Close Vane valve
Close Butterfly valve
Apply set braking torque
Emergency Emergency stop, the generators are disconnected from the grid.
procedures
Emergency stop sequence
Open circuit breakers
Close Vane valve
Close Butterfly valve
Inverter drive is stopped
24
Device: Oscillating water column Mighty Whale plant
Rotational speed Turbine rotational speed has been not specially controlled
control
If rotational speed becomes dangerously high then safety valves
shut off the airflow to the turbines.
Equipment If the number of turbine rotations exceeds the maximum setting

constraints number of rotations, the safety valve, which intercepts the turbines
inflow air, is closed, and the turbine and generator are protected.
The maximum setting number of rotations is 2000 rpm.
Electrical grid Mighty Whale was not connected to electrical grid.

constraints, energy
storage and power During normal operation, if the produced power exceeds that
quality required by the loads and measuring instruments. The excess is
used for charging batteries.
Operation Unmanned floating platform set up to operate automatically. The

conditions shore-based measurement and control station is linked to the
device by a telemetry system. A part of the observed and analysed
results, environmental parameters and parameters related to
turbines and generator are be transmitted to shore-based control
room to allow monitoring of device safety and instrument
operation.
Emergency A safety valve offers rough weather protection to generation

procedures equipment. Valve activation stops turbine/generator rotation.
Onboard equipment can be operated both from the device and
from the shore-based measurement and control station.
25
Device: Submerged Oscillating Plant- AWS
Control of linear The motion is damped with a linear generator; the current is
motor motion proportional to the force. The current converter that connects the
generator to the grid controls the current. To control this
converter the position of the floater is measured. In a PLC the
algorithm calculates a set point for the current.
Equipment The cyclo-converter is a thyristor-switched system with a rectifier

constraints at the generator side. From the converter a transformer transforms
up to 15 kV.
Electrical grid 3950 kVA connection and no storage. The output has low power
constraints, energy factor that varies with the generators voltage.
storage and power
quality
Operation The system has four modes. Secure, Parking, Passive and Active.
conditions In Passive and Active modes the system is operational. In Parking
it can be operational within 10 minutes. The Secure mode is for
survival conditions (the air is blown off). The operation range
depends on stability. If extra support is given from sand around
the system it can be in operation unto 4 m significant wave height
at 10 seconds period and 3.5 m significant wave height at
12 seconds.
Emergency In emergency the system goes to secure mode, even without

procedures human intervention.
26
Device: Wave DragonOvertopping floating plant
Rotational speed The Wave Dragon is equipped with specially developed low-head
control axial type turbines designed for use with heads of 1-4 mmuch
lower than used normally. The large number of turbines (16-20)
allows for the primary control of power output to be obtained
simply by starting and stopping the turbines. The majority---or all
---the turbines will also have a varied rotational speed to maintain
a constant high efficiency in the whole pressure range. The speed
is varied by means of frequency converters.
Equipment Generators could be standard asynchronous or synchronous

constraints machines. A mixed set of turbines with fixed speed and
asynchronous generators and variable speed turbines with
synchronous generators of the PMGtype could turn out to be the
preferred solution. The control system is based on an industry
standard PLC. The pressure head for the turbines is measured with
a set of pressure transducers placed in the vicinity of the turbines
water intake in the bottom of the reservoir and the undisturbed
water below the Wave Dragon platform. All transducers are
industry-standard types.
Electrical grid The energy storage capacity of the Wave Dragon is quite high
constraints, energy i.e. more than three times the wave peak period for the
storage and power dimensioning sea state. The energy storage consists of a large
quality water reservoir, which ensures that the power production can be
ramped smoothly up and down in phase with the wave groups
arriving the plant. The Wave Dragon will comply with the
requirements from Danish utilities.
Operation The relatively small turbines and the electrical equipment are
conditions designed to be switched on and off frequently during normal
service operation. The turbines can be started and stopped without
problems regardless of the actual pressure head. Due to the
variable ramp crest height the Wave Dragon can operate in all sea
states above 1 m significant wave height.
Emergency Procedures related to grid failure, vibrations, equipment heating,

procedures lubrication, over speeding are the same as for traditional small
hydropower plants.
27
Device: SEAFLOW Marine Current Turbine
Rotational speed Frequency converter controlling the full power of the generator
control allows full control of the turbine speed.
Equipment Not specified.

constraints
Electrical grid The prototype will not be connected to the grid. Commercial
constraints, energy machines would feed into the grid. Frequency converter allows
storage and power control of power factor. Filters smooth supply. Energy storage
quality would be limited to operating navigation warning for a period of
grid/connection failure, and backup power for control systems.
Operation Automatic start up, when the current reaches a predetermined

conditions speed, nominally 1 m/s. Brake released, blades pitched to correct
setting. Excitation provided by grid, synchronisation achieved by
frequency controller.
Close down when turbine power falls to near zero. Turbine

stopped using pitch control, then parked on brake. Rotor position
for parking can be specified. There is not a maximum current
speed for which the device can operate. Above-rated current pitch
control is used to limit power. Turbine may be shut down in large
waves.
Emergency The turbine is shut down using pitch control initially, or brake if
procedures pitch fails.
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29
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30
B3 PLANT MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT OF

PERFORMANCE
Prepared by: Teresa Pontest, INTETI
B 3.1 Introduction
The objectives of this Task are firstly to present a methodology for the monitoring of
ocean energy power plants thus enabling the assessment and comparison of their
performance, and secondly to review the monitoring systems of the prototypes developed
or planned to be constructed.
A description of the bottom-up planning and implementation of a complete

instrumentation regime for a typical renewable energy device follows. Most aspects of
the described approach are generically applicable for any device; some may be more
appropriate for Oscillating Water Column devices.
Hereafter, a summary of the monitoring systems of three shoreline (OWC) wave energy
devices, three offshore devices and one marine current device is presented. This
information was obtained through literature review and responses to questionnaires by the
device developers.
B 3.2 Complete monitoring system

An important aspect of all remote energy schemes is the requirement for comprehensive
plant instrumentation, providing performance and operational data for
Real-time monitoring of plant status and plant control.
Experimental purposes; the data is valuable for research into the improvement of
such devices.
Public dissemination, for increased awareness of renewable energy schemes.
The generally remote and hostile operating environment of wave energy power plants
presents the instrumentation engineer with unique problems. Namely
Detailing and access to instruments.
Signal noise suppression from power cables.
Data archiving.
Communication and access for remote operators.
B 3.2.1 Parameter coverage
Initially, a list of all parameters of the plants operation that require monitoring must be
compiled. Research-orientated devices are likely to require monitoring of more
parameters than a commercial plant. The parameters need to be distinguished between
those that are vital for plant control and those that provide performance data only.
Mission critical parameters may require redundancy.
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B 3.2.2 Design of the plant
Often a neglected aspect of instrumentation design, the plant design stage of the planning
process is responsible for the greatest proportion of post-implementation problems. It
cannot be stressed enough how careful design and attention to detail at this stage
contributes to smooth implementation, installation, operation and maintenance of the
instrumentation regime. This is especially important in devices that have large structural
volumetric content e.g. concrete devices. In most cases, the overall concept design of the
plant would be decided before this stage. However, a number of issues require careful
attention before the design drawings are finalised and put out for tender
Positioning
List the precise locations of the various instruments that are required to achieve the
parameter coverage as described above. Detail the specific operational requirements for
each instrument in this locations e.g. range, temperature range, waterproofing, shock
proofing etc.
Access and serviceability
Consider how the instruments are to be deployed. Retrofitting of instruments in difficult
locations on the structure can be extremely expensive and often impossible to achieve. In
structures of large volumetric content, especially concrete, careful consideration must be
given to including appropriate formwork before pouring. Lattice structures are easier to
detail, as housings for the instruments can usually be bolted directly to the structure. It
must be possible to retrieve instruments for servicing or replacement when faults occur.
Health and safety requirements are stringent for industrial roped access and require
personnel to have a certificate on industrial roped access.
Cable routing
Cable routing in large concrete structures is especially problematic. In devices that are
exposed to hostile conditions, safety of personnel is of primary importance. Therefore,
cable routing may require advanced access techniques. Conduits must be specified for
routing through the reinforcing of concrete structures before pouring commences. If
possible, all cable conduits should exit at a common point on the structure for neater
routing to the data logging equipment. Cables should be routed away from power cables
to minimise signal interference.
Flexibility
Attempt to consider all possible scenarios when planning the instrumentation. Flexibility
in the event of unexpected situations is desirable. In research orientated plants, provision
for more instruments and cable routes than are initially required is advantageous.
Cooperation
Close cooperation between the consultants, contractor and instrumentation engineer is
crucial to achieve the above aspects. Practical problems can be discussed before the
design is completed and all parties can be aware of specific detailing issues in the design.
32
B 3.2.3 Instrumentation specification and procurement
This stage of the system planning process should occur simultaneously with the above
described in Section B 3.2.2. The reason is clarified below. The following issues are
relevant
Parameter coverage
Create a list of all possible suppliers for the instruments required to achieve the parameter
coverage outlined in Section B 3.2.1. Categorise these depending on their specification
conformance for the job, cost and availability.
Laboratory testing
All systems should be lab-tested before installation to confirm their suitability and
adherence to the specifications. One should be cautious of the ambitious sales pitches of
companies eager to impart their product to you. Read the datasheets of the products
carefully, as these will often contradict the operational limits espoused by the
salesperson.
Any calibration of instruments can also be done at this stage. Document carefully all
relevant information about the instruments e.g. serial numbers, calibration factors,
channel assignment, location etc.
Extra manufacture
It is often necessary to design and manufacture specialist housings for the instruments to
facilitate their deployment on or within the device. Physical specifications of the
instruments are thus important for accommodation within outer housings. This may
subsequently influence the detailing of the devices structural design for access and pre-
casting formworks.
Procurement
The World Wide Web has become an invaluable source for rapid sourcing of equipment.
Numerous sites are available that provide listings of specialist equipment manufacturers
and suppliers. Most manufacturers of instruments have their own Web sites, providing
datasheet downloads and details of the agents/suppliers nearest to your location.
B 3.2.4 Data logging
All signals from the above mentioned instruments have to culminate in a logging device.
The choice of equipment here is extensive, but can be divided into two broad categories,
computer-based data acquisition and independent data-logging units. The merits of each
are varied and the ultimate choice will depend on the particular application. The
following characteristics must be considered
Characteristic Data logger PC-based system
Footprint of system small large
Robustness good expensive for industrial spec.
Signal conditioning built-in usually added requirement
33
Distance from instruments minimised more expensive to minimise
Signal-to-noise ratio good more expensive to minimise
Scan speed high very high
Channel count limited high
Cost varied high
Scalability possible possible
Connectivity varied excellent
Data storage capacity limited excellent
Table B-1 Data-logging systems
There are unlimited potential solutions using this equipment; the selected solution often
uses a complimentary combination of both systems.
B 3.2.5 Plant control
This is the most critical aspect of the instrumentation regime. Day-to-day seamless and
automated fail-safe operation of the plant is possible only with tightly coded control
algorithms. The control can be performed by
PLC unit
Embedded Processor Control System
There are usually several areas of parameter coverage that overlap between the
requirements of plant control and performance evaluation. In research applications, this is
especially true. In such scenarios, it is imperative that the control system is designed to
function independently of the general data acquisition system to eliminate destructive
interference. Loose interfaces can be designed between the two systems to provide bi-
directional data streaming that either system may require. Commercial applications may
require less rigorous data acquisition and the control system parameter coverage may be
sufficient for performance reporting.
There are several companies providing turnkey solutions in the wind-energy sector.
B 3.2.6 Connectivity
There are several options for connectivity between equipment, computers and the outside
world. Networking technologies are constantly being developed for the interconnecting of
ancillary equipment to computers and beyond. The full range of these technologies is
beyond the scope of this report but some of the standard options are listed here
Firewire
Ethernet
Co-axial cable (BNC connectors)
Serial Cable (RS232/RS485)
USB
34
The factors that may govern a particular choice of technology are

Cost
Transmission speed/Bandwidth
Noise suppression
Length limitation
Scalability
B 3.2.7 Computers
The more stable operating regimes of commercial applications may permit lower
specification and possibly embedded computing systems for their operation. Research
applications will typically require higher computing power and software applications.
Several operating systems are available
Microsoft Windows NT/2000/95/98
Linux/Unix
Microsoft Dos (still used!)
Operational requirements for the system must address issues such as
Security
Remote Reboot
Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS)
Reliability
Power Consumption
B 3.2.8 Telecommunications
No system is complete the without means of remote access and control. This aspect of the
system experiences the largest constant upgrading by telecommunication companies and
equipment manufacturers. It is, however, important to opt for a system that provides
secure and reliable connections to the system. Many emerging technologies, while
undoubtedly of high performance, do not have sufficient support and guarantee of
performance to be viable. The following systems are currently available
Analogue telephone line to modem available and reliable, slow

(internal/external)
ISDN (most switchboards are now digital, reliable, fast, multiple lines expensive
permitting this connection)
Radio telemetry restrictive regulations, limited range
Satellite expensive equipment
Mobile phone network flexible, unreliable
ISP/Internet dependence on ISP
Table B-2 Telecommunication system characteristics
Issues that may affect the choice of system above are
35
Cost of implementation
Bandwidth for data transmission
Availability in the area
Reliability
Security
B 3.2.9 Software
A wide range of software is available on the commercial market and the choice will
largely depend on the users preferences. In many cases, however, equipment will have
accompanying proprietary software that must be integrated with other systems. Most
software will have interfacing options available e.g. RS232, DDE, OLE, ActiveX,
TCP/IP etc. that permit this.
B 3.3 Prototypes monitoring

B 3.3.1 Shoreline wave energy devices
Device: LIMPET- Shoreline OWC
Incident wave power Seabed pressure transducers located (44 m and 66 m) ahead
of the device measure incoming/reflected waves, providing
real-time time-series for real-time device control. The
transducers were placed on rigs constructed from rolled-steel
joints, being connected with the device by armoured cable
weighted with galvanised chain. The critical zone of the
system is the air-water interface in the route from seabed to
land.
Chamber water level Ultrasonic transducers placed at the roof of the air chamber
roof and pressure transducers located at the bottom of the
back chamber wall measure the movement of the water
column. These were installed through ducts that exit at the
device diaphragm wall (see Fig. 3.1).
Access for ultrasonic probes requires favourable weather

window because access to the device front wall is necessary.
Pressure transducers can be installed and retrieved any time
through the ducts.
Video cameras installed in the central chamber rear wall

enable to visualise the water column motion.
Air chamber and ducts Pressure transducers installed in the chambers rear walls.
pressure and
temperature
Turbine: rotational Pressure transducers are fitted at various positions in the

speed, vibrations, air turbo-generator duct.
flow rate, velocity and
pressure distribution
36
Failure indicators: Not specified.

vibrations, generator
temperature, bearing
lubrication
Wave loads Wave-load beams consisting of arrays of pressure

transducers are fixed to the front and internal rear walls,
being connected to a separate data logger.
Data acquisition Data Acquisition System acquires fundamental parameters

system independently of the Control System. The Control System
provides additional operational parameters via a
synchronous interface to the data acquisition data logger, i.e.
grid voltages, turbine speeds, valve positions, power factors,
power generated, generator torque demand.
Other mission critical parameters (e.g. bearing temperatures,

grid connection etc.) are monitored by the Control System
for fail-safe operation.
See Boake et al. (2001) and Boake et al. (2002) for a complete description of the
LIMPET monitoring system.
C 4 5 6
8
3
W
7
1. Sea-bed Pressure Transducers
2. Diaphragm Wall Pressure Transducers
3. Ultrasonic Units
4. Chamber Pressure 2
1
5. Chamber Temperature
6. Chamber Video Surveillance
7. Duct pressures
8. Atmospheric Pressure
W. Waveloading Beams
C. Interface to Controller
Figure B-8 LIMPET instrumentation coverage (Boake et al. 2001)
37
Device: Pico Island OWC Plant
Incident wave power Three pressure transducers located on the seabed in front of
the device measure incident/reflected waves.
Air chamber: air Ultrasonic transducers installed on the ceiling of the

pressure and internal chamber, measure water free surface movement. Pressure
water free surface level transducers placed at the ceiling of the chamber measure air
pressure.
Turbine: rotational Airflow rate through the turbine duct and pressure drop
speed, vibrations, air across the turbine are measured by a system of total-pressure
flow rate, velocity and tubes and static pressure taps. Rotational speed measured by
pressure distribution electrical generator.
Failure indicators: Vibrations: measured by transducers located on the turbo-

vibrations, generator generator support structure near the bearings, and generator
temperature, bearing temperature are provided by the PLC (plant control system).
lubrication,
Wave loads on front Wave-load beams consisting of arrays of pressure

wall transducers (similar to those used in LIMPET) fixed to the
device front wall, connected to a separate data acquisition
system due to the high-rate data acquisition system.
Power output Electric power output is monitored at the 500 kW

transformer by measuring the currents and voltages at three
AC lines.
Data acquisition Data Acquisition System acquires fundamental parameters

system independently of the Control System (PLC). These include
air chamber pressure and water level, turbine static pressure
at entrance and exit and turbine airflow, turbo-generator
rotational speed, and the wave data in front of the plant.
Most of these are delivered to the PLC. Data acquisition
software was developed in-house based on HP-VEE and DT
VPI applications.
See Falco (1999) for a detailed description of the Pico plant monitoring system.
38
Device: Breakwater OWC at Sakata Harbour
Incident wave power Permanent wave observation station off Sakata harbour,
incorporating bottom mounted ultrasonic level sensors.
Air chamber pressure Measured by pressure transducers.
Turbine: Airflow rate measured by pressure transducers located inside

the turbine.
Failure indicators Not specified.
Wave loads on front Not specified.

wall
Contribution by S. Takahashi, Port and Airport Research Institute, Yokosuka, Japan.
39
B 3.3.2 Offshore wave energy devices
Device Mighty Whale Floating OWC
Incident wave power Bottom-mounted ultrasonic transducers and pressure

transducers located in 100 m in front and 50 m to the rear of
the prototype were used for measurement of incident and
transmitted waves, respectively. The pressure gauge data
were used for interpolation in rough seas when the ultrasonic
probes data are not reliable.
Air chamberair Capacitance (scale) wave height meter.

pressure and internal
water free surface level
Turbine Pressure drop differential pressure transducer.
Torque electromagnetic torque transducer.
Rotational speed magnetic rotation transducer.
Failure indicators Not specified.
Wave loads on front Not specified.

wall
Contribution by Y. Washio, JAMSTEC, Japan. For a fuller description see Washio et al.,
2001
40
Device: Wave Dragon floating overtopping device
Incident wave power Bottom-mounted pressure transducers in front of the

device
Chamber water level Pressure transducers mounted in the bottom of water

reservoir.
Turbinerotational Measured as in traditional small hydro power plants.

speed, vibrations
Generator and power Rotational speed, electric current, voltage, electric power
electronics output, other electrical variables monitored as in traditional
small hydro power plants.
Failure indicators Monitored as in traditional small hydro power plants.
Wave loads on front wall To be monitored in model test in scale 1:4.5 and later on in
prototype tests.
Contribution by H. Sorensen, SPOK ApS, Denmark
41
Device Archimedes Wave Swing (AWS)
Incident wave power Measured by a wave-rider buoy in front of the device and
three pressure transducers placed on the system.
Internal air pressure Pressure transducers and temperature transducers measure

air pressure and temperature, respectively. The level of
water in the gap between the fixed cylinder and the floater
is also measured.
Linear motor Speed, position, vibrations, electric current, voltage,

electric power output and other electrical variables are
measured at different points in the power chain AC at the
generator, DC in the converter, AC at the grid connection.
Failure and Generator temperature is directly measured at six points;

malfunctioning temperature in the cooling water is measured at three
indicators points.
Water pressure and Water pressure is measured at three points. The structural
wave loads on structure loads are too low to be measured accurately.
Structure stresses and

Too low for accurate measurement.
strains
Contribution by F. Gardner, Teamwork Tekniek/AWS B.V., Netherlands
42
Device: SEAFLOW Marine Current Turbine
Incoming current Magnetic current meter on the machine. Can be calibrated

using remote ADCP. Also depth and wave pressure gauge.
Turbinerotational Not specified.

speed, torque
Failure or Generator winding temperature, gearbox sump temperature,

malfunctioning gearbox high speed bearing temperature, gearbox and hub
indicators water ingress.
Electrical system, pitch controller, etc all have internal fault

monitoring.
Contribution by J. Thake, IT Power, UK.
Device: ENERMAR
The system is now on the dock to install a second small gearbox and also to install a
torque-meter that will allow very accurate measurements of the produced torque.
An automatic acquisition system will be installed in such a way that all working
parameters will be recorded and continuously monitored.
Contribution by Antonio Fiorentino, Ponte di Archimede, Italy.
B 3.4 References
Boake, C.B., Thompson, A., Whittaker, T.J.T., Folley, M., (2001) Integrated system design for remote
communication, data acquisition and control of the LIMPET wave energy device. Proc. Renewable
Energy in Maritime Island Climates Conf., Sept., No. C76 of Solar Energy Society, pp 199-206,
ISBN: 0904963667.
Boake, C.B., Whittaker, T.J.T., Folley, M., Ellen, H., (2002) Overview and initial operational experience of
the LIMPET wave energy plant, Proc. 12th International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conf.
(ISOPE 2002), Kyushu, Japan, May.
Falco, A.F de O., (1998) European Wave Energy Power Plant on the island of Pico, Azores, Portugal.
Phase two: Equipment. Final Report. EC Contract N JOR3-CT95-0012.
Washio, Y., Osawa, H., Ogata, T., (2001) The open sea tests of the offshore floating type device Mighty
Whale characteristics of wave energy absorption and power generation. Proc. Oceans 2001
Conference.
Thake, J.R., (2002) Marine current turbines and the SEAFLOW project. Proc. Renwable Realities Orkney
2002.
43
B4 WAVE LOADS AND SURVIVABILITY
Prepared by: Antnio Sarmento, Frank Neumann, IST
B 4.1 Introduction
The scope of this Task is to join and focus information available concerning the
survivability of Ocean Wave Energy devices. Specific design codes and/or guidelines do
not exist, partly due to the variety of extraction technologies and the resulting difference
in essential aspects to survivability design. On the other hand, no devices have reached a
stage of serial installation, which is why sufficient information on survivability is not yet
available. Therefore, it is difficult to find a satisfactory approach for all device types.
The attempt to find common bases for the survivability approach in the design of wave
energy devices can be a first step towards a guideline or at least experience-based
recommendations. This is why the initial action of this task was the preparation of a
questionnaire asking information on a common level, determined to gather survivability
design approaches and data on existing devices. The gathered data serves as a practical
baseline to compose a commented database of relevant data on this aspect. This database
can be accessed via the Internet, through the homepage of the Wave Energy Network,
and be updated with respect to the actual information.
By nature, wave energy devices are placed in regions of high incident wave power, which
is normally related to very rough sea states that have to be considered for the survivability
design. The absence of clear and reliable design procedures accounting for loads arising
in such an environment makes it difficult to conduct wave energy projects with sufficient
planning safety.
This implies that, to a greater extent than for other renewable energy technologies, the
survivability plays a decisive role for the success of ocean wave energy projects. In
almost every case in the past, it was not the wave power extraction technology that failed,
but unforeseen problems related to the construction process or the structural stability in
extreme conditions.
Presumably, as a lesson learnt from this experience, more recent developments tend to
show a concern of giving highest priority to this problem, as it is seen in the OPD
Pelamis (www.oceanpd.com) wave converter and the Archimedes Wave Swing (AWS)
(www.waveswing.com), possibly two of the presently developed offshore devices that are
closest to commercial-scale application. Part of the design philosophy of the Pelamis is
for example to use exclusively industrially available material (thus limiting unknown
factors with respect to survivability) and to align with wave propagation, thus avoiding
the most severe loads. The AWS is even a completely submerged device, which brings
along considerable advantages for the design stability.
Due to the existing variety of wave energy devices and similarities depending on their
operation sites, the information gathered often distinguishes between offshore devices
and shoreline devices. This is a frequently used distinction used in the wave energy
community, because some important aspects concerning wave energy resource, power-
44
take-off mechanisms and transmission, maintenance, structural design and construction

process and materials are typically different for device deployed in the open sea or on the
coastline.
None of the existing wave energy technologies have obtained sufficient operational data,
which is why there are no official guidelines available for the survivability design. Apart
from conducting model tests and careful consideration of unknown load cases, it is
therefore helpful to have indications about the way this problem has been tackled for
existing projects. Besides, design aspects for related maritime structures can give useful
contribution to find a reasonable survivability approach. These aspects are approached by
giving an overview concerning existing devices and by indicating guidelines and
literature potentially relevant for ocean wave energy devices.
B 4.2 Guidelines for maritime structure design

The survivability design for wave energy converters is problematic due to the lack of
common design features and to the fact that none of the devices can be considered as
common offshore or coastal structures. Moving parts or weak cross-sections are the
typical difficulties in applying existing maritime structure design procedures. However,
there exists a range of comprehensive maritime design guidelines and best practice codes,
of which general aspects and certain details can be relevant for wave energy plants.
Among these are the stability of design for extreme situations, fatigue design and
mooring design.
Apart from giving an indication on the extent to which survivability should be considered
in device design, the conscience of the requirements for certification of maritime
structures is an extremely helpful step for wave energy projects. Before certifications or
insurances can be granted, any particular wave energy project will be evaluated carefully
concerning the fulfilment of various safety criteria. This should be considered in an early
design stage, in order to evaluate their technical viability.
In the following, the most relevant guidelines, codes for best practice and commonly
adopted design procedures are outlined and links to the further information/contact
addresses are provided
Det Norske Veritas (DNV) (www.dnv.com)An international knowledge-based
organisation for managing risk worldwide with the key activities Classification,
Consulting and Certification. DNV provides a comprehensive collection of
normative character on maritime engineering aspects, R&D and Oil and Gas
processes. Large parts of the relevant expertise fields overlap to these mentioned
for the German Lloyd (see below) DNV verification and classification services
provide expert assistance in planning, designing, building, operating as well as de-
commissioning offshore constructions and plants. The services include
classification of mobile offshore units and floating installations,
verifying/certifying compliance with shelf state regulatory schemes,
certification/verification of plants, products and operations to comply with buyers
or makers technical requirements, verification of marine operations and warranty
services, verification of pipelines and the descriptions of services for objects and
special topics (Column-stabilised units, Drillships, Drilling Plants, FPSO
Conversions, In-service Inspection Systematics, Jack-up platforms, LNG/LPG
Production units, Pipeline technology, Suction Anchors, Topsides Systems and
45
Equipment, Marine Operations, Risk Based Verification, Riser Systems, Coupled

Floater Motion Analysis).
The internet-presence of DNV provides a complete course on Ocean Engineering,
with electronic compendium and material for classroom presentation.
German Lloyd (GL Germanischer Lloyd; www.germanlloyd.org) develops,
in line with the technical progress, rules and regulations which cover: protection
of human lives, protection of environment, limitation of financial risks with
regard to capital investment and operating costs, prevention of unintentional
interruptions to operation. ... According to a governmental decree, in Germany
GLs Rules for Shipbuilding and Marine Installations reflect the state of the art.
The continuous development of rules obligates GL to maintain their technical
competence and forces GLs engineers to use the latest technological
developments when providing certification services. In the sector of offshore
technology GL deals with all types of installations: Fixed Offshore Installations
(Platforms with piled foundations, Platforms with gravity foundations, Tension
leg platforms, Single point mooring terminals), Floating Offshore Installations
(Jack-up platforms FPSO (Floating Production, Storage and Off-Loading units),
Semi-submersible drilling rigs, Pontoons, SBM (Single Buoy Mooring)), Special
Units (Pipe layer, Cable layer) and Sub Sea Installations.
Among the available rules and guidelines for Offshore and Industry of
Germanischer Lloyd are e.g. rules for classification and construction, III
Offshore Technology (Part 2Offshore Installations; Part 3Mooring and
Loading Installations; Part 4Subsea Pipelines and Risers), Guideline for
Ocean Towage and Guidelines for Classification and Construction for Floating
Production, Storage and Off-Loading Units. In addition to the general offshore
engineering matters, GL is strongly involved in (offshore) wind energy:
Germanischer Lloyd Wind Energie GmbH (GL-Wind) is an internationally
operating certification body for wind turbines. Gl-Wind carries out examinations,
certifications and expertises and are actively involved in the development of
national and international standards. Although mainly relevant for electro-
technical, economic and environmental matters this can also be of use for the
survivability design aspects of wave energy devices. The regulatory code
Regulations for the Certification of Wind Energy Conversion Systems, edited in
1999, is the basis for certification activities: GL-Wind examine and certify wind
turbines according to their and and/or regulations valid at the site of operation.
GL-Wind has been accredited by the Deutsches Akkreditierungssystem
Prfwesen (DAP) as a Certification and Inspection Body for Wind Turbines. The
DAP-accreditation has been acknowledged by the Danish Energy Agency for
examinations and approvals in Denmark. The Indian Ministry of Non-
Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) noted Germanischer Lloyd as Certification
Body for wind turbines. GL-Wind survey the manufacture, erection and
commissioning of wind turbines, as well as the testing of materials and
components. The surveillance includes approval of manufacturing workshops and
techniques as well as qualification of personnel. The certificate comprises the
complete wind turbine and includes the assessment of the reliability and periodic
monitoring. The main activities of GL-Wind are Regulations, Certification,
Examination and Assessment, Appraisal of computations, Fabrication
Surveillance, Periodic Monitoring, Commissioning, Measurements, Research,
Participation in Standardisation, operating a Testfield and Certification
Procedures. Among the potentially relevant publications for wave energy projects
46
are the Study of Offshore Wind Energy in the ECJOULE I (JOUR 0072),
Germanischer Lloyd. Regulations for the Certification of Wind Energy
Conversion Systems (GL, Hamburg, 1993), Germanischer Lloyd. Rules for
Classification and Construction Offshore Technology, Part 2 Offshore
Installation (GL, Hamburg, 1990) and Germanischer Lloyd. Regulations for the
Certification of Offshore Wind Energy Conversion Systems. (GL, Hamburg,
1995).
International Navigation Association (PIANC/AIPCN; www.pianc-aipcn.org)
is an international scientific and technical non-profit association sponsored by
national, federal and regional Governments or their representative bodies. With a
large number of port authorities, companies and professionals associated, PIANC
states, among others, the following objectives
identifying and disseminating world best practice (guidelines,
recommendations, standards) and providing access to international data, in
order to bring about improved decision making based on professionally
sound and impartial information;
being the international forum for analysis and discussion of all aspects of
waterborne transport including policy, management, design, economics,
integration with other transport modes, technology, safety and
environment;
co-operating closely with other associations in the field of ports,
waterways, coastal zone management and related subjects.
Beside being one of the competent institutions with respect to navigational safety
matters and port operation, PIANC provides working groups on specific matters
of the maritime environment, such as WORKING GROUP 28: Breakwaters with
Vertical and Inclined Concrete Walls, which might be among the ones of interest
for wave energy projects. Some working group reports and project
recommendations are available on national and international basis. In several
countries, PIANC is associated to institution(s) that are responsible for national
design recommendations regarding water and waterways.
ISOPE (International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers;
www.isope.org) is a relatively young, non-profit scientific and educational
organization, which does not claim normative or certification activities. However,
due to its worldwide extension and a variety of activities including technical
conferences (www.isope.org/conferences/conferences.htm), journal publications
(www.isope.org/publications/publications.htm), scholarship and professional
recognition programs, continuing education, and international cooperation, a large
range of relevant information can be provided. The primary objectives of the
Society are: to advance at an international level the arts and sciences in and
promote and improve technological progress in the interdisciplinary fields of
offshore, ocean and polar engineering and related technologies through
international cooperation and participation; to disseminate scientific knowledge
and provide timely exchange of technical knowledge and information;
Beyond the conference and journal publications, among which regularly wave
energy issues are discussed, the Technical Committees and chairs of ISOPE may
be relevant for specific aspects: International Offshore Technology Committee
(IOTC), International Polar Technology Committee (IPTC), International Tubular
Structures Committee (ITSC), International Hydrodynamics Committee (IHC),
IHCNumerical Wave Tank (NWT) Group, International Mechanics and
47
Structures (IMSC), International Geotechnical Engineering Committee (IGEC)

and International Pipeline and Riser Committee (IPRC), further Ad-hoc
Committee Groups are established on the basis of the level of technical activities
in individual fields. Depending on the requirements, the technical committees can
initiate relevant recommendations, as it was the case e.g. for the Numerical Wave
Tank Group, who published documents with guideline character.
ASME Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering (American Society of
Mechanical Engineers; www.ooae.org) promotes technological progress and
international cooperation in ocean, offshore and arctic engineering, and in
recovering resources, such that safety, environmental and economic successes are
achieved. The organisation has a comparable status and expertise fields as above
mentioned for ISOPE and provides the following Technical Committees: Offshore
Technology, Offshore Structure Analysis, Safety and Reliability, Materials
Technology, Pipeline Technology, Ocean Space Utilization, Ocean Engineering
and Polar and Arctic Sciences and Technology. The OMAE conference
proceedings (www.ooae.org/omaeconf.htm) and journals
(www.ooae.org/jomae/jomae.htm) also contain several contributions concerning
wave energy. The internet-presence of ASME contains a comprehensive search
engine (asme.mondosearch.com/cgi-bin/MsmMask.exe?mask=MssSearch.msk)
for publications and documentations.
Coastal Engineering Manual (CEM) The new US standard for a wide range of
coastal and maritime works
During the past three decades, coastal engineering practice in the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers (USACE) and throughout most of the world have been based
on the Shore Protection Manual (SPM). However, the SPM (originally published
in 1974 and most recently updated in 1984), no longer reflects the most up-to-date
technology and knowledge of coastal processes and engineering. In order to
develop a more modern technical document which incorporates all the tools and
procedures used to plan, design, construct, and maintain coastal projects, the
United States government, through the Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory (CHL)
initiated preparation of the Coastal Engineering Manual (CEM) in the mid-1990s.
The purpose of the CEM is to provide a single, comprehensive technical
document that incorporates tools and procedures to plan, design, construct, and
maintain coastal projects. This engineering manual will include the basic
principles of coastal processes, methods for computing coastal planning and
design parameters, and guidance on how to formulate and conduct studies in
support of coastal flooding, shore protection, and navigation projects. The CEM is
intended to provide broader coverage of all aspects of coastal engineering than the
present SPM. New sections are being added on navigation and harbour design,
dredging and disposal, structure repair and rehabilitation, wetland and low-energy
shore protection, risk analysis, field instrumentation, numerical simulation, the
engineering process, and other topics.
Being announced to be published by end of 2001, large parts of the CEM are
available already, however, the coastal structure design is not yet released (mid
2002).
Spanish Recommendations for Maritime Works ROM 0.0 (ROM 0.0
Recomendaciones Para Obras Maritimas. Serie 0: Descripcin y caracterizacin
de los factores de proyecto (Series 0: Description and characterisation of the
project factors/coefficients)The objective of ROM 0.0 is to provide a set of
48
technical norms and criteria applicable to the design, construction, management,

maintenance, repair and dismantling of all maritime and port works, whichever
may be their class or purpose and materials, techniques and elements employed
for their construction, management, maintenance and dismantling. In the same
manner, the scope of application of this ROM 0.0 extends to all aspects related to
port activity, management and maintenance of the littoral, management of marine
resources, navigation, and interaction with natural environment. ROM 0.0
includes two Parts. Part I is made of seven chapters and focuses on the general
procedure and calculation bases of maritime and port works.
MAST-PROVERBS This EC-funded project (1996-1999) comprised a large
number of European Research Institutions involved in the relevant fields. Among
the project objectives was to revise existing design methodologies and to offer
actualised approaches (PRObabilistic Tools for the Design of VERtical
BreakwaterS) in a suitable form to be adopted in normative and best practice
codes: the overall objective of the project is to develop and implement
probability based tools for an integrated design of vertical breakwaters and further
classes of monolithic structures where wave effects dominate design
considerations. These tools will be obtained by implementing various aspects
associated with hydrodynamic, geotechnical and structural processes to a
probability based Integrated Design Approach (PIDA). To achieve this goal, the
results gained in previous MAST-Projects and in further national research projects
as well as the new knowledge to be generated in this project will be linked
together to develop and implement probabilistic design tools which should
supplement/replace the conventional deterministic design methods and form the
scientific and technical basis for any future authoritative design guidelines. The
tasks stated fo the PROVERBS project are organised in four tasks, namely (i)
Hydrodynamic aspects focusing on wave loadings...,(ii) Foundation aspects,
(iii) Structural aspects (structural strength of breakwater walls under pulsating
and extreme impact loading, as well as their durability) and (iv) Probabilistic
tools.
The procedures provided and explained and in a variety of publications
(conference and journal papers, book and technical reports), include some aspects
on perforated breakwaters, which show some hydrodynamic and structural
similarities to wave energy caissons. It is likely that the new method for coastal
structures to be proposed in the CEM is based partly on the PROVERBS results.
British Standard (BS6349; www.bsi-global.com/index) Maritime structures.
Code of practice for general criteria (BS 6349-1: 2000). British Standard provides
several normative documents in the construction sector, among which the
maritime structures recommendations may be the most relevant. Aspects like
breaking wave impact estimation and stability design for breakwaters are part of
this design code. Among other potentially relevant publications are: Code of
practice for structural safety of deck machinery installation (BS MA 93:1981),
Maritime structures. Code of practice for design of fendering and mooring
systems (BS 6349-4:1994) and Cathodic protection. Code of practice for land and
marine applications (BS 7361-1:1991).
PHRI/PARIThe Port and Airport Research Institute PARI (former PHRI
Port and Harbour Research Institute), run by the Ministry of Transport is probably
the most significant institution to be mentioned concerning maritime structure
design in Japan. The Japanese design approach for maritime structures is based on
the procedures described in the widespread reference book Random Seas and
49
Design of Maritime Structures (Y. Goda, 1985; Yokohama University). The

vertical breakwater design procedure was extended by in 1996: PHRIReference
document 34: Design of Vertical Breakwaters (S. Takahashi, 1996; PHRI). This
document can be seen as revision of the Japanese design guideline for coastal
structures containing recommendations, calculation charts and background
information. Due to the high advance of vertical caisson structures in Japan,
uncommon structures like perforated breakwaters are also regarded, giving some
potential indications for coastal wave energy design. The author (S. Takahashi)
and PHRI/PARI were also involved in the Sakata breakwater OWC (1988), to
date the only existing seamless integration of wave energy in a breakwater.
B 4.3 Database of survivability aspects of specific devices

This collection contains detailed information on survivability aspects of certain wave
energy devices. The list concentrates on devices that have either reached a certain
realisation scale (e.g. prototype), or have been intensively investigated. In most cases, the
device developers or teams that are currently or were in the past involved in research
concerning the device contributed the data. The information was gathered by a survey
consisting of a questionnaire with the contents reproduced in the sub-pages for each
device. The information is organised separately for offshore and shoreline devices, due to
some fundamental differences concerning hydrodynamics and structural design.
The list of devices is not complete, and in some cases information was amended or
completely provided by the editor, based on existing knowledge or published literature.
In these cases italic text style is used for distinction.
Shoreline devices Offshore devices
Pico OWC; Shoreline gully Oscillating Mighty Whale (floating OWC)

Water Column
LIMPET (Islay II); Shoreline OWC Archimedes Wave Swing (AWS )
Sakata breakwater OWC Pelamis
Breakwater-OWC based on Pico plant Wave Dragon (overtopping device)
KimblaOWC in front of breakwater Sloped versions of the IPS buoy
Pendulorwave energy caisson Mace, a bottom hinged pendulum with

positive buoyancy
Oscillating water columns (OWC) with A series of models based on the Salter
variable asymmetry of back to front wall. (Edinburgh) Duck design
Table B-3 Device types
Shoreline OWCs and other shoreline plants have faced acceptance problems among
potential investors and a very limited financial support of this technology has been
available in recent past. Beside a general lack of credibility that might have resulted from
50
failures in the past, the high costs related to the structure are the main obstacle for
shoreline devices. The strong (typically) concrete structure required to withstand violent
wave breaking is responsible for this situation. Beyond the existence of locally limited
peak pressures critical for the caisson wall stability (Mller and Whittaker, 1996) the
design breaking wave loads for stability against sliding and overturning have to be
determined as design basis.
In coastal engineering, the lack of commonly accepted approaches to estimate the impact
loads on structures caused by breaking waves has been a persisting and often cited as a
problem. The lack of standards for breaking wave impact estimation is recognised in the
coastal engineering community for some time, giving rise to various research activities in
the 90 s that are likely to provide appropriate tools in near future. In practice the
estimation of design loads from breaking waves has mainly been done by choosing one of
the prevalent approaches, which are all known to have significant drawbacks (Allsop et
al., 1996). Example calculations using the probably most common approaches in practice
for one of the case study situations resulted in a design load estimate spreading from ca.
20 mN to above 100 mN for a 12 m wide structure (Neumann and Sarmento, 2001),
which makes an economic but safe design very difficult. Recent developments, of which
the most notable may be the MAST-PROVERBS project of the European Union and the
new Coastal Engineering Manual (CEM) of the US army Corps of Engineering, are
expected to offer an improved approach to this field. However, at present this difficulty
still exists and is amplified by the fact that an OWC caisson is not a common coastal
structure.
Due to their moderate efficiency and limited potential for large-scale application when
compared to offshore technologies, there arise two aspects concerning shoreline wave
energy devices
shoreline devices will mainly play a role in the initial phase of technology
implementation, before maturity of wave energy technologies (lower total costs,
easier access and maintenance)
beyond the significant importance in the premature phase, shoreline devices can
be integrated in existing or new coastal defence structures (typically breakwaters),
thus making double use of a single structure.
Apart from being a superior engineering design and contributing to energy efficiency and
sustainability, this combination appears very feasible, providing sufficiently continuous
operation (Neumann and Sarmento, 2000). However, the use of wave energy plants as
coastal defence structures implies a rigorous treatment of the plant stability with the same
demands as for the corresponding breakwater section. Thus can bring along additional
problems with respect to survivability design.
Therefore the absence of accepted formulae and/or actual recommendations turns out to
be of particular importance to OWC breakwater caissons (and similar devices). The
weight required to ensure caisson stability at the corresponding breakwater section has to
be provided with far less volume to be filled with (heavy) material. Both costs and
survivability of breakwater-integrated wave power plant thus become particularly
sensitive to wave impact loadings, whereas other survivability aspects could be
considered less critical than for offshore plants due to relative easier access. However,
this can be misleading, as other components than the structure can also be subject to
severe loadings. In case of OWC for example, the spray passing through the turbine can
have important consequences and can be an essential item for survivability. The
51
information presented here focuses mainly on survivability in terms of the structure, since
this might be the most common survivability feature to all shoreline devices.
Device: PICO OWC; Shoreline gully oscillating water column 400 kW rated power
Extraction technology Pneumatic chamber and air turbine
Description and dimensions of 30-sloped front wall above MSL and vertical lip wall
significant parts exposed to have a free span of 12 m. The crest height of the
loading massive concrete structure is about 12 m above MSL.
The vertical part (lip) of the front wall is 2 m thick,
whereas the inclined part has a thickness of 1,5 m.
Phase of plant development Prototype/demonstration plant; civil construction

concluded in 1996; first test runs absolved.
General remarks on device The civil structure design for the Pico plant was sub-
and the interpretation of contracted by the Portuguese consulting company
extreme loads/survivability PROFABRIL S.A., which is why written details about
the structural design procedure are not available at IST.
The solution of a massive in-situ concrete structure was
preferred due to the lack of a shipyard for appropriate
caisson construction. The strong exposure of the plant to
wave attack by breaking waves led to the decision for a
quite conservative design, since the economic factor was
not focus at this stage. The negative chamber pressure
was included in the design. The total design load over
the front wall was considered to be a combination of: i)
wave breaking on front wall and ii) extreme pressure
loads inside the chamber.
Water depth at the plant site 7-8 m
Design wave height 7,5 m (depth-limited maximum individual wave height;

from analysis of data measured in harbour).
Design wave period ca. 12 s.
Return period of design wave not specified
Maximum design wave 700 kN/m2 (recorded from meeting notes)

pressure
Maximum design wave load not specified
Details about the experimental Results of model tests performed in the wave tank at
tests UCC provided some additional data, but where not
relevant for the extreme wave estimate for the front
wall.
Details about empirical The formulae considered for the structure/front wall
52
formulae design were BS 6349 and Shore Protection Manual; due

to its more conservative estimate the SPM formulae was
used.
Details about numerical The linear numerical code Aquadyn (ECN) was used for
models the hydrodynamic design, but is not suitable for
survivability calculations in relatively shallow water
(breaking waves)
Evaluation studies on plant A preliminary survivability study by Dr. Gerald Mller

survivability and Prof. Whittaker was included in the final report of
the first project phase.
PROTOTYPE: Parameters to Pressure measurements on the front wall of the

be measured related to plant prototype were planned and equipment was purchased,
survivability but due to lack of funding have not been mounted yet.
An internal level gauge is working.
PROTOTYPE: Comparison Not specified

between design and measured
values
Relevant questions not Stability design aspects arising from internal sloshing
addressed in this query and due to additional buoyancy when air is entrapped in
chamber.
References Falco, A. F. de O. (1996): European Wave Energy

Pilot Plant on the Island of Pico, Azores, Portugal;
Contract JOU2-CT93-0314: Final Report; 02/1994
08/96
Falco, A. F. de O. (2000): The shoreline OWC wave

power plant at the Azores. Proc. of the 4th European
Wave Energy Conference 2000, Aalborg, Denmark, pp.
42-48
Mller, G.U. and Whittaker, T.J.T. (1996): Evaluation

of Design Wave Impact Pressures, J. Waterway, Port,
Coastal and Ocean Engineering, 01/1996, pp. 55-58;
Am. Soc. of Civ. Eng. (ASCE), USA
53
Device: LIMPET 5000.5 MW Shoreline Wave Power Station
Description and dimensions of Inclined OWC with an angle of 40 to the horizontal, the
significant parts exposed to lower 3 m of the lip slightly more inclined towards
loading vertical. The reinforced concrete front wall is 0.75 m
strong, on the lower 3 m forming towards a round lip of
1.5 m diameter. The cross-section of collector
(chamber) is divided into three separate columns, each
6 m. Total span of roof is 21 m.
Phase of plant development plant finalised and operative; prototype status
General remarks on device The roof span of 21 m would be too large to be

and the interpretation of economically efficient, which was one reason for the
extreme loads/survivability three modules. In the design phase for the structure,
several aspects were considered, among them arch
geometries, compressive membrane action of thin
concrete plates and the possibility of a protective foil for
the front wall. The front wall was designed to withstand
a frontal wave pressure of 6 bar (600 kN/m2) over the
entire width of 21 m, or a peak internal pressure of 1 bar
(100 kN/m2).
The inclination of the front wall is expected to reduce

breaking wave impact loading significantly.
Water depth at the plant site Nominally 6 m at the lip of the collector stepping up to
4-5 m in the gully.
Design wave height Hs max: 4.4 m
Design wave period Tz max : 13.4
Return period of design wave Not specified
Maximum design wave No overall design wave pressure was specified but a
pressure number of load cases developed from model test data
and from literature studies were studied via finite
element analysis as follows
1) Wave impact pressure on the sloping front wall in a

triangular load distribution with a peak of 600 kPa
spread over 6 m height of wall and over the full with of
the structure. Three analysis were performed with the
peak load was centred at 3 m, 6 m and 9 m down the
slope from the wave return wall.
54
2) Wave impact pressure on the sloping front wall in a

triangular load distribution with a peak of 600 kPa
spread over a 6 m height of wall and across 2/3 of the
with of the structure. The peak load was centred at 6 m
and down the slope from the wave return wall. This
modelled the effect of an incident wave impacting on
one side of the structure allowing for the delayed impact
of an oblique wave attack.
3) Air suction pressure of 20 kPa on the internal

surfaces of the top sloping face.
Maximum design wave load No design wave height was specified per se.
Details about the experimental 1:40 scale tests were conducted in tank trials at
tests Wavegen test facility in Inverness.
Details about empirical Not specified.

formulae
Details about numerical Not specified.

models
Evaluation studies on plant In addition to the basic design studies and based on the
survivability load cases developed from model tests, a design
iteration was performed via further model tests to
establish the collector size necessary to avoid complete
filling of the collector chamber and hence internal wave
slam and possible green water ingress into the turbine.
PROTOTYPE: Parameters to The plant has an array of pressure transducers mounted

be measured related to plant at the waterline on the outer surface of the collector. A
survivability second transducer array is mounted inside the collector
at the water line on the rear wall. Pressure transducers
also measure the chamber air pressure.
PROTOTYPE: Comparison The process of data capture and analysis is ongoing but
between design and measured the initial indications are that the wave impact pressures
values on LIMPET are very much smaller that those on a
breakwater in a comparable location. This observation,
which echoes laboratory results, is almost certainly a
beneficial effect of the energy absorption of the OWC
system.
Relevant questions not Not specified.

addressed in this query
References Heath, T.; Whittaker, T.J.T.; Boake, C. B. (2000), The

design, construction and operation of the LIMPET wave
energy converter (Islay Scotland). Proc. 4th European
Wave Power Conf., University of Aalborg, Denmark,
55
paper B2
Mller, G.U., Walkden, M.: Survivability Assessment of

Shoreline OWC Wave Power Stations; Proceedings of
the 17th International Conference on Offshore
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering; ASME 1998
Mller, G.U., Whittaker, T.J.T., Long, A.: Study on the

Main Design Parameters and Solutions for the Front
Wall of Shoreline Wave Power Stations; Internal
ReportCivil Engineering Department of Queens
University, Belfast/Northern Ireland, 1997
Mller, G.U.; Whittaker, T.J.T.: Evaluation of Design

Wave Impact Pressures; Journal of Waterway, Port,
Coastal and Ocean Engineering, January/February 1996,
pp. 55-58; American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE), 1996
Mller, G.U.; Whittaker, T.J.T.: An Investigation of

Breaking Wave Pressures on Inclined Walls; Ocean
Engineering Vol. 20, N 4, pp. 349-358; Pergamon Press
Ltd, London, 1995
Mller, G.U., Whittaker, T.J.T.: On the Vertical

Distribution of Wave Impact Pressures; Proc. Fifth Intl.
Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference ISOPE, The
Hague/Netherlands, June 11-16, 1995
56
Device: Sakata OWC Breakwater Caisson
Description and dimensions of OWC structure seamlessly integrated in vertical caisson

significant parts exposed to breakwater; caisson width 20 m, 5 compartments of 4 m
loading each, chamber length 7 m; caisson crest height 12.5 m
above MWL. Front wall 45 inclined from crest to ca.
SWL, below vertical; thickness of front wall ca. 45cm
Phase of plant development Plant decommissioned after several years of operation

(inauguration 1989), without structural damage.
General remarks on device The caisson is apparently considered to be more stable

and the interpretation of against wave forces than a conventional caisson.
extreme loads/survivability
Water depth at the plant site 14.5 m
Design wave height Hmax = 15.3 m; H1/3 = 10.2 m (for wave attack angle = 25)
Design wave period T1/3 = 14.5 s
Return period of design wave not specified (during the term of experiments, several
recordings of H1/3 > 7 m were made, reaching a
maximum of H1/3 = 8.67 m, corresponding to Hmax =
14 m, T1/3 = 12.88 s )
Maximum design wave 1.0 x salt water density x design wave height from
pressure impulsive pressures by breaking waves
0.5 x salt water density x design wave height for

negative internal pressure due to air expansion
1.0 x salt water density x design wave height for

(positive) internal air pressure
Maximum design wave load Not specified (pressures above constant over relevant
surfaces).
Details about the experimental Not specified.

tests
Details about empirical The Goda formula was applied, after proposing an
formulae expansion for application to wave energy caissons
(Takahashi, 1996)

models
57
Evaluation studies on plant Not specified.

survivability
PROTOTYPE: Parameters wave pressure (uplift, air pressure) and reinforcement

measured related to plant stress were measured with 20 wave pressure gauges and
survivability 20 reinforcement stress gauges.
PROTOTYPE: Comparison during the term of experiments, several recordings of

between design and measured H1/3 > 7 m were made, reaching a maximum of H1/3 =
values 8.67 m, corresponding to Hmax = 14 m, T1/3 = 12.88 s,
therefore close to design conditions. no damage was
reported to caisson members including the air chamber.

References Goda, Y.; Kanda, K.; Hoshima, Y.; Ohneda, H.; Susuki,
H.; Hirano, M. e Takahashi, S. (1989), Field
Verification Experiment of a Wave Power Extracting
Caisson Breakwater. Proc. 1 st Int. Conf. Ocean Energy
Recovery, Hawaii, pp 35-42
Moto, K.; Nakada, H.; Ohneda, H.; Shikamori, M. e

Takahashi S. (1991) Field Experiment on Wave Energy
Utilization System with Wave Power Extracting Caisson
Breakwater. 17th Meeting UJNR/MFP, Tokyo.
Nakada, H.; Suzuki, M.; Takahashi, S.; Shikamori, M.

(1992): Development test of wave power extracting
caisson breakwater; Civil Engineering in Japan 1992
Takahashi, S. (1988): Hydrodynamic Characteristics of

Wave-power Extracting Caisson Breakwater. 21 st
ICCE, Spain, pp. 2489-2501
58
Device: Breakwater-OWC at Portuguese Coastline; based on Pico plant
Description and dimensions of Case-study Aveiro (Integration in rubble-mound

significant parts exposed to breakwater): cellular caisson structure with 2-3 m thick
loading front wall spanning over a total of 12 m. In the middle, a
support for the lip was considered, limiting the span to
2x6 m. Height above MSL: 8-10 m.
Preliminary Design Foz do Douro (Integration in

vertical breakwater head): cellular caisson structure with
ca. 15 m span. Height above MSL ca. 10 m.
Phase of plant development Preliminary Design/Case study
General remarks on device As part of a breakwater, the device has to fully comply
and the interpretation of with the stability requirements for a breakwater section.
extreme loads/survivability Particularly in the case of a rubble-mound breakwater,
this is a demand very difficult to achieve, and due to
possibly complex loading situations such an integration
is not (yet) considered as viable.
In case of Foz do Douro project, the stability is a highly

sensitive aspect and it will be required to take special
measures to ensure the full reliability as a breakwater
section. Among such measures are: use of special
concrete (28-30 kn/m3), interlocking caisson with
bordering caissons, attaching caisson base directly to
rocky bottom.
Water depth at the plant site 8-11 m (at continental Portugal, this is about the
minimum depth reasonable for OWCs of that size)
Design wave height Aveiro: ca. 12-15 m (see preliminary study; Neumann,
1999);
Foz do Douro: 11 m
Design wave period Aveiro: range investigated of 10 s-20 s (see preliminary

study; Neumann, 1999)
Foz do Douro: 14 s
Return period of design wave Aveiro: not specified
Foz do Douro: 50 years
Maximum design wave Aveiro: up to 1200 kn/m2 Foz do
59
pressure Douro: no severe impact pressures (values adopted from

breakwater design study by consultant, who apparently
used Goda approach)
Maximum design wave load Aveiro: 50-60 mN assumed
Foz do Douro: 50 mN horizontal and 20 mN uplift
Details about the experimental No experiments conducted yet; in mid 2002 generic
tests breaking wave impact measurements on vertical and
inclined impermeable (incl. gap below wall) and
perforated walls will be started conducted at 1:50 scale
2D.
Details about empirical Aveiro: differences by a factor of 10 among different

formulae approaches were observed and the Shore Protection
Manual formula was assumed to be overly conservative,
as suggested by other researchers. However,
Goda/Takahashi approach could be not conservative
enough, since impacts on a front wall as separate
structural element may have another significance than
for an entire caisson system.
Foz do Douro: Goda approach was used (taken from

breakwater design; common practise for vertical
breakwaters in Portugal)
Details about numerical No numerical models applied for survivability aspects.

models
Evaluation studies on plant An extensive study on breaking wave loads was

survivability performed (Neumann, 1999) comparing the available
approaches.
PROTOTYPE: Parameters to No measurements conducted (case-study/preliminary

be measured related to plant design!).
survivability
PROTOTYPE: Comparison No measurements conducted (case-study/preliminary

between design and measured design!).
values
Relevant questions not Stability design aspects arising from internal sloshing
addressed in this query and due to additional buoyancy when air is entrapped in
chamber.
References Neumann, F. (1999): Preliminary Study of an OWC

Breakwater Integration; MARETEC RT2nd
Generation3, Internal Report; Instituto Superior
Tcnico, Portugal
60
Neumann, F. e Sarmento A.J.N.A. (2000), An

Assessment of Technical and Economical Viability of
OWC Integration in Breakwaters. Proc. 4th European
paper B3
Neumann, F. e Sarmento A.J.N.A. (2001), OWC-

caisson economy and its dependency on breaking wave
design loads. Proc. 9th Int. Offshore and Polar Engng.,
Conf., Brest, ISOPE, I, paper AS-08.
61
Device: KIMBLA-OWC: Shoreline OWC with parabolic-shaped reflector
Description and dimensions of Bottom Mounted Nearshore OWC with parabolic

significant parts exposed to shaped reflector to concentrate wave resource on OWC;
loading ca. 40 m overall width.
OWC Chamber is 10 m wide. The lip is 3 m below

MWL, and the OWC is open on three sides because of
the energy approaching from 2 directions due to the
parabolic reflecting wall.
Phase of plant development Detailed design is nearing completion. Target tender

June 2001.
General remarks on device Survivability was a main design criteria.

and the interpretation of
Water depth at the plant site 9m
Design wave height Hb = 7 m
Design wave period 9-12 seconds
Return period of design wave 50y for Hmax=H1/100 =7 m
Maximum design wave Varies considerably over the structure

pressure
Maximum design wave load As above
Details about the experimental Tests were conducted on a 1:15 scale in a 2D wave tank
tests with regular and irregular waves, but impact pressures
and forces were not part of the study results.
Details about empirical SPM and Goda both appliedGoda used in final
formulae design.
Details about numerical None for the hydrodynamicsonly for the

models aerodynamics. Numerical hydrodynamic modelling is
being conducted now.
Evaluation studies on plant Consideration of the design parameters of the Indian

survivability OWC project (see References) were included in this
design.
62
PROTOTYPE: Parameters to All these parameters will be measured in the real plant,
be measured related to plant using transducers and anemometers.
survivability
PROTOTYPE: Comparison Will be conducted.

values
Relevant questions not Not specified

References Not specified
(the Indian OWC project referred to is described in
Raju, V.S; Jayakuma; Neelamani, S. (1992), Concrete

Caisson for a 150 kW Wave Energy Pilot Plant: Design,
Construction and Installation Aspects; Proc. 2nd Int.
Offshore and Polar Engng Conference; ISOPE, USA. )
(Contribution by T. Denniss, Energetech , Australia)
63
Device: PENDULOR Wave Energy Converter15 kW Test Plant
Extraction technology Pendular motion of hinged flap hung into the sea;
excited by wave force in resonance with water chamber
of a caisson; hydrostatic power transmission via vane
pump to steady high-speed rotating generator.
Description and dimensions of Vertically hinged metal flap of ca. 3.2 m height and 2 m
significant parts exposed to width; fixed on concrete caisson with wave chamber
loading (7 m height and 3.3 m width; lateral concrete wall
thickness 0.5 m.
Phase of plant development Finalised test plant at Muroran site, operational during
17 years until March 2000
(mentioned are 300-600 kW prototype case studies and

150-250 kW project for Sri Lanka)
General remarks on device Not specified.

Water depth at the plant site 2.75 m
Design wave height 2m
Design wave period 4s
Return period of design wave Not specified.
Maximum design wave Not specified.

pressure
Maximum design wave load Not specified.
Details about the experimental Not specified.

tests
Details about empirical Not specified.

formulae

models
Evaluation studies on plant Not specified.

survivability
PROTOTYPE: Parameters Survivability of Pendulor against storm during

measured related to plant 20 months operation; ultrasonic and wave sensor
64
survivability measurements for wave height and period; pendular

movement of the shaft; angular displacement of
pendulum; delivery pressure of pump; supplying
pressure to the motors; torque of the load pump; speed
of the load pump.
PROTOTYPE: Comparison Pendulor experienced several severe storms and

between design and measured survived safely.
values

References Watabe, T.: Ocean Wave Energy Converter: Pendulor;

private report; T-wave consulting volunteer Dr. Tomiji
Watabe, Noribetsu, Japan, June 2000
Watabe, T.: Pendulor Wave Energy wave power

converterfifteen years study and future prospect;
Proceedings of International Symposium on Ocean
Energy Development, Muroran, Japan 1993, pp. 41-52
65
Device: Oscillating water columns (OWC) with variable asymmetry of back to front
wall
Description and dimensions of Not specified (generic studies on OWC)

significant parts exposed to
loading
Phase of plant development mid 2001: 1/100 scale tank model stage pending
completion of design and testing of digital hydraulic
machines for full-scale hardware.
General remarks on device Great importance is placed on testing for survival in the
and the interpretation of worst possible sea states. Initially was expected that, in
extreme loads/survivability the Scottish wave climate, the extreme stresses would be
about ten times the economically justifiable working
stresses, which themselves would be a strong cost
driver.
All our devices are designed never to suffer stress above
that which would occur at the economic power limit.
Water depth at the plant site not specified
Design wave height In general the North Atlantic extreme of 37 metres is

assumed but the performed tests always exceed this.
(being a generic study also taking into account offshore
deployment, no particular site appears to be regarded. For specific
sites shoreline, wave heights are significantly reduced due to
shallow water propagation !)
Design wave period Typically 14 seconds for North Atlantic sites but it has
been searched for the period and phase combinations
that give the worst loads.
Return period of design wave 100 years.
Maximum design wave Not specified (only considered gross loads due to other
pressure preferences)
Maximum design wave load Not specified
66
Details about the experimental In the narrow tank we carried out a few efficiency
tests experiments with asymmetric oscillating water-columns.
We measured chamber pressure and internal water
position. Damping set by a variable area orifice which
had an unfortunate square law relationship between
pressure and flow but was just acceptable for initial
work in regular waves. Attempts to measure the
hydrodynamic coefficients of damping and added mass
were badly confused by tank reflections.
Details about empirical Not specified

formulae
Details about numerical Not specified

models
Evaluation studies on plant Not specified

survivability
PROTOTYPE: Parameters to Not specified

be measured related to plant
survivability
PROTOTYPE: Comparison Not specified

values
Relevant questions not The horizontal velocities and accelerations of waves. In

addressed in this query a mixed sea these can vary from vertical ones especially
in shallow water. For deeply immersed objects the
horizontal force coefficients are usually bigger than the
vertical ones. However we usually do not measure
horizontal water movements directly with wave gauges
and (in English at least) we even have no word to
describe horizontal movements.
Behaviour after the failure of power take-off, moorings

or grid connection.
Rocks included with incoming waves. These are

obvious along the Atlantic coast of Lewis in the Outer
Hebrides and have been observed at Pico.
Shallow water refraction hotspots as investigated by

Norwave.
Effects of skewed statistics of water movement in

shallow water as observed by Queens University
Belfast.
The desirability of presenting results in a standardised
67
way. There have been at least four different definitions

of significant wave height. The most common one is the
average height of the highest one third of waves but this
is sensitive to any change of bandwidth of the
measurement system because higher bandwidths
measure more zero crossings. The most recent definition
is based on four times the root-mean-square value but it
would be more sensible to use stick to root-mean-square
for both waves and other parameters. Similar arguments
can be raised against the parameter, Tz, which should be
replaced by the energy period, Te, calculated from the
wave spectrum and defined as the period of a regular
wave which would have the same power density and the
same root-mean-square amplitude.
Many design parameters can be shown as families of

peak-derived and root-mean-square derived curves for
several wave periods plotted against root-mean-square
wave amplitude. Any increase in the ratio of peak-
derived to RMS-derived force coefficients from a value
of about 3.5 over a convenient length of random wave
experiment is a marker of non-linearity which should be
investigated.
The best search techniques are successive adjustments

of the phases of the components of a random sea and
movements of the model test position relative to the
nominal breaking point. Other displays can be designed
to reveal particular aspects of device behaviour.
References Not specified.
(Contribution by S. Salter, Wave Power Group/University of Edinburgh)
Devices to be deployed in the open sea are typically reactive floating bodies, moored to
the seabed. The major design problems with respect to survivability will vary with
respect to the exact power extraction technology and geometry. Among offshore wave
energy devices are buoys with different extraction mechanisms (OWC buoy, IPS buoy),
heaving floats and other reactive bodies (Pelamis, IPS buoy, Salter Duck and follow-up
devices, Bristol Cylinder, McCabe Wave Pump), beside floating OWC systems and
OWC-based systems (BBDBBackward Bent Duct Buoy). A unique design is the
completely submerged AWS, consisting of a moored (pilot plant: bottom-standing) inner
cylinder and a moving outer cylinder (floater). The possibly most general (stability)
design problem to offshore devices could be the stroke limitation of moving parts in
extreme sea states. As moving parts are typically tuned to resonate for certain sea states
in order to maximise their movement with respect to a reference frame, they are adversely
subject to large forces when entering resonant states in extreme seas. In the remarks for
some particular offshore devices this aspect is explained more closely.
68
Other more recent design that might be less problematic to this respect are floating
overtopping devices operating a conventional hydro-turbine, such as e.g. the Wave-
Dragon.
Generally, the structural survivability problem for offshore devices appears to be less
critical due to severe environmental loading (wave breaking on the structure) than to
specific mechanisms differing from device to device. This is on the one hand, because
offshore devices provide typically a certain overall flexibility lacking a rigid ground
connection, and on the other hand due to the smaller probability of violently breaking
waves in deeper waters.
Device: Offshore Floating OWC Mighty Whale
Description and dimensions of Floating body: Length 50.0 m, Breadth 30.0 m, Depth
significant parts exposed to 12.0 m , draft 8.0 m, Front wall 2.0 m, Displacement
loading 4,380 ton, Light weight 1,290 tons.
Air chamber : L x B x D = 10.0 m x 8.0 m x 12.0 m; No.

of air chambers: 3 air chambers.
Mooring system: type: catenary mooring; No. of

mooring lines: 6 lines (weather side: 4 lines , lee side:
2 lines).
Specification of mooring line; weather side (total length:

265 m each): Chain diameter and length: 160 mm,
165 m join with 130 mm, 100 m; Intermediate weight:
14 ton x 2; Anchor: 165 ton in water (concrete anchor)
Lee side: Chain diameter and length: 81 mm, 207 m;
Intermediate weight: 14 ton x 2; Anchor: 125 ton in
water (concrete anchor)
Phase of plant development Detail design : 1995. 4 1996. 3
Construction : 1997. 7 1998. 5
Mooring operation : 1998. 6 1998. 7
Adjustment of measuring instrument : 1998. 8 1998. 9
Open sea tests : 1998. 9. 10 now
General remarks on device Survivability was main design criteria.

Water depth at the plant site 40 m
Design wave height Max. significant wave height = 8 m .
69
Design wave period Max. significant wave period : 10 15 sec .
Maximum design wave In the floating device, the body motion has to be
pressure considered, therefore the max. design variable water
pressure is used instead of the max. design wave
pressure.
The max. design variable water pressure : 11.7 ton/m2
Maximum design wave load Steady external force
For the design of a mooring system (For the design of a

floating device), one of the important value is a steady
external force which added wave drift force and wind
force and current force. Steady force (head sea
condition): 69.9 ton (wave drift force: 30.0 ton, wind
force: 19.4 ton, current force: 20.5 ton).
However, it is necessary to consider the steady force

under various conditions in beam sea, etc. in the design
of the mooring system.
Maximum horizontal displacement
This value is an important value as a necessity in order

to calculate the maximum mooring tension. This value
is calculated by adding the slow drift oscillation to the
steady horizontal displacement calculated from steady
external force. Maximum horizontal displacement :
38.9 m
Maximum mooring tension
Maximum mooring tension (head sea condition): 261.4

ton
Maximum mooring tension (bow sea (from 45 degrees)

condition): 284.0 ton
Details about the experimental Scale : 1/40, 1/30, 1/20

tests Conditions : 2D and 3D
Wave : regular and irregular
Measurements : incident wave and transmitted wave,
body motion, air pressure in air chamber, water level
inside air chamber, mooring tension.
70
Details about empirical Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (NK) Rules for the Survey and
formulae Construction of Steel Ships Part P : Mobile offshore
drilling units, work-ship and special purpose barges.
Design and construction manual for floating breakwater

(The new technology development research association
of the fishery port)
Details about numerical 3D, non-linear

models
Evaluation studies on plant We compared the calculation result with tank

survivability experimental result. As the result, both agreed almost,
and the validity of the design was able to be confirmed.
PROTOTYPE: Parameters to various parameters; not listed in detail

survivability
PROTOTYPE: Comparison The wave height which was similar to design condition
between design and measured right after the open sea tests start by hit typhoon No.7
values was recorded. The significant wave height was 7.5
8.0 m, and its significant wave period was 11 12 sec.
Under the this ocean wave condition, the safety of
Mighty Whale was ensured, and the validity of the
design was confirmed.
Relevant questions not (Addition or changed questions for floating device in

addressed in this query this query marked as underlined subtitles)
References Hiroyuki Osawa, Yoshinori Nagata, Syogo Miyajima,

Hisaaki Maeda : A Design of Mooring System for
Floating Wave Energy Converter in Shallow Water,
Journal of The Society of Naval Architects of Japan,
Vol. 182, pp341- 348, 1998 (Japanese)
Yukihisa Washio, Hiroyuki Osawa, Yoshinori Nagata,

Umesh.A.Korde, Hiroki Huruyama, Toshisuke Fujita
The Offshore Floating Type Wave Energy Device
Mighty Whale Proceeding of UJNR MARINE
FACILETIES PANEL 22nd JOINT MEETING pp.267-
282, 1998. 11
Yukihisa Washio, Hiroyuki Osawa, Yoshinori Ngata,

Fuminori Fujii, Huriki Furuyama, Toshisuke Fujita The
Offshore Floating Type Wave Power Device Mighty
Whale Open Sea Tests Proceeding of the Tenth(2000)
International Offshore and Polar Engineering
Conference Vol.1 pp.373-380 2000. 5
Hiroyuki Owasa, Yukihisa Washio, Yoshinori Nagata,
71
Fuminori Fujii, Hiroki Furuyama, Toshisuke Fujita;

The Offshore Floating Type Wave Power Device
Mighty Whale Open Sea Tests Proceeding of UJNR
MARINE FACILITIES PANEL 23rd JOINT MEETING
2000, pp.27-1 6, 2000. 5
Yukihisa Washio, Hiroyuki Osawa, Teruhisa Ogata The

Open Sea Tests of The Offshore Floating Type Wave
Power Device Mighty Whale Oceans 2001 2001. 11
Yukihisa Washio, Hiroyuki Osawa, Yoshinori Nagata,

Seiya Yamashita, Teruhisa Ogata : A Study on
Environmental Conditions at the Test Site of the
Offshore Floating Wave Power Device Mighty Whale,
Journal of The Society of Naval Architects of Japan,
Vol. 190, 2002 (Japanese)
Yukihisa Washio, Hiroyuki Osawa, Teruhisa Ogata,

Hiroyuki Nakagawa, Shuzou Okayama, Yoshinori
Nagata : A Study on Characteristics of Generated
Output of the Offshore Floating Type Wave Power
Device Mighty Whale, Journal of The Society of
Naval Architects of Japan, Vol. 190, 2002 (Japanese)
72
Device: Archimedes Wave Swing 1 (AWS 1)2 MW bottom-standing pilot plant for
submerged offshore device
Extraction technology Conversion of heaving motion with linear generator
Description and dimensions of Submerged device, therefore not subject to surface

significant parts exposed to waves. 34 m high and 9 m wide outer cylinder on 48 m
loading x 28 m pontoon placed on seabed.
Phase of plant development 10/2001: 2 MW pilot plant is ready to be towed and

sunk into place offshore Viana do Castelo/Portugal.
General remarks on device The concept resulted from demanding high survivability
and the interpretation of of the device; survivability has always been important
extreme loads/survivability factor in the design but the dimensions of the device
were not determined by this criteria. Survivability is
critical to determine the range of waves within which
the device may operate. There is a survivability mode of
operation for the case of extreme sea states.
Water depth at the plant site 42 m
Design wave height 20 m
Design wave period 9-14 s
Return period of design wave 100 years
Maximum design wave not specified

pressure
Maximum design wave load 34 mN lateral forces produced by waves
Details about the experimental Sideway forces were measured in a 1:50 model in 3D
tests irregular wave basin, but considered not to be very
representative.
Details about empirical Linear wave theory (Aquadyn) and Morisons equations
formulae => higher force on the pontoon and smaller on the
cylinder.
Aquadyn is a 3D linear code developed by Ecole

Centrale de Nantes (ECN).
Details about numerical Structural calculations were performed with ANSYS;

models
73
Evaluation studies on plant Survivability procedures for the operation of the plant
survivability were particularly investigated; the sideway forces are
very important.
PROTOTYPE: Parameters to No measurements are planned.

survivability
PROTOTYPE: Comparison not specified (see above)

values
Relevant questions not Deployment procedures not asked and very relevant,
addressed in this query since it is a critical phase of device life. Cable and cable
connection should be addressed for survivability design.
Questions on the insurance are an interesting factor: was
it possible to insure the device and which kind of
problems were faced in this process?
The aspect of insurance is very important: a potentially

interesting approach could be to contact insurance
companies (see e.g. guidelines) and ask them to give an
opinion on the approach they would choose. This could
be either in general terms or with respect to one specific
device.
References Gardner, 2001: Wave energy engineering decision

model for the Archimedes Wave Swing point absorber;
presented at International Workshop Numerical
Methods in the Development, Design and Control of
Wave Power Devices, Ecole Centrale de Nantes,
France 3rd4th May 2001
( contribution by Fred Gardner, Teamwork Tekniek/AWS B.V. )
74
Device: PELAMISsemi-submerged, articulated cylindrical WEC
Extraction technology Wave-induced motion of hinged joints linking

cylindrical sections is resisted by hydraulic rams; these
pump high pressure oil through hydraulic motors via
smoothing accumulators.
Description and dimensions of 650 kW Full-scale plant will consist of 130 m long
significant parts exposed to horizontal cylinder structure (parallel to wave motion)
loading with diameter of 3.5 m.
Phase of plant development 7th scale prototype successfully completed first sea
trials in Nov. 2001
General remarks on device One of the stated lessons learnt before the Pelamis
and the interpretation of design is Survivability before power capture
extreme loads/survivability efficiency, meaning that the key objective must be the
survivability and the power capture has to be optimised
starting from this. These two essentially conflicting
aspects are often approached from the other direction.
(Yemm et al., 2000).
Another design priority of the Pelamis design was the

demand of using 100 % available technology for the
Prototype, which can contribute notably to avoiding
survivability problems in this important early stage of
development.
The device structure and all major components are

designed to give the system a service life in excess of
15 years.
Water depth at the plant site not specified.
Design wave height Not specified.
Design wave period Not specified.
Return period of design wave Not specified.
Maximum design wave Not specified.

pressure
Maximum design wave load Not specified.
75
Details about the experimental Survivability tests were performed at 80th scale in the
tests Wide tank of the University of Edinburgh, followed by
35th scale tests for numerical code verification and to
examine alternative configurations. In the 55 m wave
flume of City University followed 20th scale
survivability tests, among others at the same scale in
other tanks.
Details about empirical not specified.

formulae
Details about numerical As main power prediction programme is used a

models frequency-domain code using a strip-theory approach
to evaluate forces and moments. The frequency
dependent excitation, added mass and damping
coefficients are calculated using the 3-D diffraction
programme described by Pizer (1993, 1995). The
programme output includes motions, loads and power
capture.
A non-linear time-domain simulation program was

subsequently developed and successfully validated with
20th scale tests.
Tank testing is central to the development of the

Pelamis WEC concept and will continue at regular
intervals throughout the development process,
Numerical prediction used in isolation can be
misleading.
Evaluation studies on plant Not specified

survivability
PROTOTYPE: Parameters to The 7th scale model incorporates hydraulic systems

be measured related to plant functionally identical to those proposed for use at full
survivability scale. It will allow the development and rigorous testing
of control systems hardware and software prior to full
scale deployment.
PROTOTYPE: Comparison Not specified.

values

References Pizer, D.; Retzler, C.; Yemm, R.: The OPD Pelamis:
Experimental and Numerical Results from the
Hydrodynamic Work Programme; Proc. 4th European
76
paper H3; 2000
Pizer, D.: Numerical Modelling of Wave Energy

Absorbers; ETSU V/03/00172/REP, 1995
Pizer, D.: Numerical prediction of the performance of a

solo duck; EWEC1; Edinburgh, 1993
Yemm, R.; Henderson, R.; Taylor, C.: The OPD

Pelamis: Current Status and Onward Programme; Proc.
4th European Wave Power Conf., University of
Aalborg, Denmark, paper E3; 2000
77
Device: WAVE DRAGONfloating offshore overtopping device
Extraction technology Collecting basin with wave ramp accumulates water

from wave action to 1-4 m above SWL, running a water
turbine based on conventional hydropower turbine.
Description and dimensions of 4 MW full scale plant will consist of a doubly curved
significant parts exposed to ramp and a reservoir as main structure incorporating
loading turbine set and siphon and of two hinged wave
reflectors.
Phase of plant development Extensive design and testing have been performed on
50th scale by end of 2000.
General remarks on device As a slack-moored offshore floating device,

and the interpretation of survivability apparently was one of the main concerns
extreme loads/survivability for the Wave Dragon. This shows in the device
consisting of standard equipment combined in new
ways.
Water depth at the plant site Typically more than 20 m.
Design wave height not specified.
Design wave period not specified.
Return period of design wave not specified
(Wave Dragon showed good survivability when tested

also for very severe seas (100 year storm in the North
Sea).
Maximum design wave not specified.

pressure
Maximum design wave load not specified.
Details about the experimental Survivability tests were performed at 50th scale at
tests Aalborg University and University College Cork.
Among other factors, mooring aspects were tested
during 1999-2000.
Details about empirical not specified.

formulae
Details about numerical Numerical modelling was performed for geometrical

models layout.
Evaluation studies on plant not specified

i bilit
78
survivability
PROTOTYPE: Parameters to The 7th scale model incorporates hydraulic systems

be measured related to plant functionally identical to those proposed for use at full
survivability scale. It will allow the development and rigorous testing
of control systems hardware and software prior to full
scale deployment.
PROTOTYPE: Comparison not specified.

values
Relevant questions not not specified.

References Soerensen et al.: The Wave DragonNow ready for

Test in Real Sea; Proc. 4th European Wave Power
Conf., University of Aalborg, Denmark, paper G1; 2000
79
Device: Sloped IPS buoy, constrained to a slide and free-floating
Extraction technology Internal hydraulic ram with IPS stroke-limitation.
Description and dimensions of not yet known.

significant parts exposed to
loading
Phase of plant development 1/100 scale tank model stage pending completion of
design and testing of digital hydraulic machines for full-
scale hardware.
General remarks on device We place great importance on testing for survival in the
and the interpretation of worst possible sea states. We initially expected that, in
driver.

This is achieved by controlled yielding. Sloped buoy
models would stroke-limit at about 10 metres in a
5 metre wave height
Water depth at the plant site likely to be in more than 150 metres.
Design wave height In general we assume the North Atlantic extreme of

37 metres but our tests always exceed this. Stroke-limit
at about 10 metres in a 5 metre wave height.
Design wave period Typically 14 seconds for North Atlantic sites but we
searched for the period and phase combinations that
give the worst loads or excursions
Maximum design wave Because the exposed elements of all our devices are
pressure solid we care only about the gross loadings. The
pressure loads are set by oil pressure in the ram, which
is under our control.
Maximum design wave load not specified
Details about the experimental In the wide tank we carried out tests with regular,
tests irregular, contrived freaks and sweeps through a matrix
of crest velocity and period of an Unpowered free-
floating sloped buoy and a sloped buoy on slide
constraint with power take off. Work on a free-floating
80
sloped buoy with internal power take off is in progress.
Wide tank models had joints with strain-gauged bending

moment sensors and electronically controlled stiffness
and yield points. Wide tank models had realistic
moorings with bottom mounted force sensors and very
high compliance achieved with floats and sinkers. In a
series of experiments with variable free-board it was
found that loads to the sea bed level off when waves
start to go over the structure. This confirms our
preference for low free-board high compliance designs
which transmit rather than reflect energy.
Video highlights of the tank tests can be downloaded

from http://webhelp.ucs.ed.ac.uk/services/media/waves
Details about empirical Early in the test programme we examined predictions

formulae based on Morisons force equation (originally intended
for use on vertical columns) and found that they were in
poor agreement with measurements on horizontal
cylinders. In particular they did not show the negative
forces which occur in both crest and trough for nearly-
submerged cylinders. From then on we relied on force
coefficients based on our own observations. The
Longuet-Higgins/Stewart equations for mean mooring
forces based on transmitted, reflected and absorbed
wave amplitudes give very good predictions.
Details about numerical David Pizer joined the Edinburgh team to do numerical
models modelling using software developed at Strathclyde. His
work was aimed at the development of the sloped buoy.
He compared spherical and ellipsoidal shapes subject to
a stroke limit moving at various slope angles.
We are now only just starting to use WAMIT with

conversion of drawing files using the Multisurf input
and extraction of results using Mathcad. These will be
compared with tank measurements on the sloped buoy
which seems to be extremely linear, very much more so
than then duck.
We do not yet know of any commercially-available

numerical modelling system which can handle the non-
linearities associated with extreme conditions but the
need for such software is so great that there must be lots
of effort to produce one. The authors of the linear
applications are enthusiastic about the need for tank
tests.
81
Evaluation studies on plant Martin Greenhow, once of Edinburgh, Trondheim and

survivability now at Brunel University has carried out extensive
studies of ducks and other devices in extreme waves.
Grenhows email is Martin.Greenhow@brunel.ac.uk. A

copy of the questionnaire has been passed to him.
PROTOTYPE: Parameters to not specified

survivability (The wide tank models carried sensors for bending
moment and hinge angle with external electronic control
of stiffness and yield moment. Strain gauge mooring
transducers on the tank floor gave vertical and
horizontal data. Calculation gave the angular direction
of the mooring line.
The relatively smaller wall reflections in the wide tank

allowed measurement of damping and added mass
coefficients for solo ducks and the sloped buoy on a
fixed slide at various slope angles.
For the free-floating sloped buoy we will measure piston

position with an internal, immersed Positek sensor.
Damping will be controlled with eddy currents induced
by a radial magnetic field passing through a thin-wall
light alloy tube. There will also be the option to use an
immersed 3-phase linear motor to measure
hydrodynamic coefficients and an external Pro-Reflex
camera to give position data on model movements.
Mooring force transducers will be those used for the
spine models.
We put a lot of effort to compute and display results to

reveal the causes of complex behaviour.)

values
Relevant questions not addressed Sensitivity to long-shore currents. With mooring lines
in this query parallel when seen from above the duck spines showed a very
slow but unacceptably large response in the axial direction
which had a period equivalent to 20 minutes at full scale over
many tens of metres. This was cured by using a diamond
pattern with lines from adjacent sections being brought to a
common point.
Internal compartments for survival after ship collision.
Combinations of wave phases that give abnormally high

loads for their vertical amplitude. A useful display is the
superposition of all the force coefficients from a long series
82
of experiments.
The horizontal velocities and accelerations of waves. In a

mixed sea these can vary from vertical ones especially in
shallow water. For deeply immersed objects the horizontal
force coefficients are usually bigger than the vertical ones.
However we usually do not measure horizontal water
movements directly with wave gauges and (in English at
least) we even have no word to describe horizontal
movements.
Behaviour after the failure of power take-off, moorings or

grid connection.
The desirability of presenting results in a standardised way.

There have been at least four different definitions of
significant wave height. The most common one is the average
height of the highest one third of waves but this is sensitive to
any change of bandwidth of the measurement system because
higher bandwidths measure more zero crossings. The most
recent definition is based on four times the root-mean-square
value but it would be more sensible to use stick to root-mean-
square for both waves and other parameters. Similar
arguments can be raised against the parameter, Tz, which
should be replaced by the energy period, Te, calculated from
the wave spectrum and defined as the period of a regular
Many design parameters can be shown as families of peak-

derived and root-mean-square derived curves for several
wave periods plotted against root-mean-square wave
amplitude. Any increase in the ratio of peak-derived to RMS-
derived force coefficients from a value of about 3.5 over a
convenient length of random wave experiment is a marker of
non-linearity which should be investigated. The best search
techniques are successive adjustments of the phases of the
components of a random sea and movements of the model
test position relative to the nominal breaking point. Other
displays can be designed to reveal particular aspects of
device behaviour.
References Greenhow MJL, Vinje T.and Brevig P. Extreme Wave Forces

on Submerged Wave Energy Devices. J. Applied Ocean
Research, 1982, vol 4.
Retzler CH. Long Spine Mooring. Edinburgh University

Wave Energy Report 1986. (Compares lifetime fatigue of
electrical down feeders with Pirelli tests)
( contribution by Prof. Salter, Wave Power Group/University of Edinburgh )
83
Device: The Mace, a bottom hinged pendulum with positive buoyancy
Extraction technology Hydraulic ring-cam pump driven by tension bands to the

sea bed.
Description and dimensions of 12-metre diameter vertical cylinder, 12-metre deep on 4-

significant parts exposed to metre diameter stalk, 60-metre long.
loading
scale hardware.
driver. All our devices are designed never to suffer
stress above that which would occur at the economic
power limit. This is achieved by controlled yielding. We
also found that the largest forces do not always occur
with the highest wave crests.
Water depth at the plant site 60 m.

37 metres but our tests always exceed this.
give the worst loads or excursions.
pressure solid we care only about the gross loadings.
Maximum design wave load The mace excursion was abruptly self limited to
12 metres in much bigger waves even with no power-
take-off force. This puzzling result is thought to be
caused by of the onset of vortex shedding.
Details about the experimental In the wide tank we carried out tests with regular,
tests irregular, contrived freaks and sweeps through a matrix
of crest velocity and period of a bottom-hinged mace
with power take off. The mace was intended to have
rigid attachment to the seabed.
84


Video highlights of the tank tests can be downloaded

from http://webhelp.ucs.ed.ac.uk/services/media/waves

Details about numerical During the 1970 s and early 80 s only linear numerical
models modellers were available and, with the computer
available the, were actually slower than making and
testing tank models. We do not yet know of any
commercially-available numerical modelling system
which can handle the non-linearities associated with
extreme conditions but the need for such software is so
great that there must be lots of effort to produce one.
The authors of the linear applications are
enthusiastic about the need for tank tests.
85

copy of the questionnaire has been passed to him.

survivability (The wide tank models carried sensors for bending
of the mooring line.


reveal the causes of complex behaviour.)

values
Relevant questions not Sensitivity to long-shore currents. With mooring lines

addressed in this query parallel when seen from above the duck spines showed a
very slow but unacceptably large response in the axial
direction which had a period equivalent to 20 minutes at
full scale over many tens of metres. This was cured by
using a diamond pattern with lines from adjacent
sections being brought to a common point.
Combinations of wave phases which give abnormally

high loads for their vertical amplitude. A useful display
is the superposition of all the force coefficients from a
long series of experiments.
The horizontal velocities and accelerations of waves. In

a mixed sea these can vary from vertical ones especially
86
Behaviour after the failure of power take-off, moorings or grid connection.


investigated. The best search techniques are successive
adjustments of the phases of the components of a
random sea and movements of the model test position
relative to the nominal breaking point. Other displays
can be designed to reveal particular aspects of device
behaviour.
References Greenhow MJL, Vinje T.and Brevig P. Extreme Wave

Forces on Submerged Wave Energy Devices. J.
Applied Ocean Research, 1982, vol 4.

Wave Energy Report 1986. (Compares lifetime fatigue
of electrical down feeders with Pirelli tests)
(Contribution by Prof. Salter, Wave Power Group/University of Edinburgh )
87
Models with circular rear section designed to avoid generation of backward waves
which converged on the Duck design in both solo and spine-based versions
Extraction technology Variable-displacement hydraulic ring-cam pumps

between duck and spine.
Description and dimensions of Ducks are expected to have 14-metre stern diameter, 45-
significant parts exposed to metre width spaced at 60-metre pitch on a 120 metre
loading long section of a much longer compliant spine and to be
rated at 6 MW each.
Solo ducks would be 10-metre stern diameter and 25-

metres wide and be rated at 2 MW.
scale hardware.
driver.
However we found that with deeply immersed convex

shapes like the duck the force coefficients tend to fall
with higher waves so that the ratio of peak to economic
stress was reduced to about seven. Even so this is
undesirably high.

This is achieved by controlled yielding.
For the long duck spines the main worry was the amount
of joint angle need to ensure safe yielding to relieve
bending. This was shown to be only 4 degrees with 12
degrees available. We also found that the largest forces
do not always occur with the highest wave crests.
The tension legs of the solo duck suffered from extreme

snatch loads following any slackening. This occurred in
the steeper waves of quite moderate seas. The
instantaneous power into any tension-limiting
mechanism might be 50 MW for a 2 MW solo device.
We judged the problem to be insoluble and abandoned
the scheme despite the excellent productivity of a solo
88
duck.
Long spine models suffer the worst bending moments

when the velocity of the mechanical flexure wave along
the spine coincides with the velocity of an oblique crest.
The maximum occurs at the down-wave end. However
the flexure velocity is set by joint stiffness and so is
under our own control.
Water depth at the plant site For long spine ducks 80 metres.

37 metres but our tests always exceed this. Duck models
yield at 3 metres.
give the worst loads or excursions.
pressure solid we care only about the gross loadings. The force
between a duck body and its internal spine is shared
evenly over the entire contact area by a squeeze-film
bearing with 100 mm effective movement using
magnetic clearance definition. The pressure loads on a
duck spine are dominated by the hydrostatics.
Maximum design wave load The joints of our duck spines yield at a bending moment
5 x 106 Newton metres.
Details about the experimental In the narrow tank we carried out

tests
- Measurements of all design parameters on narrow tank
duck models with various shapes and ballast distribution.
Initially these used a fixed, force-sensitive mounting. We
tested in regular, irregular and freak waves contrived by
selection of phases to achieve coincidence. We had wide
range of power take off strategies including reactive
loading and genetically improved control parameters.
- Force measurements on circular cylinders on fixed,

force-sensitive mountings at various depths of immersion.
- Measurements on duck models with power take-off,

shape and ballasting as above but on an electronically-
controlled mounting with adjustable stiffness and force
limit intended to simulate a long spine with controlled
joints.
In the wide tank we carried out
89
Tests with regular, irregular, contrived freaks and sweeps

through a matrix of crest velocity and period of
- Rigid circular cylinders with bending moment sensors.
- Circular cylinders with bending moment sensing,

controlled compliance and yielding joints.
- Circular cylinders with controlled compliance and

yielding joints and added appendages such as fins, corners
all at variable depths of immersion.
(all above with variable lengths)
- Multi-duck models with working power take-off.
- Powered solo ducks on compliant mountings.
- Unpowered solo ducks with tension leg moorings to load

cells.
Of these only the tension-leg solo duck was intended to

have rigid attachments to the sea bed.
Narrow tank models were mounted on strain-gauged

supports which could be either rigid or designed to have an
electronically controlled stiffness chosen separately for
vertical and horizontal or arbitrary slope directions. Best
stiffness was found to fall with longer wave periods.
Power take off was modelled with immersed brushless
torque motors with variable damping, torque limiting and
reactive load capability.

moment sensors and electronically controlled stiffness and
yield points. Wide tank models had realistic moorings with
bottom mounted force sensors and very high compliance
achieved with floats and sinkers. In a series of experiments
with variable free-board it was found that loads to the sea
bed level off when waves start to go over the structure.
This confirms our preference for low free-board high
compliance designs which transmit rather than reflect
energy.
Video highlights of the tank tests can be downloaded from

http://webhelp.ucs.ed.ac.uk/services/media/waves

90

Details about numerical Ducks show force-limiting non-linear behaviour quite

models early as the duck body rotates to present a stubby
aerofoil shape to the wave. During the 1970 s and early
80 s only linear numerical modellers were available and,
with the computer available the, were actually slower
than making and testing tank models.
We are now only just starting to use WAMIT with

conversion of drawing files using the Multisurf input
and extraction of results using Mathcad.
We do not yet know of any commercially available

numerical modelling system which can handle the non-
linearities associated with extreme conditions but the
need for such software is so great that there must be lots
of effort to produce one. The authors of the linear
applications are enthusiastic about the need for tank
tests.

The duck design seems to have done all the right things
about keeping low and not showing any concavities.

copy of the questionnaire has been passed to him

survivability (For duck models we measured duck velocity, the
vertical and horizontal component of mounting force
and mounting movement. We controlled stiffness and
damping with the commands computed from velocity
inputs of duck and mounting.
Force measurements could be linked to a series of

photographs of the wave duck interaction.
We also developed techniques to minimise the duck

motion so as to allow access for maintenance. Even with
a failed power take off, this could be kept below 2
degrees in sea states up to 0.625 metres RMS
(2.5 metres significant wave height).
91
For wide tank models we measured waves in the

absence of the model with a various arrangements of
conductivity compensated wire gauges and also with a
3-D float on very soft mooring carrying a sonar pulse
transmitted to hydro-phones on the tank floor.
The wide tank models carried sensors for bending

of the mooring line. With the addition of a DC coupled
position sensor on a spine section we could calculate the
angles of deflection of the elbow joints of the float-
sinker mooring system to compare with the flexure life
of marine cables as measured by Pirelli. This indicated
an extremely large factor of safety.

3-phase linear motor to measure hydrodynamic

coefficients and an external Pro-Reflex camera to give
position data on model movements. Mooring force
transducers will be those used for the spine models.

reveal the causes of complex behaviour. )
PROTOTYPE: Comparison A week of tests at 10th scale in the towing tank at

between design and measured Feltham (which showed the same forces and better
values efficiency but much slower and more expensive testing)
convinced us that for ducks and similar objects it was
safe to test at 100th scale. This may not apply to designs
in which pneumatic pressure is too stiff at model scale.
Open air tests on ducks at 10th scale in Loch Ness
carried out by Lanchester Polytechnic (now the
University of Coventry) were on water-filled ducks with
a different shape, ballasting, damping, depth of
immersion, power-conversion algorithm, torque limit
and mounting stiffness.
Relevant questions not Sensitivity to long-shore currents. With mooring lines

addressed in this query parallel when seen from above the duck spines showed a
very slow but unacceptably large response in the axial
direction which had a period equivalent to 20 minutes at
full scale over many tens of metres. This was cured by
using a diamond pattern with lines from adjacent
92
sections being brought to a common point.
Combinations of wave phases which give abnormally

high loads for their vertical amplitude. A useful display
is the superposition of all the force coefficients from a
long series of experiments.
The horizontal velocities and accelerations of waves. In

a mixed sea these can vary from vertical ones especially
Behaviour after the failure of power take-off, moorings

or grid connection.


investigated. The best search techniques are successive
adjustments of the phases of the components of a
random sea and movements of the model test position
relative to the nominal breaking point. Other displays
can be designed to reveal particular aspects of device
behaviour.
93
References Greenhow MJL, Vinje T.and Brevig P. Extreme Wave

Forces on Submerged Wave Energy Devices. J.
Greenhow MJL, Vinje T., Brevig and P. Taylor JRM. A

Theoretical and Experimental Study of the Capsize of
Salters Duck in Extreme Waves. J. Fluid Mechanics,
1982, vol. 118, pp 221-239

Wave Energy Report 1986. (Compares lifetime fatigue
of electrical down feeders with Pirelli tests)
Retzler CH. Long Spines with Appendages. Edinburgh

University Wave Energy Report 1987. (Shows results of
overtopping).
Salter SH, Taylor JRM, Retzler CH. Bending Moments

in Long Spines. Edinburgh University Wave Energy
Report 1984. (Explores South Uist wave climate and
contrived directional seas to investigate flexure waves
and maximum joint angles. See also Retzler CH. PhD
Thesis Edinburgh University 198?.)
Taylor JRM. Duck Behaviour in Extreme Conditions.

Edinburgh University Wave Energy Report 1978
volume 2. (Synchronised force and photographic results
of a phase-adjusted random sea striking a duck at
various positions relative to the nominal break point)
(Contribution by S.. Salter, Wave Power Group/University of Edinburgh )
B 4.4 Links and references related to survivability of wave energy

devices
Possibly useful sites for the stability design task of wave energy devices are listed in the
following, followed by some literature references that contain general information and/or
specific topics.
Archimedes Wave Swing (AWS): http:\\www.waveswing.cominvented, develop and commercialise
AWS technology, presently in deployment phase of bottom-standing 2 MW prototype in Portugal
ENERGETECH: http://www.Energetech.com.audevelop and commercialise the Australian OWC with
parabolic wave concentrators in front of Breakwater.
JAMSTEC:developed and test offshore OWC Mighty Whale presently operating in Japan
OPD (Ocean Power Delivery)http://www.oceanpd.com -develop and commercialise Pelamis Wave
Energy Converter and are involved in set-up of Wave Energy Test and Research Centre in Scotland.
SPOK/EMU consult: http://www.emu-consult.dk/welcome.shtml investigated and commercialise wave
dragon
University of EdinburghWave Power Group (Prof. Salter)http://www.mech.ed.ac.uk/research/wave
power/exhaustive experience in wave power device research and testing (typically smaller scales)
94
and very informative web presence; probably one of the best addresses to contact for survivability
aspects of offshore devices
WAVEGEN: http://www.wave-gen.comdeveloped and commercialise LIMPET shoreline plant in Outer
Hebrides/Scotland and propose OspreyII/WOSP near shore OWC device.
B 4.5 Literature references

B 4.5.1 Wave structure interaction
Books, proceedings and reference documents

Gerwick, B.: Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures; 2nd edition; CRC Press, Boca Raton/USA,
2000
Goda, Y.: Random Seas and Design of Maritime Structures; University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo/Japan, 1985
Mei, C.: The Applied Dynamics of Ocean Surface Waves; Wiley-Interscience publication; John Wiley and
Sons, USA, 1983
B 4.5.2 Offshore devices (offshore construction)
Books, proceedings and collections/recommendations

ICE (The Institution of Civil Engineers): Design and Construction of Offshore Structures; Proceedings of
the Conference held on 27-28 October 1976, The Institution of Civil Engineers, London 1977
Hapel, Karl-Heinz: Festigkeitsanalyse dynamisch beanspruchter Offshore-Konstruktionen; Friedrich
Vieweg and Sohn Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Braunschweig 1990 (in GermanDurability analysis
of dynamically stressed offshore constructions)
Sarpkaya, T.; Isaacson, M.: Mechanics of Wave Forces on Offshore Structures; Van Noostrand Reinhold
Company, New York, 1981
Whitehouse, R.J.S.: Scour at Marine Structures. A Manual for Practical Applications; Thomas Telford
London, 1998
Conference papers, journal articles and reports

Katsui, H; Taoui, T. (1991): Methodology of Estimation of Scouring around Large-Scale Offshore
Structures; Proceedings of 3rd ISOPE Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference
B 4.5.3 Shoreline plants (coastal engineering)
Books, proceedings and reference documents

Brunn, P. (1989), Harbour Planning, Breakwaters and Marine Terminals; Port Engineering, 4th Edition;
Gulf Publishing Company, Houston/Texas.
Kamphuis, W.: Introduction to Coastal Engineering and Management; Advanced Series on Ocean
EngineeringVolume 16; World Scientific Publishing, London, 2000
Oumeraci, H; Kortenhaus, A.; Allsop, W.; Groot, M.; Crouch, R.; Vrijling, H.; Voortman, H.: Probabilistic
Design Tools for Vertical Breakwaters; Balkema Publishers, Lisse/The Netherlands, 2001
PHRIAdvanced Design of Maritime Structures in the 21 st Century; Proceedings of International
Workshop (ADMS21) March 5-7, 2001; Port and Harbour Research Institute PHRI; Ministery of
Land, Infrstructure and Transport (MLIT), Yokosuka/Japan, 2001
Takahashi, S., Design of Vertical Breakwaters. PHRI publication N 34, Port and Harbour Research
Institute, Yokosuka/Japan, 1996
95
Allsop, N.W.H.; Vicinanza, D.; McKenna, J.E. (1996), Wave Forces on Vertical and Composite
Breakwaters. Report SR 443, March 1995, Rev. March 1996; HR Wallingford Group Ltd., UK.
Allsop, N.W.H.; Calabrese, M. (1998): Impact Loadings on Vertical Walls in Directional Seas; reproduced
from a Paper presented to 26th International Conference on Coastal Engineering;
Copenhagen/Denmark 1998; HR Wallingford Group Ltd
Allsop, N.W.H.; Durand, N. (1998): Influence of Steep Seabed Slopes on Breaking Waves for Structure
Design; modified and extended version of a paper originally presented to 26th International
Conference on Coastal Engineering; Copenhagen/Denmark 1998; HR Wallingford Group Ltd
Calabrese, M; Vicinanza, D. (1999): Prediction of Wave Impact Occurrence on Vertical and Composite
Breakwaters; Excerpta of the Italian Contributions to the Field of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. XIII,
25pp., published by CUEN 2001, Napoli/Italy
Cesari, F.G.; Rebora, A: Optimum Design of Foundations for Offshore Wind Turbine Generators;
University of Bologna, L.I.N. Montecuccolino; University of Genua, Applied Mechanics Institute
Chan, E.S.; Cheong, H.F.; Gin, K.Y.H. (1995): Breaking Wave Loads on Vertical Walls Suspended above
Mean Sea Level; Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Jul./Aug. 1995, pp.
195-202; American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
Franco L. (1994), Vertical Breakwaters: the Italian Experience. Proceedings of 24th ASCE Conference
Coastal Engineering 1994, Orlando/Florida.
Goda, Y.: Japans Design Practice in Assessing Wave Forces on Vertical Breakwaters; Wave Forces on
Inclined and Vertical Wall Structures, ASCE, New York, 1995
Hanssen, A.; Trum, A.: Breaking Wave Forces on Tripod Concrete Structure on Shoal; Journal of
Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, November/December 1999, pp. 304-310;
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
Kriebel, D.; Berek, E.; Chakrabarti, S.; Waters, J. (1999): Wave-Current Loading on Shallow-Water
Caisson: An Evaluation of API Recommended Practice; Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and
Ocean Engineering, January/February 1999, pp. 29-38; American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE)
Lundgren, H.; Juhl, J. (1995): Optimization of Caisson Breakwater Design; Wave Forces on Inclined and
Vertical Wall Structures, ASCE, New York,
Mller, G.U.; Whittaker, T.J.T. (1996): Evaluation of Design Wave Impact Pressures; Journal of
Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, January/February 1996, pp. 55-58; American
Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
Mller, G.U.; Whittaker, T.J.T. (1995): An Investigation of Breaking Wave Pressures on Inclined Walls;
Ocean Engineering Vol. 20, N 4, pp. 349-358; Pergamon Press Ltd, London
Mller, G.U., Whittaker, T.J.T. (1995): On the Vertical Distribution of Wave Impact Pressures; Proc. Fifth
Intl. Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference ISOPE, The Hague/Netherlands, June 11-16, 1995
Peregrine, D.H.: Water Wave Impact on Walls and the Associated Hydrodynamic Pressure Field; Wave
Forces on Inclined and Vertical Wall Structures, ASCE, New York, 1995
Takayama, T. (1995), Development of New Caisson Type Breakwaters in Japan and a Probabilistic Design
Approach for Composite Breakwaters, Wave Forces on Inclined and Vertical Wall Structures;
ASCE, New York.
Tanimoto, K.; Takahashi, S. (1994), Japanese Experiences on Composite Breakwaters, Proceedings of
Workshop on Wave Barriers in Deep Waters, Port and Harbour Research Institute; Yokosuka/Japan.
Tabet-Aoul, E.H.; Rousset, J.-M.; Blorgey, M. (1999), Analysis of Horizontal Forces Acting on Vertical
Walls of Perforated Breakwater, Proceedings of 9th ISOPE Offshore and Polar Engineering
Conference, Brest.
Wood, D.; Peregrine, H.; Bruce, T. (2000): Wave Impact on a Wall Using Pressure-Impulse Theory. I:
Trapped Air; Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, July/August 2000, pp.
182-189; American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
96
B 4.5.4 Wave energy survivability

Gardner, F. (2001): Wave energy engineering decision model for the Archimedes Wave Swing point
absorber; presented at International Workshop Numerical Methods in the Development, Design and
Control of Wave Power Devices, Ecole Centrale de Nantes, France 3rd4th May 2001
Goda, Y.; Kanda, K.; Hoshima, Y.; Ohneda, H.; Susuki, H.; Hirano, M. e Takahashi, S. (1989), Field
Verification Experiment of a Wave Power Extracting Cassion Breakwater. Proc. 1 st Int. Conf.
Ocean Energy Recovery, Hawaii, pp 35-42.
Greenhow MJL, Vinje T.and Brevig P. Extreme Wave Forces on Submerged Wave Energy Devices. J.
Greenhow MJL, Vinje T., Brevig and P. Taylor JRM. A Theoretical and Experimental Study of the Capsize
of Salters Duck in Extreme Waves. J. Fluid Mechanics, 1982, vol. 118, pp 221-239
Falco, A. F. de O. (1996): European Wave Energy Pilot Plant on the Island of Pico, Azores, Portugal;
Contract JOU2-CT93-0314: Final Report; 02/1994 08/96
Falco, A. F. de O. (2000): The shoreline OWC wave power plant at the Azores. Proc. of the 4th European
Wave Energy Conference 2000, Aalborg, Denmark, pp. 42-48
Goda, Y.; Kanda, K.; Hoshima, Y.; Ohneda, H.; Susuki, H.; Hirano, M. e Takahashi, S. (1989), Field
Verification Experiment of a Wave Power Extracting Cassion Breakwater. Proc. 1 st Int. Conf.
Ocean Energy Recovery, Hawaii, pp 35-42
Heath, T.; Whittaker, T.J.T.; Boake, C. B. (2000), The design, construction and operation of the LIMPET
wave energy converter (Islay Scotland). Proc. 4th European Wave Power Conf., University of
Aalborg, Denmark, paper B2.
Korde, Umesh (1998): Report on Ocean Wave Energy Conversion Projects; Special Scientific Report #98-
08, National Science Foundation, Tokyo Regional Office
Moto, K.; Nakada, H.; Ohneda, H.; Shikamori, M. e Takahashi S. (1991) Field Experiment on Wave
Energy Utilization System with Wave Power Extracting Cassion Breakwater. 17th Meeting
UJNR/MFP, Tokyo.
Mller, G.U., Whittaker, T.J.T., Long, A.: Study on the Main Design Parameters and Solutions for the
Front Wall of Shoreline Wave Power Stations; Internal ReportCivil Engineering Department of
Queens University, Belfast/Northern Ireland, 1997
Mller, G.U., Walkden, M. (1998), Survivability Assessment of Shoreline OWC Wave Power Stations,
Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering;
ASME, USA
Nakada, H.; Suzuki, M.; Takahashi, S.; Shikamori, M. (1992): Development test of wave power extracting
caisson breakwater; Civil Engineering in Japan 1992
Neumann, F. (1999): Preliminary Study of an OWC Breakwater Integration; MARETEC RT2nd
Generation3, Internal Report; Instituto Superior Tcnico, Portugal.
Neumann, F. e Sarmento A.J.N.A. (2000), An Assessment of Technical and Economical Viability of OWC
Integration in Breakwaters. Proc. 4th European Wave Power Conf., University of Aalborg,
Denmark, paper B3.
Neumann, F. e Sarmento A.J.N.A. (2001), OWC-caisson economy and its dependency on breaking wave
design loads. Proc. 9th Int. Offshore and Polar Engng., Conf., Brest, ISOPE, I, paper AS-08.
Osawa, H.; Nagata, Y.; Miyajima, S.; Maeda, H. (1998 ): A Design of Mooring System for Floating Wave
Energy Converter in Shallow Water, Journal of The Society of Naval Architects of Japan, Vol. 182,
pp341- 348, (Japanese)
Raju, V.S; Jayakuma; Neelamani, S. (1992), Concrete Caisson for a 150 kW Wave Energy Pilot Plant:
Design, Construction and Installation Aspects; Proc. 2nd Int. Offshore and Polar Engng
Conference; ISOPE, USA.
97
Retzler CH. Long Spine Mooring. Edinburgh University Wave Energy Report 1986. (Compares lifetime
fatigue of electrical down feeders with Pirelli tests)
Retzler CH. Long Spines with Appendages. Edinburgh University Wave Energy Report 1987. (Shows
results of overtopping).
Salter SH, Taylor JRM, Retzler CH. Bending Moments in Long Spines. Edinburgh University Wave
Energy Report 1984. (Explores South Uist wave climate and contrived directional seas to investigate
flexure waves and maximum joint angles. See also Retzler CH. PhD Thesis Edinburgh University
198?.)
Soerensen et al.: The Wave DragonNow ready for Test in Real Sea; Proc. 4th European Wave Power
Conf., University of Aalborg, Denmark, paper G1; 2000.
Takahashi, S. (1988), Hydrodynamic Characteristics of Wave-power Extracting Caisson Breakwater.
21 st ICCE, Spain, pp. 2489-2501.
Taylor JRM. Duck Behaviour in Extreme Conditions. Edinburgh University Wave Energy Report 1978
volume 2. (Synchronised force and photographic results of a phase-adjusted random sea striking a
duck at various positions relative to the nominal break point)
Washio, Y.; Osawa H.; OgataT. (2001): The Open Sea Tests of The Offshore Floating Type Wave Power
Device Mighty Whale Oceans 2001
98
B5 MAINTENANCE AND RELIABILITY
Prepared by: Luis Gato, IST, Paulo Justino, INETI
B 5.1 Introduction
The experience on maintenance of wave energy prototypes is still rather limited, and even
much more for marine current devices. Information was collected for the following
systems
Wave energy systems

Shoreline
LIMPET
Pico plant
Sakata Harbour (NW Japan)
Offshore
Mighty Whale
AWS
Marine current systems
Seaflow
Enermar
B 5.2 Shoreline OWCs

B 5.2.1 LIMPET
Access and its dependence on sea state conditions
The turbo generation equipment (excluding switchgear and controls) for the LIMPET
plant is housed in a concrete roofed block-work building so that once inside the building
the equipment can be accessed safely. In storm conditions waves top over the structure
creating a hazard for people trying to access the housing via the door furthest from the
sea, a distance of approximately 25 m.
During storm conditions there can be a build up of water on the turbine slab to the north
of the turbine housing. Under such conditions, water seeps into the housing creating
standing water. On one occasion in January 2002 during the most severe storms reported
on Islay the water inside the turbine housing rose to the point where two cooling fans, an
air compressor and some instrumentation was inundated. This equipment needed
replacement and to avoid a reoccurrence all equipment considered vulnerable has been
lifted well off the floor. There has been no attempt to correlate ease of access with sea
state but to date there have been no problems in access to the turbo-generation equipment
when such access was desired.
The open area of the turbine slab is, by contrast, relatively exposed and persons working,
for example, on the north exit from the collector chamber are unable to see the sea and as
such have little warning of any overtopping waves. For this reason, work in this area is
only performed in reasonable weather conditions. Again there has been no specific
99
attempt to correlate ease of access with sea state. We would however estimate that a
significant wave height of less than 2 m is required to permit work on the turbine slab
outside the turbine housing.
The control room containing the switchgear and control equipment is situated 36 m back
from the front lip of the collector and to date has been accessible in all weather.
Facilities for assembling/disassembling equipment
Within the LIMPET control area is a small area containing a workbench, which may be
used for small fitting tasks. This area is also used as a storage area for hand tools and
portable electrical equipment such as a grinder, drill and jigsaw etc., which are
permanently available at site. Temporary lifting equipment designed specifically for
specific items of plant equipment is also available. Welding, machining and crane
facilities are available local to site.
Routine/periodic maintenance
Routine maintenance on the plant is limited but includes
Item Maintenance interval
Grease generator bearings 8,000 running hours
Grease butterfly valve bearings 6 monthly
Visual check on plant weekly
Drain air compressor/check oiler weekly
Table B-4 Maintenance on the LIMPET

Control system
The plant control system includes monitoring of
Air compressor availability
Grid availability
Generator vibration levels
Generator bearing condition
Butterfly valve function
Vane valve function
Inverter function
The generator bearing condition and vibration monitors issue warnings from site to the
Wavegen office in Inverness whilst other problems cause the plant to shut down.
Equipment for which failure/maintenance is critical
The plant will not start unless all items necessary for safe operation are functioning
correctly. In this sense all items are critical. As part of the start routine the control system
check the availability of all services and cycles the two valves. Only then can the start
process proceed.
Status of the device
The plant is currently still operating.
100
B 5.2.2 Pico Plant

Access and its dependence on sea-state conditions
The electrical and the mechanical equipment items are housed in the plant concrete
structure, inside a large 12 m by 12 m room. Under stormy conditions, waves overtop the
plant structure and the outer platform adjacent to the plant (at level +8 m) becomes
flooded making the access to the plant impossible or too dangerous. This is not very
uncommon in winter, and occurs whenever significant wave height exceeds about 2.5 to
3 m.
The plants machine room offers ample space to perform all maintenance procedures
under safe conditions. A 4-ton travelling crane is used to handle the large and the heavy
pieces of equipment. Routine maintenance is normally provided by local EDA staff from
the So Roque 8 MW diesel power station, situated 15 km away from the wave-power
plant, as well as, by local contractors. A road gives access to a truck to load or unload
equipment at the 2 m by 2 m machine room entrance-door.
Warning for maintenance repair
The power plant monitoring equipment includes failure indicators of
Turbine and generator bearing vibrations
Generator temperature
Lubricating oil level and pressure
Turbine over-speed
Power electronics operation
Grid connection
Compressed-air pressure
Vane-valve operation
Sluice-gate valve operation
Routine maintenance on the plant is limited but includes
Item Maintenance Interval
Replace turbine-bearing oil 2,000 running hours
Grease generator bearings 8,000 running hours
Grease vane valve bearings 3 monthly
Grease sluice-gate valve bearings 3 monthly
Visual check on plant 2 weekly
Replace generator brushes 8,000 running hours
Drain air compressor/check oiler 2 weekly
Table B-5 Maintenance on the Pico Plant
101
The plant was completed in the summer of 1999. Since then, a number of problems have
occurred, mostly attributed to defective mechanical design and/or manufacture of the
equipment (turbine and valves). Some of these had severe consequences since they
stopped the power plant operation for long periods of time. Although they are not
maintenance problems, a list of the more serious events is presented here for
completeness.
Deficiencies were detected in the Wells turbine: excessive bearing oil leakage,
structural vibration at about 800 rpm and stator-vane vibration (aerodynamic
flutter) due to insufficient vane stiffness. Reinforcing plates were welded
spanning all the inter-vane spaces and continuous welding was used everywhere
to reinforce the guide vane system of the turbine. The turbine bed was reinforced
in order to mitigate the structure vibration problem.
A manufacture defect was found in the medium-to-low-voltage transformer. The
supplier of the equipment assumed the responsibility for the malfunction and
shipped a replacement transformer to the power plant, at no extra cost.
The smaller entrance door to the machine room (used for access of persons) was
forced open (the lock was broken presumably by the loads produced by the water
stream), and water flooded the plant through the machine room.
An accident occurred in the power electronics system due to a wrong manoeuvre
that resulted in damage to the protection system (a connector blew up).
The welding on the upper casing of the main stop valve (a heavy-duty sluice gate,
that connects the turbine duct to the chamber) came apart. This required major
repair work twice.
The start up PLC routine checks all available failure indicators. The plant will not start
unless all items necessary for safe operation are functioning correctly.
B 5.2.3 Sakata Breakwater OWC
The test was conducted for more than 10 years without major difficulties. Once for each
year a major maintenance work was conducted in addition to a monthly check-up. No
replacement or retrofit was necessary for the system in more than 10 years.
When all the tests were completed, the system was removed as intended before the test
project.
B 5.3 Offshore systems

B 5.3.1 Mighty Whale
Mighty Whale has been stationed about 1.5 km from the bay entrance, at a depth of about
40 m. A connection ship makes access whose operation is depended on sea state
conditions. Telemetry system from the shore-based measurement and control station
allows plant monitoring and control.
A hoist is available for moving equipment.
102
Mighty Whale floating body and mooring systems has been checked once a year. Items of
these checks are shown below
Biofouling
Remaining volume of the anode for corrosion protection
Wear on mooring chains
State of bolts of mooring chains
Arrangement of mooring chains
Anchors
Table B-6 Mighty Whale floating body and mooring system checks
Mighty Whale turbines and generators have been checked out once a year. Check items
are shown below
Automatic safety valves on each turbines
State of turbines
State of generators
State of the auxiliary diesel generator
State of electricity converter
Table B-7 Mighty Whale air turbines and generators checks
The main part of periodic maintenance with turbines and generators are greasing to drive
parts, waterproofing by silicone sealant, painting for repair, exchanging of oil filters, and
filling up for lubricating oil and cooling water, etc.
Warnings for maintenance/repair
Mighty Whale system always has been monitored by the telemetry system from the
shore-based measurement and control station. The monitoring system turns on the alarm
automatically when a failure occurs. The alarm is transmitted to the shore-based control
station.
The most critical failure is moorings break and drifting of the system, it would be
necessary to prevent danger to shipping, fishing, and other coastal activities. In such an
event, a signal will be transmitted from a shore-based control station to a wireless
receiver on Mighty Whale. This signal will start up the process of buoyancy chambers
flooding causing the device to submerge within about an hour, thus minimizing the risk
of collisions or interference with the coastal zone. One of the most important examination
items of design stage was the safety of the mooring system.
103

The open sea test of Mighty Whale was ended on March 31, 2002. It was removed from
the test site on June 24, 2002. It has been dismantled.
B 5.3.2 Archimedes Wave Swing

Access is possible only after surfacing which requires a significant wave height of less
than 1 m.
Most equipment is too heavy to be manhandled. So handling can only be done at calm
weather with a support vessel or in the harbour.
There is an underwater camera. Inspection by divers is not expected to be required.
By temperature and flow sensors or by the failure of control system.
The generator and cable. All other equipment is redundant. Of course a big leak in the
hull is destructive. Small leaks can be repaired (if located).
The system is ready for deployment and can sail if weather permits.
B 5.4 Marine current systems

B 5.4.1 Seaflow
Access and its dependence on sea state condition
Access by boat/rib. Limiting wave condition is for operator to jump from boat onto a
ladder. Other staff can be craned on rib onto structure.
The onboard crane can lift all components of power train. A boat is required to take
components to shore. Larger vessel/crane only required for structural components.
Estimated to be 6-monthly. Major power train overhauls every 5-7 years.
Instrumentation/control system has modem communication to shore.
Brake, pitch control, power train, power electronics.
104
Which maintenance/repair operations can be performed in situ and which ones

require removal of the whole plant
Only minor maintenance undertaken on the power train (rotor, hub, gearbox, generator) at
sea. More major work can be done on the systems within the pod at the top of the turbine
pile. Intention is that components will be swapped out and taken to shore for repair.
Under construction.
B 5.4.2 ENERMAR
Contribution to maintenance and reliability
The access to the device is dependent on sea conditions but its location in the Messina
Strait practically allows the access for the most of the year. Certainly a limitation of this
type of installation is the impossibility for the system to survive at typhoons or very
rough sea conditions.
The rotor is easy to disassemble since each blade is connected to the main shaft by
holding arms fixed with simple bolts. To move or remove the device from the sea, it is
necessary to tow it with a boat. Up to now, there is little experience on maintenance
cost/periodicity but a report will be produced. Regarding the 8 months that the turbine has
been operating in the Strait, no particular maintenance interventions have been done.
The system is now on the dock ready to install a second small gearbox and also to install
a torque-meter that will allow very accurate measurements of the produced torque.
Furthermore and at the same time an automatic acquisition system will be installed in
such a way that all working parameters will be recorded and monitored continuously.
B 5.5 References
Boake, C.B., Thompson, A., Whittaker, T.J.T., Folley, M., (2001) Integrated system design for remote
communication, data acquisition and control of the LIMPET wave energy device. Proc. Renewable
Energy in Maritime Island Climates Conf., Sept., No. C76 of Solar Energy Society, pp 199-206,
ISBN: 0904963667.
Boake, C.B., Whittaker, T.J.T., Folley, M., Ellen, H., (2002) Overview and initial operational experience of
the LIMPET wave energy plant, Proc. 12th International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conf.
(ISOPE 2002), Kyushu, Japan, May.
Falco, A.F de O., (1998) European Wave Energy Power Plant on the island of Pico, Azores, Portugal.
Phase two: Equipment. Final Report. EC Contract N JOR3-CT95-0012.
Washio, Y., Osawa, H., Ogata, T., (2001) The open sea tests of the offshore floating type device Mighty
Whale characteristics of wave energy absorption and power generation. Proc. Oceans 2001
Conference.
Thake, J.R., (2002) Marine current turbines and the SEAFLOW project. Proc. Renewable Realities
Orkney 2002.
105
B6 MODELLING AND STANDARDISED DESIGN METHODS
Prepared by: Alain Clment, ECN
B 6.1 Introduction
The wave energy extraction process may be viewed as a chain process linking the
primary wave energy resource to the final electricity grid. The design of such complex
processes should take into account the globality, while keeping in mind that the quality of
a chain relies upon the strength of its weakest element. Several optimisation criteria must
be considered in the design of wave power plants. Some of these address economic
matters, others are rather technological or physical. All these different points of view are
essential and must be assessed iteratively or simultaneously during the design phase. In
the present report we shall first focus on the mathematical modelling of wave energy
device physics. Later on, we will recommend a standardised method for testing wave
power converters.
The aims of modelling wave energy plants are manifold. Let us cite among them
validation and demonstration of the device principle
assessment of all physical quantities of interest in design wave climate: motions,
forces, stresses, power, on all the parts of the system in order to optimise their
design,
optimisation of the output power by tuning the set of model parameters to the
expected wave climate
provide hindcasting and forecasting tools to support the short-term and long-term
control of the plant
Depending on which item among the above listed is pursued, different modelling
techniques may be adopted
analytical,
numerical,
empirical,
experimental, or
any combination of the above.
Generally speaking, the first step in setting up a model is to observe and describe the
phenomenology of the device. One of the most common mistakes made at the very first
stage of designing such a complex device as a wave power machine is to presuppose what
its behaviour will be prior to any investigation. Doing this sometimes leads to
disregarding some phenomena, which may have a major effect in real operational
conditions at sea. Let us cite, as an example, the ringing phenomenon of TLP offshore
platforms which result from an internal resonance excited by third-order hydrodynamic
wave loads (see e.g. Faltinsen 1990, or Molin 2002). It has been discovered only after
real platforms had been launched, during operations at sea, but was completely ignored at
the design stage where only first and second order loading were considered a priori. A lot
of similar examples can be found in ocean engineering.
Wave energy devices are specific in this issue in that they incorporate several
mechanisms of energy transfer which are linked together, and which are interact strongly.
106
Physically speaking, the whole plant is a multi-degree of freedom system featuring

(generally) non-linear interaction between each other. Power take off mechanisms, in
particular, are known to induce non-linear behaviour, even in low energy situations where
other terms of the model as excitation forces may legitimately be linearised. Engineers
engaged in developing wave energy devices, especially from naval engineering field,
should therefore keep aware of that and avoid applying too fast their common established
techniques.
As an example, let us consider the sea-keeping computer codes which are used in the first
stage of ship design. They generally consider small motions of the ship around its mean
position, which permits using all the tools of the linear hydrodynamic theory. But, when
designing a point-absorber wave machine, the goal is totally opposite in that the same
engineer will now attempt to obtain as large amplitude motion as possible within the
operational range in order to maximise the extracted power. We can thus see, with that
simple example, that the usual naval engineering numerical tools for sea-keeping
calculation will not always be well suited to the specific problem of wave energy devices,
due to some specific constraints of wave energy devices. Designer should be cautious of
that.
The optimal design procedure should start by building and testing in wave tank a
simplified scaled physical model of the device at the early stage of the project. Keeping
in mind the restrictions imposed by the unavoidable scaling effects, this will give a first
opportunity to observe the real phenomena involved in the system, and to detect any
possible unexpected behaviour prior to any simplifying assumption. The goal of this early
testing is to understand as soon as possible of all the physical processes involved in the
system without disregarding any of them at this preliminary stage. One can find in
literature a lot of wave energy systems looking fine and highly efficient on the paper, but
unable to deliver the first kWh at full scale in a real sea!
Once the physical phenomena are (all) identified, the next step in modelling consists in
setting up the equations linking (all) the physical variables. Most of the time, the original
set of equations, even if it happens to be closed, is far too complex to be solved directly.
Then, owing to reasonable assumptions, the original set of equations may be reduced
until it can be either solved numerically, or analytically in even more simplified
approaches. In this process of simplifying the problem, it is essential to progress from the
most extended and general model to the simplified one, rather than the other way around.
Going the wrong way may lead to mistakes and oversights which could weaken, or even
ruin the whole project by founding it on an erroneous model.
A common example of such an incorrect approach in the present context of wave body
interaction can be found in the derivation of the equation of motions of large bodies in
waves. For these bodies, when the hypothesis leading to the linear potential flow theory
apply, Newtons equation of motions can be derived as the following set of integro-
differential equations
t
[M + m ]X&& (t ) + X& ( )[K (t )]d [C ]X (t ) = Fex (t )

Equation B.1
107
generally attributed to Cummins (1962) (see also Wehausen 1971). ( [M ] the inertia
matrix of the body, [m ] the infinite frequency added-mass matrix, [K ] the radiation
impulse response function matrix, [C ] the restoring forces matrix, Fex the vector of
excitation forces and moments, X (t ) the generalised motion vector). This is the basic
linear time-domain model for the motions of floating body. It is valid whatever the form
and the time dependency of the forcing RHS term. The impulse response functions matrix
[K ] accounts for the fluid forces and moments induced by the wave-making when the
body moves. It contains the memory effect of the wave flow.
Now, making a supplementary assumption of time harmonic forcing (says:

Fex =[Fex exp(it)] ), the motion X (t ) of the system already assumed linear will also be
time harmonic, say: X(t)=[X exp(it)] . Under these assumptions of time harmonic
input and linear system, and only in these conditions, then the output will be also time
harmonic. As a consequence, the above integro differential (Equation B.1) equation
simplifies to
[M + A]X&&(t)+[B]X&(t)[C ]X(t)=Fex(t)
Equation B.2
which seems to be an ordinary differential equation for X . The overdot notation in this
latter equation is (here voluntarily) misleading, and some researchers have erroneously
considered the later equation as a differential equation. This is indeed not the case in
general, but only when the forcing is a monochromatic time-harmonic signal.
Unfortunately, this pseudo-differential form has sometimes been taken as the starting
point of studies related to sea-keeping of ships or ocean structures.
This exemplifies the care which should be taken when one wants to derive some simple
models from the full equations describing sea waves body interaction and further, wave
energy devices.
B 6.2 Device classification

Before entering into the details, we need to establish, for further use, a classification of
the devices into several family and sub families.
First let us define four categories of system based on their primary operating principles
P1: OWC. Oscillating water column (not commented)
P2: Wave activated bodies. We shall put in this category all the systems based on
the wave induced motions of solid bodies; either the relative motions of several
bodies (e.g. Pelamis), or the absolute motion of one body working upon a
reference either internal (e.g. Salter ducks) or fixed to the ground (e.g. the AWS
point absorber).
P3: Overtopping systems: In these systems, an elevated reservoir is filled by the
waves breaking then running up on a ramp, and spilling over the top at a certain
threshold. Several variants, on fixed or floating structures, have been proposed.
P4: Unclassifiable: All systems not belonging to one of the above categories will
be put into this one. (e.g. flexible bags systems).
108
Another classification criterion is the location of the system.

L1: Shoreline: land based systems, directly accessible from land. (e.g. LIMPET,
Pico)
L2: Nearshore: systems based in open sea, near from the cost, in moderate water
depth. P2 systems working against a ground fixed reference generally belong to
this category (e.g. AWS).
L3: Offshore: large freely floating plants installed several tens of kilometres
offshore.
It should be noticed that this classification coincides more or less with the concept of
generation sometimes used in this context (L1: first generation, L2: second generation,
L3: Third generation).
B 6.3 Complementary modelling approaches

Two complementary kinds of modelling should be used in the design/optimisation of
wave power plants.
B 6.3.1 Global wave to wire approach
The first method aims to simulate the process as a whole, from the primary wave energy
to the electrical energy delivered to the grid. It is sometimes referred to as wave to wire
simulation model. This mathematical model is represented symbolically in the lower
rectangular box in Figure B-9. Ideally, the input of such a model should be a time domain
wave data record (corresponding to the realisation of a given design wave climate), and
the output would be the instantaneous power delivered to the grid. It is composed of
boxes, which symbolically represent mathematical relations between input and output
variables. These input/output relations, which can be either linear or non-linear, are most
commonly sought as set of differential equations in order to facilitates further numerical
simulation. When they derive from a deterministic knowledge of the energy transfer
physics, they can be expressed explicitly (mathematically), and the corresponding box is
then referred to as a white box. When the relations are not written in terms of physical
quantities, but contain only dumb coefficients and variables instead, they will be named
black boxes. Cases standing in-between, where some of the variables (states) and some
relations derive from physical arguments while the other are purely numerical, will be
named, logically, grey boxes.
Running a large number of trials with such a global wave to wire model would provide
the necessary matter for further statistical analysis. Of course, this kind of time-domain
model will not be achievable for systems incorporating intermediate energy storage.
Obviously, systems belonging to class P3 above possess, at least, two different time
scales, which will impose splitting the global model into (at least) two sub-models.
B 6.3.2 Specific sub-models
The second kind of modelling addresses specifically and individually each sub-system of
the process. Let us consider as a typical example the transfer of mechanical energy from
water surface displacement to the turbine by the air volume in OWCs system. These sub-
models are represented symbolically in the upper rectangular box in Figure B-9. By
disregarding the coupling with the others process, one is able to go as far as possible in
the physical description of each particular process. This second approach permit, for
109
every particular energy transfer in the chain, to identify and to quantify specific items
like: non-linear behaviour, losses, etc. Once available, these specific models can be used
for the identification, in terms of system theory, of the related sub-process. The purpose
of identification is to provide white, grey or black boxes to the global model as a set of
differential equations which have the same dynamics as the physical sub-system, or, in
other words, which delivers the same output when excited with the same input.
Specific sub-models
Sub-model Sub-model Sub-model

1st energy 2nd energy nth energy
transfer transfer transfer
identification
identification
identification
Energy waves 1st state 2nd state electricity
chain
1st transfer 2nd transfer nth transfer

Black box Black box Black box
Wave to Wire model
Figure B-9 Sketch of wave to wire modelling
Generally speaking, from wave to wire, the individual energy transfer modelling at each
of the following stages would be specifically investigated
1 Wave climate
The local wave climate in which the device will operate is a function of the global
wave climate considered at a larger scale (say O(100 km)), and of the local
bathymetry and coastline shape and configuration. Tools may vary depending on
the scale under consideration. They should be able to take into account some site
specificity as variability in direction and time.
2 Wave device interaction primary stage
Here is the place where the fundamental principle of the device is to be

considered. A fraction of the primary mechanical wave energy is transformed into
another form of energy (pneumatic, potential, kinetic, etc.) through a
hydrodynamic interaction that is the object of the modelling at that stage.
3 Secondary energy conversion stage (optional)
In some wave energy systems, the primary mechanical energy is transferred to a

secondary one prior to being extracted by the power take off system. Pneumatic
energy in the P1 family of systems (OWCs) is the best example of such
intermediate energy level which, when present, also needs to be modelled.
110
4 Non-electric energy storage (optional)
Storage of energy, in a form different from electricity, may be provided at

intermediate stage of the conversion chain. In overtopping systems (P3), the water
basin stores potential energy, providing a rectified regular output. Other systems
of this kind (flywheels, hydraulic accumulators, etc.) may also be encountered,
and must be accounted for in the global model.
5 Power take-off mechanism
Depending on which principle has been selected (air turbine, hydraulic generator,
direct electric generation, etc.) the related models may differ radically. Some of
them will be quite simplified, while others may require highly sophisticated
software for an accurate simulation (e.g air flow in turbines).
6 Electricity generation
7 Electricity storage (optional)
8 Connection to the grid
B 6.4 Wave-device interaction modelling

In this section we shall focus on the modelling of the primary energy transfer from water
waves to the device. Hydrodynamics are the central issue here. Depending on the kind of
system being considered, several types of secondary energy will be involved but in all
cases, we shall deal with interaction of the incident wave field with, at least, one or more
solid bodies. The mechanical (i.e: kinetic + potential) energy of the waves are transferred
into another mechanical energy by setting one or several bodies into motion (P2), or by
setting into motion and compressing an air volume (P1). In (P3) systems, wave energy is
transferred to potential energy of the water in the reservoir. In all three cases, modelling
the energy transfer requires modelling the flow, or more precisely modelling the
modification of the wave velocity field by the device.
This modification and the resulting hydrodynamic forces can be shown to belong to two
main classes of interaction, which are defined by the relative size of the body with regard
to the wavelength. Using the common vocabulary of the discipline, we shall therefore
speak of large body or small body wave interaction regimes. Depending on which regime
we are working, the modelling tools and approach would differ drastically.
At that stage, some important definitions and dimensionless numbers, which will be used
later, must be introduced.
111
H the (crest to trough) wave height
L a typical length of the body
the wavelength
U the local free stream fluid velocity
UM amplitude of oscillatory fluid velocity (= O( H T ) )
T the (typical) wave period (= 2 / )
the kinematic viscosity
U the FROUDE number

Fr =
gL
UL the REYNOLDS number

Re =

UMT H the KEULEGAN-CARPENTER number

Kc = =
L L
L the STROUHAL number

St =
U
Table B-8 Definitions and dimensionless quantities
B 6.4.1 Large bodies/small bodies
The forces exerted by the fluid flow on a body in waves may have different nature
diffraction (wave-making) forces
inertia forces
viscous (drag) forces
each of which may become dominant, according to the typical wavelength, body size and
wave height considered. The following graph from Faltinsen (1990) give a rough
estimation of the limits of the different area of dominance for each component in the
plane.
112
Figure B-10 Area of dominance of inertia, diffraction and viscous forces in

wave/body interaction
In the area named ( H L, L ) diffraction forces, the body is large enough to produce
important perturbations of the incident wave flow, and to produce its own wave field in
case of a moving body (P2 class, mainly). In this area, viscous effects are generally small
and the potential flow theory (i.e considering the fluid as inviscid) will be used. The limit
L > 5 between large body and small body is only a rough estimate and should not be
taken too strictly, L meaning no more, here, than an order of magnitude.
Beyond this limit, for small (and elongated) bodies, two effects are present, leading to
two hydrodynamic forces components. Let us consider the Morisons formula to illustrate
this. Morisonss formula, which applies in this small body range, gives the hydrodynamic
force exerted on a strip of a cylinder (diameter D ; water mass density ) by a flow of
(local) velocity u and (local) acceleration u& .
D
dF = CM u& + DCD u u
4 2
Equation B.3
The first term, proportional to the acceleration of the fluid as if the body was not there, is
the inertia term (sometimes referred to as mass force). The second one is a drag term
which is supposed to represent, through a unique drag coefficient CD , the multiple effects
of viscosity
flow separation
vortex shedding
shear forces
The modelling tools will differ depending on which kind of interaction is investigated, as
will be explained below.
Reality is never as simple as such academic categorisation, and some designs of wave
energy devices will feature structures and sub-structures falling in both categories. In
these cases they are called hybrid structures and their modelling should incorporate both
diffraction and drag effects.
As pointed out in the introduction, modelling tools may be: empirical (as above cited
Morisons equation), physical (model test) and numerical (in which we include the
113
analytical results when they are available). Ideally, both experimental and numerical
approaches should be used. Each one has its own advantages and drawbacks.
Experiments are limited in scale due to the size of wave tanks, and then necessitate
extrapolations that are not easy to perform when viscous effects are important. It may be
also difficult and expensive to vary some physical parameters of the model (a length, the
size or position of a sub-structure, an axe, etc.), whereas it costs comparatively little with
computer modelling. On the other hand, numerical modelling is based on hydrodynamic
theories that are themselves imperfect in that they necessarily imply some simplifying
assumptions. These assumptions are sometimes too severe to represent the real
phenomena. This is the case when one wants to simulate extreme wave conditions where
most of the computer codes fail. Then, the numerical codes must be validated by
comparison with experimental results before to be used with confidence, and only in the
range, which has been validated.
It is unrealistic to expect that computer programs will totally replace model test in the
foreseeable future. The ideal way is to combine model tests and numerical calculations.
In some cases, computer programs are not reliable. Model tests often give more
confidence than computer programs when totally new concepts are tested out.a
B 6.5 Physical modelling: wave tank experiments

B 6.5.1 Two approaches
Referring to what has been said previously, the physical modelling may have two distinct
goals. Depending on which goal is pursued, this can possibly lead to quite different
experimental methodologies.
In the first approach, the experiments aim at identifying the energy transfer of the
wave/body sub-system in the upper part of Figure B-9, in order to derive, by
identification, a mathematical model to be included in the global Wave to Wire
model of the device. In this context, the model is not supposed to incorporate all
the features of the final device, but simply to be fitted at best to Froude-scaled
experiments in wave tank. Under some assumptions, the decomposition of wave
forces into diffraction forces and radiation forces may lead to proceed to different
experiments where the body is either held fixed in waves (diffraction) or forced to
move by a PMM mechanism in calm waters (radiation). These kinds of
experiments will be generally achieved in regular waves.
In the second approach, the experimenter seeks to reproduce at a given scale the
global process as closely as possible in a wave tank. In that case, the model must
include not only the wave activated body(ies) (or OWC, or whatever), but also all
the interacting sub-systems as: mooring, PTO, passive and active control
elements, grid reaction. Here, the greatest difficulty is the correct dimensioning of
all the elements with respect to the Froude scaling imposed by the wave tank
experimental methodology (see Section B 6.5.2). This will be most often
impossible in practise, and the experimenter has to make some assumptions and
simplifications. The danger here is to go too far in these simplifications and to test
a good looking model, but unreliable in its primary purpose of testing, analysing
and optimising the real device. These kind of experiments where one wants to be
a
Faltinsen (1990), p.12.
114
as realistic as possible will indeed be performed in irregular waves with realistic

spectral characteristics.
Indeed both approaches hold their own interest and are not exclusive to each other. One
should ideally consider working in both ways (if time and funding allow for it, which is
not often the case).
B 6.5.2 Scaling
The principle of model test is to perform experiments on a model of the body for which
all the lengths are in a common ratio with their prototype (full scale) counterpart. Let
be the ratio we then write
Lp = Lm
Equation B.4
where the subscripts p and m stand for prototype and model respectively. As long as we
are concerned by waves and their action on bodies, the wavelength should naturally
follow the same geometric scaling, namely
p = m
Equation B.5
Now due to the dispersion relation linking the wave frequency to the wavelength, we
have
g g
2 = 2
p 2
m2
Equation B.6
leading to
Tp = Tm
Equation B.7
for the periods, and for all time-like quantities. This is the basic relation of the Froude
scaling, which is the main criterion to be respected as far as water waves are concerned.
It means that the Froude number must be the same for the model and for the prototype.
As a consequence, accelerations are the same in the model world and in the prototype
(real) world.
The KC number, defined as the ratio of two lengths, is also naturally conserved.
115
Length
Volume 3
Mass 3
Time
Velocity
Acceleration 1
Force 3
Power 7 2
Table B-9 Froude scaling ratios
Two other dimensionless parameters should be preserved between model and prototype:
the Reynolds number and the Strouhal number. The fluid being the same (water) in model
and prototype world, the viscosity is the same also and the Reynolds number cannot
therefore be preserved in the Froude scaling; we have instead
3
( Re ) p = ( Re )m
2
Equation B.8
This is generally admitted when testing large bodies in waves in the diffraction dominant
regime where viscosity effects are negligible. It is more problematic for testing small
bodies in waves.
When building and testing a model in the second approach as described above, one would
attempt to install a scaled PTO in the model in order to reproduce the total full-scale
prototype behaviour. One should be aware that this is a difficult option, and could lead to
erroneous results. The difficulty here lies in the fact that the similarity laws imposed by
the physical components of the PTO (i.e. dimensionless numbers to be conserved) are in
general different from the Froude number which must necessarily be respected, here.
Then, the time scale being imposed by this basic similarity, one may be forced to
disregard the length scale for the PTO model, which could finally lead to building a
somehow strange model. This is one strong argument in favour of the sub-model
approach (top part in Figure B-9), in that each energy transformation stage of the global
chain has its own physics which in turn impose their own similarity and experimental
procedure.
Then, let us return to the specific wave/body interaction experimental investigation.
116
Figure B-11 Steady drag coefficient for smooth circular cylinder

A/small bodies
The inertia and drag coefficients CM and CD of Morisons equation (Equation B.1) are
indeed functions of the cross section geometry of the body, but they also depend on the
Keulegan Carpenter (KC) and Reynolds (Re) numbers. For elongated bodies of simple
cross sections (circular, square, etc.), results of extensive tests can be found in literature
for a wide range of KC and Re. Then hydrodynamic sub-model of fluid forces on these
(sub)-structures can be constructed empirically using these parameters; the generalisation
for bodies moving in waves, as generally P2 class systems are, is obtained by replacing
the local acceleration and velocity in Morisons formula by the normal component of
local relative velocity. One should nevertheless use these standard values cautiously and
check in what experimental conditions they have been derived. A lot of papers report
experiments in current flow, where the velocity is constant, whereas wave energy devices
modelling require data obtained in wavy flow, which differ significantly.
When coefficients are not available in literature for a particular body or configuration,
experiments must be performed. The problem here is to obtain an oscillatory flow as
similar as possible to the real wave flow (i.e.: a rotating velocity vector at a fixed point in
space), together with as high a Reynolds number as possible. If we use a wave tank and a
wave-maker and install the model in the wave field, the fist criterion will be fulfilled, but
the Reynolds number will differ in at least two orders of magnitude. Depending on the
position of the transition (generally between Re=105 to 106) it could nevertheless be
admissible; the drag coefficient varying very slowly with Re in the range 102105 as
shown in Figure B-11 above, from Chakrabarty (1994), for the basic smooth circular
cylinder case.
One can also obtain higher Re numbers at model scale by using special water tunnels,
based on the U-tube principle, where oscillatory flows without free surface can be
obtained (Sarpkaya and Isaacson 1981). The Froude scaling is no longer respected, but
this can be tolerated as long as drag coefficients only are concerned. One should
nevertheless keep in mind that wave conditions are imperfectly represented by this
unidirectional oscillating flow, while the wave flow features a rotating velocity vector. It
could then be interpreted as an experiment with one single component of the velocity.
B/large bodies
The model testing of large bodies in wave tanks has been extensively studied and a lot of
good textbooks are available like (e.g.) Chakrabarty (1994), Hugues (1993), and others.
These experiments provide an invaluable tool for the modelling of wave energy devices
of all categories. Let us recall that we address in this section only the first (primary)
energy transfer from waves to another form of mechanical energy (state 1 in Figure B-9)
which may be: body motion for P2 devices mainly and other categories of floating
117
systems, air pressure and motion (P1), potential energy in water reservoir (P3). We thus
consider here the first sub-model of the global model, not a physical model of the global
transfer. The experiments here aim at providing data to the identification process, which
will in turn deliver a mathematical model to be included in the wave to wire global
model. Then they should be devised in order to obtain data as purely representative of the
hydrodynamics as possible.
For those devices featuring one or several large fixed bodies, hydrodynamic forces and
wave run-up can be measured directly on the model by transducers and wave probes. It
can be interesting to consider not only tests in wave tanks, (i.e: where the body(ies)
is(are) excited by waves), but also tests where the body is set into forced motion by an
external mechanism as a PMMa. This later method is used sometimes to identify one (or
one small set of) coefficients at a time by decoupling one degree of freedom of the
system from the others, which could significantly simplify the identification process.
In case of devices composed of several wave excited moving bodies (Pelamis, AWS,
etc.), free motions should also be measured. This will allow checking of the possible
presence of internal resonance modes, which may be introduced by the necessary linking
equations (as for instance in the case of articulated rafts)
Regular waves test
As previously mentioned, these tests will preferably be adopted when working on the first
approach (sub-model) as described above. Varying systematically the amplitude of
incident waves permits investigation of the limit of the linear domain: i.e. the domain in
which the effects (forces, motions) vary linearly with wave amplitude. By difference, it
provides data set for investigating the nature and repartition of non-linearities by Fourier
and/or spectral analysis. One of the origins of these hydrodynamic non-linearities lies in
the large amplitude of the body(ies) (or free surface) motion. And, because large
amplitude motion generally means a large amount of power extracted from waves, these
wave energy devices are often designed to reach as large motion amplitude as possible,
even in moderate sea states. Thus, unlike other offshore structures designed to avoid
resonance occurring in their useful frequency range, these devices will naturally operate
in large resonant regime, where non-linearities cannot be disregarded.
Recommendations: for these regular waves experiments, we recommend testing wave

periods between 5 s and 15 s full scale. It is recommended to perform at least 10 divisions
of this range, with a repartition regularly spaced with regard to the wave-number scale
(i.e. the L ratio where L stands for a typical device length) rather than to the wave
period scale. At least three amplitudes will be tested for each wave period, corresponding
to three wave steepness: =0.03, 0.06, 010 where is the ratio H of wave height
over wavelength.
Bi-chromatic waves (optional)
As already mentioned, wave energy devices are generally complex systems, often featuring
several wave activated bodies or sub-systems, in relative motion. Furthermore, they are
designed to perform large amplitude motions in order to produce a large amount of energy.
They are therefore subject to experience quadratic non-linearities or they may feature internal
a
Planar Motion Mechanism
118
resonances needing a special care at the study stage. Such non-linear terms appear in the
excitation (wave forces) as soon as two different frequencies ( 1 and 2 say) are present in
the wave field. Due to cross coupling, wave components varying at frequencies 1 + 2 and
1 2 take place when considering second order wave models, then combinations of two or
three frequencies at third order, and so on. The result is that, even when considering the first
energy transfer as linear, the system is excited in real wave field by a non-linear pressure
field and that will broaden the response spectrum and it may excite a resonance, which was
considered as out of range at the design stage where only linear behaviour was considered.
Similar (in structure) non-linear sum and difference frequency terms arise also from the
coupling between linear force and linear motion components in the quadratic pressure terms
integrated over the hull of the body. Again, this could excite a resonance of the system. If
such cases are detected or anticipated, then tests in bi-chromatic waves could be necessary.
No generic recommendation can be made here as this is highly device dependent; but we
insist on the fact that the mechanical response of any multi-body system in response to wave
excitation (even a regular harmonic wave) could sometimes be quite unpredictable.
Irregular and random waves test
Irregular and random waves test would be necessary in the second approach to physical
modelling. Here the aims could be to assess the energetic performance of a device in a given
realistic sea state, for a given set of tuning parameters (mechanics, control, etc.), or to test the
survivability in severe or extreme wave conditions.
Recommendations: Based on the experience of the Danish Wave Energy Programme,

K.Nielsen (2002) has proposed to the International Energy Agency a set of five series of
standardised tests for characterization of wave energy devices. These tests cover all the
needs in this irregular waves category (short crested and long crested waves, directional
spreading, etc.). Thus, we simply recommend here to conform to the procedures
described in this report.
B 6.5.3 Numerical modelling
The numerical modelling of the interaction between wave energy devices and water
waves can be thought of as a subset of the traditional numerical approach to ocean
engineering systems like oil extraction platforms, ships, etc. Two families of computer
codes have been developed in this field depending on the dominant physical process to be
accounted for. For large bodies (larger than typically a quarter wavelength), perfect fluid
assumptions can be made and the codes solve the Laplaces equation using (generally)
Boundary Elements Methods (BEM). For smaller bodies, viscous effects may be more
important than wave-making, and one has to solve Navier-Stokes equations in the whole
fluid domain, using finite-difference, or finite-volume methods.
Up to now, these computer codes cannot account for wave breaking phenomena, and are
thus limited to the simulation of moderate sea states. New methods are being developed
for this purpose like SPH (Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics), but it will take a long time
before they can be applied to practical design problems, mainly due to computer power
requirements. Thus, the simulation of wave energy device sea-keeping in severe to
extreme sea state (e.g. for survivability test) is still reserved for physical modelling in
wave tanks (see previous section).
119
A/small bodies
As explained previously, this category refers to the cases where the wavelength is smaller
than (say) 20 % of the wavelength. In this regime the flow can become vortical and the
viscous forces may have the same order of magnitude as the inertia forces, or even they
may dominate.
Thus the viscous terms of the fluid equations can no longer be disregarded, and one has to
solve Navier-Stokes equations (momentum and mass conservation equations) in order to
estimate wave forces upon the structure. BEM methods, which are essentially surface
methods, are not appropriate in this context, and the volume methods required to solve
RANSE (Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations) equations may be very time
consuming (typically one order of magnitude larger).
Here, we must distinguish between two classes of numerical codes whether they account
or not, for the free surface displacement in the computation.
In the first case, the unknowns in the numerical solver are the (three) components of the
fluid velocity plus the pressure at every node defined in the fluid volume. This meshing
of the fluid domain may be structured or unstructured. In the first case the fluid is
partitioned following three spatial dimensions in such a way that every fluid cell can be
identified by three indices along these three directions. In unstructured meshes, the bulk
of the fluid is partitioned into adjacent cells which are essentially polygonal closed
elements (cubes, tetrahedrons, pyramids, etc.). Finally some few hybrid codes (structured
and unstructured meshes used together) can be encountered.
Several well-known commercial codes exist in this class where the free-surface
displacement is not accounted for. We generally speak of CFD codes, for Computational
Fluid Dynamics. But before using them for the present purpose, one has to check if they
can handle some specific features of our problem, namely(strong) coupling of the body
motion with the flow excitation through the hydrodynamic pressure; that means that the
motion of the wave energy device is a consequence of the flow and must be solved as
such. If not possible, forced motions of the solid body will be imposed, and the results
analysed (identified) in terms of force coefficients in empirical formulas of the global
model wavy nature of the incident field; which means that the wave flow is not a simple
current, nor an oscillating unidirectional flow, but features a rotating velocity vector, if
one considers a fixed point in the wave field.
Generally, these options are not available in widely disseminated CFD codes. Thus, in
this category, we can say that some useful commercial codes exist but they are not a
priori well suited to model wave energy devices.
The second category includes these CFD codes, which take the free surface displacement
into account (cf: Alessandrini et al. 1999). They are generally developed in the context of
(civil or military) naval engineering where the goal is to model a ship running on a wavy
sea, including the effect of incident waves, ship wake, propeller(s), rudder and appendix
and so on, and their interactions (e.g. Guillerm et al. 2000). Thus we can no longer speak
of codes dedicated to small bodies (the ship itself is not a small body), but rather to codes
which can account for small (e.g. the appendix) and large bodies together.
These programs should indeed be preferred for the modelling of (small) wave energy
devices; in particular, they include the two specific features listed above concerning the
120
codes of first category. They remain, at the moment, mainly research codes and are not
well known on a wide basis. One has to check regularly the program of the international
conferences dedicated to application of CFD in naval engineering to find the most
appropriate links. A few of them will probably become available commercially in the
next (say) five years.
B/large bodies
We are concerned here by wave/body interaction in the wave-making, or diffraction
regime, as noted in Figure B-10. As it was discussed above, viscous effects are negligible
in that area. This assumption opens the possibility of using the powerful toolbox of
potential flow theory and all the derived numerical methods. Mathematically speaking, it
means that, from continuity equation and Kelvin-Helmoltz theorem, the fluid velocity in
the whole fluid can be considered as the gradient of a scalar field (generally denoted
(M , t ) ), or
r
V = (u, v, w) = , ,
x y z
Equation B.9
Velocities, then pressures, then forces, can be computed from this potential, then
eventually all kinematic and dynamic properties of the flow. The problem is then
reduced, for a given sea state (incident wave potential) and a given large ( L > 5 )
device, to find the velocity potential, the (possible) device(s) motion(s) and the free
surface motions. This approach remains feasible as long as no wave breaking occurs in
the computational domain. Wave energy devices of P3 family are therefore excluded
from this section, whereas P1 and P2 can be modelled by potential theory.
The governing equation here is the elliptic Laplaces equation
2 2 2
+ + =0
x 2 y 2 z 2
Equation B.10
expressing the fluid mass conservation. Let ( x, y, t ) be the free surface elevation above
point ( x, y , 0) at time t , two conditions must be fulfilled on this surface

kinematic cond. = + + M free surface
z t x x y y
Equation B.11
and, at the same location
121
1 pa (t )
2 2 2
dynamic cond. g = + +
t 2 x y z

Equation B.12
where pa stands for a possible varying pressure above the free surface, the mass
density of water. Usually the problem is solved for constant atmospheric pressure (with
pa = 0 for convenience), but this term must be accounted for when a varying pressure
exists above free-surface as in P1 systems family (OWC). On the device wetted surface, a
no-flux condition
ur r
=V n M wetted body surface
n
Equation B.13
ur
is imposed, where V is the local surface velocity ( 0 in case of a fixed device as OWC
r
plants) and n the normal vector to the body surface. These governing equations have
been recalled here just to illustrate and exemplify the concept of linearity and non-
linearity, which is so often cited in this section (and some others).
The problem to be solved for here is an elliptic initial boundary value problem
(Equation B.10) featuring non-linear boundary conditions (Equation B.11 and Equation
B.12) on a moving surface which is itself an unknown of the problem. Non-linearities
arise explicitly from quadratic terms in (Equation B.11 and Equation B.12), while they
are present but more implicit in Equation B.13, being linked to the ratio body
motion/body size (in the case of a fixed body, free surface conditions only are non-
linear). Thus, depending on the level of accuracy one expects from the numerical
simulation, several levels of linearisation are possible, and the corresponding computer
codes have been more or less developed.
Again we must insist here on the fact that most wave energy devices being designed and
optimised to have large amplitude response to maximise power output, they will
necessitate a non-linear analysis more that other oceanic structures. One has to bear in
mind that non-linearities are not systematically only a small extra added to a dominant
linear response (which is the idea of perturbation approach: third order smaller than
second order, smaller than first order, etc.) but that they can also bring unstable and even
chaotic behaviour which could possibly ruin the system or drastically reduce its
performance. One should therefore consider that, in the hydrodynamic analysis of wave
energy devices, the linear analysis is necessary but not sufficient.
Some well known papers related to wave energy systems, published in famous and
eminent journals, claim to have solved The problem of wave energy recovering, but in
such a low level analysis level that their system or methods are definitely impracticable to
the real world (i.e. non-infinitesimal waves, time-domain world, and so on).
Generally speaking, the numerical modelling of hydrodynamics of such devices can follow
two approaches: frequency domain and time domain, and several level of linearisation, from
zeroth order (called linear), then second, third order, etc., to fully non-linear (see table2).
122
At the lowest level (1) (i.e: linear frequency domain) one assumes vanishing amplitudes
of both body motion and wave steepness, with all the kinematics (body motion, flow)
being harmonic in time at a single given wave frequency . Under these extra
assumptions, Equation B.11 and Equation B.12 may be linearised, and imposed on a
fixed surface (i.e. z = 0 the mean free surface), while Equation B.13 is written on the
fixed mean body surface (in case of moving body). This approach is very useful at the
design stage for linking the dimensioning to the dynamics of the body in waves.
Historically, it was the first formulation of the sea-keeping problem that has led to
computer implementation. Hence, a lot of commercial computer codes are available in
category (1). These must sometimes be adapted to specific wave energy device problems
like taking the inner free surface (Lee et al. 1996), or local bathymetry (Brito-Melo et al.
1999, 2001), into account. They are now easy to use and can be run on standard personal
computers, with computing time of the order of some minutes only.
Frequency Time Free-surface Body-surface

domain domain condition condition
Fully linear (1) (2) linear linear
Body non-linear (3) (4) linear nonlinear
2nd order (5) (6) nonlinear l/n
Fully non-linear (7) nonlinear nonlinear
Table B-10 Hydrodynamic models
As long as we remain in the fully linear domain, frequency and time domain are
reciprocal Fourier transforms, which means that results of one of these approaches (1,2)
can be deduced from the other one. This is the theory; in practise, each approach has
advantages and drawbacks, and numerical tools are not equally developed and
disseminated in both side. Some wave energy devices are composed of several moving
bodies linked together. Then, the architecture of the numerical code should take this
particularity into account. This is done in several commercial codes in frequency domain
(1), but we are not aware of such a feature in time-domain linear codes (2), although there
is no theoretical barrier to the implementation of this option. Also, the possibility of
taking into account a (constant) finite water depth is available in frequency domain codes,
but is not in linear time domain approaches, for more serious reasons.
Beyond this first group (1,2) of linear numerical approach, only very few commercial
computer codes are available, probably due to the narrowness of the market reported to
the complexity of designing a versatile code in this area. Most of the programs are
research codes, sometimes difficult to transpose from one problem to another, and from
the author to a novice user.
In categories (3,4), referred to here as body-non-linear methods, only body boundary

condition Equation B.13 is delinearised, which means that the condition is no longer
fulfilled on the mean position, but on the exact, instantaneous position of the moving
body. (these categories are indeed meaningless for fixed bodies as, e.g. bottom standing
plants). The free surface conditions Equation B.11 and Equation B.12 are still linearised,
which implies that this approach is better suited to immersed devices, or for bodies
123
piercing the free-surface with vertical walls. In the radiation regime, when a body is
forced to oscillate harmonically with large amplitude (relative to its own length) under a
free surface, one can observe the dispersion of energy not only in the fundamental
harmonic, as in the linear regime, but also on multiple harmonics. This can be observed
in Figure B-12 where this energy-spreading phenomenon is illustrated for the case of a
submerged heaving sphere (Clment and Ferrant 1987). This simple example show that
this source of energy dispersion is far from being marginal; energy radiated by the second
harmonic could represent up to 2/3 of the fundamental one for certain wave-numbers
(here around).
Figure B-12 Large amplitude heave Figure B-13 Large amplitude heave
motion of a submerged sphere. A/R=0.5, motion of a submerged sphere. A/R=0.5,
Z0/R=2. Amplitude of the radiated wave Z0/R=2. Energy radiated on higher
field on harmonic n reduced by wave harmonics reduced by the total radiated
amplitude of the fundamental. energy
In the next step, delinearisation of free surface conditions can be performed using a
perturbation expansion method, which is based on the small wave steepness assumption
(i.e. = H = O (1) ). The first order of the resulting series of problems is precisely the
above-mentioned linear problem. The following one, namely the second-order problem,
can then be posed using the first-order solution. Following this approach (5) for the
monochromatic diffraction problem gives access to the second-order (in that case, second
harmonic) loading on fixed structures; this is therefore complementary to the previous
approaches, which gave the higher harmonics due to large amplitude body motions. At
this second-order stage, a bi-chromatic wave excitation ( 1 , 2 say) could be considered,
giving access numerically to the quadratic transfer functions (QTF).(excitation forces at
frequency 2 1 and 2 + 1 ). Unfortunately, only very few research codes are
available in this category. Computation time is of the order of hours for a single
geometrical/mechanical configuration.
Finally, the fully non-linear problem (7), which consists in solving the above governing
equations without any kind of linearisation can be addressed using the so-called
Numerical Wave Tank (NWT) technique (see the review paper: Kim et al. 1999). In this
family of computer codes, the problem is generally solved using Rankine BEM
techniques. A virtual wave tank, featuring the same equipments as real experimental
facilities (wave-maker, wave absorber, probes, etc.), is simulated. The frequency-domain
approach is no longer feasible here, due to the fully non-linear free-surface conditions;
these codes run in time-domain, through a time stepping procedure. At each time step the
fluid domain boundary, including the free-surface and the device surface, must be
updated and regridded. Hence, computation times are very high now, (typically one hour
cpu on an alpha-processor workstation for one wave period) and one cannot reasonably
think of incorporating these codes directly into the global wave to wire model. The
124
recommendation is rather to use them to produce sets of input/output data to feed the
identification process, with the hope that the resulting models would loose several order
of complexity, consisting in simple sets of differential equations. Some existing
research codes of this last category can compute the motion of a large structure in
response to non-linear (moderate to severe) sea state. Being rather generic, they are not a
priori fitted to specific wave energy device shapes and would demand adaptations and
developments before being able to cope with the problem.
B 6.6 Power Take Off (PTO) modelling

A sub-model of the PTO system must be included in the wave to wire global model. In
the present context, we include the control (if any) in what we call here the PTO system.
A large number of systems have been proposed for conversion of wave energy, which can
be very different in their principle, size, functionality and so on. It is therefore rather
difficult to express generic recommendations about their modelling. The goal to achieve,
in order to integrate the PTO sub-model in the global mathematical Wave to Wire model,
is to express this energy transfer as a set of time-domain differential equations. These
would indeed not be ordinary or linear ODE, due to a lot of non-linear effects to be
included, such as saturation, threshold conditions, discrete events, hysteresis, and so on.
But provided they can be formulated in a differential form, they will be useful to be
integrated in the global model.
Mainly two large families of power take off have been proposed: direct electric
generators, either rotational when linked to turbines, for example, or translational when
linked directly to one of the motions of the device (as the linear electric generators of
AWS); the second great family is hydraulics.
Models for the electric generators will generally be provided by the manufacturer
themselves, when standard elements are to be used. If specific generators are developed,
a model should be sought in the form of a time-domain (differential) relation linking the
mechanical and the electrical variables involved: torque, force, velocity, acceleration,
voltage, current, etc. The structure of such a model will generally be derived analytically
from the design of the element; the determination of the coefficients of the model may
require some experiments on a physical model or on the prototype itself.
In the hydraulic PTO solutions, the secondary energy transfer consists of pumping a fluid
and accumulating it into a pressurised tank. This fluid will, in general, be used to drive an
hydraulic motor coupled to an electric generator. In this second category, the storage of
pressurised fluid introduces an intermediate transformation of energy into a potential
form, with a (possibly) large time constant depending on the volume of fluid stored in the
tank (and on the tank storage pressure indeed). This large time constant can play the
(positive) role of a buffer and isolate the dynamics of the process before and after this
storage stage. This is favourable in that these dynamics, one accorded to the waves, the
other driven by the grid connection, are in general different in their spectral content. The
presence of such an intermediate storage could result in breaking the global wave to wire
model into two sub-models with different dynamics.
Standard modelling methods for the hydraulic sub-system should be used at that stage.
They are based on conservation equations (mass, energy), and should include all the head
losses (regular and singular) along the hydraulic circuitry and in the control elements like
125
valves, etc. The manufacturers can provide these parameters. Some of the terms of the
corresponding equations are non-linear (e.g. quadratic terms). Furthermore, and by its
nature, the principle of hydraulic pumping is essentially non-linear due to the pressure
threshold; no flow will occur while the force (torque) remains under a certain (pressure)
threshold, whereas above it, the force will remain nearly constant while the flow
(velocity) varies.
The control of WECs (wave energy converters) of class P1 and P2 is generally

categorised into two classes: continuous or discrete. The so-called phase control
(continuous) aims at minimising the phase lag between the (hydrodynamic) excitation
force and the velocity of the productive mode of motion of the body. This can be done by
varying a (continuous) parameter of the plant, which in turn modifies the instantaneous
dynamics, wave after wave. In the discrete control approach, the values of the tuning
parameter(s) can take only discrete values, or sometimes they are reduced to a simple
binary open/close choice. The particular latching control proposed for some P2 or
OWC WECs belongs to this category. If all the sub-models are written in term of
differential equations, then the control itself can be formulated in the same way as a state
space model, allowing for using the standard methods of systems theory for optimisation
purposes.
Again the details of the control algorithm will be particular and specifically designed for
each WEC system.
B 6.6.1 Grid-integration model
The grid-integration model is the last stage of the energy transfer, where electricity is
delivered from the wave power farm substation to the utility grid. The technical
specifications in terms of electrical connection are imposed by the utility at a point call
pcc . The connection can be represented symbolically by Figure B-14.
There will be indeed a coupling interaction between the grid and the wave farm in that
the grid may react to variation of the power output of the farm, and that the farm may feel
variations of the load from the grid. This interaction will be considered statically or
dynamically depending on i) the purpose of the model ii) the strength of the grid at the
pcc .(point of common connection). Let S SC be the short-circuit apparent power (a data
provided by the utility) and S N the nominal apparent power of the device (or farm of
devices), the ratio rsc = S sc S N will provide a measure of the strength of the grid at the
connection point.
transformer Pcc
I
Wave farm Zcc short circuit Utility
substation impedance grid
U
Figure B-14 Grid integration model

in cases when one simply wants to compare several devices or assess the effect of
some internal parameter on the device efficiency; or when the grid is strong
enough ( rsc > 20 ) not to react to variations of the power output from the farm, the
126
interaction does not need to be modelled dynamically, and a static model with
infinite acceptance is convenient
in the reverse situation where the grid would be considered as weak at the pcc
( rsc < 20 ), a simple model as in Figure B-14 could be used
This approach has already been used successfully for modelling the interaction of wind
farms to weak local grids (A.Estanqueiro et al. 1996). Due to the similarity between these
two domains (high variability, weak local grids, local loads, etc.) we generally
recommend here to use for wave farms the same modelling methodology as for wind
farms.
B 6.7 References
Alessandrini, B. Delhommeau, G, (1999) A fully coupled Navier-Stokes solver for calculations of
turbulent incompressible free surface flow past a ship hull, International Journal for Numerical
Methods in Fluid, vol 29, pp 125-142.
Cummins, W.E., (1962). The impulse response function and ship motions, Shiffstechnik 9.
Evans, D.V., (1981). Power from water waves. Ann. Rev. Fluid Mec., Vol.13, pp.157-187.
Salter, S.H., Lin, C.P., (2000). Wide tank efficiency measurements on a model of the sloped IPS Buoy.
Wehausen, J.V, (1971). The motion of floating bodies, Annual Rev. Fluid Mech., Vol.3, pp.237-268.
Faltinsen, O.M., (1990) Sea Loads on Ship and Offshore Structures. Cambridge University Press, 328 p
Chakrabarty,S.K., (1994). Offshore Structure Modelling. World Scientific. 470p.
Hugues, S.A. (1993) Physical Models and Laboratory Techniques in Coastal Engineering. World
Scientific. 568p.
Sarpkaya, T. and Isaacson, M. (1981). Mechanics of wave forces on offshore structures. New York. Van
Nostrand Reinhold company.
Kim, C.H., Clment, A.H., Tanizawa, K. (1999): Recent Research And Development of Numerical Wave
TankA Review. Int. Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering. Vol. 9,n4, pp 241-256,
Clment, A.H., Ferrant, P. (1987): Superharmonic waves generated by the large amplitude motion of a
submerged body ; in : Nonlinear Water Waves ; H.Horikawa and H.Maruo Eds; Springer-Verlag.pp
423-433.
Brito-Melo, A., Sarmento, A.J.N.A. Clment, A. H. and Delhommeau, G. (1999) A 3D Boundary Element
Code for the Analysis of OWC wave-Power Plants, Proc of the 9th Int Offshore and Polar Eng
Conf, Brest, France, ISOPE, Vol I, pp 188-195.
Brito-Melo, A., Hofmann, T., Sarmento, A.J.N.A, Clment, A.H., Delhommeau, G. (2001): Numerical
Modelling of OWC-Shoreline Devices Including the Effects of Surrounding Coastline and Non-flat
Bottom; Int Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering, Vol11, n2, pp.147-154
Lee, C.-H., Newman, J.N. and Nielsen, F.G. (1996) Wave Interactions with an Oscillating Water Column,
Proc of the 6th Int Offshore and Polar Eng Conf, Los Angeles, ISOPE, Vol I, pp 82-90.
Estanqueiro, A.I., Ferreira de Jesus J.M., Castro R.M.G., Oliveira L.B., Marques da Silva F., Gil Saraiva
J.G. (1996), Development and Validation of a Wind Park Grid Integration Model. BWEA
Conference.
Falnes, J. (2002): Ocean Waves and Oscillating Systems. Cambridge University Press.
Guillerm, P.E., Alessandrini, B. (2000) 3D Free Surface Flow around a Body in Forced Motion by
RANSE-Potential Coupling, ICHD Conf. Yokohama, September 2000
Molin, B. (2002) Hydrodynamique des structures offshore. Ed. TECHNIP, Paris.
Nielsen, K. (2002). Development of recommended practices for testing and evaluating ocean energy
systems. Implementing agreement for a co-operative programme on Ocean Energy Systems.
International Energy Agency.
127
128
WaveNet C Research and development
C Research and development
C1 INTRODUCTION
This Section presents results from Work Package 5 of the European Thematic Network
on Wave Energy. The Tasks included in Work Package 5 were as follows
Task 1Current Status and review of research activity into wave energy devices
undertaken to date with particular reference to European Union funded projects
(Section C 2).
Task 2Fixed Devices Review of work to date, identification of technical
barriers and research requirements (Section C 3).
Task 3Floating Devices Review of work to date, identification of technical
barriers and research requirements (Section C 4).
Task 4Fourth Generation Devices Review of work and identification of
technical barriers and research requirements (Section C 5).
Task 5Tidal Stream Devices Review of work to date, identification of
technical barriers and research requirements (Section C 6).
Task 6Strategy and Action Plan for R&D into wave energy devices (Section C
7).
C 1.1 Task titles

In the original proposal the Tasks 2, 3 and 4 were entitled First Generation, Second
Generation and Third Generation Wave Energy Devices. These descriptions for different
classes of device were a legacy of earlier work undertaken by many authors. Discussions
during the meetings of the Thematic Network Members led to the redefinition of the
device classification as it was felt that generations represented a progression of a
particular device.
It was therefore decided to rename First Generation Devices to Fixed Devices. This
classification will cover all types of device, which have a solid foundation and do not rely
on a float for the power take-off.
The Second Generation Devices were renamed as Floating Devices. These devices are
either completely floating structures or utilise a floating element as the prime mover and
may have a fixed connection to the seabed or other structure to provide the reaction and
station fixing.
The Third Generation Devices were renamed as Fourth Generation Devices to represent
concepts, which were long term in development and may require new materials or
systems for their realisation. The Fourth Generation concept stems from the terminology
used in the ICT industry.
129
C Research and development WaveNet
C2 REVIEW OF OCEAN ENERGY PROJECTS WITHIN THE

EUROPEAN UNION
Prepared by: Tony Lewis, UCC
C 2.1 Introduction
There have been a large number of device concepts proposed for the utilisation of wave
energy over the years. Few devices have been tested in the sea at full scale and only one
large device type can be considered close to commercial reality. It is technically feasible
to construct wave energy converters that will perform efficiently at sea. However, a
number of detailed factors that affect the economics are still unknown given the lack of
operational experience with research prototypes or pilot plants. Tank testing of scale
model converters has been carried out in a number of countries and mathematical
descriptions have been developed. Further tank testing and mathematical modelling will
be required and proving of these modelling exercises will require full-size prototypes to
be tested at sea. Component reliability and survival of the devices in storm wave
conditions will also need to be determined in full-scale trials. An overview of the
situation is given in Lewis (1986,1993) with recent developments outlined in EU (1997).
Wave energy converters consist essentially of two major components

The interface element that is acted on directly by the waves
The power take-off system that damps the interface motion and produces useful
work.
The interface elements are normally of two main types
Floats that heave or roll in response to wave action.
Air chambers within which the pressure varies either by direct contact with the
water surface or indirect contact through a membrane.
The power take-off systems can be classified under three main headings
High Pressure Hydraulicsusually oil
Low Pressure Hydraulicsusually using seawater
Air Turbines.
Most of the power take-off systems for current practical devices are designed to generate
electricity with a small number proposing the use of mechanical power to desalinate
seawater.
Other renewable energy technologies have very few options for the principle of energy
conversion. Wind energy requires a turbine, which can be either vertical or horizontal
axis. Photovoltaics can utilise only limited materials and must be mounted in arrays.
Biomass requires chemical conversion or combustion for utilisation (usually
incorporating conventional technology) and Hydropower has limited options all based on
impulse or reaction turbines. Wave energy conversion by contrast has almost an infinite
number of potential possibilities for realisation and after a number of years of research it
is still not clear which is the optimum system. Falnes (1990) has summarised the
multitude of generic types for wave energy converters. There are however a limited
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number of practical systems, which are more mature and could be considered suitable for
further development and capable of developing the resource.
C 2.2 EU activity in Ocean Energy R&D

C 2.2.1 Preliminary actions
In 1991 the Commissioner for Research in D.G.12 (Mr. Pandolfi) convened a high-level
meeting to discuss the possibilities for the development of the wave energy resource in
Europe. The result of this meeting was the allocation of 2 million to Preliminary
Research Actions designed to act as an introduction for wave energy into the JOULE 2
Programme. These Preliminary Actions instigated projects under the following
headings
Resource assessment
Generic device technology
European wave energy pilot plant
Supporting actions
Preliminary Action AResource assessment
A preliminary review of the potential wave energy resource in Europe was undertaken.
This study was led by Laboratorio Naional de Engenharia e Tecnologia Industrial,
Departamento de Energias Renovaveis, in Portugal with the responsible scientistDr.
Teresa Pontes. The contract number was JOUR-CT91- 0132 and the duration was
20 months from January 1992.
The objectives of this work were

To establish a common methodology for evaluation of the offshore as well as the
shoreline wave energy resource
To produce an E.C. Wave Data Catalogue.
The outcome from this work was to lay the foundations for future projects related to the
production of a European Wave Energy Atlas.
Preliminary Action B Generic device technology
This project undertook an in-depth review of the state of the art and requirements for
successful development of wave energy converters. The study was led by Danish Wave
Power (Rambll Ltd), Denmark with the responsible engineerDr Kim Nielsen. The
contract number was JOUR-CT91-0130 and the duration was 20 months from January
1992. There was a number of subthemes investigated under this heading with different
groups responsible for each. These were
Fundamentals and hydrodynamicsUniversity College Cork, Ireland.
Components and materialsDanish Wave Power.
Power take-offEdinburgh University, UK
Electrical conversionQueens University Belfast, UK
Economics and environmental issues ETSU (AEA Technology), UK
A comprehensive series of reports was produced under each of these themes.
Preliminary Action CEuropean wave energy pilot plant
The objectives of this study were to investigate the location and design of a medium scale
(0.5 to 1 MW) shoreline oscillating-water-column (OWC) pilot plant for wave energy
131
conversion. In particular, the pilot plant was intended to serve as a European platform for
research into aspects of wave energy devices at a practical scale, namely in problems
associated with construction methods, air turbines, primary control systems, grid
interactions, etc.
The study was led by the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Instituto Superior
Tecnico in Lisbon, Portugal with participants from Ireland and UK The scientist
responsible was Professor Antonio Falcao and the contract number was JOUR-CT91-
0133 with a duration of 20 months from January 1992.
The outcome from this research activity was the production of outline designs for
research pilot plants to be located in Portugal, Ireland and Scotland.
Preliminary Action D European Wave Energy Network Activity
The objective of the establishment of the European Wave Energy Network was to
encourage collaboration between the various groups active in the field of wave energy
R&D at both European and International level.
The Network was organised by the Hydraulics and Maritime Research Centre at
University College Cork, Ireland. The lead engineer was Dr. Tony Lewis under contract
number JOUR-Ct91-0361 and the duration was 20 months from January 1992.
The Network organised specialist Workshops, published the newsletter Waveength,

produced a general brochure and established a Web presence. The work culminated in the
organisation of the First European Wave Energy Conference in Edinburgh in September
1993.
C 2.2.2 JOULE 2
Ocean Energy was included for the first time in general EU funding for R&D under the
JOULE 2 activity in the Third Framework Programme. There was a specific call for
projects related to Pilot Plants as well as a more general call.
Pilot plants
Pico, Azores, PortugalPhase 1
This project had the objective to undertake the detailed design and to construct the
concrete chamber of a shoreline OWC wave energy device on the island of Pico in the
Azores. The Coordinator of this project was the Department of Mechanical Engineering
at the Instituto Superior Tecnico in Lisbon, Portugal with the lead scientist being Prof.
Antonio Falcao. The contract number was JOU2 0314 and the duration was 31 months
from February 1994.
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Figure C-1 Porto Cacorro O.W.C., Azores
The outcome of this project was the construction of the concrete chamber with an internal
surface area of 144 square metres. There were many difficulties with the construction and
it was completed about one year late.
Islay, Scotland, UK
This project had the objective to construct a shoreline OWC wave energy converter on
the southwest coastline of the island of Islay, Scotland. The coordinator for this project
was the Department of Civil Engineering at Queens University, Belfast, UK with the
lead scientist being Prof. Trevor Whittaker. The contract number was JOU2-0276 and the
duration was 24 months from December 1994.
This project did not progress to the construction phase but did complete the design for the
multi-chamber type shoreline OWC.
OSPREY, Dounreay, Scotland UK

This project had the specific objective to construct and install the prototype OSPREY
Oscillating Water Column type wave energy converter at Dounreay in Caithness,
Scotland for the purposes of validating, at full scale, energy capture, structural loadings
and economic forecasts made on the basis of theoretical and model studies. The
coordinator of the project was Applied Research and Technology Ltd, Scotland with the
lead scientist as Mr. Tom Heath. The contract number was JOU2-0283 and duration was
51 months from May 1994.
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Figure C-2 OSPREY at float out from John Brown yard, Glasgow, Scotland
The OSPREY was constructed in Glasgow in 1996 and floated out from the John Brown
shipyard in August of that year. The steel shell was deployed at the site in Dounreay off
the north coast of Scotland in September. The unit derived its stability from sand filling
within the steel shell. Unfortunately the sand filling had not been put in place when the
unit was exposed to wave action above the design value for that condition. The steel shell
broke up and the whole unit was written off as a complete loss. The 2 MW turbines that
had been fitted were however recovered.
SEKE, Patras, Greece.

This project involved the testing and full-scale design of a novel type of air chamber
wave energy device. This was to utilise the momentum transfer in the waves to generate
high pressures within the air chamber. The coordinator for this project was the Stadium of
Mechanics in the School of Engineering at the University of Patras, Greece. The scientist
in charge was Prof. Goudas and the contract number was JOU2 0315 with duration of
16 months.
The outcome from this project was that the model testing for the device did not realise the
expected pressures within the air chamber. The prototype chamber was not then
constructed for testing. The novel high-pressure pneumatic power takeoff system was
however constructed and tested.
Other projects
WERATLAS
The main objective is to produce an Atlas of wave energy resources off the coasts of EC
member states and Norwaythus facilitating the evaluation of wave power resources and
planning of their utilisation. WERATLAS also has the objectives of standardizing the
wave energy statistics, collecting offshore resource data to be used in the design of wave
energy devices and model testing and providing relevant data for other users of the ocean.
The project coordinator was National Laboratory for Engineering and Industrial
Technology (INETI) with the lead scientist Dr. Teresa Pontes. The contract number was
JOU2-0390 and the duration was 30 months from February 1994.
The project developed offshore wave energy statistics at a number of sites throughout
Europe with a user-friendly PC software interface for display. The main data sources
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were WAM wave model data from ECMWF in the UK and satellite altimeter data. More
details of this atlas and an on-line order form can be found at the projects Web site
www.ineti.pt/ite/weratlas/.
OWEC 1
The objectives for this project were to develop numerical and mathematical models as
design tools in device design, control and optimisation, to design and test efficient
hydraulic power conversion and control systems and to provide a standardisation of
testing procedures and demonstrate the testing regime. The coordinator for this project
was Danish Wave Power Aps. (Rambll International) with a team of 18 participating
institutions from Greece, Portugal, Ireland, UK, Norway, Sweden and Denmark. The lead
scientist for this project was Dr. Kim Nielsen and the contract number was JOU2-0394
with duration of 24 months from January 1994.
The outcome from this project was a series of reports fulfilling the objectives set out. The
purpose of these reports was to provide a blueprint for the development of the offshore
wave energy research programme for Europe.
Air turbine development and assessment for wave power plants

The principal objective of this programme was to provide the designers of a wave power
converter (on, near or offshore) with the means of selecting the optimum air turbine to
meet their needs. The coordinator for the project was Coventry University, UK with Dr.
Peter White as the lead scientist. The contract number was JOU2-0333 with a duration of
26 months from January 1994.
The deliverables from the project were

data base on Wells turbine performance
design guide lines for a Wells turbine
recommendations for selecting the most appropriate air turbine for a given wave
power application
conference/journal publications relating to the above
CENEX Tidal and marine currents exploitation
The objective of the project was to assess the possibilities and potential of exploiting tidal
and marine currents for power generation in Europe. The project coordinator was
Technomare Ltd, Venice, Italy with the lead scientist Dr. Dario Berti. The contract
number was JOU2-355 and the duration was 17 months from June 1994.
The outcome from this project was an overview of the potential for tidal current
exploitation in Europe derived from desk studies based on navigation charts and pilotage
publications. A digital version of the atlas was produced in a searchable tabulated format.
C 2.2.3 JOULE 31995

Pilot Plants
Pico, AzoresPhase 2
This contract was a continuation of the development of the OWC wave energy device at
Porto Caccorro, Pico Island in the Azores. Phase Two concerned the development,
design, construction, erection and commissioning of the mechanical, electrical, control
and monitoring equipment. The coordinator for this project again was the Department of
135
Mechanical Engineering at the Instituto Superior Tecnico in Lisbon, Portugal with the
lead scientist being Prof. Antonio Falcao. The contract number was JOR3-95-0012 and
the duration was 24 months from January 1996.
The turbine generator systems were fitted into the concrete chamber constructed at the
Azores. Major difficulties were encountered with aerodynamically induced vibrations in
the Wells turbine system. There were also problems with inundation of the electrical
control system during a large storm. This pilot plant was still undergoing remedial works
up to Summer 2002.
WOSP Wind/wave energy plant

The project was designed to use the OSPREY Wave Energy Collector as a foundation for
the placement of a wind turbine in the near shore environment. The coordinator for this
project was Applied Research and Technology Ltd., Inverness Scotland and the lead
scientist was Mr. Allan Thomson. The contract number was JOR395-0009 and the
duration was 36 months from January 1996.
With the demise of the OSPREY wave energy device this contract was never undertaken.
The expected outcome from the project came from the expectation that the wind loads on
the turbine were an order of magnitude less than the wave loadings on the OWC and so a
secure base for the wind generator may be obtained with minimal additional cost to the
structure. The considerable boost to the total power output of the combined wind/wave
device would significantly improve the economic benefits offered by standalone wind or
wave generators broadening the appeal of both technologies.
Other projects
A variable-pitch turbine and high-speed valve for the Azores oscillating water-column
wave energy device. The objectives of this project were
To construct a variable pitch Wells turbine for fitting to the spare outlet on the
OWC wave energy device at the island of Pico in the Azores.
To construct a high-speed stop valve for phase control of the OWC.
The coordinator for this project was the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the
University of Edinburgh and the lead scientist was Prof. Stephen Salter. The contract
number was JOR3-95-0002 and the duration was 36 months from January 1996.
136
Figure C-3 Variable Pitch Wells Turbine
The outcome from this project was that both the variable pitch Wells turbine was
manufactured and shipped to Lisbon but the contractor responsible for the blades did not
deliver these. The high-speed stop valve was also manufactured and shipped to Lisbon.
Funding, however, could not be obtained to install the completed system in the Azores.
C 2.2.4 JOULE 31998

Pilot plants
LIMPET, Islay, Scotland
The objectives of the project were
To construct one shoreline oscillating water column wave power device with three
columns giving a water plane area of 170 m2.
To install one counter-rotating Wells turbine generator module with two
generators of 250 kW each giving a combined name plate capacity of 500 kW
with a peak electrical output of 750 kW which in conjunction with pressure relief,
will accommodate pneumatic powers up to 3 MW.
To connect to the electrical distribution grid and run the plant as a power station
during the final phase of the work producing an average annual output of up to
1,800 MWh in a year with an average resource of 20 kW/m.
To fully instrument the plant, monitor the performance of the power transmission
from wave to wire and compare with the predicted values obtained from the
physical and mathematical models.
To provide the necessary information to improve the design of future wave power
plant with a view to commercialisation of the technology both in Europe and
Worldwide.
The coordinator for this project was Queens University Belfast with the lead scientist as
Prof. Trevor Whittaker. The contract number was JOR3-98-0312 with duration of
36 months from November 1998.
137
Figure C-4 LIMPET plenum chamber structure
The construction of LIMPET was completed in November 2000 and the turbine generator
has been fully operational since Spring 2001 and is connected to the local electricity grid.
SEAFLOW
The primary objective of the SEAFLOW project was to develop and demonstrate the
worlds first commercial-scale, grid-connected marine current turbine. The coordinator of
the project was IT Power Ltd., UK with the lead scientist being Mr. Peter Fraenkel. The
contract number was JOR3-98-0202 with duration of 36 months from September 1998.
The system would consist of an axial-flow, horizontal-axis turbine, which was expected
to have a rotor diameter of 15 m and be mounted on a monopile set into a socket in the
seabed in a water depth of 20 to 30 m.
There were a large number of delays to this project with full financing for the completion
of the installation being delayed. The UK Department of Trade and Industry allocated
further funds to the project in 2002 and so the turbine was expected to be installed in
2003.
Other projects
Performance improvement of OWC equipment
This project had two objectives
To reduce the unit cost of the electrical energy produced, by improving the
performance of the plant s equipment (namely the turbine) at no extra cost.
To improve the plant s integration to the grid, especially in small isolated grids
where wave energy could find its first commercial application.
The project coordinator was the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Instituto
Superior Tecnico in Lisbon, Portugal with the lead scientist being Prof. Antonio Falcao.
The contract number was JOR3-98-0282 and the duration was 42 months from January
1999.
This project was to have utilised the wave power plant at the Azores but the difficulties
experienced meant that only limited application to that plant was possible. Optimisation
of turbine designs and testing of the variable pitch Wells turbine was undertaken.
138
OPTCURRENT
Objectives of the project were
The development of system specification matrices appropriate for tidal current
systems.
Establishment of appropriate optimisation methodologies
Application of the optimisation methods to determine the input values for the
matrix that optimise the performance of the system for two locations in Europe.
Incorporation of all the techniques into a useable handbook and tool-box of
associated software.
The coordinator of this project was the Department of Mechanical and Offshore
Engineering at Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK and the lead scientist
was Prof. Ian Bryden. The contract number was JOR3-98-0205 with duration of
36 months from August 1998.
The outcome from this project was a tidal development tool-box which consisted of the
software packages required for identification of optimal solutions in association with
detailed instructions on how to establish the necessary input databases. The tool-box
enables the commercial potential of any site to be assessed prior to development and,
therefore, to minimise the risk associated with the development of any site which is
thought to be suitable for tidal current power.
C 2.2.5 CRAFT
There have been two projects funded under the CRAFT Programme of the EU This
programme specifically funds research and development activity for SMEsa in Europe.
SPERBOY
This project had the objectives to develop a broadband sea-powered energy recovery
buoy. The SME proposer for this project was Starweld Ltd., UK and there was an
exploratory award initially (JOR3-97-1004) with a follow up Cooperative Study award
JOR3-98-7026. The responsible person for the coordinator was Mr. Clive West and the
duration of the project was a total of 34 months from July 1997.
Figure C-5
a
Small to Medium-Sized Enterprise
139
The device was tested at sea after tank trials had been undertaken by the research
providers. The device broke moorings during a storm and suffered some damage. Further
development work is in progress during 2003.
WAVEDRAGON
The project objective of this project was to develop a technique where existing hydro
turbines can be used in offshore wave energy converters (WEC) of the slack moored run-
up type with some modification. The SME proposer for this project was Lwenmark
Consulting Engineers, Aps. With the person responsible being Eric Friis-Madsen. There
was an initial exploratory award (JOR3-97-1031) followed by a Cooperative Award
JOR3-98-7027. The duration of the project was a total of 28 months from December
1997.
Figure C-6 The quarter-scale Wave Dragon prior to launching (Feb 2003)
There were a number of tank tests carried out on this concept and testing of the low-head
hydro-turbines was also undertaken. A quarter-scale model of the Wave Dragon has now
been constructed and will be deployed at a test site in northern Denmark. This project has
also been successful in the EESD activity in the Fifth Framework programme.
C 2.2.6 INCO
The INCO programme is specifically designed to foster collaborations between the

European Union researchers and those in the former Soviet Union.
MARINECO
This project has the objectives
To development of the structure and substantiation of power-industrial system
destined for the Arctic based on the use of local renewable resources.
To research, technological development and test the pilot module of an offshore
Float Wave Electric power Station (FWEPS) as a device for sea wave energy
conversion.
The project proposer is the Applied Technologies Company, Moscow, Russian
Federation and the main EU partner is CRES, Athens, Greece. The proposing scientist is
Dr. Alexander Termeev and the EU lead scientist is Dr. George Lemonis.
The contract number is ICA2-CT-2000-10049 and the duration is 36 months from

December 2000. The project is ongoing and the outcome is not yet known.
140
C3 R&D REQUIREMENTS FOR FIXED DEVICES
Prepared by: A. F. de O. Falco, Mechanical Engineering Department,

Instituto Superior Tcnico
C 3.1 Introduction
It can be said that research into wave energy conversion based on adequate scientific
background started in the 1970 s when the oil crises provoked the exploitation of a range
of renewable energy sources, including waves. Based on various energy-extracting
methods, a wide variety of systems have been proposed but only a few full-sized
prototypes have been built and deployed in open coastal waters. Most of these are or were
located on the shoreline or near shore, and are sometimes named first generation devices.
In general these devices stand on the sea bottom or are fixed to a rocky cliff. Shoreline
devices have the advantage of easier maintenance and installation and do not require
deep-water moorings and long underwater electrical cables. The less energetic wave
climate at the shoreline can be partly compensated by natural wave energy concentration
due to refraction and/or diffraction (if the device is suitably located for that purpose). The
typical first generation device is the oscillating water column (OWC). Another example is
TAPCHAN (Tapered Channel Wave Power Device) a prototype of which was built on
the Norwegian coast in 1985 and operated for several years.
Offshore devices (sometimes classified as third generation devices) are basically

oscillating bodies, either floating or (more rarely) fully submerged. They exploit the more
powerful wave regimes available in deep water (typically more than 40 m water depth).
Offshore wave energy converters are in general more complex compared with first
generation systems. This, together with additional problems associated with mooring and
the need of long underwater electrical cables, has hindered their development, and only
recently some systems have reached, or come close to, the demonstration stage.
This section is devoted essentially to first generation devices (especially OWCs), on

whose design, construction and operation some experience already exists.
C 3.2 TAPCHAN
The TAPCHAN, a device developed in Norway in the 1980 s, comprises a collector, a
converter, a water reservoir and a low-head water-turbine (Figure C-7)2. The horn-
shaped collector serves the purpose of concentrating the incoming waves before they
enter the converter. In the prototype built in Norway, the collector was carved into a
rocky cliff and was about 60-metre-wide at its entrance. The converter is a gradually
narrowing channel with wall heights equal to the filling level of the reservoir (about 3 m
in the Norwegian prototype built at Toftestallen in 1985). The waves enter the wide end
of the channel, and, as they propagate down the narrowing channel, the wave height is
amplified until the wave crests spill over the walls and fill the water reservoir. As a result,
the wave energy is gradually transformed into potential energy in the reservoir. The main
function of the reservoir is to provide a stable water supply to the turbine. It must be large
enough to smooth out the fluctuations in the flow of water overtopping from the
converter (about 8500 m2 surface area in the prototype). A conventional low-head
141
Kaplan-type axial flow turbine is fed in this way, its main specification being the use of
corrosion resistant material.
RESERVOIR
CONVERTER
COLLECTOR
Figure C-7 Schematic view of the tapered channel wave energy device (TAPCHAN)
The TAPCHAN is based on conventional technology to an extent (perhaps) greater than

any other type of wave energy converter. From the technical point of view, the most
critical aspects are the optimal design of the collector (which is a non-trivial diffraction
problem) and the rock breaking technique. The siting requirements for a TAPCHAN
severely limit the applicability of the device. Ideally it should be located at a cliff in deep
water, behind which appropriate conditions exist to create a sufficiently large reservoir.
The water head achievable in the reservoir depends on the wave climate, but could
exceed 4 metres in a moderately energetic climate.
Figure C-8 The TAPCHAN at Toftestallen, Norway December 1986
142
Although it was repeatedly announced in the late 1980 s and in the 1990 s that contracts
were underway for the construction of TAPCHANs in several countries, this has not been
confirmed, and the technology seems to have come to a standstill.
C 3.3 The Oscillating Water Column

The Oscillating water column (OWC) device comprises a partly submerged concrete or
steel structure, open below the water surface, inside which air is trapped above the water
free surface. The oscillating motion of the internal free surface produced by the incident
waves makes the air to flow through a turbine that drives an electric generator (Figure
C-9) The axial-flow Wells turbine, invented in the late 1970 s, has the advantage of not
requiring rectifying valves. It has been used in almost all prototypes.
Air turbine Valve
Air Water
column
Waves
Figure C-9 Longitudinal section of an OWC (Pico plant)
Full sized OWC prototypes were built in Norway (in Toftestallen, near Bergen, 1985),
Japan (Sakata, 1990), India (Vizhinjam, near Trivandrum, Kerala state, 1990), Portugal
(Pico, Azores, 1999), UK (the LIMPET plant in Islay island, Scotland, 2000). The largest
of all, a nearshore bottom-standing plant (named OSPREY) was destroyed by the sea (in
1997) shortly after having been towed and sunk into place near the Scottish coast. In all
these cases, the structure is fixed (bottom-standing or built on rocky sloping wall) and the
main piece of equipment is the Wells air turbine driving an electrical generator. Except
for the OSPREY, the structure was made of concrete. The cross-sectional area of these
OWCs (at mid-water-free-surface level) lies in the range 80-250 m2. Their installed
power capacity is (or was) in the range 60-500 kW (2 MW for OSPREY). Smaller
shoreline OWC prototypes (also equipped with Wells turbines) were built in Islay, UK
(about 1990), and very recently in China. The so-called Mighty Whale, built in Japan a
few years ago, is in fact a floating version of the OWC, also using the Wells turbine.
In an OWC plant, the energy conversion chain consists of the following elements: wave
to air (in which the structure containing the oscillating water column plays a major role);
air turbine; electrical generator (and complementary electrical equipment).
C 3.3.1 The wave-to-air conversion
The wave-to-pneumatic energy conversion may be studied theoretically/numerically, or

by testing a physical model in a wave basin or wave flume. The techniques to be applied
143
are not very different from those used in the study of the hydrodynamics of ships in a
seaway.
Numerical modelling is to be applied in the first stages of the plant design. The computer
codes that have been developed for this purpose are based on the boundary element
method. The main limitations lie in their being unable to account for losses in water due
to real (viscous) fluid effects (large eddy turbulence) and not being capable of modelling
accurately large-amplitude water oscillations (nonlinear waves).
For these reasons, model tests should be carried out in a wave basin when the final
geometry of the plant is already well established. The model testing is performed at scales
ranging from 1:50 to 1:25. It is essential to simulate the absorption of pneumatic energy
by the turbine, namely the damping effect the turbine introduces in the hydrodynamics of
the wave absorbing process. At these small scales, it is practically impossible to use a
model of the air turbine. The procedure consists in introducing, in the duct connecting the
air chamber model to the atmosphere, a device simulating the turbine: either a simple
calibrated orifice or (preferably if a Wells turbine is to be simulated) a set of filters
producing a pressure drop approximately proportional to the air flow rate. The tests are to
be performed for a set of wave conditions reproducing the local wave climate. They
should provide information for the specification and design of the air turbine.
It has been found theoretically and experimentally since the early 1980 s that the wave
energy absorption process can be enhanced by extending the chamber structure by
protruding (natural or man-made) walls in the direction of the waves, forming a harbour
or a collector. This concept has been put into practice in most OWC prototypes.
Figure C-10 Top view of OWC with a parabolic collector (Energetech)
An Australian company (Energetech Australia Pty. Ltd) has proposed a technology that
uses a large parabolic-shaped collector (shaped like a TAPCHAN collector) for this
purpose Fig. 4). The main novelty lies mostly in the large size of the (40 metre wide)
converging wall (compared with the dimensions of the 10-metre-wide OWC itself). It is
expected that the effect of the presence of a properly designed 40-metre-wide parabolic-
shaped concentrator in front of a 10-metre-wide OWC structure will allow a greater
144
amount of energy to be absorbed. However, it should be pointed out that the increase
factor is likely to be considerably less than 40/10=4, for several reasons (based on
theoretical considerations)
with an isolated OWC (or more generally small wave energy absorbers) one can
take advantage of the so-called point absorber effect, which is lost, or greatly
reduced, by the presence of a wider structure (the parabolic concentrator)
the concentrating walls (except in calm sea situations) will produce (by focussing
effect) strongly nonlinear waves; non-linear effects are known to reduce the
efficiency of the energy conversion chain.
The real effectiveness of parabolic-shaped collectors is to be proved. In the design (size
and geometry) of such devices (protruding walls and collectors) (especially if they
require large additional structures), a balance should be kept between, on the one side, the
benefit in terms of additional produced energy and, on the other side, costs and survival
problems in extreme sea conditions.
C 3.3.2 Structure design and construction
The design and construction of the structure (apart from the air turbine) are the most
critical issues in OWC technology, and the most influential to the economics of energy
produced from the waves. In the present situation, the civil construction dominates the
cost of the OWC plant.
Although the hydrodynamics of wave energy conversion are already well understood,
there is no established approach to structure conception, design and constructional
method. There are several causes for this.
The large loads produced by waves breaking against a structure (in this case the front
wall) result from a very complex physical phenomenon. The imperfect knowledge on
predicting such loads usually leads to the structural designer adopting large safety factors
(resulting in a overly costly structure), or alternately may be the cause of insufficient
structural strength (this could have been the cause of the early structural failure and
destruction of the OSPREY device).
The design and the constructional method of the structure are strongly dependent on the
site where it is to be implanted: bottom standing, fixed to a vertical or sloping rocky wall,
incorporated into a breakwater, etc. They also depend on the access (by land or sea) for
construction, and on the availability of construction facilities. For example, the option of
prefabrication of the structure for the Pico plant (Azores) had to be discarded for lack of
appropriate facilities in the Archipelago (absence of a floating dock and of a shipyard
with a sufficiently sized slip way) and the excessive distance (1,700 km) for towing a
large concrete (or steel) structure from the mainland.
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Figure C-11 Rear view of the OWC plant on the Island of Pico, Azores
In situ construction (namely concreting) requires the work to be performed behind a

protecting cofferdam. This could be done for the first (smaller) Islay plant (Scotland) and
the Pico plant (Azores) (Figure C-11)3 because the location of the plant in a natural gully
made it possible for a man-made cofferdam to be built without great cost. However, this
option was later regarded by the respective teams themselves as a solution to avoid, due
to excessive cost of the plants structure and too difficult (and sometimes dangerous)
working conditions during construction (namely underwater work). An alternative in-situ
construction method was adopted for the second (larger) Islay plant4 (Figure C-12): the
structure was built in a hole made in a rocky cliff edge. In the excavation of the hole a
temporary protecting rocky wall was left, behind which the work could be performed in
dry conditions. It all cases, in spite of the protections, the construction could not be
performed except in relatively calmer sea conditions. In Islay II and (especially) Pico, the
removal of the debris from the temporary cofferdams turned out to be major jobs.
146
Figure C-12 Rear view of LIMPET II OWC plant, on the island of Islay, Scotland
The integration of the plant structure into a breakwater has several advantages: the
constructional costs are shared, and the access for construction, operation and
maintenance of the wave energy plant become much easier. This has been done
successfully for the first time in the harbour of Sakata, Japan (in 1990) (Figure C-13),
where one of the caissons making up the breakwater had a special shape to accommodate
the OWC and the mechanical and electrical equipment. An alternative (less convenient)
approach was followed (about the same time) in Trivandrum, India (Figure C-14). In this
case, the prefabricated concrete caisson forming the plant structure was towed and sunk
into position on the bottom in front of (rather integrated into) the existing breakwater, the
access for people being provided by a metal bridge. The option of the breakwater OWC
is presently being considered for several situations in Portugal.
Figure C-13 OWC structure integrated into a breakwater, in Sakata, Japan
147
Figure C-14 Caisson-type OWC, in Trivandrum, India
C 3.3.3 The air turbine
The air turbine is the most critical element of the energy conversion chain and is where a
major fraction of the energy losses occur. A large part of the R&D on OWC plants has
been devoted to turbine aerodynamics. The air turbine of an OWC is subject to much
more demanding conditions than the turbines in any other application, including wind
turbines. Indeed the flow through the turbine is reciprocating (except if a rectifying
system is provided), and is random and highly variable over several time scales, ranging
from a few seconds to seasonal variations. It is not surprising that the time-average
efficiency of an air turbine in an OWC is substantially lower than that of a (water, steam,
gas, wind) turbine working in nearly steady conditions. Several types of air turbines have
been proposed (and in some cases used) in wave energy conversion.
The Wells turbine
Figure C-15 Monoplane Wells turbine without guide vanes
148
The Wells turbine was invented, about 25 year ago, by Dr. Allan Wells (at that time
Professor at Queens University of Belfast). It is an axial-flow turbine that is self-
rectifying, i.e. its torque is not sensitive to the direction of the air flow. Several versions
have been studied since then: a single rotor without (the initial version, Figure C-15) or
with guide vanes (used in Pico, Figure C-16); twin rotors in series (bi-plane, used in Islay
I); two counter-rotating rotors (used in Islay II). The variable-pitch-rotor-blade turbine is
a much more sophisticated version and allows phase control. All these versions have been
the objects of considerable theoretical and/or experimental R&D, especially in Europe
(UK, Portugal, Ireland), Japan, India and China. This gave rise to a substantial number of
published papers.
Figure C-16 400 kW Wells turbine with guide vanes (on the right hand side), and
electrical generator (Pico plant)
The Wells turbine is clearly the most frequently proposed and/or used air turbine to equip
OWC plants (indeed it has been used on all, or nearly all, prototypes deployed in the sea
so far). Its favourable features are
High blade to air-flow ratio. This means that a relatively high rotational speed
(about 1,000-2,000 rpm) may be achieved for a low velocity of air flowing
through the turbine. A high rotational speed allows a cheaper generator to be used
and also enhances the possibility of storing energy by flywheel effect.
A fairly good peak efficiency (0.7-0.8 for a full-sized turbine).
Relatively cheap to construct.
The weak points of the Wells turbine are
Low or even negative torque at (relatively) small flow rates.
Drop (possibly sharp drop) in power output due to aerodynamic losses at flow
rates exceeding the stall-free critical value. Recent research work indicates that
this can be improved by a suitable geometry of the rotor blades (non-
conventional, properly designed blade profiles). By using a variable-pitch turbine,
blade stalling can be avoided or greatly reduced over a large range of flow rates,
therefore allowing a substantially better time-averaged aerodynamic performance
(of course this is paid for in terms of a more complex, more expensive and
probably less reliable machine).
Relatively large diameter for its power (2.3 m for the single rotor 400 kW turbine
of Pico plant, 2.6 m for the counter-rotating 500 kW turbine of Islay II plant).
149
0.8
0.6
( )
( ) 0.4
0.2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

,
Figure C-17 Wells turbine efficiency versus dimensionless pressure head: ( )

without (solid line) and with valve system (short-dashed line); ( ) without (long-
dashed line) and with controlled valve (chain line)
The solid line in Figure C-17 represents (in dimensionless form, and from model testing
results) the instantaneous efficiency of a typical Wells turbine versus the available
pressure head (see Section C 3.4.4 on the Wells turbine for details)
p
=
a N 2 D 2
Equation C.1
Here p is the pressure difference available to the turbine (coinciding approximately

with the pressure difference between the plants air chamber and the atmosphere), a the
air density, N the rotational speed (radians per unit time) and D the turbine rotor outer
diameter. Figure C-17 shows that the efficiency remains at about 0.7 for instantaneous
pressures within the range 0.05-0.11, but drops sharply on both sides of this interval. Of
course, in reciprocating airflow produced by real irregular waves, the pressure randomly
oscillates, passing through zero from positive to negative values and vice-versa. In this
case it is more useful to characterize the efficiency by its time-averaged value and the
pressure by its rms value (or variance) 5. This is shown by the dashed line in Figure
C-17, which should be taken as representative of the turbine (average) performance in
real random waves. We see that the average efficiency reaches a maximum of about 0.58
for 0.05 . Obviously it would be desirable to keep close to 0.05. We recall that
, and hence , are dimensionless values; it follows that in rougher seas (higher
waves and larger amplitudes of pressure oscillation) the turbine should be controlled to
rotate faster.
An effective way of preventing the pressure across the turbine from becoming excessive
(and produce sharp efficiency drop whenever | |> 0.11 , see the solid line in Figure C-17)
is to use a controlled relief valve on the top of the air chamber structure (as shown in
Figure C-9). The resulting curve (chain line in Figure C-17) is clearly more favourable,
150
especially in rougher seas (i.e. higher values of ). A controlled relief valve is planned
to be installed in Pico. Figure C-17 shows that the time-averaged efficiency of a
conventional Wells turbine should not be expected to exceed about 0.6 (and can be
substantially less if the turbine does not adequately match the plant hydrodynamics and
the wave climate or if its rotational speed is not controlled adequately).
If the setting angle of the rotor blades of a Wells turbine can be controlled during normal
operation, then the efficiency curve becomes substantially wider. This idea was put into
practice a long time ago in the well-known Kaplan water-turbines, and also aircraft and
ship variable-pitch screw-propellers. The concept of the variable-pitch Wells turbine was
proposed in the 1980 s and was the object of theoretical and experimental studies. A full-
sized 400 kW prototype was designed and constructed to be installed in the Azores
OWC6. If the rotor blade pitch angle is adequately controlled, a substantial improvement
in time-averaged turbine efficiency can be achieved. Of course, on the downside it is a
more complex and more expensive machine as compared with the mechanically simple
and robust conventional Wells turbine.
Other air turbines
The impulse turbine
The most popular alternative to the Wells turbine seems to be the impulse turbine. Its
rotor is basically identical to the rotor of a conventional single-stage steam turbine of
axial-flow impulse type (the classical de Laval steam turbine patented in 1889). Since the
turbine is required to be self-rectifying, instead of a single row of guide vanes (as in the
conventional de Laval turbine) there are two rows, placed symmetrically on both sides of
the rotor. These two rows of guide vanes are like the mirror image of each other with
respect to a plane through the rotor disc. In order to avoid large aerodynamic losses due
to stalling at far-from design conditions, self-pitch adjusted guide vanes have been
proposed (Figure C-18).
Figure C-18 Impulse turbine with self-pitch-controlled guide vanes7
Most of the R&D on this type of turbine has been done in Japan (and to a lesser extent in
India, China, UK and Ireland) in the last ten years or so7. The advantages and
disadvantages of the self-rectifying impulse turbine as compared with the Wells turbine
are not yet clear, and of course depend on which versions of each are being compared. It
should be pointed out that the efficiency of the Wells turbine is quite sensitive to
151
Reynolds number (more so than more conventional turbine types like the impulse
turbine): tests done on small Wells turbine models should not be taken as representative
of what can be achieved at full size. For this reason, comparisons between the Wells
turbine and the impulse turbine, based on tests on small models, should be considered
with some reserve (see 7). In general, one can say that the Wells turbine is characterised
by a considerably higher rotational speed than the impulse turbine, which enhances the
storage of energy by fly-wheel effect (with the resulting smoothing effect upon power
delivered to the grid) and is expected to allow a cheaper electrical generator to be used
(smaller number of poles).
The Denniss-Auld turbine

Some publicity has been made recently about the so-called Denniss-Auld turbine by the
Australian company Energetech, but very little seem to have been published about its
performance. Like the Wells turbine, it is a self-rectifying turbine intended to equip OWC
plants. It is to a large extent similar to a variable-pitch Wells turbine, the main difference
being that the angle of stagger ( = 0 means blade along a longitudinal plane, = 2
on a cross-sectional plane) of the Denniss-Auld rotor blades may be controlled to vary
within a range < < (where could be of the order of 45 to 80 degrees?), whereas

in the variable-pitch Wells turbine it is < <+ (with 20 30 ). Since
2 2
this allows the blades to overlap, the Denniss-Auld turbine can have a greater solidity
(total blade area divided by annular area) than a monoplane Wells turbine.
While in the Wells turbine the rotor blade rounded leading edge faces the incoming flow
all the time, in the Denniss-Auld turbine both edges of a blade must be identical since
each edge behaves alternately as a leading edge or as a trailing edge depending on the
direction of the reciprocating flow through the turbine. It is to be noted that whenever the
flow changes direction (exhaust to inlet or vice-versa) the blades of the Denniss-Auld
turbine are required to pivot almost instantaneously between their extreme positions,
whereas in the Wells turbine the blades are required to pivot smoothly within a relatively
small angular range.
It is to be noted the blade stagger angle of the Denniss-Auld turbine is (on average) much
smaller then 2 , and so the blade-to-flow velocity ratio is relatively small (as compared
with the Wells turbine). This allows relatively high axial flow velocities to be adopted
(resulting in a more compact turbine), but raises the (difficult) problem of exit kinetic
energy recovery (the relatively long convergent-divergent duct in Figure C-10 seems to
have been introduced as an answer to this problem).
Non-self-rectifying turbines
The use of more or less conventional turbines (including radial- and mixed-flow turbines)
was proposed in the early days of OWC studies. Since these are one-directional flow
turbines, they require an auxiliary set of valves and ducts to rectify the flow, which has
deterred their use.
Auxiliary mechanical equipment
As other plants involving fluid flow, an OWC is equipped with one or more valves, for
the protection of the turbine and possibly also for air flow control. For safety reasons,
both Pico and Islay II have two protection valves in series: one fast-acting multi-vane
152
valve, and a slower valve (a vertical sluice-gate in Pico and a butterfly valve in Islay II).
As the equipment becomes more reliable, it is expected that no more than one stop valve
will be required in future plants. A relief valve (whose purpose is to improve the turbine
performance rather than protect or isolate the turbine) is planned to be fitted to the Pico
plant (see above).
C 3.3.4 Electrical equipment and control
For the design of the generator and electrical equipment, the most critical issue is about
constant versus variable rotational speed. Constant speed allows a cheaper generator to be
used and does not require sophisticated power electronics. However, it has important
shortcomings
The rotational speed of the turbine cannot be adjusted to match the sea state
The impossibility of storing and releasing energy storage by flywheel effect
implies that the large power fluctuations resulting from the wavy nature of the
energy resource are transmitted to the electrical grid without attenuation (this is
likely to be unacceptable to small grids).
Variable rotational speed requires more sophisticated electrical and control equipment,
namely power electronics. However, such equipment is now becoming readily available
in the market at reasonable prices.
Especially because of the randomness of the resource, wave energy plants in general raise
difficult control problems, probably to a greater extent than almost any other power plant
of similar power capacity. One should also take into consideration that the access to the
plant can be difficult or impossible some or most of the time, and so wave power plants
have to be fully automated, including for start-up, shut-down and emergency procedures.
The turbo-generator control (namely its power-versus-rotational speed control) is
possibly the single major control problem for an OWC plant.
C 3.4 Probabilistic modelling of OWC performance

C 3.4.1 Introduction
In a wave energy plant, unless a large energy storage interface follows the waves in the
energy conversion chain of the plant (as the on-shore water reservoir of the tapered
channel or TAPCHAN device), the power take-off equipment is required to convert an
energy flux that is oscillatory, highly irregular and largely random. In the basic studies as
well as in the design stages of a wave energy plant the knowledge of the statistical
characteristics of the local wave climate is essential, no matter whether physical or
theoretical/numerical modelling methods are to be employed. This information may result
from wave measurements, more or less sophisticated forecast/hindcast models or a
combination of both, and usually takes the form of a set of representative sea states, each
characterised by its frequency of occurrence and by a spectral distribution.
The oscillating water column (OWC) is the most highly developed type of wave energy
converter and one of the very few to have reached the stage of full-sized prototype. Here
we are concerned with the design optimisation of OWC plants, especially of their power
take-off equipment.
153
Several approaches have been used in the past to model and optimise OWCs (and indeed
wave energy converters in general)
The simplest theoretical model assumes the incident waves to be regular or
monochromatic, which allows the analysis to be performed in the frequency
domain provided the air turbine characteristic is approximately linear; in this case
the hydrodynamic coefficients of radiation and diffraction are required for the
wave frequency under consideration, which can be obtained analytically for
simple geometries or experimentally.
A time-domain analysis is capable of dealing more realistically with irregular
waves (and with non-linear power take-off equipment); this requires the
knowledge of the hydrodynamic coefficients as functions of frequency and, while
being computationally much heavier, yields the performance variables (namely
power output) as functions of time.
The capability of using numerical simulations to produce time series for variables like
rotational speed and electrical power output may be important in the design of OWCs, if
for example electrical power oscillations induced by wave grouping are to be studied or
in control studies. However, the capability of predicting the average power output in a
given sea state may be sufficient for most purposes in plant design, including the
specification of the power equipment (turbine and generator). This capability may be
provided by probabilistic methods that are computationally much less demanding, as will
be shown in the present paper. This may be done as long as the system is linear, which
requires small amplitude waves and a linear turbine characteristic to be acceptable
assumptions.
The statistical theory of random surface waves is briefly presented in Section C 3.4.2. It
is assumed that the local wave climate may adequately be represented by a set of sea
states of known power spectrum and frequency of occurrence, the surface elevation being
a Gaussian random variable for each sea state. In Section C 3.4.2, the air pressure inside
the chamber is regarded as the response of the assumedly linear system, consisting of the
chamber and Wells turbine, to the random waves. In particular, it is shown how the
variance and the probability distribution of the chamber air pressure can be computed, it
being supposed that the hydrodynamic coefficients of the chamber are known as
functions of frequency (and possibly wave direction), and that the performance curves of
the Wells turbine are given. A proportionality relationship (at constant rotational speed)
between turbine flow rate and pressure head is a basic assumption underlying the whole
analysis. Average values for the power output and efficiency can then be easily obtained
from the turbine instantaneous performance curves and the pressure probability density
function. Dimensionless values are widely used for the turbine variables in order to
extend the applicability of the results. Section C 3.4.3 outlines how the probabilistic
method can be employed to optimise the turbine size and rotational speed for maximum
energy production. The application of the theory is illustrated by numerical examples in
Section C 3.4.4. The plant and wave climate roughly reproduce the recently built OWC
plant on the island of Pico, Azores, but the emphasis is on methodology and physical
significance of the results rather than on any particular real situation.
C 3.4.2 Theory
We assume that the local wave climate may be represented by a set of sea states, each
being a stationary stochastic ergodic process. For a given sea state, the probability density
154
function f ( ) of the surface elevation at a fixed observation point is supposed

Gaussian, an assumption widely accepted in ocean engineering and adopted in 5, and so
we may write
1 2
f ( ) = exp
2 2 2

Equation C.2
where 2 is the variance, and is the standard deviation, of . We assume here one-
directional incident waves (multi-directional waves are dealt with in 5). The variance is
related to the (one-dimensional) spectral density by (see 5)
S ( ) d
2
=

Equation C.3
where is the angular frequency. We note that S ( ) is a two-sided spectral density

(per unit radian frequency bandwidth) defined in the interval (, ) and is an even
function. It is related to the more frequently used one-sided spectral power density
S(1) ( ) by
S(1) ( ) = 2 S ( ) if > 0 , S(1) ( ) = 0 if 0 .
Equation C.4
It is convenient to introduce dimensionless variables to characterise the turbine

aerodynamic performance, and so we write
p m& Pt
= 2 2
, = 3
, =
a N D a ND a N 3D5
Equation C.5a,b,c
Here is non-dimensional pressure head, is non-dimensional flow rate, is non-

dimensional turbine power output, a is atmospheric air density, m& is mass flow rate
through the turbine, p is air pressure oscillation in the chamber, N is rotational speed
(radians per unit time), Pt is turbine power output (bearing friction losses are ignored)
and D is turbine rotor diameter. Note that here the losses in the connecting ducts are
considered included in the turbine aerodynamic losses. If the effects of the variations in
Reynolds number and Mach number are ignored, dimensional analysis allows us to write
5,8
]
155
= f P ( ), = f Q ( )
Equation C.6a,b
The functions f P and f Q depending on the shape of the turbine but not on its size or
rotational speed. It was found experimentally (with some theoretical foundation) for the
Wells turbine that Equation C.6 may be replaced approximately by
= K
Equation C.7
where K is constant for a given turbine geometry (is independent of turbine size or
rotational speed); the adequacy of this assumption was discussed in detail in 5. In what
follows we take f P to be an even function (symmetric turbine).
If linear water wave theory and Equation C.7 are adopted, and in addition the spring-like
effect of air inside the chamber is modelled by an linearised isentropic relationship
between air pressure and density, then it may be found5 that the system, whose input is
incident wave elevation and output is inside air pressure, is a linear one. It follows that
the chamber air pressure oscillation p(t ) has a Gaussian distribution5, and its variance
2p is related to S ( ) by

2
= 2 S ( ) ( ) ( ) d
2
p
0
Equation C.8
Here ( ) is the excitation-volume-flow coefficient (as defined in 5), and
1
KD V
= + B + i 0 + C
a N pa
Equation C.9
where pa is the atmospheric pressure, = c p c v is the specific heat ratio for air, V0 is
the undisturbed value of the air chamber volume, and the hydrodynamic coefficients
B( ) and C ( ) are the radiation conductance and the radiation susceptance,
respectively9.
The averaged value of the turbine power output (bearing friction losses ignored) is
p2
2a N 3 D5 p
Pt = exp f dp
2 p 2 2 N 2D2
P
0 p a
Equation C.10
156
or, in dimensionless form

1 2
= exp 2 f P ( ) d
2 2
Equation C.11
where
Pt p
= 3 5
, =
a N D a N 2 D 2
Equation C.12a,b
We note that the function f P is assumed known for the turbine under consideration
(from testing at reduced or full scale, or from numerical modelling), and, from Equation
C.11, the same can be said of the function ( ) .
C 3.4.3 Turbine optimisation procedure
The modelling method presented above can be used to optimise the turbine (i.e. choose
its geometry and rotational speed) for a given OWC plant located at a site whose wave
climate is known.
The local wave climate is characterized by a set of j representative sea states, each being
represented by its spectral density S , j ( , ) and frequency of occurrence j
( j = 1 to J , j = 1).
It is assumed that the hydrodynamic coefficients ( , ) (frequency response to the

incident waves), B( ) (radiation conductance) and C ( ) (radiation susceptance) are
known, as well as V0 (chamber volume above the undisturbed water free surface), and
the atmospheric conditions a (density) and pa (pressure). The optimisation is to be
made for a given Wells turbine shape whose function f P ( ) and factor K are known
(possibly from aerodynamic model testing). For aerodynamic reasons (namely to avoid
shock waves), the rotor blade tip speed ND 2 should be bounded, and so we introduce
the constraint ND 2 M max c a , where M max is a Mach number (normally about 0.5-0.6).
The pressure variance p, j for each sea state can be calculated from Equation C.20
which in turn allows us to obtain Pt , j , for given D and N j , from Equation C.10 (or j
from Equation C.11)). The annual averaged power output is Pt,ann = Pt , j j .
The optimisation procedure depends on whether the turbine rotational speed N can be
controlled to match the individual sea states, or is kept constant all the time. Obviously
the first alternative is expected allow a higher energy production.
157
C 3.4.4 Example calculations

Wells turbine
The theory developed above is illustrated with results from numerical simulations of the
performance of an OWC plant equipped with a Wells turbine.
The numerical simulations presented here are based on experimental results from
aerodynamic tests on a Wells turbine model10. The turbine rotor outer diameter was
D = 0.590 m, with inner/outer diameter ratio 0.678, eight un-swept blades of constant
chord c = 0.212 D and profile NACA 0015. The turbine had a row of guide vanes on
each side of the rotor. The tests were performed at the rotational speeds of 1,000, 1,500
and 2,000 rpm, and covered the range 0 < 0.643 . The solid line in Figure C-19
represents a piecewise polynomial approximation to the dimensionless power output
versus dimensionless pressure head . It may be seen that increases with , and
reaches a maximum max = 0.00268 at a critical value cr = 0.1065 , above which
dramatically drops due to aerodynamic stalling at the rotor blades.
0.003
0.0025
0.002
( ) 0.0015
( )
0.001
0.0005
0
-0.0005
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
,
Figure C-19 Dimensionless plot of Wells turbine power output versus pressure head:
( ) (solid line), ( ) without (dashed line) and with valve-controlled flow
(chain line)
158
0.1
0.08
0.06

0.04
0.02
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Figure C-20 Dimensionless plot of flow rate through the Wells turbine versus
pressure head : comparison between experimental points and the linear
relationship = 0.375
It is important to investigate to what extent the Wells turbine may be regarded as a linear
device. Figure C-20 shows that, within the range 0 < < cr (un-stalled regime), a
relationship of proportionality, = K ( K = 0.375) , provides a fairly good
representation of experimental results, which validates the assumptions made in
Section C 3.4.1 underlying the development of a linear theory. For higher-pressure heads,
the approximation is poorer; however, since in the stalled regime the power output is
relatively small, an accurate modelling of the pressure in this range is not critical.
Equation C.11 may be used to compute the average power output in random waves as
a function of the rms value of the dimensionless pressure head . In the
computation f P ( ) was taken as an even function. Since the integration in Equation
C.11 extends to infinity, and the experimental data are available within a finite range, it
was set = constant = 0.00155 for 0.643 , the latter figure being the maximum
measured value of and 0.00155 the corresponding experimental value for . The
dashed curve in Figure C-19 represents versus . The solid and the dashed curves
are very different from each other, which is not surprising since the former represents
instantaneous, and the latter averaged, values of (dimensionless) power output. The
maximum value of (equal to 0.000824) is only 0.307 max . Besides, the curve of
( ) (unlike ( ) ) shows relatively little variation to the right of its maximum
point.
It may be of interest to compare instantaneous values of the efficiency with average

values . The solid curve in Figure C-17 shows a plot of versus , the actual
experimental points having been used for = f Q ( ) (rather than its linear
approximation = K ). The long-dashed line in Figure C-17 represents = avai
as a function of . The efficiency ratio max max = 0.588 0.696 = 0.845 is to be
compared with the substantially lower power ratio (see Figure C-19)
159
max max = 0.307 . The relatively narrow peak of the ( ) curve (as compared with
the ( ) curve) shows that the turbine average performance is quite sensitive to a
mismatch between turbine and available power.
Control valves
A way of preventing the turbine from operating in stalled conditions (and avoiding the
drop in power output that occurs whenever exceeds its critical value cr ) is to
control the air flow-rate through the turbine by installing either a valve in series or a
valve in parallel with the turbine. This has been examined in 11 where a detailed
comparative analysis has been carried out in the time domain. It should be pointed out
that partially closing a control valve in series or, alternately, opening a control valve in
parallel, while in principle being equally effective ways of limiting the flow rate through
the turbine, produce opposite effects on the chamber air pressure and so differently affect
the hydrodynamic process of wave energy absorption. In any case, even if the turbine
itself is a linear device (in the sense that m& = constant pressure ), it is clear that the
operation of the control valve introduces a non-linearity in the relationship between the
air flow-rate leaving (or entering) the chamber and the excess air-pressure p in the
chamber. Consequently the whole system ceases to be linear and the probability density
function of the air pressure in the chamber is no longer Gaussian. In order to keep the
simplicity of the present approach, we have to make some considerations.
First, we note that it is possible, at least conceptually, to use simultaneously two valves,
one in series and the other in parallel with the turbine, and control their operations in such
a way that the turbine-plus-valves system remains linear with respect to the total mass-
flow rate m& + m& v ( m& v = flow rate through the by-pass valve), i.e. + v = K , where
is now the dimensionless value of the pressure in the chamber (which is different from
the pressure head across the turbine whenever the valves are operating). We name this
combined valve operation. Under such conditions, it is possible to apply the expressions
derived above which, we recall, are valid only if the power take-off system is linear. It
remains to be assessed to what extent this may be regarded as an acceptable
approximation to the more practical situation when either a valve in series or a relief
valve is used. This could be done by analysing separately, in the time domain, the two
situations. Indeed this was done in 11 for a typical OWC in random waves, and it was
found that the differences between the performance (in terms of average efficiency) of the
plant when equipped with a valve in series and a relief valve were small, although not
altogether insignificant. Since the results corresponding to the combined valve operation
are expected to fall in between those for the other two situations, it is reasonable to
consider that the combined valve operation concept is a fairly good approximation to the
flow control by valve in series or by relief (by-pass) valve.
Proceeding under this assumption, the introduction of a properly controlled valve system
is equivalent, for the purpose of computing the plant performance, to replacing the
turbine power curve, = f P ( ) , for | | cr , by | |= constant = max . The chain
line in Figure C-19 represents the corresponding results for the average power ( ) ,
and shows that increases with , tending asymptotically to max as should be
expected. (We note that here and are based on the pressure in the chamber and
not the pressure head across the turbine.)
160
When defining the efficiency, we consider the turbine-valve set. For reasons of
consistency, the available power Pavai is assumed not to be modified by the valve
operation, i.e. is given by the same function of the chamber pressure p . The short-dotted
line in Figure C-17 represents the instantaneous efficiency, ( ) , of the turbine-plus-
valve set. Although, for | |> cr , the power output remains constant, the efficiency
drops as the available power increases. A plot of the average efficiency of the turbine-
plus-valve system, ( ) , is given in the same figure by the chain line. The valve
system allows the maximum average efficiency to rise slightly from 0.566 to 0.588;
however its main advantage in terms of produced energy is for larger values of (i.e.
for relatively small values of the product ND , or, from a different viewpoint, sea states
with relatively large energy flux).
OWC performance in random waves
We consider (in a somewhat simplified manner) the wave climate and the geometry of
the shoreline OWC wave power plant constructed on the island of Pico, Azores, Portugal.
The plant spans a natural gully that is represented here approximately by a semi-infinite
constant-depth parallel-walled channel of width b equal to the width of the rectangular
cross-section of the chamber. The whole geometry is two-dimensional, and so the
directional dependence on the incident wave field is ignored.
Wave measurements were performed inside the gully at the exact location of the OWC
plant on the island of Pico, prior to its construction. The results from those measurements,
in conjunction with longer-term results from forecast/hindcast numerical modelling for
the same ocean area, were used to establish a set of 44 sea states characterising the local
wave climate12. Each sea state was represented by its significant wave height H s , its
energy period Te and its frequency of occurrence . For the purpose of the present
numerical exercise, this in turn was condensed into a set of J = 9 representative sea
states, as shown in Table C-1.
The following standard formula was adopted for the frequency spectrum (13, p. 28) of each
sea state
S ( ) =
0.257

{
H 123T134 ( 2 ) 5 exp 1.03(T1 3 2 ) 4 }
Equation C.13
where H 1 3 H s . The energy period Te can be related to T1 3 from its definition

Te = m1 m0 , where mn is the spectral moment of order n; it may easily be found that
Te = 0.8997T1 3 .
The incident wave energy flux E per unit wave crest length can be calculated from the
spectral density by
161

E = 2 w g S ( )cg ( ) d
0
Equation C.14
where w is the water density, g the acceleration due to gravity, and cg is the group
velocity given by
g
cg = (tanh kh + kh sech 2 kh)
2
Equation C.15
The values of the energy flux for the nine sea states are shown in Table C-1, for
w = 1025 kgm -3 and g = 9.8 ms -2 .
Sea state j 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
H S [m] 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.4 4.0 4.5
Te [s] 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0
0.250 0.200 0.177 0.145 0.100 0.070 0.045 0.007 0.006
E [kW/m] 2.8 6.4 11.5 18.4 26.8 39.7 55.3 77.4 98.9
Pt [kW] 13.1 31.4 56.9 89.0 127.1 182.8 246.6 330.2 391.4
14.1 30.2 51.1 76.1 105.0 145.8 190.3 234.4 260.9
N op [rad/s] 46.7 60.9 73.0 83.7 93.5 104.7 115.0 119.9 119.9
75.3 95.4 112.8 128.0 141.8 157.5 165.2 165.2 165.2
Table C-1 Set of nine sea states characterizing the wave climate at the plant site.
Last two rows: annual average power output (no control valve) and optimal
rotational speed for turbine rotor diameter D = 3.17 m (first line) and D = 2.3 m
(second line); repeated figures for N op indicate that the Mach-number-imposed limit
ND = 380 m/s was reached
It may be convenient to define an annual spectral density by
J
S ,ann = S , j j
j =1
Equation C.16
162
This is plotted in Figure C-21 versus the angular frequency . An annual averaged
energy flux Eann may be obtained from (12) by replacing S by S ,ann , or, equivalently,
from E ann = E j j . The computation gives Eann = 15.75 kW/m.
The variance of the air pressure in the chamber may be calculated from the incident wave
spectral density by using Equation C.8. In the present case, we have simply

2
2p = 2 S ( ) ( ) ( ) d
0
Equation C.17
We note that depends only on the chamber geometry, whereas depends also on KX
(where X = D ( a N ) 1 ) and on the atmospheric air pressure pa (see Equation C.9). We
will assume that pa is approximately constant and equal to the standard atmospheric
pressure at sea level pa = 1.013 10 5 Pa . Then, for a given sea state (characterised by its
spectral density S ) and given chamber geometry, p may be regarded as a function of
KX that we denote by p = F p ( KX ).
S , ann ( ) 2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Figure C-21 Two-sided annual spectral density (per unit radian frequency
bandwidth), S ,ann ( ) , for the wave climate at the plant site
163
V0
a
incident
h
waves
Figure C-22 Schematic representation of the oscillating water column
The two-dimensional geometry of the chamber is schematically represented in Figure

C-22. The front wall is assumed thin and its submergence is neglected. The fully
reflecting back wall extends vertically from the surface to the bottom. With these
simplifications, the analytical expressions derived in 14 for the hydrodynamic coefficients
may be used. We easily find
2 b
( ) = sin ka
k
Equation C.18
bm
B( ) = sin 2 ka
w gk
Equation C.19

2 b sin 2 a
w g 0 ( coth h )
C ( ) = d
Equation C.20
Here, a is the chamber length, h the water depth, = 2 g , k is the wave-number

given by the real zero of k tanh kh , and m = (1 + h cosech 2 kh) 1 . The Cauchy
principal value of the improper integral in Equation C.20 is to be taken. In the
computations, the following values were taken: a = b = 12 m , h = 8 m , V0 = 1,050 m 3 ,
= 1.4 , a = 1.25 kgm -3 . Figure C-23 represents the function p = F p (KX ) for the
chosen geometry and the annual wave spectral density S ,ann .
164
6000
5000
4000
p
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
KX = KD( a N ) 1
Figure C-23 Chamber pressure standard deviation p versus KX = KD( a N ) 1 ,

for the annual wave spectral density S ,ann
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
h
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
KX
Figure C-24 Annual-averaged hydrodynamic efficiency h versus KX
The average efficiency of the wave-to-air energy conversion may be defined as

h = Pavai (bE ) 1 . Assuming = K , it follows that Pavai = 2p KX , which allows h to
be computed as a function of KX , as graphically represented in Figure C-24 for the wave
spectral density S ,ann (it being assumed here that N is kept constant throughout the
year). The maximum value of h is 0.687, and occurs for KX = 0.0106 .
Now we fix the turbine shape (not its size or rotational speed), and assume that the
functions f P and f Q are known (see Equation C.6a,b). Consequently, the turbine
average power and average efficiency , for each sea state, can be obtained as
functions of the air pressure standard deviation . We denote these functions by F
165
and F , i.e. = F ( ) and = F ( ) . Then, taking into account the definition

of (Equation C.12) and introducing the variable Y = a1 N 2 D 2 , we find
Pt = XY 2 F (Y F p ( KX )), = F (Y F p ( KX ))
Equation C.21a,b
We note that D and N are related to a , X and Y by
D = 1a 4 X 1 2Y 1 4 , N = a3 4 X 1 2Y 1 4
Equation C.22a,b
We define the average plant efficiency, for each sea state, as = Pt (bE ) 1 . The annual-
averaged plant efficiency is ann = Pt,ann (bEann ) 1 , where
J
Pt,ann = Pt , j j
j =1
Equation C.23
Figure C-25a shows a three-dimensional plot of the annual-averaged efficiency of the

plant, ann , versus turbine diameter D and rotational speed N (assumed constant
throughout the year), without valve flow-control. In the computations, Pt , j was set equal
to zero whenever ND > 380 m/s (maximum allowable Mach number criterion). The
maximum value of the plant efficiency is ann,max = 0.325 , and occurs for Dop = 2.97 m
and N op = 82.1 rad/s (784 rpm). If a controlled valve system is used, the corresponding
values are ann,max = 0.334 , Dop = 2.91 m and N op = 80.6 rad/s (770 rpm), i.e. an
increase in produced energy of 2.8 % with a slightly smaller turbine. Figure C-25b shows
the increase in plant efficiency, ann , versus D and N achieved with the use of a
controlled valve system. As should be expected, the benefit from the use of a valve is
more important for the smaller turbines and the lower rotational speeds (more precisely
small values of ND ). It may be of interest to know the maximum plant efficiency
attainable for each diameter D , and the corresponding optimal rotational speed N op .
This is shown in Figure C-26a,b for the plant without (solid curves) and with flow control
by valve (long-dashed curves).
166
a)
0.4
0.3
200
ann 0.2
0.1
0 150
1.5
2
N rad/s
100
2.5
D m 3
50
3.5
b)
0.1
0.075
200
ann 0.05
0.025
0 150
1.5
N rad/s
2 100
2.5
D m 3
3.5 50
Figure C-25 (a) Annual-averaged plant efficiency ann (no valve) versus turbine
rotor diameter D and rotational speed N (only positive values of ann are
represented). (b) Gain in efficiency, ann , achieved with a control valve system
If the rotational speed is allowed to vary and take its optimal value for each sea state, then
the annual produced energy should be expected to increase for any diameter D , as indeed
in shown in Figure C-26a by the chain-line (no valve) and short-dashed line (with control
valve). In this case the maximum value of the annual-averaged efficiency (no valve),
ann,max = 0.390 , is reached for Dop = 3.17 m (the corresponding values with valve are
0.402 and 3.10 m). The last two rows in Table C-1 give these, for each of the nine sea
states, the power output Pt and the optimal rotational velocity N op for Dop = 3.17 m and
also for a smaller turbine D = 2.3 m (in both cases without valve). As should be expected,
the tabled values show that the benefit from a larger turbine occurs at the more energetic
sea states. The comparison of the four curves in Figure C-26a shows that the capability of
controlling the rotational speed allows an increase in produced energy (about 20 % close
to optimal conditions) much greater than what can be achieved with a control valve.
167
a) 0.4
0.35
ann,max 0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
D m
b) 200
180
160
140
N op
120
100
80
60
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
D m
Figure C-26 (a) Maximum annual plant efficiency versus turbine rotor diameter:
non-controllable rotational speed without (solid line) and with control valve (long-
dashed line); controlled rotational speed without (chain line) and with control valve
(short-dashed line). (b) Optimal rotational speed versus turbine rotor diameter,
without (solid line) and with control valve (dashed line)
Apart from maximum produced energy, the decision on the turbine size should take into
account other factors, namely equipment cost. In the present case, if, for cost reasons, a
smaller turbine is chosen, D = 2.3 m say (the actual size of Picos plant turbine), it may
be found that the maximum plant efficiency (no valve) at constant speed is reduced from
0.325 to 0.290 (at N op = 115.4 rad/s), i.e. a loss of 10.8 %; if the rotational speed can be
controlled, the corresponding figures are 0.390 and 0.329 (loss of 15.6 %).
OWC performance in different wave climates
It may be of interest to compare the performance of identical OWCs equipped with
geometrically similar turbines (possibly, but not necessarily, of the same size) in sites
with different wave climates. This could be relevant when considering the same plant
design for different sites. In principle, the whole computational process, as described
above, would have to be performed separately for the two sets of sea states characterising
168
the sites. However, the process can be simplified and some interesting results obtained,
provided some assumptions are accepted for the wave spectra. We will compare two
different wave climates, I and II; each of which is characterised by a set of sea states,
j = 1 to J (as in the case considered above). We assume that, for each j , the values of
the energy period Te, j and the frequency of occurrence j are equal for the two sets,
{ } = R{H } , R being a
whereas the significant wave heights are related by H s2, j II
2
s, j I
constant factor. It follows that {S ( )} = R{S ( )} and {E } = R{E } , i.e. wave

,j II ,j I j II j I
climate II is R times more powerful than wave climate I. Now, we consider, for each j ,
situations such that
14 3 4
DII a ,II N II a ,II
= R1 8 = D , = R1 8 = N
DI NI
a , I a , I
Equation C.24a,b
It may easily be verified that X I = X II , and, from Equation C.9 and Equation C.17, it
{ }
follows that 2p
II
{ }
= R 2p, j I . On the other hand, Equation C.24a,b allow us to write
( a N 2 D 2 ) II = R ( a N 2 D 2 ) I , and, from the definition (22), , II = ,I . This means
12
that, if conditions (Equation C.24a,b) are satisfied, then the dimensionless value of the
standard pressure deviation has equal values in corresponding sea states j , and the
same is true for and . Since X I = X II implies h ,II = h ,I for the hydrodynamic
efficiency, we may conclude that II = I for the overall plant efficiency (the same
conclusion could be reached from II = I , Pt ,II = RPt ,I and E II = RE I ).
Now, it becomes easy to obtain surfaces or curves similar to those of Figure C-25 and
Figure C-26 for different wave climates (it being assumed that the OWC geometry and
the turbine shape are unchanged): we just have to modify the coordinate scale by a factor
R for Pt , D for D , and N for N (no change for ). For example, Figure C-27a
shows curves of the annual maximum efficiency ann,max (no control valve) versus
turbine diameter D , for different values of the incident wave energy flux Eann (from 10
to 40 kW/m), it being assumed that, for each wave climate, the rotational speed takes its
optimal value N op (plotted in Figure C-27b versus D ). The OWC geometry and turbine
shape, as well as air density a = 1.25 kg/m 3 , are the same as in the example above.
Since the scale of the abscissa in Figure C-27a is logarithmic, the curves are identical:
any curve can be obtained from a reference curve simply by displacing it along the D -
axis by a distance given the factor D (see Equation C.24)). Figure C-27a may be used
to find the performance changes if identical plants and turbines are used in sites with
different wave climates. For example, if a 2.5 m diameter turbine is used in wave
climates Eann = 10, 20 and 40 kW/m, we find ann, max = 0.316, 0.301 and 0.280,
respectively.
169
a)
0.325
0.3
0.275
ann,max 0.25
0.225
0.2
0.175
0.15
1.5 2 3
D m
b) 225
200
175
N op 150
125
100
75
50
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
D m
Figure C-27 (a) Logarithmic-linear plot of maximum annual plant efficiency versus
turbine rotor diameter, in different wave climates (from left to right) Eann = 10, 15,
20, 30, 40 kW/m; non-controllable rotational speed and no control valve. (b)
Optimal rotational speed versus turbine rotor diameter for the same set of wave
climates (in the same order from left to right)
A similar procedure could be used to obtain curves for different wave climates in the
cases of controllable rotational speed (with or without control valve). (We note that this
procedure is valid as far as the turbine rotational speed does not reach the Mach-number-
imposed limit.)
C 3.4.5 Conclusions for performance modelling
A probabilistic formulation has been presented to evaluate the average performance of an

OWC wave power plant in a wave climate characterized by a set of sea states whose one-
or two-dimensional power spectra are known. Some restrictions were introduced
linear water wave theory, which excludes large wave heights and ignores real
fluid viscous dissipation in the wave energy absorbing process
Gaussian probability density distribution of the sea surface elevation
170
the system converting the sea surface oscillations into air pressure oscillations is
assumed linear, which ignores the non-linear behaviour of the spring-like effect
due to air compressibility in the chamber and the non-linearity of real Wells
turbines
Reynolds number and Mach number effects are ignored when applying
dimensional analysis to air turbine performance
hysteretic effects in the flow through the turbine are assumed negligible.
In spite of these limitations (some or most of which are present in other theoretical
models), the method presented here is expected to be a powerful tool in the analysis and
design (especially at the level of basic studies) of Wells-turbine-equipped OWC plants
(or indeed wave energy devices in general provided the power take-off mechanism is
approximately linear). Presenting the turbine performance in terms of average values
versus standard deviation of pressure head provides more useful information than
instantaneous performance curves. The method can easily incorporate more realistic
information for the hydrodynamic coefficients of the chamber (from numerical or
physical modelling) than the analytical expressions for the simple two-dimensional
chamber geometry adopted in the calculation examples presented here. The combination
of the probabilistic approach with dimensional analysis was found, on one hand, to be
computationally undemanding, and, on the other hand, to yield results of wide
applicability, especially for optimisation purposes.
Even in the example analysed here of a Wells turbine whose performance is highly
sensitive to aerodynamic stalling, it was found (at first sight surprisingly) that the use of a
valve system for turbine flow-rate control is able to increase the average power output,
close to optimal conditions, by only about 3 % (its main advantage being in situations of
lower-than-optimal values of the product ND ). By contrast, the capability of controlling
the rotational speed to match the individual sea states was found to allow a much larger
increase in produced energy (about 20 %).
Although based on what is not the most realistic model for scaling up the wave power
spectra with increasingly powerful wave climate, the derived relationship D, N op
1/8
proportional to Eann (variations in a neglected) is a useful rule when considering the
same plant geometry in different wave climates.
Additional studies suggested to complement the formulation presented here, especially if

the object is optimisation, should address turbine geometry (i.e. aerodynamic design,
apart from turbine size) and economic aspects (note that costs of mechanical and
electrical equipment depend in different ways on turbine size, rated electrical power and
rotational speed).
171
C 3.5 Research requirements for fixed devices

C 3.5.1 The wave climate
The wave climate in deep water, away from coastline details, is in general available from
several sources, namely the European Wave Energy Atlas. Its variation is usually small
over distances of tens or hundreds of kilometres.
First generation devices are, by definition, located in shallow water, where the wave
climate is sensitive (in some cases very sensitive) to local shoreline geometry and bottom
topography. This may produce strong effects either non-dissipative (reflection,
diffraction, refraction) or dissipative (bottom friction, wave breaking).
The definition of the local wave climate is a major source of uncertainty when
performing the basic studies for a shoreline or nearshore plant.
C 3.5.2 The hydrodynamics of wave energy absorption
The wave-to-pneumatic energy conversion is probably the most critical element in the
energy conversion chain (wave to wire). Firstly, because it is (together with the air
turbine) the major source of losses. Secondly, because it is very difficult to model
accurately, either by wave tank model-testing or by numerical modelling.
The problems of wave tank model-testing are common to most types of wave energy
devices, and are dealt with, in general, in Section B on Generic technologies. The
appropriate simulation of the air turbine in wave tank testing is typical of OWCs and
deserves some attention.
In the early stages of the basic studies, the hydrodynamics of the device is, more
appropriately, modelled by numerical methods. There are several codes (usually based
on the boundary element method) available for numerical modelling of wave energy
devices, including OWCs. They are all based on linear water wave theory, and so ignore
nonlinear effects due to large amplitude waves and to viscous real-fluid effects (large-
eddy dissipation). Such effects are known to be important. They also occur in naval
engineering and in off-shore structures, where more or less empirical corrections are
currently applied. In the case of wave energy devices (especially OWCs) such corrections
could be derived from the comparison of measured (in wave basin) and numerically
obtained results. An important R&D task would be to produce correction formulae
or methods to account for non-linear effects in the numerical modelling of the
hydrodynamics of OWCs (this also applies to most other wave energy converters).
C 3.5.3 Air turbines for OWCs
The air turbine is the most important piece of equipment in an OWC. Several types of air
turbines have been proposed so far. The Wells turbine is the most popular, followed by
the impulse turbine. Both types (especially the Wells turbine) have been object of a
substantial number of studies and publications. The Denniss-Auld turbine has been
proposed and publicised by the Australian company Energetech, but very little is known
about its performance.
172
Several papers comparing the Wells turbine and the impulse turbine have been published,
but their conclusions do not seem fully satisfactory or do not take into account all
relevant points
All air turbines proposed so far need additional R&D effort. Little is known about
full-scale testing (performance, reliability, maintenance), and about comparisons
between model and full-size performances.
In the case of the Wells turbine, R&D is needed on the following
Specially designed rotor blade profiles (rather than conventional profiles) allowing a
wider range of stall-free angles of attack and flow rates.
Variable-pitch Wells turbine: the only existing full-sized turbine (intended for the
Pico plant) has not yet been tested; the mechanical design of such turbines requires
additional development.
The relative merits of the several versions of Wells turbine (with or without guide
vanes, single or tandem rotor, counter-rotating, variable-pitch, etc.) deserves
further attention.
R&D for the impulse turbine includes
Optimal shape of the rotor blades, namely on what concerns the deflection angle.
Experience from axial-flow steam turbines of impulse type could be useful.
Clarify the situation on what concerns guide vanes: fixed versus variable (including
self-adjustable) guide vanes.
Regardless of the type of air turbine (Wells, impulse), the availability of a criterion
for choosing the suitable turbine (type, geometry, size, rotational speed) to meet a
set of performance requirements (available pressure head, flow rate, rotational
speed) would be extremely helpful, especially when performing the basic studies for
a new plant. (For example, in a related field, such criteria, based on specific speed, are
well known for water turbines: Pelton, Francis, Kaplan, etc.)
The use of a relief valve has been proposed as a way of widening the flow range within
which a Wells turbine performs efficiently. Little seems to have been done on suitable
relief valve design.
Noise impact is a major issue with air turbines. Only a very few papers have been
published on this topic, and they are far from covering the field satisfactorily. It is known
that noise can be reduced efficiently, but this may considerably reduce the turbine
power performance (such as experienced at the LIMPET plant in Islay). Turbine (and
relief valve) noise production, and noise reduction methods, are important R&D
issues.
C 3.5.4 Designing an OWC plant to operate in random sea waves
The randomness of the wave energy resource (over several time scales, from a few
seconds to seasonal variations) is a major problem at all stages, from basic plant-design to
plant operation and control.
173
Procedures to simulate irregular waves in wave basin model-tests are relatively well
established (they are the object of another task within this Network).
The classical method for numerically simulating the performance of a wave energy
converter in irregular random waves is the analysis in the time domain. This approach is
useful (and essential) for some control studies, but is computationally too demanding in
the basic studies stage.
The development of stochastic methods to deal with this issue has been a major
contribution from Section C 3.4 on Probabilistic modelling of OWC performance.
C 3.5.5 Designing for optimal economic performance
Once the overall size and geometry of the OWC structure has been fixed, the equipment
(mechanical and electrical) is to be specified. The results of the exercise are not the same
if the criterion is simply to achieve maximum energy production (over one year, say) or
to produce energy at the lowest unit cost.
The knowledge of (at least indicative) costs of equipment depending on type, size, rated
power, etc. is essential to perform this kind of optimisation. Such knowledge, in many
cases, is not easily available, especially on what concerns non-standard equipment (air
turbines, special valves, unusual power electronics, etc.). A database on equipment costs
would be helpful at the basic design stage.
C 3.5.6 Designing dual-purpose OWC plants
At the present stage of wave energy technology development, the major share of the total
plant cost concerns the structure (this is true for OWCs and probably also for most other
types of wave energy converters). Incorporating the OWC into a breakwater or
sharing its structure with an offshore wind turbine may be an effective way of sharing
costs and enhancing the competitiveness of nearshore wave power plants.
An OWC breakwater was built in Sakata, Japan, about 1990 as shown in Figure C-13.
Presently, basic studies are going on for sites in several European countries.
The wind-wave combination was object of a proposal to the JOULE program some years
ago, but apparently the contract was never signed. A proposal for a wind-wave European
project is presently being prepared, involving several European institutions.
174
C4 R&D REQUIREMENTS FOR FLOATING WAVE ENERGY

DEVICES
Prepared by: Brian Holmes, Hydraulics and Maritime Research Centre, UCC
C 4.1 Introduction
This document is concerned with technical aspects of wave energy device development
that are both generic to all types of machines and specific to the units classified as
Second-Generation Devices. It is based on improvements that can be implemented by
todays technological solutions rather than requiring advanced or as yet un-invented
science. The focus, therefore, is on the current engineering requirements, information
knowledge gaps and possible future improvements resulting from early prototype sea
trials (i.e. control, arrays, etc). These issues that might be regarded as barriers to the
successful long-term deployment of pilot plant wave energy converters (WECs) in the
near future. It is anticipated that if productive large to full-scale devices can be operated
safely for extended periods the sea trials would lead to the acceptance of this nascent
industry and consequently create a more favourable investment climate. In turn this could
quickly establish an as yet untapped alternative, sustainable energy source as a viable
contributor in the renewable energy market.
Wave energy prospects have been discussed and researched for almost 30 years. Much
has been learned in that time so modern concepts are now more focused than some of the
earlier proposals, important though they were at the time. Promising devices might also
be regarded as somewhat less of Heath Robinson design than many early machines. A
full economic package may not yet have been achieved but at least a streamlined
approach has been identified and the main problem areas isolated. However, there has not
been the real breakthrough yet required to confirm the belief in a potential that many
people have promoted for so long. It is important at this time, therefore, or certainly in the
very near future, that some full-scale successes are registered. The dialectic requiring
resolution is that although there is no question of the amount of energy present in the
worlds ocean it is an extremely hostile and demanding environment for machinery to
operate in efficiently and safely, especially for extended periods. When the end product is
a highly cost sensitive commodity, such as electricity, acceptable solutions become even
more elusive. At the present time, however, there seems to be a few elegant WEC designs
under investigation that may provide at least the starting point.
In order to evaluate these devices it is important to establish a set of appropriate criteria

on which they will be judged. These parameters should be different for pilot plants
attempting to prove operational concepts than they might be for production units whose
main function is profitability. Although cost of energy (/kW) must be the ultimate
objective, achieving an acceptable figure in the prototype phase could be difficult. Valid
predictions of the overall productivity and economics should be possible following a
structured scale model test programme and the construction cost estimates for the device,
based on naval architects plans. Sea trials can then later confirm model test results and
so enhance confidence in developing the business plan, provide real output data and
validate seaworthiness and survival of hull, mooring and secondary conversion systems.
175
Many designs have been deployed over the years, particularly in the Far East, that have
withstood the forces imposed by the waves but have had very low production. Although it
is always important that a pilot plant scheme survive the sea trials period, care may be
required that devices are not over-engineered in the first instance to the point they all
become inoperative. Floating units may aid this process in that it should be possible to
tow them back to shore or a safe harbour for maintenance. The concept of a mobile
prototype test bed was originally suggested by Prof. Stephen Salter and is included in the
financial structure of schemes such as Teamwork Technologys AWS to be installed off
Portugal and Hydam Technologys MWP moored off the west coast of Ireland.
Seaworthiness has to be an integral part of any WEC design and must include storm
condition survival but the probability of early component failure has to be expected in the
pilot plants until operational experience of forces has been gained. Hull seaworthiness
can of course be investigated prior to the installation of expensive, vulnerable Power
Take-Off mechanisms (PTOs) and generating plant. These trials would include the
mooring and anchoring issues. This information should aid in the establishment of
prudent breakdown strategies and failure protocols.
Zero or infinite damping of the power take-off systems is one particular requirement as is
mooring failure, either in part or total. The emphasis on the development
recommendations contained in this report therefore address the technical barriers
delaying the deployment of productive devices for sea trials. Only the collective issues
are considered rather than any device specific problem, which are left to the appropriate
design teams to cover.
There is no evidence at this time to suggest that only one type of converter will prove
technically or commercially successful in its operation. Indeed different concepts may
suit different applications, such as water depth or generating plant size. It is generally
accepted that a wave energy power station will comprise an array of individual
converters, as is the case with wind farms.
The optimal configuration and layout of units has not yet been established but it may
evolve that a mix of different devices, either by types or size, would actually prove more
efficient than a single monotype installation. The evidence for this design consideration is
not yet available and will require a clearer picture of the raw resource and device
response possibilities. However, once this information is available, even initially at model
scale, it should not be an impossible task to simulate various park configuration options
based on accurate site-specific seaways and calculate performance relative to an overall
annual output.
C 4.2 Definitions
The terminology associated with wave energy development was first established in the
1970s in the UK. At that time it seemed that static, fixed structures, located on or inshore
(bottom standing) WEC would be the first units to commercially extract the energy
contained in sea waves, so they became regarded as First Generation WECs. This
nomenclature implied that developments would evolve based on the experience gained
operating early machines would lead to a second set of devices. These would probably be
established around mobile, floating systems moored near or even offshore where it was
generally regarded that ocean power levels would be higher. These Second Generation
Devices could be designed on quite different technologies from the static units, but not
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necessarily utilising different fundamental principles. Results from the testing of the
static units would have been gathered from these early pilot plants. However, few shallow
water devices have so far been constructed and little operational experience gained, but
the years have produced an advance in the knowledge base of the community.
Mobile, floating units are therefore now being developed in parallel with the onshore
counterparts but are still regarded as Second Generation, at least in a strategic sense. For
the purposes of this report therefore the more up-to-date definition of the term Second
Generation is used which is really a locational classification rather than a development
path.
The term Second Generation might be expressed as.
Mobile, floating (buoyant) WECs deployed near the shore (between 25 and 150 m water
depth) and anchored to the seabed. For pilot schemes the location is expected to be
between the shore and the horizon (10-15 km) or at one of the specific test sites under
construction. Although wave energy conversion is a new technology in itself these devices
will rely on existing engineering solutions to achieve acceptable performance and
survival levels.
Figure C-28 Danish Point Absorber
By this type of description developments can lead into improved and modified Second
Generation Devices whereby the latter would be the current units, with performance
enhancement options. Refits might include the introduction of items such as variable
power take-off control (latching), re-tuning or de-tuning the mechanisms, direct
generation or improvement not yet considered that result from early sea trials. A separate
future group, deemed Fourth Generation, are described in Section C 5 and include blue-
sky solutions and possibly totally different types of devices rather than an evolutionary
development of Second Generation Systems. Deployment sites may even migrate out as
far as fully exposed offshore regions once operational experience is gained and
improvements made relative to submarine cable costs, maintenance requirements and
servicing schedules. Such progress is not envisaged in the medium term.
As previously stated there is no particular evidence to suggest that one generic type of
device will prove the only economically and technically suitable solution. Indeed, wave
power is a commodity that can be extracted in several different ways and a combination
of WECs may provide a more stable solution for achieving a commercially viable wave
energy industry. The resource is sufficiently extensive to support a multi-system
approach once the initial pilot and demonstration models are proven and investor
confidence is gained.
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The successful launching of the offshore wind industry will perhaps assist in this matter
since this too will involve the risk of going to sea and getting the foundations and funding
wet. There will, of course, also be many synergies in the operations of wind and marine
energy technologies, such as sub-sea cables, moorings, survival strategies, maintenance
scheduling, etc.
C 4.3 Location
As described above the type of WECs covered in this review are those deployed in
moderately deep coastal water, but well within the continental shelf (<150 m water
depth). Different units might be suited for operation in any one of a set of sea-lanes that
can describe this region, the boundaries of which should be regarded as fluid in every
senses of the word. Both water depth and distance to shore will dictate the wave power
device station but the Ove Arup & Partners report for the UK Department of Trade and
Industry defines the near shore as up to 12 nautical miles, or approximately as far as the
horizon, could be applied. The horizontal distance will have importance with regard to
the length of expensive submarine power conductor required such that coastlines offering
rapidly shelving bathymetries may be attractive. Alternatively navigation, safety and
environmental issues may dictate the exploitable sea-lanes, particularly from a visual
impact stance.
Wind and hydro technologies have shown how both the authorities responsible and
general public will insist that full environmental impact audits must be conducted to
prove the acceptability of the energy source, even though it is fulfilling a primary
requirement as a non-atmospheric polluting electricity production process. For both wave
and offshore (near shore?) wind sites coastal seascape visual intrusion will probably be
the most contentions issue after marine safety (i.e. navigation). Such requirements might
cause devices to migrate further to sea than other technical requirements would dictate.
On or just over, the horizon may prove the most acceptable region, even for wave-
powered converters, which will probably exhibit relatively low freeboard heights.
Figure C-29 shows some examples of the type of computerised wave database archive
available to assist in site selection.
Figure C-29 Example electronic wave database
From a power level point of view the water depth and general coastal exposure of the site
will dictate the optimal locations. It is doubtful if a device will ever have to be deployed
beyond the near shore, i.e. truly offshore, even though it is accepted energy levels will be
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higher (perhaps too powerful). The inherent difficulties, at least in the medium time scale,
to operating beyond the 12 nautical mile limit could greatly outweigh the benefits, based
on todays technology.
If a wave power industry is to become established then devices must be capable of

economic, safe, environmentally acceptable operation within the nearshore region. This
may slightly restrict the number of possible sites but they will be more abundant than
onshore or inshore locations. Also, based on analysis of the (limited) wave data available
at the optimal sites already investigated there should be less of a restriction on the array
size of the wave park such that sufficient power can be generated from these few
locations. This situation will persist at least until most European coastal states improve
their peripheral electricity grids and they change to distributed generation input.
C 4.4 Buoyant WECs

There have been many more proposals for this buoyant WECs device than the static,
fixed structure onshore (or inshore) units. Over 1,000 patents have been lodged
throughout the world and this number is still increasing steadily. In part this is due to the
numerous power extraction options presented by floating, mobile converters. Their
hydrodynamics are often similar, both for the excitation force and the power take-off
system but the mechanisms employed can vary considerably. Unfortunately most, but not
all, designs must deal with the same two main disadvantages of WECs, translational
rather than rotational motion and relatively slow speeds.
Previous documents such as the NEL study (1976), Lewis (1983) & Lewis (circa 1992),
Rambolls EU report OWEC1 (1995), ETSUs various reviews (especially 1992) and
more recently Ove Arups DTI assessment (2002) and the AEA Technology report for the
IEA (2002) have attempted to catalogue the systems into different generic, or operational,
classifications. In general the actual devices covered in each report are different as units
have been proposed, achieved a certain level of research commitment, (usually to model
scale evaluation), and then been discontinued. Few reach pilot plant testing and to date
none were developed as prototypes, either as proof of concept or as demonstration
devices. (This situation is expected to change during 2003).
The reasons behind a units demise have varied between funding commitment and
technical difficulties. Finance has certainly proved a major barrier to past development,
although this lack of confidence in many of the proposals might be understandable. There
is possibly a portent to take note at this time which is that with the renewed interest in
wave energy later developers and funding schemes are being introduced which might
favour a strong company rather than a proven device. Some groups have better business
plans than they do product development schedules whilst no device can really be
regarded as having achieved commercial viability. Marketing and sales promotions based
on limited economic predictors and performance evaluation could mean some early pilot
schemes do not have ideal technical credentials.
The situation is exacerbated by commercial pressure on these small companies to deploy

the units at sea, quickly. Unfortunately, because the industry is at present so small,
unsuccessful enterprises can have negative effects on all operators, even those making
wiser choices and make their plans more difficult to develop in the future. It would be
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ideal if development could learn by its failures as well as the successes but in reality this
luxury may not be extended too far in this instance. There are methods to safeguard
against wasted resources, such as the phased evaluation procedure proposed in OWEC1.
During this EU-JOULE-funded study HMRC, IST and others produced a development
and evaluation test protocol whereby design teams could follow a fixed (but not rigid)
progressive critical path with pre-determined standards. The schedule was established to
accommodate balanced performance estimation and to facilitate efficient use of limited
finances.
Continuation criteria could be checked at selected intervals of device development, which

had five main phases from idealised initial models to large-scale pilot plants, (though
these need not necessarily be full-scale prototypes). Sea trial standards and device
comparison criteria are also currently being proposed under the implementing Agreement
for Ocean Energies in the I.E.A.
C 4.4.2 OWEC1 Protocol
Phase 1 Validation Model; an idealised scale model with a rudimentary

simulated power take-off mechanism could be used to verify design
concepts and validate (calibrate) mathematical models. Initially the
number of degrees of freedom (DoF) can be restricted and tests can be
preformed in monochromatic waves. Although material strength is not
tested at this time, hull seaworthiness and mooring loads should be.
Phase 2 Design Model; at this stage optimal dimensions and configurations

should be established and a more realistic power take-off simulator
incorporated. Tests should be performed in realistic seaways based
either on generic, classical ocean spectra, or if required, site specific
measurements. It is possible to introduce variable damping at this time
to help develop control strategies.
Phase 3 Process Model; once the critical design parameters have been
established a larger model might be constructed to monitor and evaluate
actual operating conditions. Component failure, breakdown and survival
strategies can be tested along with more detailed environmental loading
measurements. These trials can be conducted at a large-scale hydraulic
research facility or limited exposure open water sites, (such as the
Danish Nissum Bredning location). The disadvantage of outdoor test
centres is that input conditions cannot be controlled or easily repeated.
The disadvantage of available indoor facilities is cost and limited size.
Phase 4 Prototype Device; a large-to-full-scale device ready for sea trials either
at a selected site or open water test station, such as that on Orkney,
Scotland. Initial tests may involve only hulls and moorings depending
on the type of WEC under investigation. By this latter approach
accurate, real, physical parameters can be calculated from flow,
pressure, force velocity or motion-measuring sensors during operation.
Also seaworthiness, especially in storm conditions, can be evaluated
prior to exposing expensive power take-off and generating plant to risk.
Initially short-term deployment sessions could be advisable.
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Phase 5 Demonstration Device; the initial pilot plant for development,

therefore deployed on a longer time scale for economic feasibility
evaluation. This could still involve a solo unit or small array of devices
but probably not a complete power station park. The proposed
generation station site should be considered for these trials. Connection
to the electricity grid must be incorporated at this time. This procedure
should not be regarded as rigid but probably suits mobile, floating
Second-Generation systems better than fixed on-shore structures that
cannot be easily moved to calm waters for modification or refit during
the sea trial phases. Also Fourth Generation Devices, which may be
deployed considerable distances from land may require extensive
proving at sites closer to the shore before being exposed to the higher
energy regime of the open ocean.
C 4.4.3 Systems overview
As can be seen in the device review (Section C 4.8 below) that the majority of the
currently active device development projects utilise surface piercing floats (buoys,
pontoons, rafts, etc.) excited by the motion/pressure of the wave field. There are,
however, some fully submerged systems, which still achieve primary conversions by the
same technique, such as the AWS, some variants of the IPS buoy and the OWEC device.
By necessity the latter are tightly moored but still by an anchor system rather than the
power take-off. The former type use a mixture of slack or tight moorings, whilst at least
one of these is proposed as a TLP system.
There are also hybrid moorings introduced to overcome water depth considerations.
These can be combined with sub-surface damping plates, or inertial masses, which
remove the problem of tidal elevation variations. The effects of wind and tidal current
will inevitably be introduced to all moored type devices.
Five of the devices, B2D2, Sperboy, OWEL, Mighty Whale and MOWC, use an enclosed
water column as the primary conversion mechanism. This column in turn drives air,
encapsulated in a plenum chamber, through a turbine for secondary conversion to
mechanical energy. This process also transforms the linear flow to rotary motion.
Four devices are based on a completely different type of extraction process, that of wave
run-up and beach overtopping. These are the Waveplane, Wave Dragon, Power Pyramid
and Floating Wave Power Vessel. Electricity is then generated by returning the water
through low-head turbines to the sea. Each unit, however, adopts a different strategy of
potential energy storage, from the Wave Dragons large reservoir to the Waveplanes
short-term integral columns. These type of devices offer the advantage of using
conventional water turbines to extract the energy but fairly large vessels are required to
accommodate the reservoir.
Most of these Second-Generation Devices can be classified further as point absorbers and
will therefore rely on multi-machine park layouts to achieve power station generating
capacity. The exception to this is the OWEC, which is an integral structure of multiple
individual absorption units. Power take-off and generation is, in the main, included in
each solo unit, which are networked by electrical cables laid along the ocean floor. The
location of this plant however, varies, with some units opting for machinery mounted on
the surface float and others as part of the anchor system attached to the seabed. The
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technical implications of this move are governed more by deployment, service and
maintenance considerations rather than performance. The advantage of moving the
machinery away from the dangers imposed at the ocean surface is obvious but submerged
operation of course produces difficulties in itself.
C 4.5 Knowledge gaps

As the development of wave energy devices continues and groups are faced with tough
decisions prior to launching and deploying machines at sea it has become clear that the
level of detail in the environmental data required to assist these decisions is not as well
defined as previously thought. Even the topics considered to have been critically
reviewed are lacking in many areas. As always care must be taken that familiarity with a
subject must not be confused with an understanding of it.
C 4.5.1 Resource
Although this subject has been extensively studied for a variety of maritime applications
and is well documented on a climate scale there remain certain key areas, particularly
important to wave energy extraction, where information is limited. Three separate
timescales must be considered
long termannual or seasonal changes influencing economic estimates,
medium termsea state changes to assist output forecasts (electricity sales),
short termwave frequency scale predictions for active control.
Spectrum Shape
In some areas of wave energy research estimates of the production prospects were often
based on wave summary statistics and annual sea power averages. Even this limited data
is temporally and spatially scarce, particularly direct measurement (remote or contact
sensors) records. Third-Generation Energy Budget wave prediction models have satisfied
some of this missing information but even the most sophisticated computer forecasting
grids are at quarter degree (latitude) nodes, equivalent to 15 nautical miles for Europes
territorial seas. This easily fulfils the requirements of spatial homogeneity in open water
but along the sea-lanes designated for the Second Generation of WECs, i.e. 25-100 m
water depth, bathymetric changes and topographic obstacles (headlands, islands etc) can
produce significant modification over much shorter distances.
Wave refraction is of particular importance near the shoreline. The actual spectral shape
of occurring sea states within this operational zone has not been adequately described to
assist WEC design teams and those charged with estimating annual production figures
from the model response tests (physical or mathematical). Classical parametric spectral
shapes are often assumed to fill each of the scatter diagram elements whilst theoretically
there could be several profiles that would still produce the same summary statistics
displayed in these bi-variate charts.
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SEA STATE # LOOP HEAD & Hs = 4m

Kilbaha Bay~9/3/2002@1100 Ross Bay[f']~27/3/1997@0500 Ballybunnion[f']~20/11/1997@1200
full Pierson Moskowitz part Pierson-Moskowitz
25
P-M equation @ Hs =4.5m

P-M formula @ Hs = 4m & Tp = 12s
20 Wave Buoy @ Hs = 3.9m
Pressure Sensor @ Hs = 4.0m
specrtral density estimate [m^2/Hz]

Pressure Sensor @ Hs = 4 0m
15
10
0
0.025 0.05 0.075 0.1 0.125 0.15 0.175 0.2 0.225 0.25
frequency {Hz}
Figure C-30 Ocean basin Figure C-31 Spectral profile
Figure C-31 shows the comparison of sea states recorded in a variety of European water
basins. Figure C-30 depicts a set of spectra recorded at three different stations off the
west coast of Ireland relative to parametric classical formula. It is now generally accepted
that simply using annual or even seasonal averages of wave power to estimate
productivity and availability produces false and misleading results.
This is further exacerbated when an overall machine efficiency is also assumed. Most
WECs are resonant systems so the extraction capability is a function of the wave
excitation period and, to a lesser degree, the wave height. These factors apply just as
importantly in irregular as regular waves. It is essential, therefore, to include all these
performance variables when estimating productivity.
In the very energetic, random seas machines may even have to dump or limit energy
conversion since it is doubtful that a power take-off system capable of handling output
covering the whole range of encountered conditions will be practical. This trimming of
the extremes, which will further reduce the conversion efficiency, is not observed when
seaways are averaged since the process reduces them automatically.
There will also be the additional elements of the predominant wave approach direction
and angular spreading formation. These parameters could be important considerations for
array interaction effects and the consequent influence on individual machine outputs.
Scatter Diagrams
Even once the device characteristics are accurately known from both analytical
predictions and empirical results it remains important that an accurate picture of the
resource is available for power production and economic forecasting. A disturbing
discovery in this area is what seems to be a discrepancy between existing archive
measurements and observations currently available from the meteorological buoy
network, the data from which are available from the Internet.
A recent review has indicated that these later sensors are producing much less variability
in the Hs-Tz scatter diagrams than previously recorded. As with the spectral shape of a
particular seaway this trend, if true, could have profound influence of WEC design. The
more sophisticated, elegant units currently under investigation have the ability to re-tune
to accommodate any particular sea state and thus capture more energy than a single
frequency unit might. However, this facility may not be so important if there is less
scatter in the wave height and period combinations than previously thought and seas only
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exist along the fully developed line. It is doubtful if this phenomenon is accurate and
even if the case for the open ocean the proposed near shore deployment sites could be
different again. The matter needs to be clarified.
9.1 - 9.5 1
8.6 - 9.0 3 1
8.1 - 8.5 1 3 6 1
7.6 - 8.0 1 9 9 1
Significant 7.1 - 7.5 2 18 5 1
wave 6.6 - 7.0 18 27 7
height 6.1 - 6.5 1 2 39 25 4
[m] 5.6 - 6.0 18 76 22 1 1
5.1 - 5.5 1 60 59 23 3 1
4.6 - 5.0 21 99 81 21 2
4.1 - 4.5 1 107 150 62 9 3
3.6 - 4.0 17 268 173 55 5 1
3.1 - 3.5 1 159 362 173 32 1
2.6 - 3.0 1 33 473 288 99 13 3 2 1 1
2.1 - 2.5 303 539 245 116 19 5 1 4 4
1.6 - 2.0 72 757 628 242 95 28 3 2 1
1.1 - 1.5 367 678 408 172 54 7 2 2
0.6 - 1.0 4 116 147 53 9 4 6 2
0.0 - 0.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Period [s]
Figure C-32 Offshore buoy (K3~UK) Figure C-33 Nearshore buoy

(M1~Ireland)
The offshore buoy (K3) is approximately at the same station as the old weather ship
Juliett, 300 nautical miles west of Ireland in 2500 m of water. The inshore buoy (M1) is
30 nm west of Ireland in 100 m deep water. Reference to Juliett files shows a much
greater scatter on the wave height & period combinations.
Short-term wave prediction
In addition to re-tuning for production or de-tuning for survival, converter design teams
have also been investigating control strategies (i.e. latching in its simple form) to
maximise output potential in any given sea. To achieve this active control a short-term
water surface profile forecasting tool is required. Work has been conducted in this area
for such operations as landing helicopters on ships or offshore drilling operations.
However, the prediction programs conceived to date do not contain sufficient detail for
PTO damping control since they tend to have confidence only at the longer, more regular
swell conditions.
It may be that special hardware in the form of a low altitude forward scanning surface
elevation sensors will have to be developed to augment, assist or replace predictive
computer packages. If time-domain deterministic software can be introduced to replace
the frequency-domain stochastic probabilistic methods by a combination of hard and
software systems then wave frequency control, should it really prove beneficial, could
become a possibility. This was attempted in the early work with the Hose Pump systems
in Gothenburg in 1980 (See Trondheim Conference Proc.).
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Figure C-34 Wave profile time history
The diagram above shows the complex time series nature of the sea surface that must be
accommodated if predictive packages are to be successful. The corresponding frequency
spectrum of the sea state is also shown.
Medium-term wave forecasting
To be economically viable the exploitation of wave energy, as opposed to certain other
sustainable sources, is envisaged only on a large scale. Besides the technical issues
requiring solution this imposes a further requirement that must be fulfilled. Most
renewable energy sources occur frequently but not regularly, and the patterns change over
different timescales. Providing the overall contribution to a countrys national distribution
grid remains relatively small, this inconvenient temporal irregularity is acceptable.
However, if supply becomes significant, new networking policies will be required to
smooth the input over a required geographical area.
Planning groups must consider the resource patterns in an attempt to achieve consistency
of supply. In the case of wave energy there are often fluctuations on a yearly basis and
almost certainly on a seasonal timescale. Conveniently most of the waves occur in the
winter months when consumer demand is high in most European states. Also, the rate at
which a passing storm can affect a monthly time history must be important.
Annual Seasonal Monthly
Figure C-35 Wave energy variability
As distribution networks deregulate a further forecasting requirement emerges, this one

over the shorter time scale of hours or days at the most. This is to facilitate the sale of
185
electricity on the energy market. Improved prediction techniques will be required to assist
this process. To some extent wave energy is more suited to this requirement since, once
formed, wave trains travel over great distances without changing direction significantly.
Figure C-36 Location of the K2 and Figure C-37 Time-series wave height
Pemb. buoys measurements from the K2 and Pemb.
buoys showing a time lag between the
two
Figure C-36 and Figure C-37 demonstrate the predictable nature of ocean waves. Figure
C-36 shows the location of the measurements whilst Figure C-37 indicates the phase
delay between those points, together with the wave height changes over that distance.
C 4.5.2 Environmental loads
Although extensive theoretical knowledge and measured data from the offshore industry
is available for initial loading calculations, a full description of the imposed forces cannot
be catalogued until prototype pilot plants have been through early sea trials.
The main loads will probably be wave induced and to some degree derive from the
winds. Since loads will be device specific they will be difficult to predict generally. Most
engineering standards that produced design guidance for environmental loads stipulate
that the values are based on stochastic principles that are not well defined.
Initially, structures will have to be designed based on worse-case scenarios, which will
inevitably produce over-engineered and expensive units until the operational experience
has been gained. It is essential therefore that a mechanism is available to ensure these
early devices are instrumented extensively to measure as many physical parameters as
practically possible. If a standard data-acquisition package were available, including a
variety of sensors, this objective would be easier to achieve. Better still would be a
special fund provided for this function. A review of past pilot schemes shows how little
practical data has emerged from these large investments.
C 4.5.3 Power plant arrays
It is commonly accepted that full-scale power generating stations will be achieved by

combining individual machines, interconnected into arrays to form parks. Theoretical
studies have looked at the complex three-dimensional hydrodynamic interactions but few
practical tests have yet been conducted. An introduction to this work should be possible
at model scale with tests run in a hydraulic laboratory. The advantage of this approach is
186
the control available on the wave field generation. Different matrix configurations can be
investigated to provide actual data for mathematic model verification.
This will initially involve monochromatic linear waves but these can progress in
complexity from second order single frequency excitation to irregular, real sea
conditions, both long and short crested in nature. The latter sets may dominate the
findings of this work. Essential is the ability to excite the whole array simultaneously to
produce individual device interaction with the wave field at the same time as the
interference patters are scattered to neighbouring units. Device response characteristics as
time series of the motions can then be supplied to design engineers to assist them develop
networking and inter-connection of the units to smooth electrical supply and improved
power quality.
C 4.6 Engineering considerations

In a similar way to the environment loading criteria the engineering requirements will in
general be device specific although they can be sub-divided into a number of basic areas.
These will vary depending on the type of converter principle adopted, such as slack or
tight moored, overtopping or motion conversion, surface or sub-surface units, but these
common factors will apply.
C 4.6.1 Hulls
The main requirements of the device body are that it behaves as an efficient primary
energy converter and exhibits seaworthy characteristics, particularly with regards to
storm condition survival. It must also be capable of being manufactured for the right
price.
Figure C-38 A breaking wave
Model test have shown that the first requirement can be fulfilled close to the original
theoretical point absorber predictions ( P 2 ). Unfortunately most devices can only
be tuned at one, fixed eigen-frequency so the capture width will vary across the band of
sea states typical of a site (as described in Section C 4.5).
187
This fixed tuning may not be a limitation if recent meteorological buoy records are
correct but could be important if substantial amounts of annual power occur in both short,
choppy seas and low amplitude, long period swell wave regime. The efficiency loss in
high-energy panchromatic seas can be regarded as part of a devices survival strategy,
since it is unlikely that power take-off units could be designed to cope with the wide
range of input power found to typically occur at exposed open water locations
(0-1000 kW/m).
The second requirement dictates that the vessel, no matter what type of generator is being
considered, should be based on a seaworthy hull. If the hydrodynamic performance does
fall away as ocean energy content increases then motion end-stop problems should be
reduced, but not eliminated. This means PTOs still require protection. However, for
floating devices it should be possible that the survival criteria are transferred to the
mooring and foundation anchors, with some consideration to the PTO forces. Without
this ability, extreme PTO motion becomes a problem.
C 4.6.2 Power Take-Off systems
Achieving high primary conversion can only be successful if the PTO mechanisms are
capable of reproducing the simulated applied damping characteristics used in the
physical and mathematical models. To date there has probably been insufficient
investigation into this secondary conversion area, for which there can be as many
suggested solutions as there are for the primary conversion. Of particular interest are the
direct-drive methods currently being proposed, but the practicality of any and all of these
PTO options operating for extended periods of time in the harsh marine environment has
yet to be proven.
Linear electrical generators
For most WECs the primary conversion system produces translational motion
(mechanical or pneumatic) so cannot be used directly to drive rotational type electrical
generators. This means secondary conversion of the wave energy is required and this
process can introduce high losses into the power conversion train. The recently re-visited
option of direct linear electrical generation removes the secondary conversion
requirement. Several development teams are now considering this direct process and
Teamwork Technologys 2 MW AWS device already has one fitted. As with all
engineering solutions, however, this option will not be a panacea solution and will
introduce limitations of its own. Besides being demanding to design and construct,
requiring very close component tolerances and extremely strong magnets, there may be
questions regarding power quality. Networking devices could offer a possible solution to
this problem, which would of course combine well with the concept of power station park
array. These units are also expensive compared with conventional generators.
Hydraulic systems
Before design team interest turned towards linear generators hydraulics were proposed as
the main solution for secondary conversion. An advantage of this intermediate phase is
that it offers the ability to smooth the raw absorbed power prior to the generator link.
Initially high-pressure oil was seen as the medium of choice but environmental concerns
brought focus on low-pressure seawater as an alternative.
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High-pressure oil
Similar machines to those required to deal with this transformation are readily available
from numerous manufacturers for other applications. It is suspected, however, that the
efficiency across the irregular input conditions imposed by this resource could prove
problematic and expensive. Few full or large-scale systems have been built and tested in
real conditions to verify the adaptability of this drive train technique. Unlike some of the
other wave energy problems that can only be studied in detail on devices at sea it should
be possible to construct a land-based test rig to work on solutions. Irregular input signals
can be programmed to activate the hydraulics and control strategies investigated in the
laboratory for individual machines.
Low-pressure seawater
Some of the early Scandinavian devices, particularly those utilising flexible materials in
the pumping mechanism, were designed from the outset to make use of the surrounding
seawater as the energy transfer medium. As environmental concerns regarding long term
storage of oil at sea grew attention again turned to this option as a possible benign
solution.
Unfortunately little empirical, experimental evidence exists on which to assess this

alternative power take-off. Most research to date has concentrated on details of such
systems created by the fluid medium itself, such as seal longevity, material corrosion,
acceptable pressures etc. Various recent engineering reports have tended to dismiss this
option for technical reasons, especially due to the inherent power losses.
Air turbines
After many years of air turbine development, albeit fragmented, there remains a high
level of uncertainly as to how efficient these machines will prove to be under real
operating conditions. There are, or will be, two or three such turbines fitted to the
commissioned static, First Generation, shoreline OWCs so, if commercial
confidentiality permits, this dearth of data may be soon overcome.
Figure C-39 An air turbine for installation on an oscillating water column
Unlike the situation with hydraulic and direct-drive systems the difficulty for pneumatics
is to evaluate large-scale units under real operating conditions. Most development test
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rigs are of limited size and restricted input conditions, mainly with uni-directional, steady
flow. Attempts have been made with small-scale test beds to produce bi-directional
oscillatory flow patterns but even these provide only limited information, similar in
usefulness to monochromatic wave tests. This is rather unfortunate since in general the
concentration of effort has been on the bi-directional type of turbine, Wells and impulse.
To date the demand for full-size units has been small and so no major manufacturer has
become involved and thus to a greater extent component studies have been undertaken in
isolation. There is, however, quite a small group of researchers engaged in these studies
who generally keep in touch so combined, or clustering, research effort should be
reasonably straightforward.
If supported by public funds towards a focused and planned programme, some of the
current uncertainties of performance could be removed. Knowledge of the idealised
performance of these turbines however, is still important since if output efficiencies are
found to be low under real operational conditions this information will assist in locating
the causes.
C 4.6.3 Moorings and conductors
Floating devices may offer innovative solutions for survival, performance and, especially,
construction cost but they must still be connected to the seabed and this will require
flexible materials for both the station-keeping systems and the electricity grid connection.
Cables
Even for full-size pilot schemes the power production capability of an individual
prototype device is limited. The cost of connecting such a unit to a countrys national
distribution grid or network can be at best relatively expensive and, depending on the
power line location, and often totally prohibitive. The exception to this problem is if the
local utility is involved in the project.
The landing of the cable is straightforward regardless of where the landing is best placed.
Most of the devices currently under investigation are surface piercing floats held on
station by slack moorings. Seabed type armoured cable is notoriously stiff and heavy so
quick and easy connection techniques that can be accomplished in narrow weather
windows (for maintenance purposes) are required. The cable must also be flexible enough
not to influence the primary converter body motion whilst withstanding the constant
fatigue oscillations imposed on these continually moving floating devices.
Bottom-mounted power take-off units offer a simpler solution but unfortunately

incorporate surface drive problems themselves (including tidal compensation
requirements), as well as under-water maintenance considerations. Sub-surface array
interconnections could involve a difficult procedure during the initial installation phase
and later park extension. Water depth and site exposure are obvious considerations but if
quick, relatively easy cable connections were available weather windows could be
narrowed.
There are very few cable manufactures in the market place today and the companies are
large. If approached on an individual basis by one SME WEC developer it may be
difficult to encourage a full commitment to improving component availability, unless
such systems could have alternative uses such as in the telecommunications industry. As
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with the other engineering barriers, therefore, this topic would benefit from a concerted
coordinated effort.
Moorings
Associated with the flexible electrical connection is the station-holding system. Early cost
estimates for the water depths under consideration (25-100 m) caused most designed
teams to concentrate on a mooring and anchor mechanisms rather than fixed, compliant
structures. Experience has been gained in this field from ocean navigation and weather
buoys as well as the offshore industry.
In general, however, the main requirement of a mooring has been to securely hold a
vessel on station. With most slack-moored WECs, the anchor system must not interfere
with the primary power conversion process. Axisymmetric point absorber-type systems
should remain independent of the mean angle of wave approach or any directional
spreading factors. Other devices could have a strong misalignment effect both in terms of
performance and loading. These latter machines will require more complex and
sophisticated mooring systems that allow, or control, the devices heading relative to
waves, wind or current patterns.
At most European sites under consideration, i.e. a few kilometres from a large land
masses, there will probably be a dominant directional segment from which the energy
will approach. This is often found to be in a sector of 90o about the mean angle. This
parameter should ensure even directional moorings do not have to be too expensive, as is
required, for instance, with full 360 degree oil loading and discharge buoys. However,
wave and wind (current) direction misalignment must be taken into account.
Each device mooring will require a complete and independent design study to ascertain
loadings but value may be derived from a generic investigation of the field. These should
enable the current codes of practice and engineering standards to be expanded to include
WEC-specific requirements. Tight-moored and tension-leg-type devices have a different
set of requirements, the principal ones probably being with regard to the foundation
anchors and tidal variation.
Offshore wind turbine platforms of this type are also being proposed so joint solutions in
the 50-100 meter water depth range could be investigated. Two safety factors must also
be ensured with regard to moorings. Power parks will dictate that a large number of
moderately sized un-manned, floating structures (>10 m diameter) will be deployed at
sea. Even when restrained these parks must satisfy stringent navigation regulations but
the statistical probability of one breaking free must be considered. Since this danger
would probably occur during a storm, recovering the unit may not be possible for at least
a few hours or even days.
The initial danger would be to neighbouring devices within the array so a strict damage
limitation protocol will be required if dire consequences are to be avoided. The same
consideration is required for the early individual devices that, if loose, would cause
hazard to other sea users.
The optimal park layout and device spacing could be dictated by the array interaction
requirements but the swept radius required by a partially failed mooring system also
becomes critical to restrict the sea surface required. In an attempt to reduce the influence
of the mooring on the device motion secondary weight bearing surface or sub-surface
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buoys are often consideration but this approach introduces excessive line lengths,
particularly in deep water. A simpler, direct catenary could prove more reliable but once
again this is an area of endeavour that a concerted coordinated approach would benefit.
C 4.7 General requirements

C 4.7.1 Design teams
The development of a successful wave energy converter is strongly reliant on a co-

ordinated, multi-disciplined approach, ranging from oceanographers informed about the
resource to electrical engineers knowledgeable about the requirements of the electricity
consumers.
Recent progress in the field has, however, tended to be made by small enterprises
(SMEs) that would not directly employ personnel covering all the technologies involved.
This means that disparate experts have often been engaged for only short-term affiliation
to tackle the multifarious tasks required.
Because each technology faces new, or bespoke, adaptations to suit them to the marine
operations involved in this field, the specialists have tended to remain in isolation, fully
engaged solving their own fields difficulties rather than creating associations to tackle
the overall problems jointly.
Inter-disciplinary communication that both advises and appreciates the separate issues
has not always been successful. The difficulty in achieving a fully collaborative,
complementary design team should not, however, be underestimated. Different levels of
sophistication can be seen in the development of some concepts, depending on the device
origin. Hydrodynamic founded groups produced elegant primary converters that cannot
be engineered, power take-off specialists, (especially turbine teams), tend to
underestimate the input condition variability and inventors conceive numerous methods
to achieve conversion that often defy basic physics.
Even today some units are being designed by skilled engineers working in land locked
offices. This arrangement can lead to solutions inappropriate to the rigorous requirements
imposed by a storm at sea. Man has become accustomed to doing things when he wishes
rather than when nature will accommodate him. The offshore industries successes have
tended to support this view but many solutions have consequently proved to be expensive
and gained from bitter experience.
Even past research projects have tended to favour single subject studies so it is important
to encourage, or facilitate in some way, the introduction of more balanced design teams
to avoid future failures, especially now that sea trials of devices are being scheduled and
errors could be critical.
C 4.7.2 New concepts
Although a certain amount of criticism is often expressed at the number of different wave
energy device designs that have been proposed two underlying considerations remain.
Firstly, there is no evidence to suppose that only one WEC of this type (Second
Generation) of machine will prove economically attractive. Secondly it is possible that
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new designs, not yet introduced, will provide more ingenious solutions to the wave-wire
conversion process.
For both these reason it is important to maintain a mechanism, both financial and
practical, that will enable (though not necessarily encourage) new concepts to be
evaluated and developed. Obviously a filtering procedure is required for this purpose to
ensure efficient use of resources. A standard test protocol was suggested in Section C
4.4.1, which accommodates both of these requirements offers a structure for the design
developer and phased evaluation procedure for the funding agents. An advantage of
utilizing a transferable testing methodology and standard is that developers should be
able to contract any establishment with the required test facilities rather than selected
Centres. (This could be important for financing qualification). The trial specifications and
procedures can be followed by the Centre and checked by the inventor/design team with
standard reporting criteria set at the various stages of evaluation. These waypoints should
also comply with funding agent requirements. This approach is particularly important at
the concept validation phase and should assure the inventors that each design receives
appropriate and consistent evaluation.
C 4.8 Floating WECdevice review

Although this section concentrates on those units defined as Second Generation there
have been many more proposed inventions in this sector than even First Generation
Devices. A review of the archive of past reports shows how often these inventions have
changed over time such that the compilations soon become outdated.
In association with this document, therefore, a request has been issued on the European
Wave Energy Network Internet site for individuals or teams working on WECs to contact
the Network with the aim of maintaining an up-to-date catalogue of devices, linked,
where possible, to the companys own WEB page. Prior to the World Wide Web,
obtaining any data on the global development of WECs was difficult, whilst now too
much information must be sifted to locate device specification. This situation is
magnified by the fact that many address are not updated sufficiently often or deleted
when no longer valid. The units described in Appendix 14, therefore, constitute the main
devices currently under development internationally, but may not be complete.
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C5 RESEARCH REQUIREMENTS FOR FOURTH-

GENERATION WAVE ENERGY DEVICES
Prepared by: S.H. Salter, Mechanical Engineering, University of Edinburgh
C 5.1 Primary and secondary objectives

The only present objective of wave energy research should be to ensure the survival of
the first sea-going plant. Once that has been achieved we can reduce the costs by
cautiously cutting factors of safety, changing designs to suit new materials or production
methods and by increasing the sophistication of control strategies. This paper discusses
the steps in the research to these objectives. The emphasis is on the needs for the next
generation of wave plant but the borderline between generations is not distinct and
investigations suggest that some topics may not have been covered completely for all
devices in previous generations.
The topics are presented individually in no particular order of merit.
C 5.2 Survival
C 5.2.1 Statistical distributions
Engineering artefacts can suffer failures dramatically where something suddenly breaks
or progressively through corrosion, fatigue or wear. To achieve an acceptably low failure
rate it is necessary to understand both the stresses that the sea is inducing in the
equipment and also how good the equipment is at enduring these stresses. As so often in
engineering, both stress and resistance have a complicated statistical pattern. It is helpful
to think of them as two probability distributions with the asymptotic upper skirt of the
stress distribution approaching and overlapping the lower skirt of the endurance limit by
hopefully only the very slightest amount. In many cases the statistical distributions will
be close to the mathematically convenient Gaussian distribution but we cannot always be
certain of this. For a mature technology, the small amount of overlap is in effect set by
accountants, insurance brokers and public opinion.
There are four ways to reduce the overlap of the two distribution skirts. The first is to
bodily move the mean value of the endurance distribution to some higher value by
applying a factor of safety. In the early days of wave energy the experts on mooring
would say that they usually applied factors of 5 or 6. There was some uncertainty as to
whether this factor was the ratio of mean endurance to mean stress or whether it was the
ratio of the weakest item on the lower skirt of endurance divided by the highest point on
the upper skirt of the input stress. Clearly humans are not good at thinking about
asymptotes and low probabilities. Factors of safety are really factors of ignorance and
lead directly to factors of waste.
The second way to achieve survival is to reduce the standard deviations of the two
distributions. This can be done by research on either or both stress and endurance.
Understanding stresses requires very detailed tank testing to seek out the most
unfavourable combinations of wave conditions. Understanding the endurance of new
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types of components requires testing of parts and subassemblies either on the bench for
internal parts or in realistic sea conditions for external ones. However, provided loads are
accurate it is not necessary that actual power be transmitted ashore.
The third way, better still, is to design mechanisms, which chop off the upper skirt of the
stress distribution at a chosen value, even if these mechanisms have to be complicated.
We can then work at the higher value for a large fraction of the time getting a better value
for the capital investment. This chopping can be done by methods such as yielding as in
the duck spine, by pressure relief valves in hydraulics, by over-topping of wave-
concentrating walls, by submergence or by opening the diameter of the water cylinder of
the IPS buoy. A large part of the capital cost of wave energy plant is associated with the
strength of the primary structure. If this fraction of the cost is proportional to strength,
limiting the stress to that at the economic limit should reduce the cost of Atlantic plant by
a factor between 6 and 10 so that there is plenty of money to pay for some complexity.
The best way of all to minimise the distribution overlap is to have the stress-skirt
chopping-point externally adjustable so that, if there are unpleasant surprises in the shape
of the endurance distribution, we can still back away from disaster. This also gives the
commercial option to sacrifice plant life for electrical output at times of unusually high
electricity values, which are a feature of some electricity trading arrangements. Such
external controls will also allow us to do useful things like switching off the input power
during installation, inspection and maintenance, a requirement often forgotten in the
excitement of early invention. There is therefore a need to understand possible stress-
limiting mechanisms and the effects of stress limitation of power production and
increased range of movement.
C 5.2.2 Tank tests for survival
Computer simulation is very useful now at predicting the forces and movements of
several kinds of objects in waves provided that they are small enough to be linear. It may
eventually be able to predict the loads in the non-linear regime of extreme waves but at
present the only way for estimating loads on anything but the very simplest shapes is by
tank testing.
The model should be tested in a representative series of irregular seas over and beyond
the complete scatter diagram for a time equivalent to about 20 minutes at full scale. The
force signals should be used to calculate one force coefficient based on the ratio of root-
mean-square force to root-mean-square wave amplitude with terms involving water-
density, gravity and model size to give a non-dimensional coefficient. We also calculate a
second coefficient based on the ratio of the peak values regardless of whether they were
close in time.
For a 20 minute full-scale test period the peak-derived coefficients of a linear system
should be about 3.5 times the root-mean-square derived ones if the behaviour corresponds
to Gaussian statistics. Low freeboard devices may show a smaller ratio at higher wave
amplitudes but anything more than 3.5 should be investigated in closer detail. Both
coefficients should be plotted against wave amplitude for a series of energy period up to
values that are well above (say 25 %) the limiting steepness observed in the scatter
diagram. This allows the entire fluid loading behaviour of a model to be displayed on one
diagram. Figure C-40 shows the results for the surge forces on a duck in a narrow tank.
The curves of peak-derived coefficients against the root-mean square amplitude at which
195
they were measured can reveal if there are dangerous upward trends or reassuring
downward ones.
Figure C-40 Root mean square and peak surge forces against wave amplitude
measured by Glen Keller for a range of periods. There are no dangerous increases
at higher levels
For behaviour in extreme conditions it is necessary to generate an exactly repeatable,

extreme-amplitude wave group. The ratio of peak to root-mean-square can be as high at
12. In a narrow tank the most dramatic event is achieved by choosing the phases of the
components of a spectrum so that they coincide at a particular point. Because the velocity
of propagation is affected by wave amplitude it may be necessary to use manual
adjustments to correct the phase values that were calculated with linear theory for low
amplitude velocities.
In a wide tank a regular train of very steep waves can be created by focussing wave fronts
from many directions towards a single point. It used to be thought that waves could not
be generated with height-to-length ratios more than 1 in 7. This is not true. Either of the
above techniques can achieve a height to central wavelength ratio of 1 to 4.5. Together
they can produce an astonishing but unlikely event from apparently calm water.
The model should be moved to a series of test positions around the nominal breaking
point. Force records for each of the possible operating modes should be time-linked to a
series of photographs or video frames. Figure C-41 shows a sequence of photographs of a
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narrow tank duck in a freak wave spaced at one second intervals full scale. Figure C-42
shows the superimposed force results for a series of positions. Interestingly there was a
very strong down ward and seaward tendency and the largest forces did not occur at the
steepest part of the wave but often at the trough after next.
We can then explore more closely for the wave event which shows abnormally high force
coefficients by using a computer hill-climbing method. We make random changes to the
phase of one component of a multi-tooth spectrum and see if this produces an increase in
the peak force. If there is an increase then that phase value is retained another tried for
another tooth. This can lead to sneak waves, which could cause severe damage even if
they appear relatively harmless. There might for example be an extremely low trough
rather than an extreme crest. Finding them may be a lengthy process and many device
teams have not reported that they have completed it. We should also remember that our
language, eyes, instruments and video equipment make us concentrate on the vertical
rather than the horizontal excursions of the water but that some wave devices have larger
force coefficients in the horizontal than in the vertical direction.
When all these tests have been completed we should have a clear picture of what the sea
is going to do to our structure. By knowing the wave statistics of a site we can draw a
probability distribution of the whole-life stress and so understand what must be done to
avoid prompt overload failure and delayed fatigue failure. We will also be able to reduce
costs by avoiding unnecessary strength. Although doing this thoroughly sounds tedious it
will provide more accurate information than is available to engineers working on
applications such as vehicle suspensions.
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Figure C-41 A sequence of photographs by Jamie Taylor from the 1978 Edinburgh
report showing a freak wave hitting a narrow tank duck. Intervals are 1 second full
scale.
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Figure C-42 Superimposed forces records for various positions round the nominal
break point. Note the strong downward and seaward effect and the lack of
coincidence between extreme wave crest and extreme force
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C 5.3 Achieving reliability of components

The cheapest and quickest way to achieve reliability for internal parts of a wave energy
system is to use laboratory test rigs to develop and prove new sub-assemblies under
conditions where controlled loads can be progressively increased under careful
observation with comprehensive instrumentation. However, this is not sufficient for items
exposed to the external influences of the chemistry and biology of seawater.
Calculation of the seawater fatigue endurance is particularly difficult for welds to the
point where the Edinburgh group will go to any lengths to avoid them. Fatigue research
requires large samples of test specimens. The experiments are very boring and
incompatible with investor deadlines and the demand for rapid publication rates now
needed in universities. Minor changes in surface preparation or design detail like small
holes can have large effects so there is a wide range of conclusions and wide variations in
allowable stress limits between different classification societies. Some industrial groups
refuse to release the values they have painfully and expensively discovered to be safe
perhaps in the hope that their competitors will lose money by repeating them. This action
is questionable if they have received any public money. There is a research requirement
to assess the vast amount of experimental data and filter out a subset for the conditions,
which will apply to wave energy.
The biological problems are significant because layers of fouling can produce changes in
chemistry with substances like hydrogen sulphide, which in turn change corrosion rates.
Fouling does not reduce performance of wave devices to the extent we should to expect
for tidal stream plant but waves will induce more reversing stresses and so will have more
serious fatigue.
An outline design for a component test platform is given in the section on tidal stream
energy and is reproduced here. It would consist of a floating platform with which could
expose multiple sets of components such as cable entries and fasteners and exercise
subassemblies such as seals and bearings. A sketch of the design is given in Figure C-43.
The platform would be moored close enough to be able to draw electrical power from
land to drive the three-phase induction motors through variable-frequency inverters
mounted on the platform. These can drive shaft seals and ram exercisers. Such an
experiment would also confront many of the mooring, and electric-cabling problems of
wave and tidal-stream.
The key design problem seems to be the safe location of fairly heavy test rigs by a
coupling that also allows easy inspection and replacement. This is not easy on a moving
platform where a shift of the position of the centre of gravity is undesirable. We must
recall the expression loose cannon. A solution is to mount experiments on a pair of
clamp plates joined by rectangular section tubes, which carry plastic bearing pads. The
combination would act like a saddle and be tied to a large (42 inch) mild-steel tube with a
girth strap. The equipment would be designed so that its centre of gravity was close to the
centre of the tube. To examine submerged parts the girth would be loosened a little and
the saddle rotated by pulling with a Tirfor winch at a suitable connection point. The
contact between plastic bearing pads and mounting tube would be nicer if it could be clad
with a thin shim, say 0.5 mm of cupro-nickel or stainless steel, with junction to the mild-
steel protected by epoxy paint.
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I have argued previously that renewable energy research is are an expensive way to
relearn the basic and painful lessons of marine engineering. A series of mishaps to items
on the platform would be much less of an embarrassment than any to a complete power-
generating device. The longer that the test platform is operated the higher will be the
value of the results and so it should begin as soon as possible.
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Figure C-43 A ladder raft for testing components and sub assemblies
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C 5.4 Cost reduction

C 5.4.1 Control strategy
As well as getting parts to the right strength we can reduce the cost of wave-generated
electricity by improvements to the sophistication of the control strategy. Here the
investment is mainly into research because the resulting software can be replicated over
many devices at almost no extra cost. This path requires both the hydrodynamic
knowledge and also the outline design of a power conversion mechanism that would
allow it to be applied. The need for improvement can be seen from a comparison between
graphs of the efficiency against period of a device in regular waves compared with graphs
for random or pseudo-random spectra. A useful task will be to account for this difference.
The concepts of phase and impedance apply to all wave energy devices even to the ducts
and ramps of overtopping ones where the impedance changes drastically through the
wave cycle in a different way for each amplitude. We need to know how to chose shapes
with the impedances we want or know the impedances of the shapes we have chosen for
other reasons. This implies that we can calculate or measure the mass and damping
coefficients. The best way to measure them is to oscillate a model in calm water and
measure the amplitude and phase of force needed for a given amplitude over the range of
frequencies. The ratio of force to velocity gives the damping coefficient at each
frequency. The ratio of force to excursion at low frequency gives hydrostatic spring. The
ratio of force to acceleration gives total inertia. The frequency at which force is exactly in
phase with velocity is the point of resonance. The rate of growth of the spring and inertia
at frequencies on either side will be a pointer to bandwidth.
Making apparatus to shake models or pump water columns in just one direction is easy.
The problem is that reflections from the tank walls will effect the measurements and the
results will show a fuzz for each half wavelength of the round trip to the reflector. The
fuzz should be exactly consistent from test to test. Provided that it is not too large we can
eyeball through it but it would be much more satisfactory to reduce the reflections.
Several ways are possible. The first is to avoid parallel opposing side-walls which can
become the hydrodynamic equivalent of a laser. Almost all tanks have quite a large
fraction of parallel wall with no absorption.
The second is to improve the quality of beaches. Most beaches work badly at low
steepness. We could improve them by having active absorbers round the full tank
perimeter which can operate at sub-millimetre waves. The design would have to be very
cheap. For a shorter length it could take the form of a corral of active absorbers in a circle
round the shaker rig or a super absorber at one focus of a reflecting ellipse with the
shaken model at the other.
The third is to mount the test rig on a slowly moving carriage so that we sweep though
the range of reflection distances.
While a one-dimensional shaker is quite easy to make there are several wave devices in
which two or more degrees of freedom are of interest. Richard Yemm has designed an
extremely versatile force stick which has a low inertia motor with a zero backlash drive to
a carbon fibre tube with a stiff load cell. A set of these, perhaps a total of six, can be used
to drive any object in any combination of any degrees of freedom.
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C 5.4.2 Options
Once we know about impedances the stages of power take-off sophistication are as
follows
A true damping coefficient with force proportional to velocity at the value that is correct
for the most useful part of the input spectrum.
A design in which the spring and inertia, including added inertia, is low but giving a
resonance at the most useful part of the spectrum. This implies that we can calculate or
measure values of the reactive impedance. Some designs can show multiple resonances.
The addition of reactive terms to the power take-off force so that some part of the
undesirable spring or inertia is cancelled. With ducks we found that the negative spring
was most useful. This technique involves the double passage of reactive energy, which
should be kept small relative to the real part and demands very low transfer losses.
The next step is to change the damping coefficient for different parts of the spectrum.
This apparently needs an electronic filter that can change the amplitude of a signal
without changing its phase. Experts in the field say that it can be rigorously proved that
this is not possible. However it is possible to make a filter that changes phase without
changing amplitude. It may be possible to beat the prohibition by using advance warning
of waves to come using a wave sensor to seaward of a wave device.
The ultimate control would have the right damping at all parts of the spectrum and
simultaneously cancel all the reactive terms. This is called complex conjugate control
because the correcting force is the mathematical complex-conjugate of the force used to
drive the reactance.
A close approximation to complex conjugate control was achieved by Paul Nebel for his
PhD in 1994. He used duck models in a narrow tank with irregular waves of very small
amplitude so that their interactions were negligible. He recorded a wave train in the
absence of the model and calculated what the ideal forces and torques should be. He then
played these commands back for an exact repeat of the wave train. This method requires
exact fore-knowledge of the wave. The system was entirely open loop and so the
unpleasant problems of closed loop instability were avoided.
C 5.4.3 Short-term wave prediction
The partial coherence of waves allows extrapolation of future waves for phase angles
large enough to be considered for improved power take off strategies based only on the
velocity or force on a wave device. A longer forecast of a minute or so could be used to
smooth output variations for devices with energy storage by pre-emptively reducing
output if a lull is foreseen.
Warning of extreme wave groups could give time for survival measures to be taken.
Michael Belmont at Exeter is working on forward-looking laser techniques. It would also

be possible to use wave sensors to give advance notice. This is already in use in test tanks
to control absorbing wave-makers as an alternative to force-based absorption.
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The initial research requirement is to establish the extent to which forecasts can improve
power conversion. The work of Paul Nebel suggests that it could be very useful.
C 5.5 Computer simulation

In the early days of wave energy it was possible to cut a model shape in balsa wood, sand
it, varnish it and get the first narrow-tank measurements more quickly than the our
computer could predict its behaviour. That has now changed. Computing power is no
longer a bottleneck. There are several commercial packages that can calculate the forces
on and movements of objects in waves as a function of frequency and direction. One
produced at MIT known as WAMIT is being used at Edinburgh and University College
Cork. The Aquadyne package is being used by IST Lisbon for research into oscillating
water columns. The main applications are for the post-design confirmation of the
behaviour of marine structures.
The WAMIT software requires a description of the model in terms of the 3-D co-
ordinates of the corners of triangular or quadrilateral surface patches. A companion
package, MULTISURF, which was intended for yacht design, has a utility that will
produce lists of co-ordinates in a suitable file form. WAMIT will then return the model
response as a second file table. The results can then be transferred to MATLAB and
plotted. The main difficulties that we have found were that MULTISURF does not
always produce the low aspect-ratio meshes which WAMIT likes and does not allow
manual adjustments. Predictions of damping and added mass agree with tank
measurements at short and medium wave lengths but not quite so well at longer ones.
The need to link together four pieces of software means that the complete process is still
tedious. There is a need to improve the links before we can use the full power of WAMIT
as a tool for improving model shapes rather than for checking a given shape. Computer
modelling of this kind can still not handle non-linear conditions. Nevertheless the
potential for testing a given model over wide range of conditions is impressive. Figure
C-44 is a MATLAB contour plot of efficiency against wave period for a range of slope
angles of the sloped IPS buoy carried out for the UK Department of Trade and Industry.
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Figure C-44 Computer predictions by Gregory Payne of contours of efficiency for a

300 mm buoy on a fixed guide as a function of slope and wave period. The point
absorber effect is evident
Future research requirements are better automatic meshing, investigation of the range of
conditions for which computer results can be trusted, means for sweeping through a
series of model shapes and perhaps eventually the extension to the non-linear regime.
Computers can also be used to model the various stages of the power conversion, energy
storage and electrical transmission of a wet model driven by tank waves if they can be
described by mathematical functions. The crucial question is whether the simulation can
operate fast enough for real-time feedback to transmit the effects of power limiting when,
say, an energy store is full or there is an electrical disturbance to the land network.
Several packages are available. HP-VEE, MODEL MAKER, VIS-SIM, SOFTWIRE and
SIMULINK are being considered. SIMULINK is our current favourite because of its
affinity with MATLAB and its claim to be able to analyse data flow in real time. An
installation is planned for work on the sloped IPS buoy.
C 5.6 Tank testing versus full-scale trials

Wave energy researchers are fortunate that the Froude scaling rules for force, velocity
acceleration and power etc. work very well down to the point where surface tension takes
over from gravity as the restoring force allowing insects to walk on the water surface.
Gravity and surface tension become equal at a wavelength of 17 mm, four orders of
magnitude down on a full-scale ocean. At scales down to 150 the only worries are the
cross forces on cables, the steady drag forces from currents and the relatively higher
viscous forces which will reduce measured efficiency by a few percent. Work in the
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MAST programme showed that scaling rules for forces work well over this range even
for objects as non-linear as breakwaters in shallow water. Results will appear in 15.
Specific advantages of tank testing are

Computer-generated tank waves can be deliberately orchestrated to investigate a
particular problem and repeated exactly even if the probability of natural
occurrence of a malevolently chosen wave group is very low. In the tank you can
stage an event with an average return period of 100 years every 20 seconds so that
a short series of trials can give information equivalent to millions of years of real
operation.
You can vary the model position, attitude and power conversion status and subject
it to the same wave sequence so as to be sure you have explored the entire danger
area.
It is easy to test in waves that exceed those that occur in nature by a controlled
amount.
It is easy to stop the waves to recover a capsized model, repair instrumentation or
check a calibration.
It is easy to photograph the waves, the movements of the model and tracing
particles in the fluid.
We can test with models that are cheap, easy and safe to handle.
Mistakes made at small scale in private do not damage the credibility of the entire
technology. Indeed they can be very informative.
A final advantage of tank tests is that, in some mystical way, they seem to
transmit to mathematicians the keys to the solutions of hydrodynamic problems
hitherto thought to be intractable.
The importance of sophisticated tank tests has been shown very recently in the March
2000 issue of Offshore Research. This contains a report on tests on a floating production
storage and offloading vessel carried out by HR Wallingford. The tests compared the roll
response in the long-crested seas (the sort you can make in a towing tank) with the
response in short-crested seas, which need multi-bank wave-makers in a wide tank. The
report states
Roll was found to be the most significantly different with increases in the extreme roll of
up to 150 % in short crested waves when compared with long crested.
It is astonishing that after all the marine industry experience of ship-like forms there can
be an uncertainty by a factor of 2.5 in a parameter as important as extreme roll. One
reason given was the limited availability of facilities which can generate short-crested
waves or multidirectional waves. Further information will shortly be released from
www.hse.gov.uk/research/frameset/offshore.htm.
Tank tests do not yet reproduce the effects of currents and current-wave combinations,
which can be very complicated especially when waves are propagating against the current
direction. Fortunately, there are many attractive wave sites, which do not have high
current velocities. The currents at most open-sea wave sites will have moderate velocities
parallel to the coast with even lower velocities at greater distances from shore. Even so,
the problem is of some concern to wave devices with compliant moorings which present
a large area to the current direction, especially if the current uses up the slack in a slack
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mooring or if there are vortices which act differentially along the length of a long device
caused by combinations of two currents.
The similarity problem may be more serious for tidal-stream plant where some designs
are vulnerable to wave action. The Edinburgh group has initial designs for a round tank
that could reproduce any combination of waves and currents independently round 360.
Figure C-45 is taken from a paper given to the Marec 2001 conference at Newcastle and
shows the design. It is not unreasonable to expect that the combination of waves and
currents will reveal hydrodynamic effects as important as the observations of extreme roll
mentioned above. The Edinburgh group is building a 2-metre diameter flow table to test
the 48-blade variable-pitch vertical-axis rotor technique needed for complex, multi-
directional current control.
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Figure C-45 Views of a 360-degree tank with complex combinations of wave and
current patterns from any direction
There are only three negative features of tank tests

They do not reproduce the biology and chemistry of sea water or their slow
effects over long periods. For example in the early 70 s it was found from the gas
platforms in the southern North Sea that the fatigue rate of steel welds in sea
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water was frequency dependent with the highest fatigue rate at wave frequency.
This was however not known until nearly all the platforms had lost their cross
bracing.
They do not give the photo opportunities demanded by public relations advisors.
The interpretation of tank tests require a degree of technical intelligence which, while
moderate, exceeds that of many politicians and investors.
The problems with full-scale testing of complete devices are that

You cannot be sure of getting waves when you want them and not having them
when you need a calm for installation inspection and repair. Indeed it almost
seems that you can be sure of not getting waves when you do want them and of
getting them when you do not.
Even if you accept what the weather dictates it is hard to measure the wave input
accurately.
It is quite impossible to reproduce particular events and
It is quite impossible to use absurd extremes that can be so very informative.
It is difficult to vary model parameters.
Minor problems to small components likes seals, bearings, cable terminations or
shackles, which may be quite unrelated to the essentials of the device, can cause
expensive damage and waste a great deal of even more expensive time. The
general public are quite unable to distinguish such problems from those which are
inherent in the technology.
Full-scale devices will be testing relatively small numbers of critical components,
sometimes only one, rather than the large numbers that are needed to provide
meaningful statistical reliability data.
Out door work on an entire power generating system is so expensive that iterative
problem-solving is ruled out.
Problems are likely to involve the loss of the data links needed to deduce their
cause.
C 5.7 A reciprocating-flow wind tunnel

In the early stages of wave energy, low-pressure air was by far the most favoured power
conversion technique and the unidirectional Wells turbine was the favoured machine
design. The reasons for this were
Air turbines offered a painless way to increase the slow velocities of waves to the
high velocities needed for electrical generators.
The Wells design had the lowest idling losses of any turbine and a linear pressure-
to-flow relationship which could be tailored to suit the damping coefficient of a
water column.
Advocates argued that air turbines were simple with only one moving part.
The problems were that the only experimental data then available on turbine conversion
efficiency in wave-like flows showed a rather narrow curve of efficiency against flow
rate with a maximum of 40 % in a reversing sinusoidal flow and 35 % in a statistically
realistic flow. This was far below the theoretical 82 % peak efficiency in the best steady
air-flow and would give an unacceptably poor return for all the upstream civil
investment. However, these alternating measurements were made with small turbines at
low Reynolds numbers and it was hoped that large machine would perform better. Under
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the Joule programme we carried out a rather crude theoretical analysis of the Gaussian
efficiency of air turbines with fixed and variable pitch using open-field lift and drag
coefficients for sections along the blade span. We concluded that the peak efficiency for
full-size fixed-pitch machines at correct Reynolds numbers would be about 55 % falling
quite sharply either side of the best flow rate.
In February 1992, at one of early European Joule wave energy meetings and despite my
lack of enthusiasm for low-pressure air power-conversion, I put forward an outline design
for a facility to test air turbines at full size values of pressure and flow. The design,
shown in Figure C-46 involved a cylindrical hole cut into chalk and lined with a concrete-
plaster-polyurethane surface. Inside the cylinder would be a piston made from part of a
geodesic dome driven by a double-acting high-pressure oil ram. The cap of the cylinder
would be a second geodesic dome with removable panels to allow the modelling of any
pattern of ducting leading to any attitude of turbine and also the insertion of guide vanes,
stop valves, by-pass valves, pressure sensors, flow-direction indicators, video cameras,
anemometers, smoke-generators and spray injectors. A tunnel from the underside of the
cylinder would lead to a vertical shaft feeding air through flow straighteners to a vertical-
axis machine which would enjoy ideal but perhaps less attainable straight-line flow.
The piston would be driven by a high-pressure oil hydraulic ram with oil from an
electrically driven, multi-bank, double-ended wedding-cake hydraulic machine with some
banks going to a pressure accumulator for energy storage. The system is shown in Figure
C-47. Electrical energy from turbines under test would pass through all the conditioning
electronics and then drive an induction motor on the other end of the wedding cake unit
allowing most of it to be recovered. The power drawn from the grid would therefore be
only the mean losses round the loop. The pump could provide any statistical pattern of
airflow include realistic sea inputs and perversely chosen alternatives. Measurements of
ram position and pressure differences would give direct, absolute measurements of the
conversion efficiency of ducts, guide vanes, turbine and diffusers with quick, safe access
for repairs and instantaneous emergency stops. It would suffer none of the problems of
flow measurements in oscillating water columns with internal sloshing. It would allow
realistic development of stop valves and bypass valves. It would allow a burn-in period
long enough to correct infant mortality before equipment was shipped to isolated wave
sites.
I was given advice that turbine ratings for oscillating water columns would be up to
4 megawatts and so the test facility was sized at 10 metre bore, 10 metre stroke, 1 bar
pressure capability with a peak power rating of 10 megawatts. The cost estimate in 1992
was 2 million. Clearly this would be too much for an individual device team but a
moderate expense if it was run by a pan-European or international consortium. It would
also give a splendid chance to demonstrate the performance of digitally-controlled, high-
pressure oil, poppet valve machines at high power levels.
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Figure C-46 The reciprocating flow wind tunnel can test all the mechanics and
electronics for low-pressure air power take off and recirculate all the energy
produced by the turbine
Ten years on we have a fixed-pitch turbine in the Azores, which suffered from a 2-winter
interruption in civil construction, has loose guide vanes, a repaired sluice valve, a balance
problem and a severe oil leak. We have had a second fixed-pitch machine in the Limpet,
which has been operating for over a year but with reports of excess noise and total
secrecy about its conversion efficiency. We have a bladeless, variable-pitch machine
sitting in Lisbon with a satisfactory demonstration of the strength of its root attachments
but no money to build a complete set of blades. The general air turbine community is no
nearer knowing the operating efficiency of the most essential part of their technology.
The silence of Wavegen about Limpet performance is not encouraging.
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Figure C-47 A multi-eccentric poppet valve machine driving the turbine test tunnel
Work on air turbine designs has since convinced me that the 4 megawatt rating was far to
high. The combination of droplet erosion, Mach number effects, idling losses and
convenient generator speeds points to turbine ratings around 500 kilowatts so that a
smaller reciprocating flow tunnel with a peak rating of about 1 MW would be adequate.
All the other arguments appear even stronger today. It is my duty to urge the air turbine
community to reconsider their 1992 decision if they want to avoid a wasting a second ten
years. At the same time my dislike of low-pressure air leads me to hope that they will
ignore this advice!
C 5.8 High-pressure oil research

Most conventional hydraulic components have evolved from the times when energy was
a very small fraction of total operating costs. Many applications use machines at a range
of power levels which is narrow compared with the requirements of wave energy and so
there was no incentive to reduce part load losses. Consequently the overall productivity
predictions in a Gaussian range of pressure and velocities are every bit as bad as that of
air turbines.
The use of hydraulic rams as the link from the displacer of a wave energy device is
obvious and there is no problem about achieving the thrusts needed. There may be some
difficulty about getting the long range of stroke needed by well-designed devices because
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the strokes could be at least twice the wave movement. However, this problem has been
effectively solved for the Swedish IPS buoy with its change of passage diameter. If
sufficient stroke is not provided there is a need for work into end-stops, which might have
to handle instantaneous power levels much higher than the rating of the wave energy
device.
There is also a possible question about rams in wave plant having to move at a higher
velocity than conventional hydraulic rams. Most of these have been designed for the
lowest possible oil leakage even at the expense of seal friction losses. The velocity
problem can be solved by a modification to the ram seals involving the cutting of a fine-
pitched helical thread through the ram seal so as to deliberately increase the leakage loss
and also reduce the shear loss to the point where they are roughly equal. This in turn
requires the development of a technique to recover the leaking oil. This could be a large
Belofram rolling seal or a secondary scavenging stage.
The development of the Ceramax rod coating by Hydraudyne may now allow rams to
operate directly into sea water. Sub-assemblies of rams, seals and coatings with re-
circulating energy flow are good candidates for tests on the platform described in the tidal
section.
The end-stop problem does not arise for rotary plant like the duck. During the first UK
wave programme the Edinburgh group designed low speed hydraulic pumps using multi-
lobe ring-cam pumps with torque sufficient for the duck system and with variable
delivery achieved by selective disabling of poppet valves using the newly available
microprocessors. It was expected that these pumps would feed oil to Clerk tri-link motors
which had a mechanical variation of displacement but which had been designed with
particular emphasis on low losses. We built a 600 kilowatt tri-link machine and showed
that the low power losses were as predicted. However the industrial partner who had
promised to carry out full power tests withdrew.
As part of the first Joule programme the Edinburgh group extended the digital poppet
valve technology to fast machines. All fast machines had hitherto used axial pistons. Our
new geometry uses radial pistons driven by an eccentric but the displacement is
controlled by electronically operated poppet valves on the outer surface rather than port
face valves close to the axis. This change allows the use of multiple banks, perhaps as
many as ten, on a common shaft. There was now only one fast high-pressure interface
rather than two and it was at a much smaller radius than in an axial piston unit. Unlike all
previous variable-displacement designs oil would never be pressurised unless the energy
was going to be used. The machines could simultaneously take oil from or deliver oil to
many independent sources or sinks of hydraulic energy such as the ram set of a duck
spine joint. The change from pumping to idling to motoring could occur in half a shaft
rotation time and be different for different banks. This makes them highly suitable for
interfacing to gas accumulator storage. In a renewable energy application the rotation
speed would be set by a grid locked synchronous generator while the torque into or out of
the generator would be set by the product of oil pressure and the number of poppet valves
enabled to pump, idle or motor. The multi-bank configuration also allows two stages of a
machine to work against one another so that the problems of finding large test rigs are
reduced. This idea can be extended to allow parts of an entire wave energy device to be
exercised for test purposes in calm water.
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To get operation fast enough to run at synchronous speeds required the use of lightweight
plastics for the poppet valves and one of the Joule tasks was to demonstrate that the
chosen material had sufficient fatigue life. A group of 12 sample valves were tested to 1.5
x 109 cycles at 50 % over stress.
The technology is being developed by a spin-off company Artemis Intelligent Power.

They have built a series of units at the small sizes for which applications could be found.
These have included pumps and motors for commercial customers using hydraulic oil
water and petrol. Applications have been in laboratory hydraulic supplies, digital position
control of a mine-clearing vehicle with 5 mm advance per computer bit and a small
vehicle transmission with regenerative braking. However all the machines built so far
have been at power levels far below those needed for wave energy with typically 18
kilowatts per bank rather than the megawatt per bank of the original concept and not yet
large enough to show the benefits of the new annular poppet valves.
The next step in the evolution of fast poppet-valve machines should be to progressively
increase power rating in stages chosen to suit land-based applications, which can share
the cost. The reciprocating flow wind tunnel is one such. Regenerative transmissions for
taxis, buses and commuter-railway locomotives are others.
C 5.9 Direct electrical generation

The leading academic expert on electrical machines of the 1970s was emphatic that the
velocities associated with waves were far too slow for direct electrical generation. We
were told that nobody wanted electricity of random voltage, frequency and phase. Unless
we could achieve heroic advances in iron permeability or the coercivity of permanent
magnets or room-temperature super-conductivity, the weights of iron and copper would
be sure to sink any floating device.
Since then there has been the development of neodymium boron magnets and also a
remarkable reduction in the costs of electronic frequency-changing equipment. The land-
based electronics of the Archimedes Wave Swing was completed in 2001 and the sea
plant which uses direct generation is to be launched in 2002.
Markus Mueller at Durham is working on directly-driven transverse-flux machines and

their conversion electronics. He reports as follows
The transverse-flux machine is capable of an air-gap shear stress of 200 kN/m2, orders of
making it a suitable candidate for direct drive wave energy. However, the machine
structure is far from conventional, there are large magnetic forces, and the machine
suffers from a very low power factor, less than 0.5. With any direct drive power
conversion system, a power electronic interface is required to convert the variable output
from the wave energy device to a constant voltage and frequency for grid connection. For
machines with low power factor the converter will be overrated compared to a
conventional permanent magnet synchronous machine. The mechanical structure holding
the machine together, the bearing arrangements and sealing the electrical generator are
major issues for all generator topologies in a direct drive wave energy converter.
The work taking place on direct drive wave energy converters has shown the potential for
this method of power conversion, but the optimum integrated solution is not yet clear.
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Research on fourth-generation wave energy devices should include full mechanical and
electrical designs for wave energy devices considered suitable for direct drive wave
energy conversion. A full costing study should be included to enable comparison with
other wave energy power conversion technologies. The major issues to be addressed
are
Bearing arrangementscould the sea water be used to provide a fluid bearing,
and how would this reflect on the topology of electrical generator adopted.
Sealing arrangementscould the machine be operated fully flooded so that no
seals are required, and what effects would this have on the choice of generator
topology; and if not what is the status of sealing technology.
Corrosionwhat is the status of marine friendly coatings for protection in both
sealed and flooded systems.
Electrical generator topology and associated power converterit is not sufficient
just to optimise the force density of the electrical machine, the power converter
requirements have to be included in the design optimisation. The generation of
smooth power into the grid is an important issue. A full investigation of all the
possible combinations needs to be addressed, taking into account mechanical
structure issues as well as the issues outlined above.
In summary an integrated approach is required in any further research into direct-drive
wave energy converters, to determine optimised electrical and mechanical designs for
particular wave energy devices.
C 5.10 Storage and the grid interface.

The square of a Gaussian distribution has a most unattractive ratio of peak to mean
values. We pay for the peak but get paid only for the mean. We also have to use
components with constant losses which may be a small fraction of a steady high output
but which are a much larger fraction of a low mean output. The distribution boards can
impose strict rules on voltage and phase deviations and will insist on automatic
disconnection if the delivered energy is out of limits. The earlier we can store energy the
cheaper and more efficient will be the plant downstream of the store and the less likely
we are to be forcibly disconnected.
The gyro flywheels needed for hermetically sealed power conversion in 1981 ducks
provided plenty of storage, more than the 100 seconds needed to give a flat output, but
needed extremely low-loss bearings which still imposed an undesirably low torque limit.
The present preference is for gas accumulators. Pressure accumulators cost the same per
unit weight as machine tools and have extremely high factors of safety, which could
perhaps be reduced by improved enclosures or by techniques used for explosion
suppression. There is a research requirement to reduce the cost of gas accumulators by a
factor of at least five. A good start would be to persuade the manufacturers to stop
stamping their names on the accumulator casings and thereby inducing unpleasant and
completely needless stress raisers.
C 5.11 Reverse power flow in slender grids

The present design of electricity distribution networks assumes that centralised generators
feed energy to peripheral consumers. Everybody wants to use appliances designed for the
same nominal voltage and so the resistive drop along the direction of propagation is
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corrected by multi-tapped transformers, which can increase the secondary voltage by up

to 10 % in steps of 2.5 % to make up for the resistive voltage drops. Although tappings
can be changed to suit various load patterns, work by Whittington and Wallace at
Edinburgh has shown that the range of adjustment is not going to be enough for the
reversal of flow direction involved with wave energy coming from the coast to central
consumers. Replacing a large number of transformers will be possible but the distribution
boards will certainly want to be paid to do this and have already demonstrated their
willingness to exploit their strong bargaining position when it comes to grid
reinforcement and connection costs. Distribution transformers last for a very long time
unless they are destroyed by lightning strikes and so it will many years to replace the
present ones through natural wastage.
One possible option is the addition of a specially-designed correction transformer as

shown in Figure C-48. It would have a one winding in parallel with the present seaward
winding but with copper diameter chosen for, say, only 10 % of the rated current. It
would have the same turns but a separate set of tappings with their own switch. This is
necessary because the supply authority will not want to open existing casings.
The landward winding of the correction transformer would have turns for only 10 % of
the voltage but copper for the full secondary current. It would be in series with the
present landward winding.
SEA
LAND
Figure C-48 The booster transformer allows power to be fed from the coast to the
centre without exceeding voltage margins on either side of the transformers
217
During land-to-sea transmission the low-voltage winding of the correction transformer

would be shorted by part of a double-pole single-throw switch and the untapped end of
the high voltage correction winding would be left floating by opening the second pole of
the same switch. This would mean that conditions would be exactly as they are now. The
change of direction would require the simultaneous operation of both poles of the switch
to bring the low voltage coil of the correction transformer into action just as the floating
end of the high voltage coil is connected to the seaward neutral.
Other things being equal its cost should be about 10 % of the cost of a new transformer
but it might be prudent to spend a bit more on long-life tappings because they will be
used much more that at present. The feasibility of this idea is being discussed with
transmission experts and it is already clear that the problem is serious for all remote
renewable sources and several other factors are involved. The most interesting areas of
research are the matching of tap ratios from old to new units and the switching of
transformer taps. At present tap changing is done with mechanical switches but it might
be possible to persuade the rather conservative distribution boards to try thyristor
switches.
C 5.12 Compression leg moorings

Very long tension-leg moorings are in use with deep-water positively buoyant offshore
platforms. Tank tests show that they appear to be less satisfactory for shorter lengths
needed for wave power and tidal stream devices because of the high snatch loads which
occurs when tension is reapplied after any slackening. The problem is the very large
amount of kinetic energy of the high inertia wave device, which has to be absorbed or
dissipated in the mooring leg. Snatch loads will arise in the steeper waves of quite
moderate seas. Solutions involving a shock absorber would have to have an instantaneous
power rating at least an order of magnitude above the mean power of the wave device.
An alternative might be a compression leg made out of a single concrete tube (nice for
slip forming) post-tensioned to about 40 % yield or a dual base-to-base tetrahedral truss
of tubes. Hollow construction could make the leg neutrally buoyant for easy installation.
Its design would be strongly driven by buckling in compression but calculations show
that compression legs could be used in water depths up to 50 metres and perhaps more.
Buckling resistance is improved by an increase of diameter at the centre of the leg. Wave
loading is reduced by a smaller diameter near the surface.
Post-tensioned concrete members arranged as pair of delta-frames could be used for a

pair of contra-rotating vertical axis tidal stream generators.
There is a research need for a study of post-tensioned concrete tubes with particular
emphasis on elastic stability.
C 5.13 Bearings
Many machines can be described as interesting bearings joined together by boring solid
lumps.
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If the turbine problems of low-pressure air devices prove insoluble there may arise a need
for geometrically tolerant bearings that can take high loads at low speeds. The favoured
way to get geometrical tolerance is to use spherical bearings which can give 360 degree
movement about one axis and as much as 15 degrees about the other. The SKF Plain
Bearings catalogue shows that there are many off-the-shelf parts with very high load
capability under grease lubrication but rather low velocity capability. There are also
marine versions of the Glacier Vandervell DU material. A higher velocity without life
restrictions could be achieved with hydrostatic technology but this raises the problems of
the working fluid being lost to the sea. For restricted degrees of movement we can use
flexing elastomeric enclosures as seals.
For large rotations two solutions may be possible. One involves the development of a
magnetic liquid known as a ferro-fluid, which is strongly attracted into magnetic gaps.
These are used very successfully as seals for vacuum equipment. Unfortunately all
existing ferro-fluids seem to have some degree of miscibility with water and would soon
be lost. Discussions with makers have suggested that a solution will be very difficult. The
second involves the use of seawater itself as the hydrostatic fluid. Its viscosity is rather
low but not impossibly so. It would have to be filtered to remove abrasive and biological
materials but much of the exit flow can be recycled if it is impeded by a less than perfect
seal. There would have to be high-pressure, saltwater pumps with much longer lives than
at present. A bearing with floating pads able to take about 2 degrees of misalignment is
described in the tidal-stream section.
C 5.13.2 Magnetic squeeze films
The specification for the radial bearing between duck and spine was a long way off the
edge of the map of any known bearing technology. The bearing load at joint yield was
30 mN. The spine would be bent out of straight and round by 50 mm and could not be
made to any initial accuracy. We wanted zero friction, zero wear, infinite life and no
lubricants lost to the sea.
The solution was the subject of a PhD thesis by Colin Anderson and is shown in Figure
C-49. It uses a mattress of water-filled concertinas over the entire contact area of the
duck to spine interface. One side of the concertinas was in contact with the concave inner
surface of the duck body. The other side is in contact with a sheet of material having the
elastic properties of a stiff carpet. The rubber of each concertina has a gentle spring rate
which tries to open it. In calm water the 3 mm clearance between the carpet and the spine
is maintained by rings of ferrite magnets. Rings on the spine are embedded in a
bituminous layer like road tarmac. Rings on the duck are moulded between the layer of
carpet supporting the concertinas and a second layer. The layers of carpet have exit holes
which allow water to be squirted out to a thin gap between the inner carpet and the
convex surface of the duck spine. Refilling should be made faster than emptying.
When the large forces of big waves on the duck are divided by the large area between
duck and spine the pressures are quite moderate, around 50 kilopascals. This pressure is
sensed by water in the concertinas and water in the gap between carpet and duck spine.
Water will flow under this pressure towards an unloaded part of the bearing but has to
flow a long way round the duck spine through the relatively thin gap. It will take several
minutes to exhaust the water in the concertinas and we can be quite sure that the wave
load will have reversed long before the inner carpet contacts the spine. The faces of the
bearing never touch and so do not wear. At duck velocities in moderate wave conditions,
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the viscous losses across the 3-mm gap are acceptably low. To reduce internal fouling by
hard-shelled organisms, the water in the bearing would be chlorinated to about 2 parts per
million. An acceptably small amount of this water, would be lost through the ends of the
bearing and so chlorine replenishment in quantities suitable for swimming pool systems
is necessary. Andersons thesis contained information on the optimisation of the magnets
and a method to maintain their alignment despite the elastic strain of the spine.
DUCK BODY
SPINE
Figure C-49 A section through the magnetic squeeze film bearing developed by
Colin Anderson. Using the full area between duck and spine keeps the pressures
very low
To test the idea a vertical thrust bearing using magnetic squeeze film technology was
built with a diameter of 1.2 metres. It worked first time with no modifications and could
support the weight of a man for 60 seconds. It could be applied to any wave device with a
suitably large bearing area. Anderson did a more detailed design for the slide bearing of
the Budal and Falnes buoy. The main research requirements are the methods of
assembling the carpet belts and magnet rings.
C 5.14 Sealing
C 5.14.1 Elastomeric Seals
The rams of the Pelamis joints have to be able to rotate about the rods ends but are small
enough to be sealed with off-the-shelf air springs made by Firestone and others. They are
used in the arduous conditions of the suspensions of heavy goods vehicles and railways
coaches. They should perform very well in the less hazardous conditions under water.
The task of designing an equivalent seal for a partial rotation about an axis through the
seal seems daunting and reveals an interesting difference between two classes of rotation.
We have sketched designs which look like part of a Scottish kilt but do not look
convincing.
Rolling seals known commercially as Beloframs which act like a stocking rolling back
over itself can be used as zero-leakage, translating seals to protect the rods of hydraulic
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rams from the sea and also the sea from oil leakage from hydraulic rams. The sizes which
are commercially available use a fabric reinforcement clad with isoprene but are far
below those needed for most wave energy applications. The stop valve for the Azores
used a pair of 1.2 metre diameter beloframs and the Edinburgh team had to build a large,
computer-controlled lathe to spray cores of polystyrene with a layer of two part
elastomeric polyurethane known as Irethane. The solvents contained methyl-ethyl-ketone,
which is highly toxic. The creep rate of the resin was higher than we expected but still
just acceptable for the 1 bar pressure requirement. After two years the material seemed to
have become a little more brittle. If there is a need for more large beloframs there will be
a research requirement to find the best combination of elastomer and perhaps textile
reinforcement.
C 5.14.2 Big face seals
In the early days of wave energy it was thought that 10-metre diameter seals would be
quite impossible. This conclusion may have been changed because of the development of
the Ceramax coating by the Dutch company Hydraudyne. They exhibited an hydraulic
ram which was thickly encrusted with limpets and which had been in sea water for
10 years. However the rod was glossy and in apparently perfect condition. Examples are
shown at http://www.hydraudyne.nl/engels/hydraudyne/ceramax_cims.html.
The coating is applied by flame spraying followed by grinding and could be applied to
the flat faces of large steel rings. A non-contacting seal could be made by pulling a sheet
of rubber against the Ceramax with magnets embedded in the rubber but separated from it
by a flow of pressurised seawater to the pockets of hydrostatic bearings. There would be
some flow to the inside of the seal but this could be isolated with a labyrinth and
scavenged. The technology could be tested using a pair of back to back seals with a
diameter of, say, one metre to run in sea water.
C 5.15 Seawater pumps and filters

High-pressure seawater is already used to drive power tools for divers where the risks of
electrical tools are considered unacceptable. Water can safely be discharged to the sea.
Because pumps have to work with such a poor lubricity fluid they have to be made with
exotic materials such as ceramics and stainless steels. The present design life of around
1,000 hours is quite unacceptable for energy generation. There is therefore a requirement
for an infinite-life, seawater pump with a pressure capability of 200 bar or more to feed
hydrostatic bearings. This is a much higher pressure but a lower flow rate than needed for
reverse osmosis.
This difficult problem could be made a little easier if most of the exit flow from a bearing
was recycled and small losses made up with carefully filtered seawater. This leads to the
requirement for a filter that can operate for very long or infinite periods with a filter
performance suitable for the fine clearances imposed by low viscosity. Poppet valves
seem to be more appropriate for pumping seawater than any port face design.
Recovering the flow from bearings and driving sea water through filters will require a
second design of pump which can have a much lower output pressure, only a few bar, but
be able to operate with large abrasive debris.
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C 5.16 Materials research

Materials will always determine the ultimate performance of any engineering product and
the most successful technologies are those for which the right materials have evolved.
However, there has not been time for this to happen with wave energy. The only cases
known to me are the development of mooring ropes and the design of poppet valves for
computer-controlled pumps, which use the remarkable resistance to Hertzian stress of
carbon filled poly-ether-ether-ketone known as PEEK.
Except during times of extreme steel shortage large ships are made of steel. This will, be
true for early wave power devices. Steel has low tooling costs with the opportunity for
self-jigging of complex shapes. It is versatile, has consistent properties, is easily modified
and can take retrofitted holes or welded-on lugs. Although its fatigue and corrosion are
not very good they are, at least, well understood except for regions round welds. We
know how to calculate stress distributions unless the shapes are very complex. We know
how to use cathodic protection to reduce corrosion rate, but not quite to zero.
The negative features are the relatively high energy content which could lead to higher
costs in future and the expense of painting (which can double the cost) and need for
frequent repainting which requires return to a dry dock. A dream development would be
an especially tough super-paint, which could be applied to welds to give them the fatigue
endurance in sea water of the parent metal in dry or oily conditions.
For wave devices in multiple production there are many attractions in concrete. It needs
no painting. It gives an ideal alkaline environment for internal steel. With the correct
quality control and a slight excess of cement, cracks can repair themselves. The fatigue
problems are much reduced particularly if it can be put into an initial compressive stress
by tension members which are at a constant stress. Structures can be made with double
curvature which gives excellent strength in thin-walled panels and shells. Samples taken
from the Mulberry harbours built for the 1944 Normandy invasion and from the tower of
the recently demolished 60-metre 3 MW wind turbine on Orkney show that internal steel
is in excellent condition. While most ships are scrapped after 25 to 30 years the hull of a
concrete ship from the first world war is still in excellent condition.
The negative features are that normal manufacture requires shuttering which can cost
more than the delivered material and is usually thrown away after the production of each
single item. The shuttering structure may have to be strong enough take the entire weight
of the structure. Shuttering is particularly expensive if the structure has to use internal
compartments to achieve buoyancy. Wave power plant does not need many large internal
compartments and foamed concrete can be made with a density low enough for solid
items to float. Unfortunately the foamed material slowly absorbs water.
Developing countries in the far east make much greater use of concrete in the from of
ferrocement which uses finely divided reinforcement and a fine aggregate with a
consistency which can be applied by a hand trowel avoiding the need for shuttering.
Provided that the manual labour is cheap, very large structures can be produced with low
capital investment. It is even possible to make canoes. The nearest equivalent in the west
is slip-forming in which concrete is continuously poured into a short length of shuttering
ring which is slowly advanced at the rate at which the concrete sets. This is very
economical for right circular cylinders but has also been used to make tapered legs for oil
platforms.
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The research requirements for concrete are for

Impermeable foam concrete with density sufficient to be buoyant or foam with an
impermeable skin.
Reusable shuttering panels moved under computer-controlled hydraulic rams
which define the shape of the structure only where the concrete is still liquid.
Techniques for pouring concrete in water so that it is never necessary to support
any weight.
New materials for reinforcement that can be sprayed along with a liquid mix so
that there is no need for hand placement. It is possible that the cost of carbon fibre
may reduce enough to allow this.
Non-destructive inspection techniques that could prove that contractors had used
the specified quantities of cement, reinforcement and post-tensioning.
C 5.17 Conclusions
Borders between generations are blurred. This report has described and argued the case
for work that will have to be done for future generations of wave power device and some
of which should have been done for existing ones.
Much more device optimisation could be done with the greater power of present
computers, provided that the conclusions for higher wave amplitudes can be confirmed
with tank experiments.
The most expensive items discussed are the 360 degree combined wave and current tank
and the 500 kW reciprocating-flow wind tunnel for air turbine development. Both would
have to be shared European facilities. Both would find use in many other fields of
research. The cost of both would be less than a single ship or oil platform.
Integrating remote sources of intermittent energy into a network with strict limits on
supply quality will be a serious problem even if it comes from sources with adequate
storage.
C 5.18 Summary of proposed research items

Understanding stress statistics and stress-limiting mechanisms.
Extreme wave tests for all devices.
Search for wave groups with high force coefficients.
A raft for testing components and subassemblies in seawater.
Measurement of hydrodynamic impedance in N degrees of freedom.
Beaches or absorbers working at sub-millimetre amplitudes.
Frequency-dependent damping.
Understanding the difference between regular and random wave efficiency.
Complex conjugate control.
Short-term wave prediction.
Better automatic meshing for computer modelling.
Investigation of the range of conditions for which computer results can be trusted.
Means for sweeping through a series of model shapes.
Extending computer modelling to the non-linear regime.
Combining tank models with computer models of their power train.
Combined 360-degree wave and current tank.
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Reciprocating flow wind tunnel.

Larger poppet valve motors for 1,500 rpm generator drive.
Bearing sealing structural design and electronics for direct electrical generation.
Much cheaper gas accumulators for storage.
Add-on booster transformers for reversed power flow.
Geometrically tolerant hydrostatic bearings.
Long-life high-pressure seawater pumps and filters for hydrostatic bearings.
Magnetic squeeze-film bearings.
Large Ceramax face seals.
Bigger rolling seals.
Super paints for complete isolation of welds.
Impermeable, buoyant foam concrete.
Reusable shuttering for ferrocement.
In-water construction methods to avoid gravity stress.
Chopped carbon strand reinforcement of sprayed concrete.
Post-cure inspection of concrete.
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C6 TIDAL STREAM DEVICES
C 6.1 Tidal stream pilot plants

The exploitation of tidal energy has traditionally been based upon impoundment schemes
where large reservoirs are created and the tidal flows fill the basin through sluices. The
entrapped water is then allowed to return to the sea through submerged turbines that in
turn generate electricity. Examples of these schemes exist at La Rance in France, which
has been operational for nearly 40 years, Kislaya Gubya in northern Russia and
Annapolis Royal in the Bay of Fundy, Canada. The development of future schemes of
this type involve large capital investments and in some cases unacceptable environmental
impacts.
In recent times an interest has emerged in tidal stream energy where underwater turbines
convert the energy of the flowing water into electrical energy. These function underwater
in the same way as windmills function in the atmosphere.
C 6.1.2 Examples of tidal stream projects

SeaFlow
The SeaFlow project is being developed by Marine Current Turbines Ltd. in the UK The
pilot plant installation will be installed at a site in the Bristol Channel and utilises a
turbine with horizontal axis as shown in Figure C-50.
Figure C-50 Marine Current Turbines Artists Impression
Further information is available from www.mct.com.

Stingray
The Engineering Business Company also in the UK has developed a novel concept for
the conversion of tidal stream energy. Their systemSTINGRAYutilises an aerofoil
mounted on an arm that can move in the vertical direction. Controlling the angle of attack
of the aerofoil blade results in vertical oscillatory movements under the action of the
stream-flow. This oscillating mechanical movement is coupled to the hydraulic oil pump,
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which then drives the motor/generator. Tests have been undertaken for a week in Yell
Sound in the Shetland Islands, Scotland and the results of this test are now being
analysed. The test device is shown in Figure C-51.
Figure C-51 STINGRAY Test Unit 2002
Further information on this device can be obtained from www.engb.com.

Hammerfest Strom A.S., Norway
This company has been formed in Norway to exploit tidal stream energy. It has a
shareholding of ABB AS, Alta Kraftlag AL, Hammerfest Elverk DA, Statoil ASA, Troms
Kraft AS and Venturos Invest AS. A 300 kW pilot plant is being deployed in Kvalsundet,
near Hammerfest in Norway. The machine is 20 m in diameter and is located in a region
where the tidal currents are up to 1.5 m/sec. The installation of the base has been
completed and the turbine unit is expected to be in place early in 2003. An artists
impression of the system is shown in Figure C-52.
Figure C-52 Hammerfest Strom Device Concept
Further information can be obtained from www.tidevannsenergi.com.
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C 6.2 Tidal stream pilot plant at the Straits of Messina

Prepared by: A. Fiorentino, Ponte di Archimede nello Stretto di Messina SpA
C 6.2.1 Plant control and power output prediction
The purpose of the ENERMAR project is to demonstrate that the exploitation of the
renewable energy contained in the marine currents, by means of an innovative patented
turbine called KOBOLD, is a convenient method if compared with the exploitation of
other renewable energy sources.
A pilot plant lay out in the Strait of Messina, close to the Sicilian shore, in front of a
village called Ganzirri, close to the lake of the same name (see Figure C-53 and Figure
C-54).
This plant will be useful to demonstrate on the field the characteristics of limited
environmental impact, and the performances of both the system and its components.
In this site the expected currents speed is 2 m/s (4 knots), the sea depth is 20 metres and
the plant will be moored 150 metres offshore. (see Figure C-55). The current is never
still, its period of inversion is equal to 6 hrs and 12 minutes, the period of amplitude is
equal to 14 days.
C 6.2.2 Objectives of the ENERMAR project
The objectives of this project are the following

To test the first pilot plant in the world, consisting of a support floating structure
and a turbine, with the necessary devices to produce and manage the electric
energy. The whole system has been designed to have characteristics of solidity
and high efficiency.
To identify the optimisation regarding the whole system and its single
components
To promote the industrial development of the ENERMAR project and its
commercialisation, once demonstrated the convenience of the exploitation of
marine currents compared with other sources of alternative energy.
C 6.2.3 Experimental and numerical activities from an idea to the prototype
The first small model of the turbine was built and tested in the water tank belonging to
Department of Naval Architecture of University of Naples. The blades were free to
oscillate up to 90 degrees (with respect to the radial direction) and the torque was
generated mainly by blades drag. A picture of the first small turbine model is shown in
Figure C-56.
In a second phase a numerical code ad hoc developed at Department of Aeronautical

Engineering of University of Naples was used to predict the turbine behaviour and output
power. The numerical activity was coupled with an extensive experimental activities
consisting of wind-tunnel tests of a bigger model of Kobold turbine.
In fact a second model was built and tested in the wind tunnel of Dept. of Aeronautical
Engineering, University of Naples (see Figure C-57). This time the torque was generated
by lift on the blades. This model was built to be tested with different number of blades
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and to optimise the blades articulation angles. The model had a diameter of 2.2 metres,
blades height was 0.8 metres and blades chord was of 0.17 metres. It was tested with 2, 3,
4 and 6 blades. The blade airfoil was NACA 0018 and due to the high number of possible
parameters variation, hundreds of tests were performed. The installation of the turbine
model in the wind-tunnel diffuser is shown in Figure C-58.
The first Kobold turbine model tested had the blade oscillating between angles of 0 and
90 with respect to radial direction. To optimise the angles and the position of blade
counterweight, a special arrangement was made, see Figure C-59. This blade articulation
angle arrangement led to enough power produced close to the starting point (the turbine
was self-starting due to blade drag at 90 to the wind flow) but it was unable to speed-up
due to negative power in the successive rpm range, see Figure C-60. In the case shown in
this figure, power was added to speed-up the turbine. In this graph it can also be seen that
the effect of blade number on produced rotor gross power. This graph clearly shows why
a 3-blade configuration was chosen for the real prototype (in fact the maximum rotor
gross power is the same as the 4-bladed arrangement, but with obvious lower losses due
to blade sustaining arms and minor construction costs).
Optimisation of blade articulation angle was then performed to solve the problem of
negative power in the low rpm range (in fact, as already said, in this condition the turbine
was unable to accelerate up to the maximum power point). In Figure C-61 the gross rotor
power for different blade articulation angle setting is shown. It can be seen that letting the
blade oscillating between 80 and 90, much higher maximum rotor gross power is
obtained without losing the self-starting capability.
The turbine has been tested several times, modifying its characteristics according to the
numerical and experimental test results. All the investigations led to the definition of the
turbine kinematic characteristics.
The theoretical evaluations have taken into account various mathematical models,
suitable to describe and foresee the Kobold turbine behaviour both form dynamic and
kinematic point of view.
C 6.2.4 Prototype design and construction
After wind-tunnel tests and numerical calculation performed on the wind-tunnel model, a
real prototype study has been started. Some analysis and practical considerations on
prototype dimensions, led to a choice of a 3-bladed turbine with a diameter of 6 metres.
The blade height was chosen to be 5 metres and the blade chord was equal to 0.4 metres
leading to a Reynolds number ranging from 0.82 million. This time, the numerical code
used to predict turbine performances, was fed by the aerodynamic data of an high lift
airfoil, used for the blade sections, called HL-18, purposely designed at Department of
Aeronautical Engineering to be cavitation free and to optimise the turbine performance.
Each blade had to be sustained by two arms and these had to be streamlined using another
ad hoc designed airfoil.
All turbine structural parts have been carefully designed and dimensioned at DPA. The
blades are made of an inner steel structure, composed by longitudinal spars and ribs.
Around the structure a carbon-resin skin has been stratified. The holding arms have also
been streamlined by means of a glass-fibre structure.
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In Figure C-62 and Figure C-63, 3D views of a blade and attachment system are shown.
Figure 12 shows blade structural analysis results. Figure C-65 and Figure C-66 show
some pictures of blades, arms and attachment systems during construction phase. In
Figure C-67 a schematic of the turbine rotor connected to the electrical generator it is
shown.
C 6.2.5 The ENERMAR plant turbine prototype
The core of the ENERMAR plant is the patented Kobold turbine. It can be defined as a
Vertical Axis Hydro Turbine able to convert the kinetic energy contained in the marine
currents into mechanical energy. The Kobold turbine has been designed to satisfy, at the
highest possible level, either the environment safeguard or efficiency needs, as well as the
necessities of low construction and maintenance costs.
The Kobold patent has been filed in Italy and in the Republic of Philippines.
The characteristics of the Kobold turbine are the following

direction of rotation independent of marine current direction.
a very high starting torque, that makes the turbine able to start spontaneously, also
in loaded conditions, without the necessity of any starting devices.
The ENERMAR plant is composed of the turbine prototype, the design of which has been
previously explained and an electrical generator. The whole system is mounted on a
floating platform (buoy) in Messina Strait. General arrangement of turbine and floating
platform is shown in the drawing of Figure C-68. The turbine consists of a transmission
shaft, built with special steel, and three couples of radial arms, each of them holding a
blade.
From the mechanical point of view, the Kobold turbine has been designed following
simple and effective principles, so as to need for its whole useful life very limited
maintenance intervention.
Main plant dimensions are the following
Turbine diameter 6 metres
blade span 5 metres
chord 0.4 metres
no of blades 3
Floating platform diameter 10 metres
depth 2.5 metres
draft 1.5 metres
Mooring no anchoring blocks 4
blocks weight (concrete) 350 kN each
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chain 70 mm
water depth 18 25 metres
Table C-2 ENERMAR plant dimensions
In Figure C-69 pictures of the mechanical overdrive (1:90 ratio) and of the electrical
equipment are reported. The generator is brushless, three phases, synchronous, 4 poles,
128 kW and it is connected to a control unit delivering energy to the net. The 3-bladed
turbine rotor mounted under the buoy and set on the dock, before installation in the sea, is
shown in Figure C-70. The turbine rotor output power curves at different sea current
speeds has been evaluated with the help of the numerical codes and are shown in Figure
C-71.
C 6.2.6 Environmental impact
The environmental benefits, subsequent to the deployment of this kind of plant can be
easily understood: it is sufficient to consider that the world-wide sea current exploitable
energy is about equal to the present world energy demand. For this purpose this
technology, if sufficiently dispersed, could contribute to satisfying a significant
proportion of the world energy electric demand, with reasonable costs and no significant
effects on the environment.
The ENERMAR plant environmental impact has been evaluated particularly from the
point of view of the compatibility with the sea, flora and fauna.
The environmental impact and compatibility study, carried out by the University of
Messina, has reached the following conclusions
The environmental impact is negligible.
The ENERMAR units are compatible with the Italian rules for the installation and
removal of sea structures.
C 6.2.7 Overview of progress to date
The ENERMAR pilot plant has been installed in a suitable place in the Strait of Messina
and the Kobold unit, floating on the sea, is illustrated in Figure C-72.
The average sea tidal current speed at the installation site is around 2 m/s.
The first set of tests consisted in systematic data collection of the mechanical behaviour
of the turbine. Even with a low speed current (1.2 m/s is the cut-in speed), the rotor
started rotating very fast, without any external power supplied. Global efficiency of the
system has been measured as ratio between the produced electrical power and the
theoretical power available in the current relative to the intercepted area
Pelectrical
=
0.5 V 3 S
Equation C.25
where
230
S = Diameter BladeHeight
Equation C.26
( S = 30 m2 in case of Kobold turbine), is water density and V is the current speed.
The measured global efficiency has been measured to be around 23 % (see Figure C-73)
which is comparable to a well developed wind turbine and then this first results can be
considered excellent even because on-going improvements in the mechanical
transmission system will certainly raise the global efficiency very soon.
Figure C-74 shows the turbine producing electricity turning on 20 lamps each of them
absorbing about 1 kW of power (total produced power 20 kW) with a current speed of
about 1.8 m/s.
Figure C-53 ENERMAR plant location
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Figure C-54 Particular location of the ENERMAR site
232
Figure C-55 General arrangement of installation
233
Figure C-56 First small model of turbine (Panemone type) for tests in water tank of
Dept. of Naval Architecture of University of Naples
Figure C-57 Model of Kobold turbine installed in the wind-tunnel belonging to

Dipartimento di Progettazione Aeronautica of University of Naples (3 blades, left; 6
blades, right)
234
Figure C-58 Installation of the turbine in the wind tunnel of Dipartimento di

Progettazione Aeronautica University of Naples
Figure C-59 Details of the blade tip with counterweight. Arrangements to optimise
blade pitch angle
Figure C-60 Original Kobold turbine (blade articulation 0-90). Gross rotor power
for different blade number configuration (wind-tunnel tests)
235
Figure C-61 Kobold turbine optimization.
Gross rotor power for different blade articulation settings (wind-tunnel tests)
Figure C-62 Kobold turbine prototype particular of attachment system (with

blade mass balance) between blade and arm
236
Figure C-63 3D CAD model. Blade, attachment system and mass balance
Figure C-64 Structural analysis of blade
237
Figure C-65 Carbon-fibre blades in construction
238
Figure C-66 Blade with arm and steel attachment system
239
Figure C-67 Scheme of turbine rotor and electrical generator
Figure C-68 Total assembly scheme
240
Figure C-69 Mechanical overdrive and electrical equipment
Figure C-70 Turbine rotor on dock
241
Figure C-71 Turbine PrototypeNumerical predicted rotor power curves at

different sea current speed
Figure C-72 The KOBOLD unit installed in Messina Strait
242
Figure C-73 Electrical power produced as coming from measurements versus

current speed
Figure C-74 Kobold turbine producing electrical power (20 kW)
C 6.2.8 Research requirements deduced from trials in Messina
Any installation of devices devoted to exploiting energy from the sea, represents a major
engineering challenge. Not only do they have to convert kinetic energy of the currents
into mechanical, rotational energy and then to electrical energy but they have also to
survive the extremely challenging environment of the sea or ocean.
243
They must overcome such factors as

Salt water corrosion
Marine fouling
Anchoring
Access and maintenance difficulties
Storm damages
Grid connections
In fact rough weather has always represented a big barrier for the installation of marine
devices. However, most of the problems that could be thought as insurmountable have
been overcome since some devices are survived off the coasts of many countries
offshore platforms installed by oil and gas industries have operated effectively in some of
the worlds worst sea conditions for the past 40 years or more. These companies have
maintained big structures very far from the shoreline, they have laid very long submarine
pipelines and cables and they have also solved the problem of cathodic protection to
avoid corrosion. Recent plans to increase the number of offshore wind farms will enable
further valuable experiences to be accumulated.
One area that appears to be very important to be further and more deeply investigated is
the anti-fouling paints and their impact on the environment: a perfect anti-fouling paints
is far from generally available despite much research.
The electrical energy produced by any device at sea must be delivered to the consumer
and this can be done with two different steps
from an offshore device to the coast
from the coast to the main demand load centres
Also in this case, experienced gained by oil companies with their offshore installations
could be very valuable and they could be applied to wave or tidal current devices
installed far from shoreline.
There appear to be no major technological barriers to the effective development of wave

and tidal energy. Most of these barriers can be solved by transferring expertise and
knowledge from the offshore industries. Multi-disciplinary research projects are another
means to gain knowledge to be transferred to tidal devices and construction of large
demonstrator units will help to find out additional difficulties and, at same time, technical
ways to overcome them.
C 6.3 Research requirements for tidal stream energy

Prepared by: S.H. Salter, Mechanical Engineering, University of Edinburgh
C 6.3.1 Existing technology
Horizontal axis tidal stream plant will enjoy a strong transfer of technology from wind
energy with equations modified to take account of the much greater density. Some of the
wind problems such as rapid power fluctuation, gravitational and centrifugal stresses are
much reduced. Vertical axis and reciprocating foil designs have less transfer.
The new problem areas
Bio-fouling.
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Cavitation and corrosion.

Long-life sealing against higher pressures in a potentially abrasive medium.
General uncertainty about detailed soundings and stream velocities.
Uncertainty about the velocity texture of the flow pattern at a given site.
The output impedance and forcing function of the site and the effect of high
channel filling-fractions on other channels.
Wake vortices especially for vertical axis.
Disconnection of power input both during installation and following a loss of the
electrical cables.
High installation, access and removal costs.
The effects of underwater sound on marine life.
Particular hardware requirements
High-torque, low-speed power conversion with variable speed input connected to
a synchronous network (as also needed for wind).
Geometrically tolerant, compact bearings with high loads but low speeds, suitable
for underwater use.
Material finishes which give hydraulically smooth surfaces combined with
cavitation and corrosion resistance and techniques to reduce skin friction drag for
the rings of vertical-axis plant.
Cavitation resistant hydrofoil sections.
Pitch-changing mechanisms and controllers.
Easily deployed anchoring systems with very high load capability. Different
designs will be needed for the various types of seabed geology.
These will now be considered in detail.
C 6.3.2 New problem areas

Bio-fouling.
The static panels deployed off South Uist by the Scottish Marine Biological Association
at Dunstaffnage produced results more frightening to marine energy people than
predictions of extreme loads.
Some of the anti-fouling treatments such as tri-butyl tin are toxic even in very small
concentrations and their use has exterminated marine life in some yacht harbours. This
would be quite unacceptable in places such as Orkney where the reputation for the purity
of seafood is an important, even vital, economic asset. It is likely that cladding with
copper or cupro-nickel would be the greatest level of toxicity that could be accepted.
There is some anecdotal evidence that the fouling rate is greatest when ships are moored
in tropical harbours and that a continuous movement makes it harder for marine
organisms to make their initial attachment. This would justify the reverse operation of
rotors in slack water with power drawn from the grid. For untwisted blades that can be set
at zero angle of incidence, the necessary power is surprisingly small.
There is also anecdotal evidence that fouling can be prevented locally by the fitting of a
powerful hi-fi system to the outer wall of a cabin below decks. This suggests that sonic
and ultrasonic techniques should be investigated.
I have begun work on the design of a fouling test rig which would consist of a floating
platform with a number of motors which could spin a number of disks or drums clad with
245
various surface treatments. A sketch of the design is given in Figure C-43 in Section C
5.3. The platform would be moored at a site that would have the same biological
conditions as a likely tidal stream site but with reduced wave action. Power to drive the
three-phase induction motors would be supplied from the land through variable-
frequency inverters mounted on the platform, which would be used to control the spin
velocity of each disk set. The real current drawn by each motor can be sensed by a
magnetic loop and would give an indication of the torque needed to spin the disk and so
measure the progress of fouling growth.
Such an experiment would also confront many of the mooring, electric-cabling and
sealing, fatigue and corrosion problems of tidal-stream plant as well as giving
information about fouling at the velocities we expect to use. I have argued previously that
renewable energy devices are an expensive way to relearn the basic and painful lessons of
marine engineering. A series of mishaps to the platform would be much less of an
embarrassment than any to a power generation device. The longer that the platform is run
the better will be the value of the results and so it should begin as soon as possible. The
fouling test platform above could carry small rotors with pairs of hydrofoils to test for
cavitation resistance of candidate materials.
Cavitation and corrosion
Cavitation occurs in a very wide range of hydraulic mechanisms. It is often possible to
redesign parts so as to avoid it. However with any tidal stream device near the water
surface we should design so as to be very close to, but not quite at, the cavitation border
at the highest working velocity. This is because the faster we can move the lower will be
the torque input to the power conversion mechanism and we can expect that, for low
speed plant, the capital cost will be closely related to the peak torque. The problem will
be less serious for deeply submerged plant because of the lower velocities near the seabed
and the higher standing pressure.
Variable pitch foils can be expected to be able to operate close to the cavitation onset for
a larger fraction of the time than fixed-pitch designs. With the right controls it would be
possible to change the pitch settings on line to suit any variations of cavitation with
temperature and to use different pitch angles for different depths. The peak cavitation
point will be close to the nose of hydrofoils and the edges of drag plates. Andreas
Rodewald, working on a student project at Edinburgh University, has used FLUENT
software to calculate the local pressure coefficients of hydrofoil sections. He produced a
section with a considerably lower peak negative pressure coefficient than the
NACA 0018 but with equally good lift and drag coefficients.
The cavitation problem has been closely studied by Rolls Royce Marine (formerly Brown
Brothers) for its effect on the hydrofoils used by ship stabilisers, which are very close to
the needs of tidal-stream hydrofoils. Their chief designer, Bill McDiarmid is familiar
with our needs and will advise.
Cavitation and corrosion are intimately related and some materials or coatings, perhaps
with local resilience, may help reduce the problems of both. It is known that the
protection of materials like stainless steel is due to a thin but strong oxide film, which
protects what would otherwise be an easily oxidised surface, because its volume is the
same as that of the parent metal. However, at water velocities of the order of those to be
used for tidal streams, the oxide film can be washed away and all protection can be lost.
246
We should test both materials and their attachment to foils in the correct chemical and
biological conditions and at the same velocities as will be used at full scale.
Sealing
The gutter seal designed for the vertical-axis rotor is subjected to very low pressure
differences. It can be assembled with no rubbing surfaces, which is fortunate because its
rubbing velocity would be high. The horizontal axis designs must provide a seal against a
pressure of 10 to 20 metres of water. This must tolerate pressure changes caused by tidal
rise and fall and the abrasive properties of silt. The seabed plant will suffer an even
higher pressure and the even greater concentrations of entrained sand caused by the
turbulent flows near the bottom. Unless seal manufactures can provide test data in
appropriate conditions such as those of the stern tube of a ship propeller shaft, we will
have to test the seals ourselves. The fouling platform described above could carry seal
test modules along with fouling experiments.
The sealing problem is intimately related to the bearing problem because seal failure will
spoil bearings and poor bearing location will upset seals. It may be possible to reduce the
severity of the outer sealing problem by a trickle feeding filtered seawater out of a
mechanism. This possibility is discussed in a later section on bearings.
Velocity and velocity texture
An excellent source of stream velocity data has been collected by Ian Bryden for some of
the channels round the Orkneys. However, in general for the UK, the published
information in the Admiralty tidal stream atlas is adequate only for navigation. It
provides information on surface currents in a coarse local detail but we know that in some
places currents at lower depths can be in different directions. Bryden has also shown that
some sites can show variations between days at the same point in the tidal cycle. It is
certain that the Admiralty have very much more detailed soundings of any area in which
submarines might be used; it may be that they also have more detailed sources of current
data and could be persuaded to declassify both sets of data.
I was astonished to find how large local velocity variations could be for wind energy. A
prudent assumption is that a three-bladed wind rotor will sometimes produce its entire
power from just one of the blades. We have no evidence to suggest that tidal streams will
be any better and indeed eddies and overfalls can be seen from the shore and are shown
on charts where currents meet.
We may be able to get a feel for the velocity texture problem by deploying a light, freely-
floating triangular frame made from crane booms with buoyancy at the corners as shown
in Figure C-73. By releasing air from one corner we could make it sink to the vertical and
raise it by a subsequent inflation. Each end of the top boom would be fitted with a
differential carrier-phase GPS system referenced to a static GPS unit on land. The boom
length would be of the order of the blade length of a turbine. Averaging readings from the
ends would give the mean surface flow and the differences between readings would show
the azimuth. The booms could be fitted with local current sensors at, say, metre intervals
along the sides of the triangle.
Hot wire sensors give velocity but not direction unless they can be encased in a tube. A
spherical hedgehog on the end of a strain-gauged beam will give a square law response
in two axes very easily and, with not much extra effort, in the third axis with a strain
gauged beam across the diameter of the hedge-hog. Practical hedgehogs could be made
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by wrapping Scotchbrite scouring pads round a cistern ball valve. The square-law
response of drag on the hedgehog might not be a disadvantage.
Sonar Doppler or pulse-transit-time sensors can give full three-dimensional velocity data
and a linear calibration. We used piezo-electric transducers for a pulse-transit 3D-wave
gauge. The normal response to a square wave drive is a ting like a bell, which generates a
large number of crossovers at the receiver. However, by pre-shaping the drive signal to
make it be a time-reversed version of a ting, which we may call a gint, we obtained a
single, dominant cross-over and a spatial resolution of 0.025 mm at a range of 1.5 metres.
This is one part in 60,000 and so we should be able to detect currents which are 1/60000
of the speed of sound in water i.e. 25 mm per second. Even greater precision is possible
using phase-sensitive detection techniques but this does not seem necessary for blade
fatigue predictions.
The frame would be released from a parent work-boat which would accompany it for a
traverse through a passage and rescue it from any dangerous collision. It might be
possible to support a boom with slightly negative buoyancy from two low-drag floats
containing the GPS systems so as to get data from lower depths.
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Figure C-75 The velocity-texture measuring frame is left to drift freely along a tidal
channel with position recorded from GPS receivers at each end of the upper side.
Local deviations from the mean are recorded from sensors along the side.
Channel impedance
A single tidal stream generator in a wide flow field would be expected to behave like a
wind turbine and be limited to the 16/27 Betz efficiency with maximum performance
when the exit flow velocity was reduced to one third of the free stream. Installing one
unit would have very little effect on flows in, say, the Bristol Channel. However it is
interesting to ask what happens when a bank of closely packed rotors fills a large fraction
of a channel. The water cannot go through the seabed. It cannot flow through the channel
walls. It cannot easily flow above the rotors. The bank of turbines is now behaving more
like those in a closed duct with potentially higher efficiency. But we also have to ask if
this would affect the size of the resource. At one extreme we might have a long channel
with a high inertia converging from a wide entrance, which behaves like a source of
defined flow which would build up sufficient head to overcome any obstacle. At the other
we might have a short channel, which behaves like a source of defined head which can
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supply flow according to the opposing resistance with no problem about presenting that
head to a complete blockage.
Real channels will behave somewhere between the two extremes described above in a
way which will depend on the local geography. We have to understand where they lie. If
the channel shows some tendency to high impedance, banks of rotors placed in series can
increase the size of the resource to some point set by the water levels acceptable to
coastal dwellers. There might be a level difference of, say, 0.5 metres for each bank. An
initial estimate of acceptable rise would be to have the present maximum spring level
through the entire month. In this way there would be no coastal flooding and the constant
maximum area of exposed mudflats for wading birds.
A second question is how the presence of a bank of turbines will affect the natural
frequency of the ocean-to-channel system. If a particularly attractive channel gets its high
velocities from resonance, we could be measuring energy from the last tidal cycle on its
way back. Installing turbines will certainly damp resonance and could also change
stiffness in a way that could either detune a good channel or tune up an apparently
unpromising one.
A third question is the extent to which installations in one channel will effect flow rates
and sea levels in adjacent ones which are part of an arbitrary network of channels and
pools. We can get some feeling for the problem by looking at phase differences from
point to point. Phases are indicated by the times of high water. Ignoring local harmonics,
the fundamental tidal period is 747 minutes so an hour of difference represents
29 degrees of phase. For example the difference in the times of high water at Sumburgh
and Hillswick in the Shetlands is 2 hours 25 minutes, representing nearly 70 degrees of
phase shift. Time differences across the Orkneys, say between Stromness and Kirkwall,
of 80 minutes or 39 degrees, show that reactive terms are certainly detectable, probably
significant but not dominant. Quite small amplitude changes especially at high spring
tides could have very expensive implications and so our understanding must be complete
before any large-scale installations are planned. The double frequency tides of the Solent
side of the Isle of Wight show how complex the problem can be.
Finally we may be able to advance or delay power generation from a turbine bank so as to
change the reactive parts of channel impedance to improve its resonance relative to the
excitation period in the same way as can be done in wave energy. Here tidal streams have
the advantage of a very narrow frequency band. We could also advance or retard
generation to suit the short-term market price of electricity, which can change sharply
over a 30-minute period.
Ian Bryden has written software to predict channel behaviour as a function of channel
shape and forcing function. This could be made available to other users. There are a
number of commercial software packages, notably the DHI software known as MIKE21
used by Tony Lewis in Cork; and Aquadyne, designed for estuaries and river bends, a
version of which has been used by the Portuguese wave energy teams for the study of
oscillating water columns.
If it is thought desirable to confirm the predictions of a software package we could

reproduce most of the effects by making a scale model, sized between five and ten metres
square, of an estuary or island group. The model would have a stiff steel frame and be
filled with water to the correct mean sea level. The drive from the Atlantic and the North
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Sea can be represented by movable sidewalls or by raising and lowering blocks with
slightly negative buoyancy. While it would be fascinating to test an accurate model of
Scapa Flow and the Pentland Firth, we could gain confidence in numerical predictions
with much simpler abstract shapes of channels, pools and islands.
The two uncertainties of very small-scale models are surface tension on the top layer of
water (which becomes comparable with gravity for waves of a few centimetres length)
and bottom roughness, which may not reproduce the correct boundary layer. I am advised
by Ian Bryden that this requires a Reynolds number referred to channel length of about
106. It may be possible to reduce surface tension with additives to the water. Turbulence
is often deliberately induced in tank experiments with wires and oversize texture. One
interesting possibility might be to fit a channel entrance with a heating element so as to
produce both local turbulence and lower viscosity. A rise from 15 to 60C wins an
increase of Reynolds number by a factor of 2.4, which can quickly be triggered and
removed. However, if the software package allows, we can change its settings to the
wrong Reynolds number and see if it agrees with the small-scale results.
Wake vortices
The torque applied to a rotor will give the water an equal and opposite angular
acceleration and so leave energy in the wake. We have to expect that this will be
proportionately higher for slow tidal stream plant than for high-speed wind turbines. It is
easier to visualise the wake vortex of a horizontal-axis machine than for a vertical-axis
one. This vortex might be a hazard to swimmers and small boats and we must quantify its
magnitude. It is also interesting to ask what happens to the vortex energy from a pair of
closely spaced counter-rotating vertical-axis rotors.
Disconnection of power input
The moment-controlled blades of our vertical-axis rotor will align themselves with the
actual local current direction, no matter what it might be, if the common supply pressure
to their actuation rams is leaked to the tank. We can expect that any pitch-controlled
blade operated by a removable pressure as opposed to a non-reversible, such as a worm
and screw, would do the same. This is very convenient for installation. However we have
to ask what would be the effect of the sudden loss of output torque on a rotor which
cannot change pitch and which might already be working close to its cavitation limit.
This loss of load torque could well be the result of some switch-gear failure on land, quite
unrelated to the operation of the plant at sea. An unloaded rotor will speed up until the
reduced angle of incidence produces a reduced torque equal to the drag torque on the
rotating parts. This would happen at an angle of about two degrees so that if the rotor had
previously been operating at an angle of, say, eight degrees, the speed would rise by a
factor of four. This would not lead to centrifugal stress problems in the blades but it
might well do so in a generator connected by fixed ratio gearing and it would certainly
induce cavitation. Regulations for on-shore wind require two independent braking
systems, both of which must be able to operate in the event of loss of power. We must
expect a similar requirement for tidal streams. Low speed brake design for multi-
megawatt wind turbines is an interesting problem and will be even more so for the higher
torques of tidal streams. High speed brakes placed after a speed-increasing gearbox do
not protect from shaft or gear failures.
Installation, access and removal
These activities could represent a large part of the cost of tidal stream plant especially if
initial numbers are small. The seabed attachment must be rated for a force of the
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maximum power rating divided by the stream velocity multiplied by about 1.5 plus an
allowance for wave loads. The attachment will have to resist forces in both directions and
in some cases there will be both vertical and side components as well as some variability
in the actual current direction. Forces on larger rotors could well be bigger than the
biggest anchors used today.
Peter Fraenkel of Marine Current Turbines is confident about the performance of

monopile foundations in water depths suitable for horizontal-axis tidal stream plant.
There is a growing volume of experience in their use in the field of offshore wind energy.
He argues that soft seabeds may need deeper piling but that it is then easier to drive piles
into them. Monopiles become less attractive for deeper water because of the greater
bending moments and it would be useful to establish the rate of cost rise and performance
reduction as water depths and power ratings increase.
At a good tidal stream site divers would have only a few minutes either side of slack
water in which the velocity was below the safe maximum. At sites with fine silt the high
water velocity will churn up the bottom layers to give virtually zero visibility. In periods
of normal offshore activity jack-up platforms are affordable only for initial experiments
and for the once off installation of a large number of units over a short period. We need to
look into the availability of bottom-crawling vehicles, which could bore holes, lay
protected cables and make connections.
Vertical-axis turbines are vulnerable to wave loads. Initial tests have shown that with the
water depths likely to be used, the tension leg moorings of floating plant can be subject to
severe snatch loads when they retighten following any slack. They may need shock-
absorbers which would be capable of generating large amounts of energy if not in a
useful form. The Edinburgh group is studying the use of a pair of triangular frames of
post-tensioned concrete with a section sufficient to just prevent buckling. These would be
used to attach a pair of contra-rotating vertical-axis rotors. They could be made slightly
negatively buoyant but with tethers to surface floats supporting a hose for the pneumatic
addition of buoyancy to allow them to rise to the surface.
Good tidal streams are found at sites with well-scrubbed rocky bottoms, such as in the
Pentland Firth, layers of big boulders as in Norwegian Fjords and soft ooze such as in the
Bristol Channel. We would expect very different solutions for such very different sea-bed
geology. A post-tensioned pile head was described at the Patras conference and the
drawings are reproduced here as Figure C-76.
Personnel access to floating structures from small boats with a similar heave response is
easier than to fixed ones. It may be possible for pile-mounted plant to use an idea
proposed for offshore wind. This has a cotton reel around the pile which would usually
be locked above maximum wave crest but which could be lowered to the sea and would
be able to slide up and down the pile with the same heave response as the work boat. It
could be fitted with a split fairing like the front half of a hydrofoil and could rotate about
the pile to point in a downstream direction. This fairing would reduce vortex shedding
and provide a small harbour for approaching craft. We need to plan for the rescue of
people who fall into the water at periods of peak stream velocity in the dark mid-winter.
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Figure C-76 The post tensioned sea-bed attachment described for the EC Patras
conference has compressive stresses in the rock and constant tensions in the vertical
wires
The installation of some designs of anchors would be complicated by submerged

wreckage or cables from abandoned fishing gear. Such obstructions are very common in
some sea areas. Not all of them are just passive metal. During the two world wars,
Germany and Britain between them deployed 600,000 sea mines, which contain 250 kg
charges. Only 180,000 have been accounted for. Until the Oslo convention of 1989 it was
253
common practice to dispose of outdated munitions by sea dumping. This did not always
take place in designated areas and quite often occurred en route to them. Golf balls lost
by seaward drives from courses in Scotland can turn up years later in Norway so that
even legally dumped items can be moved by the sea. There are claims from Radar World
Colin Stove that underwater ground-penetrating radar can detect and identify very small
discontinuities in the structure of a seabed. It would be prudent to carry out radar surveys
of tidal sites, especially any down current of a dumpsite such as Beauforts Dike.
Standards of acceptable environmental behaviour are likely to increase. It would be

reasonable to demand that anything that we put into the sea must be capable of complete
later removal or, at the very least, we must leave a clean seabed with accurately recorded
positions of residual material.
Underwater sound
All gears and hydraulic systems will generate some noise, and badly designed ones can
generate lots. The coupling of noise from a steel casing to surrounding water has a good
impedance match and so will be very efficient. The attenuation of low frequency sound in
water is low, especially if it is travelling between reflection layers, so that the inverse
square law does not apply. Many marine creatures have sensitive hearing and use sound
for navigation, communication and sonar, all of which may be upset by high background
levels. They also have devoted human supporters who will be able to stop planning
permission unless we can prove to them that our installations will produce sound levels
below those of other sound sources such as ships propellers and breaking waves. A
consoling factor is that noise from a machine is an indication of a potential design
problem and that stiff sound emission rules will lead to better designs.
Underwater noise is of great importance to submarine warfare and the United States has a
network of hydrophones across the North Atlantic to detect Russian submarines. There
will certainly have been installations at the approaches to Scapa Flow, which may still be
operating. It may be possible to get access to some of these data in a form that can give us
the present sound power levels, but decisions involving declassification of military
information can take so long and have so many strings that it might be quicker to obtain
our own. Hydrophones could be attached to the texture-sensing frame described above.
C 6.3.3 Particular hardware requirements

Power conversion
The rotation speeds of tidal stream rotors will be one-third or less than those of wind
turbines of equivalent power and so the input torques will be proportionally higher. The
wind turbine pioneers had a miserable time with their gearboxes which may not yet be
over. Torque will be a direct driver of cost. The vertical-axis configuration grew out of its
ring cam pump and this allows everything to be kept out at the full diameter of the rotor.
A quad ring cam takes forces in two directions across a very short distance. This gives it
an astonishing torque-to-weight ratio and greatly reduced needs for rigidity and precision.
Furthermore the electronically-controlled poppet valves give the variable displacement
needed to combine a correct blade-to-water speed matching with true synchronous
generation and an accurately defined upper limit to the transmission stresses. However
nobody has yet built a ring cam of the size (50 metres diameter) that would be needed for
a large tidal stream rotor so we would have to start a new industry. To get true rolling, all
lines on surfaces on opposite faces of the cam must meet at, or very close to, a common
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point lying on the axis of rotation. The position of this point will set the angle of the taper
rollers. This shape is not convenient for any current machine tools.
One way to build a cam would be from separate beads pulled together by wires such as
those used for post-tensioned concrete. The beads could be cast and then given a first
grinding on a machine such as the one shown in Figure C-77. This exploits an interesting
property of a mechanism known as the Peaucellier cell. This was the first linkage that
could generate a true straight line using only the equality of lengths of pin-jointed links. It
has the further property that by making the lengths of two links slightly different, it can
generate true circles of very large radius. This allows us to rotate a work-piece about a
distant centre.
The geometry of the rise and fall of the cam lobes can be achieved with errors less than
the Hertzian compression, using small changes to a parallelogram so that lines projected
through previously parallel links meet at the generating centre of the roller cones.
Ring cam development intended for hydraulic power conversion for offshore wind is
being carried out by Artemis Intelligent Power and nearly all their results can be carried
over to tidal streams.
If horizontal-axis turbines are limited in diameter by root bending moments and water
depth then they should be able to use conventional epicyclic gears, benefiting from the
lessons learned by the wind industry. They can also benefit from advances in electronic
frequency conversion. The peak torque ratings of a gearbox are related to the question of
velocity texture discussed above.
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Figure C-77 A machine tool for grinding the quad ring cams needed for power
conversion in large, vertical-axis tidal rotors. The Peaucellier linkage constrains the
work piece to move along an arc of very large radius while the slightly non-parallel
parallelogram makes all radial lines meet at the correct point along the rotor axis
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Bearings
The vertical axis rotor has the further requirement to provide a very large and
geometrically tolerant bearing to take the horizontal force from the rotor and also any
vertical force to give it acceleration in heave. The bearing function could be done by
fitting extra rollers and differentially controlling the pressure to which they are
connected. I feel we will be more confident about this second, very demanding,
requirement when we have the ideas proved in the wind application.
The bearings for the horizontal-axis rotors are well within the range of off the shelf units.
The radial and thrust forces could be taken by a pair of SKF 45-degree spherical roller
bearings. The recently-introduced Carb bearings have nearly as much tolerance for
angular misalignment as spherical rollers but can also take large amounts of axial location
error. The common technical problem of avoiding alignment errors with the bearings of a
transmission chain would be avoided if the gearbox designers could be persuaded to
produce a unit which had bearings suitable for taking the rotor loads so as to avoid the
need for universal couplings between them. This happy outcome has not yet been
achieved for wind energy (although the Vestas V90 turbine may use such a system in the
near future).
There may also be a need for bearings to allow variable pitch. Here the vertical-axis
design has the advantage of supporting blades at both ends and so avoiding the leverage
increase inevitable for variable-pitch blades in horizontal-axis rotor. However it suffers
the disadvantage that the ring frame structure cannot be made with high initial accuracy
and must be allowed to deform under load. A useful initial design rule is that, if a cheap
steel structure deflects by much more than 1,000 micro-strain it will eventually have
fatigue problems and that if it is strained by less than this it will be too heavy and
expensive. Even higher values of strain can be accepted in more expensive materials
provided that they are isolated from the seawater.
There are now plain bearing materials such a Glacier DU-B, which can take very high
slow loads in salt water. Unfortunately the blade pitching velocities are reversing and too
slow to obtain any hydrodynamic benefits. Calculated life spans are likely to be
unacceptably short.
Rolling bearings are fine for the main shaft of a moderate-sized horizontal-axis machine
with continuous rotation but they can be unhappy if they are subjected to a large number
of movements through an angle that is small compared with the spacing between rolling
elements. This could be caused in pitch bearings by flutter near stall or any high
frequency signal in the control system. Rolling bearings, which can provide spherical
freedom use an undesirable amount of radial thickness. Bearing load is better by about
20 % with a static outer and a moving inner but this conflicts with the use of an inner spar
as a structural member.
The ideal bearing design would fit inside the thickness of the blade, which could be 18 %
of its chord, but not reduce the strength of any spar inside it. It would also have water
seals able to take any deflection errors or else be able to work in seawater. The bearings
of the vertical-axis rotor provide simple support at both ends of the blade. This reduces
bending stress in the blade by a factor of four relative to a cantilever support. However
the bearings must accommodate deflections corresponding to the extensions of the
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diagonal bracing wires, which, we estimated would be 2 degrees, as well as the bending
deflections of the blades. A pair of bearings must take loads of approaching 1 mN.
It may be possible to avoid the problems of rolling bearings and seals by using
hydrostatic bearing technology with bearings pressurised with filtered seawater. A
tentative bearing design based on one produced for the JOULE wave energy program,
shown in Figure C-78, consists of a static member in the form of a plug which fits into
the ends of the columns which form a squirrel cage between the rotor rings. Each plug
is bored to take six pads which have cylindrical outer surfaces mating with the inner
surface of a tube which forms the foil structure. This means that there is no loss of radial
space to compromise the strength and stiffness of either blades or their support frame.
Figure C-78 A hydrostatic bearing allows 2 degrees of misalignment for the variable
pitch blades
This inner surface of the tube in the blade is clad with Glacier Vandervell DU-B and so is
compatible with seawater. The pads are pushed outwards by the energising pressure but
are prevented from actual contact with the outer surface by the rising pressure in their
pockets as the gap closes. Each of the six pads can tilt by two degrees and advance
radially. The radial movement of three adjacent pads is coupled to spool valves with ports
which control the in-coming flow to that pad and also the flow to the pad on the other
side of the bearing. A blade force, which tends to move a pad inwards will move the
spool so as to increase the flow to that pad and reduce the flow to the opposite one. This
arrangement of master and slave pads allows the bearing to use almost the entire range of
the supply pressure in either direction. Following the failure of the supply pressure the
bearing would exploit the plain bearing capability of Glacier DU-B with a life of about a
month so that catastrophe is not instantaneous. The low viscosity of seawater means that
the pocket in the pads must have large land widths.
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The design requires a very reliable supply of well-filtered high-pressure seawater from a
long-life pump. We can reduce the filtration problem by restricting (rather than sealing)
the exit flow from the bearings so that a large fraction of filtered water is returned to the
pump. Even so we will need to switch filters between supply and back-flush modes.
Satisfactory pumping of unpleasant liquids can be achieved by using a nitrile rubber hose
containing the hostile fluid with ceramic ball and polyurethane cone valves at each end.
The hose is alternately compressed and released by a cycling pressure in a more benign
liquid such as hydraulic oil which surrounds the rubber.
If the blades have a thickness of 18 % it is possible to choose a skin thickness to make

them neutrally buoyant so the requirements of the axial location will be very much
reduced.
Most of the development of the bearing and its bench tests on a deformable frame can be
done at a conveniently small scale, perhaps 200 mm.
Pitch change mechanisms
The cavitation problem enforces rather low ratios of tip speed to water speed and so
increases the angle of incidence of water relative to blade chord line. Vertical-axis rotors
in good sites will experience a large range of angle of incidence and consequently will
risk the high drag losses associated with stall. They will need pitch adjustment more than
horizontal machines.
The proposed design for the pitch-changing mechanism of the Edinburgh rotor makes no
attempt to define the pitch angle relative to the current vector or the machine frame.
Instead it defines the maximum value of the moments on the blades with a mechanism,
which can yield to higher ones by the amount required to reduce the moment to the
chosen value. We believe that a pitch change should start at an angle of incidence of
about 9 degrees and that the blades should track the apparent direction of approach of the
water for any angle above that.
A mechanism to do this is shown in Figure C-79. It consists of two hydraulic rams which
are driving to apply a force to two semicircular cut outs in a plate and also to be in
contact with sockets at the ends of a cross-arm on the blade. This arrangement is not
kinematically exact but with accurate machining and hard polyurethane rod ends we can
get acceptably low rattle.
The blade rotation axis is placed forward of the centre of hydrodynamic pressure. The
mechanism will appear locked with the blade chord line tangential to the rotor until the
moment on the blade exceeds the pre-load of one of the rams. This will then compress,
driving oil back into a source of defined pressure, but will leave the other ram still forced
against the recess in the plate. The rams can be connected to a common pipe running
round the rotor ring. Some will be pushing oil into this manifold and others will be
drawing oil out of it. Any flow differences can be supplied from an oil accumulator. The
only need for pumping will be for the initial charge in the accumulator and making up
ram leakage. The limiting momentand so the limiting angle of incidencecan be
varied by changing common pressure.
During installation or any emergency that requires stopping power generation, both rams
can be retracted leaving the blades free to head into the current with drag far lower than a
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plain cylinder of the same frontal area. If we can sense when the blade angle is in the
correct sector of its rotation we can re-engage the rams to continue generation. Their ends
will follow the path of the curved tracks in the recess plates.
The mechanism can be housed in a diving bell vertically above the blade with a water
deflector as opposed to a seal to reduce splashing. If this is trickle-fed with dry air and the
inside dosed with cetyl alcohol it will have working conditions better than many
hydraulic systems. The ramrods can be further protected with belofram rolling seals.
The moment control for blades seems sound on a quasi-static basis. However in addition
to the easily-calculated hydrodynamic spring there is likely to be an added hydrodynamic
inertia which will be much larger than the inertia of the steel of the blade itself and which
may be further complicated by movement through the water. There is therefore the
potential for resonant behaviour and undesirable transient effects. This should be
investigated by tank tests on moment-controlled foils. The hydraulic connections can
provide useful damping and may indeed be able to be net producers of power enough to
run their own controls on the moving part of a tidal stream rotor.
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Figure C-79 The actuator mechanism for moment control and blade feathering
C 6.3.4 Conclusions
Topics identified in this section for Tidal Stream Devices are as follows
There will some overlap with wave energy research requirements discussed in
Section C 4.
A raft for exposing batches of components and moving sub-assemblies to the
chemical and biological problems of tidal streams (and wave energy) in sufficient
numbers to obtain reliable statistics. The key problem is the safe movement of
heavy items on a moving platform.
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Measurement of the velocity texture of flow channels.

Calculation of the forcing function and source impedance of flow channels with
predictions of the effects of installing generation plant over a large fraction of the
flow window. These may be beneficial if variations in sea levels can be accepted.
Problems of installation and disconnection including the effects of over-speeding
following the loss of load due to a land fault.
Quick disconnect seabed attachments for all the possible geological conditions.
High-pressure oil hydraulics and the machine tool for making large ring cams.
Geometrically tolerant bearings with high load and long life.
Moment-controlled pitch change mechanisms to avoid stall in high flows.
C 6.3.5 Proposed fourth generation tidal stream turbine
Figure C-80 An artists impression of the vertical-axis tidal-stream generator

proposed by Stephen Salter of Edinburgh University, Scotland. A 50-metre rotor
would generate 12 MW in a tidal stream velocity of 4 metres per second and would
weigh 600 tonnes
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C7 RESEARCH STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN
Prepared by: Tony Lewis, UCC
C 7.1 Research requirements and barriers to development

C 7.1.1 Fixed devices
The research requirements under this heading are fully discussed in Section C 3. There
have been a number of pilot plants constructed of this type but the performance data from
these has not been readily available.
The development challenges identified include

Results from pilot plants.
Low-cost construction methods
Efficient primary power conversion
Electrical generation and grid connection
Adequate modelling tools
The fixed wave energy devices are normally of the OWC type and rely on gravity
through their weight to resist the wave forces. This means that a large mass of structure is
required which only comes into play during the extreme events that will occur
infrequently during the lifetime of the device. The result of this is that the structure costs
are extremely high and it is difficult to make such devices economic.
A study undertaken for the Marine Institute of Ireland by Ove Arup and Partners showed
that the costs of building a caisson type structure and positioning it offshore Ireland
would make a device too expensive to compete economically with other renewable
energy technologies. It has been learned recently that Energetech, Australia (See Figure
C-10in Section C 3) have abandoned their concept of a fixed shoreline OWC as being
uneconomic.
The strategy for the development of these technologies must therefore be confined to
systems that have the potential to be economic. It looks at this stage that the only such
concepts will be where the fixed wave energy device is combined with another structural
use. This would normally be a breakwater or similar system where the overall structural
cost is justified by the harbour construction. Caisson-type breakwaters have been widely
used for harbour construction and a wave energy pilot scheme was incorporated into one
such structure at Sakata in Japan as indicated in Section C 3. There have been European
Union funded projects under the Fourth and Fifth Framework Programmes to study such
structuresthe PROVERBS Project referred to in Section B is one such example.
It is recommended that any future research activity into fixed wave energy devices is
confined to this type of installation.
263
C 7.1.2 Floating devices
There were a number of specific research requirements identified in Section C 4 where

they are discussed fully.
Short-term wave behaviour/wave weather
Hydrodynamicsmathematical and physical modelling including arrays
Air turbines
Hydraulic systems
Performance, seaworthiness and survival
Monitoring systems
Flexible cables and connections
Low-cost mooring systems which are device dependant
Design methods and low-cost construction
Deployment and recovery methods
The development of equipment in the offshore oil and gas industry has been in progress
for several decades. There is a potential for some technology transfer from this industry
although the design requirements are rather different, especially in terms of the
economics related to construction. A study by Arup Energy Ltd for the UK Department
of Trade and Industry in 2000 identified promising areas worthy of further investigation.
A number of the devices in this category have reached an advanced stage of development
and would be suitable for the creation of research prototypes at sea. The realisation of
such pilot plants would allow experience of component performance to be investigated in
the real environment.
C 7.1.3 Fourth-generation devices
The research requirements under this heading were identified in Section C 5. These
included
Hydrodynamic modelling (especially non-linear and real fluid effects)
Large-scale component testing at sea
Control systems and methods
System configuration options selection
Power take-off systems/smoothing
Large size bearings/seals
Materials selection and coatings
Construction methods
Many of the items included here are common to the requirements for the Fixed and
Floating devices. The key to the longer-term development of wave energy converters is to
produce economic and reliable solutions to the requirements for the components.
C 7.1.4 Tidal stream devices
The research requirements and technical barriers to the development of tidal stream
converters are discussed in Section C 6. These include
Tidal flow modelling with details such as turbulence levels
Rotor design for vortices and cavitation
Installation/recovery methods
264
Power take-off systems

Materials, corrosion, protection
Biofouling
Variable-pitch rotors
Anchoring/foundations
Maintenance systems
Grid connectionsMany of these requirements overlap with those identified for
wave energy devices and so a concerted activity for device component development
would benefit both.
C 7.2 Strategy for development

The Strategy for the successful development of the wave and tidal stream energy resource
must be to move quickly to research pilot plants of promising concepts being tested at
sea. This must be underpinned by a balancing research activity in the development of
techniques and components to support the device developers in deriving solutions to
particular problems identified above.
C 7.2.2 Multi-disciplinary groups
The nature of the development of economic concepts for the successful conversion of the
wave and tidal energy resource is multi-disciplinary. This is not true in most other
renewable energy technologies as individual components can be designed and developed
separately and then integrated into a system. In the case of wave energy devices
specifically the interaction between the hydrodynamics performance, the power take-off
or damping system and the electrical control system determine the efficiency of
conversion. These interactions must be investigated in an integrated fashion if successful
conversion systems are to be developed.
To this end it is essential to encourage development groups for devices which are multi-
disciplinary and would ideally consist of hydrodynamics experts working with naval
architects, power take-off systems engineers and electrical engineers. Members of the
teams must also have credible experience of working at sea and this is an area where
transfer from the offshore oil and gas industry could be used to advantage.
Future research funding should be directed towards device concepts where such groups
exist or have clearly demonstrated the ability to mobilise such expertise. It is evident
from some of the concepts being proposed that the developers have scant knowledge of
the requirements for a seaworthy unit.
Information exchange between different groups is also essential. The diverse nature of the
research activity undertaken and the potential for technology transfer from the offshore
oil and gas industry as well as the wind energy industry must be facilitated. Regular
Workshops and Conferences will allow this activity to be undertaken and support for this
must be given at both EU, National and other International levels.
265
C 7.2.3 Research pilot plants
There is a requirement at present to move towards the deployment of successful research

pilot plants at sea. Section C 4.4.2 has outlined a Development Protocol that was
produced under a previous EU-funded programme. It is essential that research pilot plants
that are proposed for testing at sea should be at the appropriate level of development as
defined under this Protocol. Assessment for research funding support should incorporate
this element in its determination.
There are a number of existing research pilot plants funded by EU programmes as

reviewed in Section C 2. The operational experience from the Pilot Plants must be made
available to device developers if progress is to be made. The existing Pilot Plants could
act as Test Facilities for air turbine systems as well as for research into the operation of
such facilities in conjunction with the electricity grid.
New Research Pilot Plants of the Fixed type should only be supported if incorporated
into a structure which can demonstrate alternate function as it is felt that the economics
will dictate this type of development.
Research Pilot Plants of the Floating type should be constructed with a credible level of
energy output and at a sufficient size to allow component testing to be realised. There are
a number of different concepts that have been proposed for these types of devices. It is
not clear which of these will be most successful at this stage. A number of promising
concepts should thus be supported to realise seagoing prototypes.
C 7.2.4 Device components and supporting actions

Design methods and modelling
The development of advanced methods for modelling is essential if the performance of
device concepts is to be assessed. These advanced models must incorporate all stages in
the conversion system from waves or tidal currents to the electrical grid connections. The
inclusion of real fluid effects and non-linear behaviour will also be essential items.
Environmental parameters
The overall statistical behaviour of the wave and tidal stream resource is reasonable well
known. The details of both however are not. It is essential if the design and modelling
methods are to be successful to develop a detailed knowledge of the variability of the
waves and the tidal streams. This must be done at the very short-term scale and at a
detailed spatial level.
Power take-off systems
The different concepts being proposed for floating wave energy converters require
different types of power take-off system. The development of efficient power take-off
systems of the air-turbine, direct electrical and hydraulic type must all be undertaken.
Mechanical systems that can deal with the end-stop problem with the resulting high
stresses are essential as this is the key to the survivability of these types of wave energy
conversion mechanisms.
Materials behaviour and mechanical components
Many of the devices being proposed would benefit from the use of appropriate materials
and the fitness for performance of these materials must be determined if long-term
266
deployment at sea is to be successful. The minimisation of maintenance of components is

also essential if economic devices are to be realised. Novel mechanical components will
be required for specific devices and novel solutions to the problems posed must be
determined. These activities will be relevant to both wave and tidal stream energy
devices.
Deployment, recovery, anchoring and foundations
Successful operation of floating type devices will result from appropriate solutions to the
mooring and foundation problems. Periodic maintenance will be required and appropriate
methods for rapid deployment and recovery of devices is essential. Straightforward
electrical connection and mooring connection systems must be developed. Foundations
systems with low capital cost will be essential for successful development of the tidal
stream resource.
C 7.3 Action plan

C 7.3.1 Long-term goal (2020)
The resource available for wave power converters in Europe is large. The resource is
therefore not a barrier to potential development. A number of studies related to renewable
energies suggest that goals for the contribution to primary energy supply could be up to
12 % by 2010. The EU Renewable Energy Directive requires a contribution of over 22 %
for electricity production by 2010.
The EU White Paper on Renewable Energy Sources published in 1997 did not include
ocean energies in its contents. The targets set for the other renewable technologies for the
2010 deadline were substantial40,000 MW of wind generators installed, 4,500 MW of
small hydro, 3,000 MW from Photovoltaics and 1,000 MW of geothermal installations.
It has been estimated that the total wave energy resource for all European coastlines is
around 1000 TWh per annum. In view of the White Paper projections for other
Renewable Energy Technologies and the time scales involved it might be reasonable to
set a target for installed ocean energy systems to be 2,000 MW by 2020. This represents
only about 15 % of the practical resource available.
C 7.3.2 Medium-term actions (20082012)
It would be reasonable to expect wave and tidal stream energy could contribute about
0.5 TWh per year by 2012 given the present state of development and also given that this
value only represents about 0.5 % of the immediate technical wave energy resource. The
targeted installed capacity of devices will thus be 100 MW by 2012. (Largely comprising
floating-type wave energy devices and fixed tidal stream devices).
The actions required to achieve this goal must be

The construction and operation of multi-megawatt demonstration plants.
The development of technology to allow pilot plants for fourth-generation devices
to be deployed.
C 7.3.3 Short-term actions (20032008)
The immediate actions required to achieve the long-term goal are
267
Create multi-disciplinary research teams to support device development.

Gain operational experience from the existing fixed (OWC) pilot plants on the
European coastutilise these as test facilities
The construction and deployment of a number of floating WECs at MW size.
Supporting research into the optimisation of devices, design, construction and
deployment methods in multi-device arrays.
Undertake research into the development of technology and components for all
devices. (e.g. moorings, linkages, bearings, electrical connections)
The development of efficient power take-off systems for all devices.
Promote ocean energy technology in Europe and internationally.
Create networks and other mechanisms for information exchange.
268
WaveNet D Financing and economics
D Financing and economics
D1 FINANCING OF WAVE ENERGY PROJECTS
Prepared by: Richard Boud, Tom Thorpe, Future Energy Solutions
D 1.1 Introduction
This paper discusses the financing criteria applicable to wave energy devices and
explains some of the principles behind the most widely accepted method of assessing
these, the paper then reviews the various mechanisms for funding other renewable energy
technologies and assesses their applicability to wave energy.
There is a widely accepted approach to the appraisal of investment decisions based on

discounted cash flows. This comprises
identifying the incremental after-tax cash flows that arise from the decision to
invest
forming expected values of those cash flows
estimating a Required Rate of Return (RRR) for the decision
computing the Net Present Value (NPV) of the decision
The main source of confusion in implementing this approach lies in the selection of the
RRR and, in particular, the treatment of risk. Risk arises because the future is uncertain,
so there is a risk that the outcome of an investment decision will not be as expected.
This section describes current best practice for estimating the RRR on a risky investment.
It uses the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) as a framework for the analysis. CAPM
is recognised as the best-established method of considering risk and return. It
incorporates two main ideas
investors require an extra return for taking on risk
investors are concerned predominantly with the risk that cannot be eliminated by
diversification
D 1.2 Risk and return

Even in the complete absence of risk, the RRR would be positive, because, in general,
people prefer to consume now rather than later. If they are to forgo present consumption
and channel the value of it into investment, they must be rewarded for doing so. The RRR
is the return on an investment need to attract investors. Too low and investors will invest
their money elsewhere.
If the outcome of a project is certain, so that it has no risk, there is no problem in deciding
what the RRR should be. It would simply be the interest rate on zero risk investments
(say index-linked government bonds). Unless a company can earn more from its project
269
D Financing and economics WaveNet
than investors would obtain from a risk-free investment in the market, the project would
probably not be undertaken.
On the other hand, if the outcome of an investment if uncertain, the investors will need to
be offered the prospect of a higher rate of return to compensate for taking on the risk
involved. Clearly, the RRR on a project should reflect this. Therefore, the RRR on a
project should be equal to the risk-free rate plus a premium for risk. The size of the risk
premium will depend on the riskiness of the project and how investors as a group price
each unit of risk in terms of the additional return required. Information about risk and
return can be found by close examination of the behaviour of the capital markets. Since
the cost of funds is the rate that must be earned to satisfy investors, it is natural to look to
the market where these investors trade to provide an estimate of the cost of funds.
D 1.3 Risk in the capital markets

A companys risk manifests itself as variability in the returns it makes to shareholders.
Shareholders can reduce risk to themselves in two waysthey can avoid single shares,
which are risky, and they can reduce the risk of single shares by diversification (i.e.
pooling shares with different profiles of risk to form a portfolio). The risk of the portfolio
is less than a weighted average of the risk of the component investments, since
diversification reduces variability. Whilst investing in less risky investments will reduce
the expected return of the portfolio, diversification can reduce portfolio risk without a
consequent reduction in expected return.
The greatest possible risk reduction occurs when the portfolio includes investments in the
shares of all quoted companies, i.e. the market portfolio. However, not all risk is capable
of being diversified away and so the market portfolio does contain a significant element
of risk. The market portfolio, in terms of its risk reduction characteristics, can be easily
approximated by a portfolio of approximately 20 investments in different segments of the
stock market. This is because the risk reduction benefits of diversification arise rapidly
and most of the risk reduction effect is achieved with only a relatively small amount of
diversification.
D 1.3.1 Market risk and specific risk
Variability can be split into two partsmarket risk and specific risk.
Market risk is related to general market movements and is determined by the
extent to which a companys performance is affected by macro-economic factors
(e.g. the level of consumer demand, movements in exchange rates, corporate tax
rates, etc.). Diversification does not reduce market risk.
Specific risk arises from all those events that are specific to an individual
company and perhaps its immediate competitors (e.g. the quality of management,
the exposure to research and development risks, specific legislation, etc.).
Diversification reduces specific risk.
Some shares are very responsive to market conditions while others are relatively
unresponsive. Just how sensitive a share is to stock market movements is measured by its
coefficient, which is calculated by plotting the shares monthly returns against the
corresponding returns on the market index. Up to date estimates of equity are published
quarterly in the LBS Risk Management Service. Table D-1 shows estimates of equity
270
beta for the shares of a number of well-known companies. Equity generally lie in the
range of 0.5-1.5.
It is important to understand that an equity measures both the operating risk of a

company (an asset ), and the financial risk arising from that companys gearing (use of
debt finance). For a company financed solely from equity, the asset and equity will be
the same, but for a geared company the equity will be greater than the asset . This
distinction between asset and equity is important in relation to the use of values to
estimate an RRR on a project.
Company
Anglican Water 0.49
FKI 1.51
Avon Rubber 1.02
GEC 0.81
Babcock 1.33
GKN 1.23
BICC 1.08
Hansons 0.97
BOC Group 1.17
Howden Group 1.31
British Airways 1.17
Ibstock Johnson 1.49
British Gas 0.82
Johnson Matthey 1.42
British Petroleum 0.85
McAlpine 1.01
British Telecom 0.74
Manweb 1.00
Cable & Wireless 1.28
Northern Electricity 1.04
271
Cookson Group 1.54
RTZ 1.19
Dowding & Mills 0.65
Southern Water 0.66
Eastern Electricity 0.60
Taylor Woodrow 1.13
Enterprise Oil 1.17
Vickers 1.03
Table D-1 Equity of selected UK companies
D 1.3.2 Relevance of risk
The distinction between market risk and specific risk is crucial to an understanding of
required returns. Investors will not demand a higher return from shares that have above
average specific risk, since this can be costlessly eliminated by diversification. But they
will demand the prospect of a higher return from shares with above average market risk.
Market risk is the fundamental risk of British industry which shareholders as a group
have to bear.
This is equally true for individual investment projects within companies. Thus, a wave
power project will involve two types of risk.
Its market risk will depend on factors such as the extent to which electricity
demand varies with general economic conditions.
Its specific risk on the other hand will encompass a whole range of uncertainties
such as potential delays in bringing the plant on stream, cost escalation, technical
performance and so on.
Management should take account of the risks associated with all these uncertainties in the
appraisal of an investment. But only the projects market risk (measured by its ) should
be considered when it comes to setting the RRR.
An illustration of the difference between total risk of a companys equity and its market
risk is given in Table D-2.
Market Risk Total Risk

Company
(Equity ) (standard deviation/year)
Anglian Water 0.49 17 %
British Petroleum 0.85 25 %
British Steel 1.16 33 %
272
Eastern Electricity 0.79 21 %
Kelt Energy 1.25 90 %
Johnson Matthey 1.42 41 %
Northern Electricity 1.04 23 %
Southern Water 0.66 19 %
Taylor Woodrow 1.13 38 %
United Energy 1.05 169 %
Vickers 1.03 31 %
FTA INDEX 1.00 22 %
Table D-2 Market risk and total risk of selected UK companies
The Financial Times All-Share (FTA) Index had a total risk equivalent to a standard
deviation of 22 %. The difference between total risk and specific risk was most starkly
illustrated by a company such as United Energy. In terms of market risk this share is
1.05 times as risky as the index and so has a of 1.05. In terms of total risk, however, it
has a standard deviation which is 7.7 times that of the market. The difference lies in the
fact that most of the risk of holding of this share (its specific risk) can be diversified.
D 1.4 The capital asset pricing model

Once we have established a shares , we can calculate its cost of equity. For example, a
share with a of one would have the same market risk as the All-Share Index and should
therefore offer the same expected returns. A share with a of zero, on the other hand,
would be free of risk and should offer the risk-free interest rate. Generally, a greater
than one indicates that a share is riskier than the market portfolio and so should offer
greater returns, while a less than one indicates that the share is safer than the market
portfolio and so should offer lower returns.
The Capital Asset Pricing Model asserts that the cost of equity is given by
Cost of Equity = Interest rate + Expected Market Risk Premium
Equation D.1
This formula shows the return which can be expected from a comparatively risky
investment in the capital market. It formalises the earlier assertion that the return should
be equal to the risk free rate (to compensate for the time value of money) plus a premium
for unavoidable risk.
To calculate a projects cost of capital we therefore need three items of data
273
risk-free interest rate

project
market risk premium
D 1.4.1 Risk-free returns
Indexed-linked government bonds (indexed gilts) provide an estimate of the minimum

acceptable return on a marketable risk-free investment. These generated an annual real
return before tax of around 4 % per year over 10, 20, or 30 years, equating to a rate of
3 % net of personal tax at the basic rate. This figure must be the minimum RRR on a
project which involves no risk.
D 1.4.2 Project
The overall risk of the company, as measured by its equity , is a reflection of the assets
that it holds and its financial gearing. Each project may have a level of risk which is
different from the average of the company and this should be reflected in the selection of
RRRs on projects. If a company wide RRR is used to appraise projects then some higher-
risk projects will be wrongly accepted and some lower-risk projects will be incorrectly
rejected.
Since individual projects are not traded in the stock market, it is not possible to measure
their values directly. In trying to decide what beta a project has, it is useful to start from
the published figures, which will show the value of a typical risk project for the
company or sector. Then the difference of the project from this norm will have to be
determined. For example, projects which have a high proportion of fixed costs or which
are particularly sensitive to general economic conditions will generally have above
average betas. Cost savings exercises and preventative maintenance programmes on the
other hand tend to have below average betas.
In some cases, it is straightforward to evaluate the beta of the project. If, for example, the
project in question replicates the existing business of the company then the companys
equity should be used as the for the project (since the risk of the project is the same as
that of the company as a whole, assuming that the project is financed by the same
proportion of equity and debt as the company as a whole).
Published risk measures can be used to determine the risk of a project that is typical of its
industry. In this case the average for all firms within the industry can be adopted. Table
D-3 shows the risks of the main industrial groupings in the UK. They range from the
water industry with an average under 0.8 to mining finance with an average of over
1.2.
274
Industry Average
Contracting and construction 1.11
Electricity 0.89
Oil & Gas 0.85
Industrial plant engineers 0.99
Cement and concrete 1.04
Electrical 1.07
Mechanical engineering 1.14
Steels 1.15
Shipping 0.95
Table D-3 Values for Industries in Energy, Materials and Engineering Sectors
Of course, it is often not possible to find companies that operate only in a single industry,
so the estimates are contaminated to the extent that the operations of the comparison
group of companies include activities outside the industry of interest. Equity for similar
companies will also differ because of differences in gearing. Therefore, a considerable
element of judgement is involved in estimating project .
D 1.4.3 Market risk premium
Experience can be used as a guide to how much more investors are expecting to obtain
from investing in the equity market rather than in risk-free investments. It is necessary to
use a long period of data, since over short periods of time equity returns are so uncertain
that the average gives little clue as to the returns required ex-ante by shareholders.
The arithmetic average of annual gross returns on UK equities over the period 1955-1990
(based on the BZW Equity Index) was 9.7 %. These returns incorporate both dividend
and capital gains and are adjusted for retail price inflation. During this period, the annual
real returns from gilts was 0.5 %. The difference between these two returns provides an
estimate of the risk premium on UK equities, which in real terms is approximately 9 %.
The LBS Risk Measurement Service have also measured the average annual risk
premium at about 9 % over the same period using a different index. The estimate would
be similar if calculated net of personal income tax. Nor is the estimate significantly
affected by the choice of period; the corresponding figure for the period 1919-54 is 8 %.
Finally, the estimate of the risk premium is consistent with overseas evidence. For
example, Ibbotson Associates have calculated the market risk premium for US stocks as
approximately 9 % over the period from 1926 to 1986.
Therefore 9 % appears to be a reasonable estimate of the real after-tax risk premium on

UK equities.
275
D 1.5 RRR on a wave power project

The Required Rate of Return (RRR) on a wave power project will be given by its
Weighted Average Cost of Capital:
Interest
Return Proportion Proportion
RRR =
on equity of equity
+ rate on of debt
debt
Equation D.2
where the return on equity will be given by
Return on equity = Risk free interest rate + Market risk premium
Equation D.3
To assess the value of for a wave power project we draw upon a variety of industries,
particularly those in the energy, materials and engineering sectors as shown in Table D-4.
<0.8 0.8<<0.9 0.9<<1.0 1.0<<1.1 1.1<<1.2 >1.2

Oil & Gas
Water Industrial Electrical Chemicals Mining finance
plants
Rubbers Electricity Transport & Cement & Contracting & Motor

freight concrete construction components
Gold Food Industrial Textiles Aerospace Metallurgy

conglomerate
manufacturers s
Machine tools Telephone Motor vehicles Building

networks materials
Electronics Mechanical
engineering
Table D-4 Equity of the main UK industrial groupings
These equity betas lie in the range 0.85-1.15, while the gearing ratio for the industries
concerned lie in the range 20-30 %. The for a wave power project, with comparable
gearing, might be expected to lie within this range.
Therefore, it is suggested that a of 1 (the average of the range listed in Table D-3)
should be adopted as the equity for a wave project. This value of will only be
appropriate for a project with a gearing ratio comparable with the average for the above
industries i.e. about 25 %. However, the projects total cost of capital will not be
significantly affected by a change in the gearing ratio. For example, if a company were to
increase its gearing in order to take advantage of cheaper debt finance, then the cost of
equity would rise to reflect the increased financial risk.
The required return on equity then becomes
276
Return on equity = 3 + 1 9 = 12 %
Equation D.4
The cost of debt finance is likely to include a margin over and above the risk-free rate.
This will depend on a number of factors, including
the financial strength and status of the company,
the gearing ratio,
the lenders perspective of risk,
projected payback period.
A 2 % premium is assumed to apply to a wave power projects real after-tax cost of debt
finance to larger companies. The real after-tax cost of debt finance will then be 5 %. The
cost of debt finance for smaller companies might be 2 % higher.
If a company can borrow internationally in other currencies at lower interest rates than
are available in their native currency, it would incorrect to use these lower rates as the
cost of debt finance for native currency investments. This is because interest rates in
different countries are the same once the impact of foreign exchange transactions are
taken into account. So, taking out a contract that eliminates currency exchange risk and
borrowing in foreign currency has no benefit compared to borrowing in native currency.
Therefore, assuming a gearing ratio of 0.25 the projects total cost of capital becomes
Cost of capital = 12 0.75 + 5 0.25 = 10.3 %
Equation D.5
Thus, the real after-tax RRR on a wave power project should be at least 10 %. Pre-tax
returns would be higher.
D 1.6 RRR and discount rate

Discount rates used to estimate the present value of projects are based on the perceived
risk in a project. Typically, discount rates of 15 % apply to projects with technical risk,
whilst rates of 8 % apply to projects using mature technology. The discount rate that
should be used to compare costs of a technology should be based on the RRR associated
with that technologys risk, although sometimes higher returns are required if
contingencies are included in the business plan whether these are used or not. Neglecting
contingencies, the discount rate applicable to wave energy cost projections should be
around 10 %. The value of 8 % is used widely in this report and reflects a technology of
much greater maturity. These estimates therefore err on the side of lower costs and higher
market size. The use of 8 % therefore represents an optimistic scenario for wave energy.
277
D2 ECONOMICS OF WAVE ENERGY
Prepared by: Richard Boud, Tom Thorpe
D 2.1 Introduction
IMPORTANT - PLEASE READ THIS BOX FIRST!
This chapter asks the question - can wave energy ever be commercially competitive with
other forms of renewable energy? To answer this question it uses estimates of what the
capital and operating costs of wave energy devices might be in the future, assuming all
R&D challenges have been overcome, that economies of scale have been realised and
that efficiencies in production and operation due to the learning curve effect have been
achieved. The reason for asking this question was to enable government policy-makers
to decide whether or not to continue public funding of wave energy research. The current
state of wave energy technology is such that the first large-scale prototype devices are
presently being deployed. These devices are not expected to achieve energy capture
efficiencies as high, or capital and operating costs as low, as those presented in this
chapter. They are, however, the first step on the road to achieving these levels of
performance.
Wave energy converters have the typical pattern of renewable energy sources: high
investment cost and low running expenses. Despite the reduction in generating costs over
recent years, electricity from wave energy schemes is still more expensive that that from
large-scale, fossil fuel plants. Therefore, the financing of such projects is critical to their
viability. This has been addressed by the European Thematic Network on Wave Energy
in making Financing and Economic Issues one of its main Tasks.
One of the first issues facing the Task Group working in this area is to evaluate the
financing, economics and monetary issues for developing wave energy schemes,
including the internalisation of external costs. This will include a review the various
approaches used throughout Europe to support RES, an assessment of their applicability
to wave energy and a study of the financing of current demonstration schemes.
This chapter presents the findings of this review. After a brief evaluation of the current
market status for wave energy, the paper will review the various mechanisms for funding
other renewable energy technologies and assess their applicability to wave energy.
D 2.2 Potential market for wave energy

The first commercial and demonstration wave energy schemes are currently being built.
Therefore, wave energy is far from a mature technology. This makes it difficult to
estimate potential market. This Chapter presents the initial evaluation of the economics of
wave energy and the corresponding markets.
D 2.3 Economics of wave energy devices

There are very few, independent evaluations of the economics of wave energy schemes.
An example of the results from one of the very few detailed studies16 is listed in Table
D-5.
278
Shore line Ne a rshore Slope d IPS

OW C OW C Buoy
Unit Costs [/kW ] 2,240 1,680 1,920-3,200
O&M and Insurance Costs [/kW /year] 46 51 30
Availability [% ] 96 96 90
Annual Output [kW h/kW ] 3,680 4,000 4,800-8,000
Table D-5 Representative Cost and Performance Estimates for Wave Power
Devices*16
In order to provide more data for this Thematic Network Task, an evaluation has been
carried out of a number of devices that have already been built or for which there are
contracts in place. This gives a good estimate of the current economics of wave energy
but makes no allowance for potential future improvements. There are two sets of devices:
oscillating water columns (OWCs) for shoreline/nearshore deployment and offshore point
absorbers. Because of commercial sensitivity, these devices are currently depicted by
anonymous titles (e.g. OWC1, OWC2, PA1, PA2, etc.).
The cost of generation from wave energy is presented in terms of /kWh and is calculated
in the following manner
D 2.3.1 Capital costs
The capital cost of the wave energy devices is determined using a peer reviewed costing
model that has been developed over 13 years and which has been used on numerous
schemes by Future Energy Solutions and the UK Department of Trade and Industry17,18.
It comprises a spreadsheet, which employs a modular approach to define the four major
cost centres for any wave power scheme
Device structure
Mechanical and electrical planta
Electrical transmission
Transportation and installation.
The scheme is described by three sets of parameters
Project Parameters. These define the type, scale, location and time scale of the
project (e.g. device type, total output etc.)
Independent Parameters. These describe the location of the construction yard, area
for deployment and point of connection to the National Grid, as well as the water
depth and seabed condition at the device site.
Dependent Parameters. These can be deduced from the foregoing parameters by
algorithms or defaults. One example of an algorithm is how the device type, total
output and project duration would define the total number of devices, the number
to be built each year, and hence the size of the construction facility. Typical
*
A currency conversion rate of 1.6 to 1 has been used throughout this analysis.
a
All other parts associated with the operation of the device, these depend greatly on the nature of the
device
279
defaults would be the type of M&E plant or the amount of concrete used in
construction for each device type.
Costs are calculated by assigning default values to various parameters or algorithms
derived from them. This approach allows designs, which are in their early stages of
development to be assessed. However, for more developed designs, a What if facility
was incorporated in the spreadsheet, which permits the user to override the defaults used.
This allows the model to accommodate increasing levels of detailed design information
as and when the device developers can make it available.
It should be emphasised that the capital costs calculated in such a manor represent the
expected costs from large-scale deployment of full researched and mature wave energy
technologies. The capital costs of early schemes are expected to be much higher (possibly
by a factor of 2-3), because of a number of factors
Technical immaturity (learning curve benefits will follow)
Perceived risk (which will inflate the costs of the initial schemes)
Lack of economies of scale initially
Mobilization costs for small schemes are disproportionately high.
D 2.3.2 Availability
The system availability has been defined as the probability of the whole system
functioning at any specific time and is therefore taken to include the effects of scheduled
maintenance and breakdowns (i.e. both unforced and forced outages). In simple systems
requiring no maintenance, the fractional availability, A, can be calculated as
MTBF
A=
MTBF + MTTR
Equation D.6
where MTBF is the mean time between failures and MTTR is the mean time to repair a
failure.
A simple, spreadsheet-based availability model was developed for the previous UK

Review of Wave Energy17,18, which used failure rate and repair time data from a wide
range of sources to predict the availability. The model also predicts the repair loading,
which is the number of hours repair activity required for each hour of the schemes
operation. For instance, a repair loading of 10 hours/hour implied that 10 repair crews
were required to work full-time (24 hours per day) or 30 repair crews were required to
work normal eight-hour shifts. Two types of repair loading were calculated
Active Repair Time. This covered the time actually spent at the various fault sites
carrying out the repairs.
Active Plus Transit Repair Time. This covered not only the active repair time
outlined above but also the time spent reaching the fault location. For failures in
offshore items, this included both the time required for a repair ship to reach the
fault location and any delays which could arise from waiting for a suitable
weather window.
280
D 2.3.3 Operation and maintenance costs
Good maintenance procedures are essential if any energy technology is to perform

successfully. However, in addition to this planned maintenance there will be other,
unscheduled outages due to component failure. Therefore, any estimation of annual O&M
costs has to encompass both these aspects. This assessment evaluates four main
components of O&M costs.
Cost of Spares. These are the costs associated with providing spares to replace
faulty equipment. In order to ensure that the wave power scheme has an adequate
supply of replacement parts, it has been assumed that M&E spares sufficient for
one year would be held. A simple estimate of the one-off cost associated with
complete replacement of equipment failing during one years operation was
obtained from multiplying failure rates by replacement costs. The annual number
of failures of each major M&E and transmission subsystem was derived from the
MTBF calculated in the availability assessment. The capital cost associated with
each subsystem was calculated using the parametric capital cost model.
Repair Costs. In practice, the faulty equipment replaced by the spares in the
paragraph above would be repaired and used as spares in the future. This would
entail an additional repair cost which would be some fraction of the above figure.
For the purposes of the review, this fractional replacement cost factor for M&E
plant was taken to be 10 % of the capital costs obtained from the parametric
capital cost model.
Operational Costs. These are the costs associated with providing maintenance
crews and vessels to enable repairs to be carried out. The availability assessment
provided an estimation of the number and types of repair crews required to
provide the level of availability for each device as calculated in Section D 2.3.2.
The parametric capital cost model provided data on manpower costs, vessel hire
rates etc.
Insurance Costs were taken to be 1-2 % of capital costs per annum.
D 2.3.4 Annual output
The average annual output has been determined in four main steps.
Available Wave Power. The amount of wave energy available for capture has a
strong influence on the amount of energy any device can generate. It is a function
of location, water depth and local seabed topography and has been studied for a
number of locations (see Figure D-10).
Captured Wave Power. The efficiency with which a particular device captures
wave power is a function of the sea state. Most devices have been tested in wave
tanks to determine this aspect of their performance. In those cases where no such
data are available, theoretical analysis had to be used. The applicability of such
data to the performance of full-size devices is an area of uncertainty.
Maximum Annual Output. The amount of energy delivered to the grid from a
particular device in a given sea state depends on the losses in the power chain
(turbines, generators, rectifiers, transformers, transmission lines etc.). Data exist
on the relative losses as a function of power level and rating of electrical
equipment but often the performance of mechanical plant had to be estimated
from theoretical assessments.
Actual Annual Output. The amount of energy predicted by the above calculations
assumes that the wave energy scheme functions continuously (i.e. without
281
failure). In practice there will be periods of reduced output due to breakdown and
maintenance and an availability model was developed to model these and their
effect on electrical output, as outlined above.
D 2.3.5 Generating costs
There are three main factors which make up the annual running cost of any power
stationfuel, repayment of capital costs and payment of recurrent costs such as insurance
and O&M.
The annual sum involved in repayment of the capital cost of a wave power scheme can be
assessed in a number of ways. The approach adopted here was that used in previous
appraisals, namely amortisation of the capital costs over the complete lifetime of the
scheme using various discount rates. Therefore, if a scheme can be built in one year for a
capital cost of C , then the annual sum repaid ( Ann ) at a discount rate ( r ) is given by
Cr
Ann =
[
1 (1 + r ) n ]
Equation D.7
where n is the lifetime of the project (in years). Therefore, for such a simple scheme, the
cost of electricity ( E ) is given by
Ann + O & M Costs

E=
Annual Output
Equation D.8
The capital cost is discounted over the lifetime of the project at 8 % discount rate. This is
in keeping with the practice long adopted in the UK Department of Trade and Industrys
programme on Renewable Energya, which assesses generating costs at 8 % and 15 %
discount rate. An assessment of the likely discount rate is made in Section D 1.6, which
indicates that a discount rate of 10 % is more likely. In practice, the test discount rate
applied will vary with the source of finance. Future Energy Solutions from AEA
Technology has carried out due diligence on a variety of wave energy schemes for a
range of potential investors. The test discount rates used by the investors ranged from
10 %-25 % over 10-20 years.
D 2.3.6 Shoreline and near shore OWCs
Three different types of OWC were evaluated for both shoreline and nearshore
deployment. Since the costs and output are site specific, these results should be taken as
indicative and not representative of the optimum location of each device. In particular,
siting OWCs in hot spots can significantly enhance its economic performance.
a
Previously the Department of Trade and Industry New and Renewable Energy Programme and before that
the Department of Energy New and Renewable Energy Programme
282
While the capital cost breakdown for these OWCs are very similar (Figure D-1), the
capital costs per unit rating (/kW) are very different (Figure D-2). However, as noted
above, these devices are not optimised, so the ratings of their mechanical and electrical
(M&E) plant might not be the best for the selected locations. This view is supported
when the cost are expressed in terms of unit output (i.e. /MWh/year)the average
deviation is less than half that found in cost per unit rating (24 %-56 %).
Contingencies,
etc.
Electrical
transmission
Average
OWC1
M&E equipment
OWC2
OWC3
Site preparation
and installation
Civil
0% 20% 40% 60%

Percentage of capital cost
Figure D-1 Capital Cost Breakdown for OWCs
Average
OWC3
/(MWh/y)
/kW
OWC2
OWC1
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

Capital Cost per Unit Output [/kW or /(MWh/y)]
Figure D-2 Comparison of Capital Cost per Unit Output and Rating for OWCs
283
This comparison suggests that more confidence can be placed in costs when expressed in
terms of output. Therefore, it is this range of values, which will be used in assessing the
market.
The likely generating costs of the OWCs were calculated as a function of the average
offshore wave power level (taking a representative range of transformation of offshore to
nearshore/shoreline wave power levels). The range of resulting generating costs is shown
in Figure D-3. The predicted characteristics of a number of OWCs in representative
locations have been listed in Table D-6, so that the reader can apply their own economic
analysis.
0.15
Range of electricity costs [/kWh]
0.10
0.05
0.00
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Average offshore wave power level [kW/m]
Figure D-3 Range of Likely Generating Costs for OWCs (@8 % Discount Rate)
Ca pita l cost Output Annua l cost
[m ] [GW h/ye a r] []
OW C1 57.3 99.3 1,780,960
OW C2 2.1 1.9 41,280
OW C3 11.3 23.2 160,000
Table D-6 Summary of OWC characteristics in representative locations
D 2.3.7 Offshore devices
There are three, very different types of offshore point absorber currently being deployed
(Devices 1-3), each designed for a different location and ranging in size from under
100 kW to over 5 MW. In addition, there are two other point absorbers currently at the
design stagethe PS Frog and the Sloped IPS Buoy18.
Since the costs and output are site specific, these results should be taken as indicative
and not representative of the optimum location of each device.
The capital cost breakdown for these devices are very different (Figure D-4), reflecting
the disparate technologies and size of device. The capital costs per unit rating (/kW) are
also different (Figure D-5). However, as noted above, these devices are not optimised, so
the ratings of their mechanical and electrical (M&E) plant might not be the best for the
284
selected locations. This view is supported when the cost are expressed in terms of unit
output (i.e. /MWh/year), as also shown in Figure D-5the average deviation is less than
half that found in cost per unit rating (26 % v 57 %).
This comparison suggests that more confidence can be placed in costs when expressed in
terms of output. Therefore, it is this range of values, which will be used in assessing the
market.
Contingencies,
etc.
Electrical
Average
transmission
Device 1
M&E Device 2
equipment Device 3
Sloped IPS
Site preparation
and installation PS Frog
Civil
0% 20% 40% 60%

Proportion of total capital cost
Figure D-4 Capital cost breakdown for Point Absorbers
Average
Device 1
/(MWh/y)
Device 2
/kW
Device 3
Sloped IPS
PS Frog
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000

Capital cost per unit output [/kW or /(MWh/y)]
Figure D-5 Comparison of cost per unit output and rating for Point Absorbers
285
The likely generating costs of the point absorbers were calculated as a function of the
average offshore wave power level. The range of resulting generating costs is shown in
Figure D-6. The predicted characteristics of a number of offshore devices in
representativea locations have been listed in Table D-7, so that the reader can apply their
own economic analysis. It should be noted that there are other offshore devices that
appear to have lower predicted generating costs (when assessed by the same
methodology) but they were at an early stage in their development when this analysis was
carried out and so have been excluded.
0.18
0.16
0.14
Electricity cost [/kWh]
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
20 30 40 50 60 70
Average wave power level [kW/m]
Figure D-6 Range of Likely Generating Costs for Point Absorbers (@8 % Discount
Rate)
Ca pita l cost Output Annua l cost
[m ] [GW h/ye a r] []
Device1 47.3 43.4 1,514,080
Device2 42.0 55.5 923,040
MW P 16.5 22.5 496,800
Sloped IPS 56.2 103.6 1,299,680
PS Frog 18.5 45.7 92,320
Table D-7 Summary of offshore device characteristics in representative locations.
D 2.3.8 Development of wave energy
The devices evaluated above represent a considerable improvement on the devices

developed as part of the original UK Wave Energy Programme until 198219. This is
shown by the lower costs per unit output in Figure D-7.
a
Representative of the location for which the energy assessment was made and to for which the device was
designed.
286
Point Absorbers (Average)
New OWCs (Average)

New Devices
Bristol Cylinder 1992 Review

/(MWh/year)
/kW
Edinburgh Duck
SEA Clam
NEL OWC
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000

Cost per unit output [/kW and /(MWh/year)]
Figure D-7 Improvement in Wave Energy Devices
The same methodology used above for calculating generating costs was applied to a
range of devices designed from 1982 onwards16,18,20. The resulting improvements in
economics with time are illustrated in Figure D-8 and Figure D-9.
50
45
Range of electricity costs [c/kWh]
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1982 1991 2001
Year of design
Figure D-8 Development of Generating Costs for OWCs (@8 % Discount Rate)
287
55
50
Range of electricity costs [c/kWh]

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1982 1986 1991 2001
Year of Design
Figure D-9 Development of Generating Costs for Offshore Devices (@8 % Discount
Rate)
The source of the cost reductions for 1982-1991 are described in the 1991 UK Wave
Energy Review. The analyses carried out in that review highlighted some significant
problem areas associated with each particular device. The review looked at these problem
areas andwith the approval of the device developerssuggested solutions. The impact
of these solutions was then evaluated. These problem areas could be with the capital cost
(as in the case for the SEA Clam, which was resolved by changing the construction
material from welded tubular steel to concrete). However, they were mainly associated
with availability.
The cost reductions post 1991 have derived from a number of sources
Devices have become smaller in rating. The UK Wave energy Programme
developed devices which were multi-megawatt, with large capital costs arising
from significant problems involved in construction and deployment. Since then,
device developers have followed the trends in wind energy and started small,
which reduced construction problems and eased deployment.
Devices benefiting from technical developments elsewhere. There are ongoing
developments in the areas of civil construction, hydraulics, electrical generation
and transmission that are transferable to wave energy. This allows device
developers to use cheaper, more efficient construction methods and components.
An illustration of this is that all the devices developed in the UK Wave Energy
Programme required significant R&D before they could be deployed even as
prototypes21. In contrast, Ocean Power Delivery intends to construct its Pelamis
wave energy device using off the shelf components thus avoiding the need to do
R&D for some of the sub-system components.
Learning curve. It is sometimes forgotten that the activities undertaken between
1975 and 1990 marked the beginning of a whole range of technical developments
that are associated with wave energy; it marked the birth of a new science (so to
say). Understanding of these various areas has continued to progress. This has had
288
implications for improvements in the design of wave energy devices. This is

illustrated by the design of offshore devices, which have moved away from large
monoliths towards smaller, highly efficient devices, many of which now function
as point absorbers.
However, as noted earlier, these cost predictions (and associated reductions) assume that
the devices achieve their full potential and benefit from economies of scaleprototypes
and the first schemes will have higher generating costs than indicated in Figure D-8 and
Figure D-9.
These predicted cost reductions are similar to those in other new, renewable energy
technologies; for instance, in the USA The cost of energy from wind has decreased from
more than $0.35/kilowatt-hour (kWh) in the seventies to less than $0.05/kWh today22.
D 2.4 The market for wave energy

As emphasised before, the above results are indicative; actual device costs and output
will vary with wave power level and location (e.g. distance offshore). These variations
have been modelled for the new class of OWCs and point absorbers in order to evaluate
their likely market.
D 2.4.1 Global wave power levels
The global wave power resource is taken to be the power intercepted by a line along the
coasts of countries facing the major oceans (i.e. it avoids assuming advanced schemes
such as devices strung out in mid-ocean and it ignores the resource in small seas such as
the Mediterranean). The wave power levels around most of the world are known only
approximately. The available information has been drawn together and is reproduced in
Figure D-10. On the basis of this information, the global wave energy resource in deep
water is ~1.3 TWa.(ignoring those coastlines with very low wave power levels). This
figure is close to previous estimates of this resource23. It could be increased if lines of
wave energy devices were deployed in stages across the major oceans but (at present) the
costs of transmitting electricity from such remote locations would be prohibitive.
30
40
50
75
60
50= 60
20 40
40
15
30 20
20
10
10 15 10
20
15 20
20 15
40
30
40 40 30
40 25 40 70
50
50
30 70
70
Figure D-10 Approximate Distribution of Wave Power Levels
a
1 TW (terawatt) is equivalent to 1,000,000,000,000 kW.
289
D 2.4.2 The technical wave energy resource
The Technical Resource is taken to be the total amount of electricity that can be
converted from wave energy regardless of economics. This value will take into account
various factors, including
Variation of wave power level
Capture efficiency
Losses in the power chain (including transmission losses)
Availability
Limitations of density of deployment arising from sociological and ecological
factors (e.g. allowance for shipping, fishing, etc.).
It is assumed that wave energy devices are unlikely to be deployed unless there are at
least moderate offshore wave power levels (i.e. 10 kW/m or greater). Whilst this might
appear to be a low threshold value, some devices are designed to work best in conditions
of low but constant swell, representative of low average annual wave power levels. The
electrical output from the various devices evaluated in the last section was determined for
a range of wave power levels and conservative assumptions were made concerning the
maximum deployment density. The demand for wave energy was assumed to depend on
the population density using very conservative estimates
High population density would allow one scheme every 5 kilometres
Medium population density would require one scheme every 10 kilometres
Low population density would require one scheme every 100 kilometres.
These deployment densities were reduced by a further factor of 10 for
shoreline/nearshore OWCs.
Depending on the device, the Technical Resource for shoreline/nearshore OWCs varied
from 5-20 TWh/year. This corresponds to a potential global market of 400 m-1,600 m.
Depending on the device, the Technical Resource for offshore point absorbers varied
from 140-750 TWh/year. This corresponds to a potential global market of
100 b-800 ba.
D 2.4.3 The economic wave energy resource
The Economic Wave Energy Resource is lower than the Technical resource, because it
takes into account whether the device is economically competitive with other forms of
electricity generation.
All the devices studied above were found to be economically competitive for either
primary or secondary electricity supply, depending on the wave power level. At present,
these findings are commercially sensitive and their release would have to be agreed with
the device developers. Therefore, in order to present a realistic view of the likely
economic potential, the Economic Resource has been defined for each device as the
Technical Resource for various cut-off wave power levels (i.e. the offshore wave power
levels at which the various devices would become economic).
a
1 b corresponds to 1,000,000,000.
290
The results for the shoreline/nearshore wave power devices are shown in Figure D-11 and
Figure D-12. Since most of these devices start to become economically competitive at
offshore wave power levels of 40 kW/m and above, the likely Economic Resource is
1,000 m-6,000 m.
The results for the offshore wave power devices are shown in Figure D-13 and Figure
D-14. Since some of these devices also start to become economically competitive at
offshore wave power levels of 30 kW/m and above, the Economic Resource could be as
high as 50 b-280 b.
12
Technical output [TWh/year]
10
0
20 30 40 50
Economic wave power level cut-off level [kW/m]

Economic Resource
12
10
Global market [b]
0
20 30 40 50
Economic wave power cut-off level [kW/m]
Figure D-12 Effect of Offshore Wave Power Level on Shoreline/Nearshore Market
291
600
Technical output [TWh/year]

500
400
300
200
100
0
20 30 40 50
Economic wave power cut-off level [kW/m]
Figure D-13 Effect of Offshore Wave Power Level on Offshore Economic Resource
600
500
Global market [b]
400
300
200
100
0
20 30 40 50
Economic wave power cutoff level [kW/m]
Figure D-14 Effect of Offshore Wave Power Level on Offshore Market
D 2.5 Market status of wave energy

D 2.5.1 EU activities
Technologies for extracting energy from waves are currently being developed in several
European countries: Denmark, Eire, Greece, the Netherlands, Portugal and the UK. Other
countries (France, Germany and Spain) have a suitable wave energy resources, which
could be exploited using these technologies.
The development work is being undertaken by both Governments and private industry
(primarily SMEs). Table D-8 shows a summary of the main European SMEs and
292
organisations active in the commercial development of a wave energy device. Those

companies marked with an asterisk (*) have either deployed demonstration schemes or
have developed plans for deployment of full size devices in the next two years.
In addition to these, there are numerous academic establishments that make a substantial
contribution to this technology as well as important, government supported programmes
in Denmark, Portugal and the UK.
Sufficient manufacturing capability exists within the EU to make it self-sufficient for this
technology, although there is likely to be trading/technology transfer between EU
countries and exports to non-EU countries as the technology approaches
commercialisation. However, use has already been made of cheaper construction costs in
former CIS states for a demonstration scheme by an EU company to be deployed in
Portugal.
D 2.5.2 Activities outside EU
The last few years has seen a considerable increase in wave energy outside the EU. There
have been government programmes in China, India and Japan. However, most of the
activity has taken place in industry (see Table D-9). This varies from several companies
offering off-the-shelf wave energy devices at a small scale up to several companies
engaged in commercial demonstration schemes of larger scale devices (the latter are
marked with an asterisk, *).
Whilst lagging many years behind Europe in wave energy, some of the overseas
companies are very active in this area (in both a technical and commercial sense) and are
likely to have commercial schemes deployed before most European companies.
293
Country Company Address Tel No Fax No Web site or emaill

address
Denmark KN Consult ApS, Kolding, Jernbanegade +45 75 50 91 04 +45 75 50 91 94 www.kn-

32A, 6000 Kolding consult@vip.cybercit
y.dk.
Waveplane Tagesmindevej 1, DK +45 3975 1213 +45 3975 1214 www.waveplane.com

International A/S 2820 Gentofte
EMU Consult Blegdamsvej 41. +45 3536 0219 +45 3537 4537 www.emu-consult.dk
tv.DK- 2200
Copenhagen
Eire Hydam Ltd* White Lodge, +353-2956064

Ballymaquirke,
Kanturk, Co. Cork
DuQuense Blessington, Co. +353-45865233 +353-45891271

Environmental Ltd. Wicklow
Greece DAEDALUS 22 Ikarias str., Glyfada +30-19643 355 +30-19627 444 www.daedalus.gr
Informatics Ltd 16675, Athens
CRES +301 603 9900 glemon@cres.gr
Netherlands AWS B.V.* De Weel 20, 1736 KB +31-226423411 +31-226423433 teamwork@multiweb.

Zijdewind nl
Portugal INETI* +351-1712 7201 +351-1712 7195 teresa.pontes@mail.in

eti.pt
Sweden Interproject Service Gripensns S-640 +46-15770380 +46-15770303

AB* Bettna
Sea Power Odengatan 7, 114 24 +46-8-100656 +46-8-109069 www.seapower.se/i

International AB* STOCKHOLM
Oceanor N-7462 Trondheim, +47 73 54 52 00 +47 73 54 52 01. oblea.oceanor.no
UK Ocean Power 2 Commercial St, +44-1315548444 44-1315548544 www.oceanpd.com

Delivery Ltd* Edinburgh, EH6 6JA,
Scotland, UK
Wavegen* 50 Seafield Road, +44-1463238094 +44-1463238096 www.wavegen.co.uk

Longman Industrial
Estate, Inverness, IV1
1LZ
Table D-8 Main SMEs and Governmental Establishments Active in Deploying Wave
Energy in Europe
294
Country Company Address Tel No. Fax No. Web site or

emaill
address
Australia Energetech Pty. 100 Frenchmans Road, +61-293264237 +61-293264237 www.energetech.co
Ltd* Randwick 2031 m.au
SDE Energy & 19 Lubetkin St., Tel-
Israel Desalination Ltd. Aviv, Israel 67532 +972-37397107 +972-36319239 www.beacon.co.il/S
DE/
Japan Ryokuseisha Export Marketing div. +81-335424751 81-3-3542-4757 www.ryokusei.co.jp

Corporation 15-14, Tsukiji 2-
Chome, Chuoku,
Tokyo 104
Japan Takenaka 1-13, 4-chome, +81-662521201 +81-662710398 www.takenaka.co.jp

Corporation Hommachi, Chuo-ku,
Osaka 541-0053
Japan JAMSTEC
Switzerland ATI Alternative Tsstalstrasse 345, +41-55-245 22 21 41-55-2452221

Technological CH-8496 Steg
Innovation Ltd,
USA Ocean Power 1590 Reed Road, 001-6097300400 001-6097300404 gtaylor@oceanpowe

Technologies* Pennington, NJ 08534 rtech.com
USA Ocean Motion 525 Kern Ave., Morro

International Bay, CA 93442)
USA Ocean Wave 2 Rhode Island 001-4012534488 http://www.owec.co

Energy Company Avenue, Providence, m/
RI 02906
USA Kepler Buoy 250 D South Lyon 001-8013709977 www.jeffry.com/tec

Avenue # 216, Hemet, hnology/bwt/avail_n
California [ 92543 ] ow/kepler.htm
USA Eberle Energy 1351 Westpark Way, 001-2146306751

Enterprises Euless, Texas 76040
Table D-9 Main Non-European Companies Active in Deploying Wave Energy

Devices
D 2.5.3 Implementation support measures in the EU
After the run down of the national programmes of the 1970s and 1980s, the principal
support measures used to encourage wave energy development by the EU have been
Wave studies leading to the development of a resource evaluation methodology
and a wave energy atlas;
Generic technical evaluation studies of wave energy converters;
Development of a European pilot plant on the Azores (together with assorted
M&E plant);
Establishing a European wave energy research network.
Now, two countries are providing further implementation support
Denmark. Following its support of the DWP float-pump device, the Danish
Government has established a wave energy programme to support research into
other wave energy devices.
295
UK. Within the last year, wave energy has received direct funding from the UK
Government for specific R&D activities which has been supplemented by the EU
Joule programme. The UK Government will cease further funding of the
programme once current commitments end in 1997. Wave energy does not
receive NFFO or SRO support as yet.
Therefore, there no support measures to report other than the backing of R&D by the EU
and Governments.
D 2.6 Environmental economics

Prepared by: Richard Boud, Tom Thorpe, Future Energy Solutions
D 2.6.1 Introduction
Another factor affecting the economics of wave energy (and other renewables) is
potential environmental cost. Renewable energy technologies are currently at a
disadvantage compared to conventional methods of electricity generation. The latter can
cause environmental damage to a wide range of receptors, including human health,
natural ecosystems and the built environment. Such damages are referred to as external
costs or externalities, because they are not reflected in the market price of energy.
Traditional economic assessment has ignored externalities. However, there is a growing
interest in adopting a more sophisticated approach involving the quantification of the
environmental and health impacts of energy use and their related external costs. This is
being driven by factors such as the need to integrate environmental concerns when
choosing between different fuels and energy technologies and the increased attention to
the use of economic instruments for environmental policy (making the polluter pay). As a
result, there has been an increasing recognition of the importance of external costs and
the need to incorporate them in policy and decision making within the European Union.
This led the European Commission to fund a major R&D Research Programme (known
as the ExternE Project) to attempt to use a consistent bottom-up approach to evaluate
external costs associated with energy use24.
The results of the first phase of the project (Table D-10) show indicative external costs
from the fossil-fuel generating technologies. In addition to the values in Table D-10, there
is also the contribution of fossil-fuel cycles to global warming. There is considerably
greater uncertainties associated with these values but they are likely to be similar in
magnitude to those listed in Table D-10 (i.e. giving a total of more than 3 /kWh US).
If these external costs are incorporated into the generating costs for conventional
technologies, they will increase the economic competitiveness of wave energy devices.
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Damage* (US /kWh)
Coal Oil Gas
Public health 1.28 1.41 0.27
Occupational health 0.20 0.06 0.01
Crops 0.00 0.01 0.00
Timber 0.00 0.01 0.00
Marine ecosystems 0.00 0.03 0.00
Materials 0.06 0.09 0.01
Noise 0.03 0.03 0.00
Sub-total 1.54 1.66 0.17
Other Impacts - - -
* Excludes global warming, whose inclusion is likely to double the values (at least).
Table D-10 Indicative estimates of external costs for fossil-fuel cycles
D 2.6.2 Environmental effects of wave energy
Wave energy devices produce no gaseous, liquid or solid emissions and hence, in normal
operation, wave energy is virtually a non-polluting source. However, the deployment of
wave power schemes could have a varied impact on the environment. Some of the effects
may be beneficial and some potentially adverse. These will be assessed with reference to
a typical nearshore device, the OSPREY. In general, these impacts will be greatly
reduced for floating offshore devices and increased for shore-based devices.
D 2.6.3 Near-shore devices
The limited experience with wave power schemes makes it possible to form only an
incomplete picture of possible environmental effects caused by wave power devices. This
is reflected in Table D-11, which summarises potential impacts. Many of the potential
impacts would be site-specific and could not be evaluated until a location for the wave
energy scheme is chosen. The main effects that wave devices may have are discussed
below, together with areas of uncertainty with our present level of knowledge.
Hydrodynamic environment
Wave energy converters may have a variety of effects on the wave climate, patterns of
vertical mixing, tidal propagation and residual drift currents. The most pronounced effect
is likely to be on the wave regime. A decrease in incident wave energy could influence
the nature of the shore and shallow sub-tidal area and the communities of plants and
animals they support. Fixed structures such as the OSPREY are more likely to alter the
wave climate than floating devices.
Previous modelling work in this area is limited, although modelling carried out for the
assessment of wave energy converters off the coast of the Outer Hebrides indicated that
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devices tuned to medium period waves and sited less than 30 km offshore would reduce
wave steepness at the shore and affect the sedimentary budget, favouring accretion25.
However, the extent of this accretion may be minimal as material available for
mobilisation may be limited.
Environmental Effect Size
Construction/maintenance sites S
Recreation S
Coastal erosion S-M
Sedimentary flow patterns S
Navigation hazard S
Fish & marine biota S
Acoustic noise S
Endangered species S
Device/mooring damage S-M
Key: Ssmall, Mmedium, Llarge
Table D-11 Possible environmental impacts of near-shore wave energy devices
Changes to the wave regime along the shoreline would change the composition of the
shoreline and possible near shore sub-tidal communities. Any large-scale scheme would
require a full feasibility study to determine the effects on sedimentary processes within
the region and the flora and fauna typical of the region.
Devices as artificial habitats
Interactions between devices and the marine environment are made more complex by the
fact that the devices would represent new habitats. Offshore oil and gas installations
provide attachment surfaces for a variety of algae and invertebrates, so wave energy
converters would be colonised by fouling organisms. The species recruited to these sites
would depend on the species communities within the vicinity of the device, distance
offshore, water depth and clarity, prevailing weather conditions and position relative to
coastal currents and the speed of those currents26. There would be a seasonal factor
involved in the build up of this community with the main build up of fouling extending
from about April to November.
It is inevitable that anti-fouling measures would be necessary where, for instance,

attached organisms cause changes in corrosion and fatigue behaviour, hinder inspection
and maintenance, etc. Fouling prevention measures specific to wave energy converters
have yet to be developed, but could include the use of anti-fouling paints or direct
injection of biocides. Fouling of seawater conduits at coastal power stations has been
controlled by injection or electrolytic generation of chlorine. Due to the effects of
dilution, it is not clear if the use of this measure at a more open sea location might be
environmentally harmful. Certainly chronic impacts may result if the chlorine was
allowed to react to form chlorinated organics that tend to bioaccumulate and persist in the
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environment, although this would appear to be unlikely in open waters. There are
numerous options for the removal of marine fouling, each of which has its relative merits.
None of these poses any significant environmental problem although some (e.g. high-
pressure jets) could be hazardous to the user.
Artificial structures can be very effective in concentrating pelagic fish depending on such
factors as water clarity (i.e. visible range of the structure), distance offshore and depth,
which influence the species likely to be available. It is nevertheless probable that if fish
were to use such structures for shelter, fish eating seabirds and marine mammals would
be attracted to device arrays. Both these aspects could enhance opportunities for local
employment by increased fishing and tourism.
There is a need to consider what would happen to the wave converter arrays at the end of
their working life. Relinquishing seabed mounted devices to natural erosion or reducing
them to rubble on the seabed would cause a permanent alteration to the inshore
environment; they would in effect become reefs. Construction of artificial reefs to
increase habitat diversity of an area of seabed and attract fish is a widely used technique
globally, although it is still in its infancy in the UK27. However, diversity is not always an
attribute when assessing the marine conservation of an area and the influence of artificial
reefs on the population of marine creatures can be unpredictable and vary from species to
species28. Creation of reefs may also affect the ability to fish an area using trawl nets, due
to snagging of nets on submerged structures. Nevertheless, the overall environmental
influence of such reefs is likely to be positive, providing they are not situated in
environmentally sensitive or important areas.
Noise
Wave energy devices are likely to be noisy especially in rough conditions. Noise travels
long distances underwater and this may have implications for the navigation and
communication system of certain animals principally seals and cetaceans. It is thought
unlikely that cetaceans would be affected as much of the noise likely to be generated is
below the threshold hearing level (frequency) for dolphins. Whales use a number of
wavelengths for communication and sonar. Simple experimental evidence could be
derived using hydrophones to measure both whale and device sound spectrum in order to
determine if there are any areas of overlap, which may cause interference to, whales.
Whales and dolphins manage to miss most barriers placed in the water, except possibly
for fine monofilament nets, which would obviously not be used in wave energy devices.
However, care needs to be exercised that the devices do not cause interruptions to
migratory pathways or breeding grounds. The degree of such interruptions is likely to be
matched by the size of the device and would most likely to be a problem if long lengths
(tens of kilometres) of wave energy converters were deployed.
Noise levels from near shore (and shoreline) devices may potentially constitute a
nuisance on the shore. However, when the device is fully operational the device noise is
likely to be masked by the noise of the wind and waves, providing adequate sound
baffling is used.
Navigational hazards
Wave energy devices may be potential navigational hazards to shipping as their low
freeboard could result in their being difficult to detect visually or by radar. Detailed
recording of the positions of devices together with proper marking of devices using lights
and transponders should minimise this risk. In large arrays, navigational channels would
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have to be allowed for. Many of the areas proposed for wave energy devices, around
European coasts are in major shipping channels and hence there is always an element of
risk of collision. The result, for example, of an oil tanker colliding with an array may
have consequences for colonies of seabirds in the locality.
Visual effects
In some areas, the water depth required by the near shore devices might be attained only a
few hundred yards offshore with consequent intrusion into the seascape. In these cases, it
has been proposed that the power cables reach the land by catenary (rather than being
submerged on the seabed) and access for maintenance crews by walkway or cable car
(rather than by boat). Such schemes may be particularly sensitive in areas of designated
coastline and those used for recreational purposes. Some near shore devices may prove to
be obstacles for some forms of recreation and are likely, therefore, to be unpopular with
local authorities in these regions. Considerable work is now being done by national and
local authorities and voluntary organisations, to examine the issue of coastal zone
management and it may be necessary to plan for the future inclusion of wave power in
management plans developed.
Leisure amenity
Wave energy devices could have an effect on some forms of recreation. The precise
effect would vary with the type of recreation (e.g. sub-aqua diving and water skiing might
benefit from the shelter provided by these devices but sailing and wind surfing might
suffer).
Device construction
Other major impacts of wave energy conversion on the natural environment would result
from the construction and maintenance of devices and any general associated
development. Many of these implications are unlikely to be peculiar to wave energy
devices but it is essential that they are taken into account in the environmental assessment
process. It is probable that existing shipyard sites would be used with minimal additional
environmental impact.
Conversion and transmission of energy
Transmission lines are required to transfer the electricity generated to the places it is
required. Initially cables are likely to run on the seabed and, although laying underground
may be possible on particular shorelines, the cost implications suggest that overhead lines
may be required with the consequent problems of visual intrusion in areas of high
landscape value.
On certain shorelines which may hold significant populations of waterfowl, overhead

transmission lines can have an effect on the mortality of certain species, especially large
migratory species which have limited manoeuvrability. Most collisions appear to occur
where lines intersect flyways between roosting and feeding grounds.
D 2.6.4 Environmental effects of the prototype device
An environmental assessment of an OWC prototype device off Dounreay in Scotland has

been carried out29. In general the assessment indicated few environmental impacts for the
scheme, although this could change if more than one device were to be built there. The
main impacts anticipated were as follows
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Local fisheriesWhilst the area is of little importance for commercial fishing

(i.e. it is neither an area for trawling nor a spawning/nursery ground) it supports a
creel fishery. The device could lead to loss of access, especially during the
installation phase.
Sediment disturbanceThere was insufficient information on the behaviour of
sediments at these water depths to allow for a quantitative assessment of the likely
disturbance. Nevertheless, it was considered unlikely that there would be any
significant build up of sediment in area of reduced wave activity behind the
device.
Visual impactThe assessment was carried out on an earlier design of device
and concluded that the device would not be particularly intrusive to the existing
view in daylight or at night time. However, since then the device has undergone
further development. To comply with Northern Lighthouse Board requirements, it
would have been painted yellow and fitted with a revolving yellow light with a
range of 2-3 miles. In addition, the design was to incorporate a wind turbine.
These features would have significantly increased the visual impact of the device.
However, it was to be located close to the existing Dounreay Nuclear
establishment and so the marginal visual impact is likely to be minimal.
D 2.6.5 Emissions
Unlike conventional fossil fuel technologies, wave energy produces no greenhouse gases
or other atmospheric pollutants whilst generating electricity. However, emissions do arise
from other stages in its life cycle (i.e. during the chain of processes required to
manufacture, transport, construct and install the wave energy plant and transmission
equipment). Emissions from these stages need to be evaluated if a fair comparison of
emissions from fossil fuel based generation and wave energy generation is to be made.
For wave energy technologies, the typical stages of the life cycle are
Resource extraction
Resource transportation
Materials processing
Component manufacture
Component transportation
Plant construction
Plant operation
Decommissioning
Product disposal
Ideally, each of the life-cycle stages listed above should be considered, in order to
evaluate the total emissions from the life cycle of the technology. However, an exact
analysis of every stage is neither possible nor necessary. The emissions of most of the
major air pollutants (particularly carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and
particulates) are expected to be broadly proportional to energy use. Therefore, the most
important life-cycle stages for atmospheric emissions are those with the highest energy
use. Detailed studies of the main renewable energy technologies have been carried out
using this approach within the ExternE study (e.g. Eyre30) and elsewhere in the literature.
This has shown that, for most renewables
The emissions released during the manufacture of the materials are the most
important
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Energy use in all of the transportation stages is likely to be negligible; energy use
in freight transport is typically only 1 mJ/t/km for rail31 and in road transport is
typically 3 mJ/t/km
Energy use in the extraction of the primary materials used in construction (e.g.
limestone and aggregates) or in components (e.g. iron ore and copper ore) is
typically an order of magnitude lower than energy use in their primary processing;
Energy use in the construction, decommissioning and disposal processes is also
likely to be at least an order of magnitude lower than for material manufacturing
In assessing the energy use and emissions for technologies, data relating to realistic sites
and technologies should be used, in recognition of the fact that these factors are important
in determining the magnitude of some emissions. Emissions associated with the
manufacture of materials and components are dependent (to some extent) on industrial
practices, the generation mix and pollution control regime in the country of manufacture.
The above evaluation has been carried out for a range of technologies 32,33. The same
methodology was used to determine the life cycle emissions of a representative wave
energy device: the ART OSPREY. The results for some renewables and wave energy are
shown in Figure D-15 to Figure D-17. In order to compare with the range of possible
fossil fuel stations, three different fossil fuel technologies were chosen
Combined cycle gas turbines (CCGT)
Modern coal plant (i.e. pulverised fuel with flue gas desulphurisationPF+FGD)
The UK generating mix33
It can clearly be seen that wave energy (and the other renewables) can offer significant
reductions in the omissions of gaseous pollutants when compared to fossil-fuel-based
generation. The only exception to this is for CCGT, whose emissions of SO2 are
effectively zero.
Small-Scale Hydro
Wind
PV
Nearshore wave
CCGT
Average UK Mix
(1993)
Modern Coal
Plant*
1 10 100 1000
Life Cycle Emissions (g/kWh)
Key* = coal plant with flue gas desulphurisation and low NOx burners.
Figure D-15 Comparison of Life Cycle Emissions of CO2
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Small-Scale Hydro
Wind
PV
Nearshore wave
CCGT
Average UK Mix
(1993)
Modern Coal
Plant*
0 2 4 6 8 10
Figure D-16 Comparison of life cycle emissions of SO2
Small-Scale Hydro
Wind
PV
Nearshore wave
CCGT
Average UK Mix
(1993)
Modern Coal
Plant*
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Figure D-17 Comparison of life cycle emissions of NOX
D 2.6.6 Costing environmental impacts
Quantifying the externalities associated with energy production (and their application in
the market) has been an important obstacle in realising the full potential of renewables. A
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methodology has been developed for estimating these externalities24, which has been
adopted to give an approximate indication of the external costs likely to be associated
with wave energy.
The results presented below are preliminary. They are calculated for two types of device
(shoreline OWC and offshore floating device) and two locations (NE Scotland and SW
England). These two locations have different population densities, visual amenities, etc.
Category External Cost (m/kWh) Reliability
SW England NE Scotland
Noise 0.04 0.01 Medium
Visual Amenity 0.15 0.04 Low
Global Warming 0.14 0.14 Low
Acidification 0.6 0.6 Low
Public Accidents 0.04 0.04 Low
Occupational Accidents 0-0.2 0-0.2 Medium
Total 1.21 1.07
Figure D-18 Indicative external costs for shoreline OWC devices
Category External Cost (m/kWh) Reliability
SW England NE Scotland
Noise 0.00 0.00 High
Visual Amenity 0.02 0.01 Low
Global Warming 0.14 0.14 Low
Acidification 0.6 0.6 Low
Public Accidents 0.01 0.01 Low
Occupational Accidents 0-0.1 0-0.1 Medium
Total 0.87 0.86
Figure D-19 Indicative external costs for offshore wave energy devices
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WaveNet E Social, planning and environmental impact
E Social, planning and environmental

impact
E1 PUBLIC ACCEPTABILITY
Prepared by: Hans Christian Srensen, Lars Kjeld Hansen and Rune Hansen
(EMU), Karin Hammarlund (Hammarlund Consulting)
E 1.1 Introduction
The objectives of this work package have been to identify potential barriers and benefits
regarding social acceptance in relation to the expected development of wave energy, and
to present recommendations concerning this subject based on experience from the wave
energy devices that are currently being deployed, and from other renewable energy
technologies.
For this purpose, developers of wave energy and tidal schemes have been approached and
information gathered. However, as the experience regarding social acceptance and wave
energy is sparse (see Section E 1.4), experiences from wind energy have been included in
this report, and recommendations and conclusions are primarily based on these. Given the
low level of practical experience with wave power, methods developed for wind energy,
described below, may be utilised as guidelines for securing fruitful involvement of the
public in the project planning phase and thereby avoiding adverse public reactions.
Appendix 6 includes conclusions by Pat Mc Cullen (ESB International) regarding ways

to improve the public interest for wave power in Ireland. These conclusions are not only
valid on a local scale, i.e. for Ireland, but for all countries with a potential for wave
energy.
In Appendix 7 selected conclusions from a UK qualitative public attitude research study

on cumulative effects of wind turbines are presented. These conclusions are regarded as
being highly relevant in the development of wave energy projects.
E 1.2 Background
Wave and tidal energy are both essentially benign activities. Despite this, as has been
shown for wind power, a lack of public acceptance could prevent the development of
wave and other renewable energy projects. It is therefore crucial that developers should
not presume on public acceptance. Furthermore, from a more pragmatic, economic point
of view, it is currently of vital importance for renewables that they are supported by the
political system. As long as externalities are not internalised in the price of fossil fuels
and nuclear energy34 the development of wave and tidal energy is dependent of some sort
of subsidies which will be very difficult to receive, if not impossible, if the energy source
is not publicly acceptable.
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E Social, planning and environmental impact WaveNet
The preconditions for achieving a broad acceptance from a large majority of the public
exist. Opinion polls from e.g. Denmark show that renewable energy in general (in this
case wind and solar energy) are the preferred energy sources, if people could choose
themselves35. We cannot however presume local acceptance based solely on national
surveys.
Public acceptability is however sometimes seen as an increasing constraint on the

exploitation of renewable energy. Despite what seems to be a high level of national
support for the development of renewable energy, attitudes towards specific projects
among authorities and the public can be negative, and often conflicts appear within the
process of planning and approval. Experiences from studies made of the public opinion of
wind energy show that attitudes can be highly variable, dynamic and sometimes
contradictory. It is important to note that public opinion can be divided between
representative national views, usually considering issues in a more abstract and remote
way, and local views based upon the potential or actual experience of particular
developments.
Experience shows that the perceived environmental impacts are of special importance to
the public, in particular the local public. As wave energy is currently characterised by a
number of different technologies (onshore, near-shore and offshore) and as each device
will have specific impacts, it is only possible to give a general presentation of the subject
of public acceptability. It can however be expected that onshore and near-shore
projectsespecially due to visual concernsmake extra demands on developers
regarding providing information to and gaining the involvement of the local public, in
order to secure the highest possible level of acceptance. The information about the use of
technology must present the desired effects in ways that are acceptable to the public.
Social acceptance of renewable energy has often been characterized by a NIMBY (not in
my backyard) syndrome. The NIMBY-explanation is, however, a too simplistic way of
explaining all the variables involved when determining the general and local public
acceptance of a specific project. This means that the question of social acceptance really
has many components, e.g.
the general attitude towards renewable energy in the population as a whole,
the acceptance within the subpopulation that will experience the local impacts,
the legal framework for public consultation and involvement, and
the management strategies for public (and economic) involvement.
E 1.2.1 Legal frameworks
The legal frameworks for public consultation and participation in future large-scale wave
energy projects are national directives fulfilling the requirements of the EU
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) directives36 (See Section E 5 on
306
Environmental impact), as private and public projects that are likely to have significant
effects on the environment must be subject to an EIA before they can be allowed to
proceed.
Furthermore, the public should in future be consulted (earlier than currently is the
practice) in the project planning phase regarding the effects of certain plans and
programmes on the environment, according to the European Directive 2001/42/EC, the
so-called SEA Directive, which must be incorporated to national laws by July 2004.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
The main purpose of the EIA is to examine in detail, the impacts of the project, and this
also includes a requirement for a running public consultation.
The public that is likely to be most concerned about a project must be informed and
consulted, but each EU member state defines individually the details of these
arrangements, resulting in numerous potential approaches. Often the public experiences
no realistic opportunity to have an effect on the scale and layout of the project.
Although national relevant authorities have the responsibility to safeguard that these
consultations are carried out in an appropriate and thorough way, the process of
information and consultation is often carried out by the developer without any
involvement from the responsible authority and with no knowledge about the sometimes
dramatic consequences of an inadequate dialogue with the public.
In the EIA also the true potential of the project lies hidden. Hence, the relevant issues of
an EIA will prove to be relevant also to the decisions made during the planning phase of a
project. If the scope of an EIA also covers social impacts of a development, this will
prove to be an important foundation for a dialogue with the concerned population. Even
better, there will be an understanding of how the population perceive themselves as
affected and what their concerns are when it comes to specific wave energy projects. It
should therefore be known whom to address, when to address and how to address. If there
is no understanding of the local social contexts and important issues for the concerned
population, this cannot be determined. In addition, there will be no opportunity to follow
up on the mitigation measures taken or to document experienced effects as opposed to
perceived ones. This is something that may prove essential to coming projects and
company good will.
An EIA might prove to be the foundation needed for the appropriate adjustment of the
project to the prevailing circumstances. Hence, it is not only supposed to be a document
(Environmental Impact StatementEIS) presented to the authorities, but a dynamic
process, a framework and tool for the project development. An EIA involves a flexible
procedure where amendments to the original proposal are constantly weighed against all
different aspects of the project. Mitigation is discussed in order to arrive at the most
acceptable form of development. It is impossible to understand, which mitigation
measures are relevant, if there is no open dialogue between different concerned parties.
The Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) directive
The EIA Directive has recently been supplemented by the European Directive
2001/42/EC on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the
environment, known as the strategic environmental assessment or SEA Directive. The
307
SEA Directive must be transposed into national laws by July 2004 and is expected to
apply to plans for offshore renewable energy developments.
Where a SEA is required, the authority responsible for the plan or programme will need
to
prepare an environmental report on the likely significant effects of the proposed
plan or programme, including reasonable alternatives. In deciding on the content
and level of detail, the authority will need to consult environmental authorities
defined by Member States
give the environmental authority and the wider public an early and effective
opportunity within appropriate time frames to express their opinion on the draft
plan or programme and accompanying environmental report before the adoption
of the plan37
take into account the environmental report, the opinions expressed by the relevant
authorities and the public and the results of any cross-border consultations, during
the preparation of the plan or programme and before it is adopted [ibid.].
The following information must be made available to the public
the adopted plan or programme
a summary of how environmental considerations have been integrated to the
plan/programme and how the SEA report and consultations have been taken into
account
the reasons for choosing the plan/programme adopted, over of the other
reasonable alternatives
arrangements for monitoring environmental impacts.
In the UK the government has decided to carry out formal SEAs already before the
Directive is in force. The SEA is seen as a useful in supporting the development and
refinement of plans for expansion of the offshore wind farm industry. The first phase of
SEA work, focussing on three strategic offshore wind regions, has already been
commissioned. For further details refer to the DTI Future Offshore report38.
As the UK government wishes to provide an appropriate planning framework not only for
offshore wind but also for other offshore technologies, and to ensure that the
development of such a framework is properly integrated to the SEA process, the
provisions under the SEA directive are expected, in general, to apply to tidal stream and
wave power projects [ibid.].
E 1.2.2 Strategies for public acceptance
There are many different forms of public participation, but basically the public can be
involved in a project in three important ways see 37, 39 and 40
through information about ongoing development (information)
through involvement in the decision making process (planning participation)
through financial involvement in the project (financial participation)
Information strategy
The most common approach is to only passively inform people and carry out the
minimum requirements regarding consultation. The public in such cases are almost never
offered a direct influence on the decision.
308
This is due to imagined disadvantages and misconceptions, including36

public participation may worsen the situation,
public participation might be inefficient,
it is impossible to satisfy all interests so you might as well not try,
public participation may expand the scope of any conflict.
Often this strategy is based on the assumption that the local public opposition can be
overcome by rational decisions made by experts, and that people will eventually get used
to change. However, infra-structural development is no longer automatically looked upon
as a common good as we move deeper in to the post-industrial society.
Planning participation
Another strategy is to directly involve the local public early in the planning phase, and
incorporate the recommendations into the project at an early stage. The purpose of this
strategy is to give the local population a motivation to accept change by, for example,
giving them a say in the planning of the project, which will generate an interest and also
eliminate misconceived threats. The risk of this strategy is that the public debate
generates so much awareness that it delays the whole planning procedure. A delay, which
on the other hand is unavoidable when permits are appealed against and projects face the
threat of never being realised.
However, if the channels for a dialogue are kept open and looked after, potential threats
can be mitigated before a more general disruptive protest is formed. There will be a sense
of control over the development of the project and the dialogue with the concerned public
will not be handed over to misinformation by media.
If a sense of public control is created through an open and dynamic dialogue, the
confidence of the public can be achieved. This is a very efficient way to navigate towards
not only a successful outcome of a project but also future confidence in renewable energy
developments.
The advantages of public participation in the planning process may therefore include
an essential improvement of planning decisions and balancing of different aspects,
increased awareness of public concerns,
an increased understanding of possible cooperation between opposing parties,
elimination of misinformation and misconception of threats,
future confidence and acceptance.
For an example of specific experiences with the planning participation management
strategy, please see Sections E 1.3.1 and E 1.3.2.
Financial participation
In some offshore wind projects the public has been involved as owners of (part of) the
farms e.g. when buying shares, and thereby sharing potential economic risks and profits
from the project. This is the case for instance at the Middelgrunden and the planned
German Butendiek offshore projects.
One obvious advantage from public financial involvement is the fact that the specific
project and the specific energy source in each shareholder will have a (mostly well-
informed) advocate who can disseminate information to relatives, friends and colleagues,
thereby increasing public interest and acceptance.
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As described in Section E 1.3.1, it is believed that the strong public participation,

including the public financial participation in the Middelgrunden offshore wind project,
was an important prerequisite for the success of the project. The public resistance has
been surprisingly small despite the obvious visibility of the twenty 2 MW turbines from
many recreational areas in Copenhagen.
E 1.2.3 Conclusions
If many parties are involved in the decision making, the social and environmental impacts
can be properly addressed and the conflicts reduced. Conflicting interests can be
illuminated in a pedagogic way early in the process. This improves the possibilities to
compare facts such as the pros and cons of renewable energy in relation to the effects of
other energy sources. The risk of public involvement is relatively small due to the
experience that people who tend to accept the process also tend to accept its outcome41.
E 1.3 Experiences from wind energy

In general, opinion polls in countries like the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark and the
UK show that more than 70 % of the population are in favour of using more wind
energy.42, 43, 44, 45. In the UK, a summary of opinion surveys indicates that 8 out of 10
people support local wind projects46.
Regarding tourisma, a German study on effects from on- and offshore wind farms
indicated that offshore wind farms would generally be accepted by tourists as long as the
farms were not situated too near the coastline47. A recent study (September 2002) of the
effects from onshore wind farms on tourists, a study commissioned jointly by the British
Wind Energy Association and the Scottish Renewables Forum, found that 91 % said the
presence of wind farms in the specific area made no difference48.
The surveys show that wind farms in general are much more popular than one would be
led to believe from reading letters to the editors in various newspapers, for example, and
may indeed become tourist attractions instead of scaring off tourists, as is often claimed
by wind power opponents.
In Sweden, however preliminary results from a study on public acceptance from 1988 to
2002 show the opposite. The tourists are in general more negative to wind turbines,
because they want to enjoy the unspoiled nature, whereas the reaction to planned offshore
projects among the local public is often more positive49.
There is every reason to believe that wave energy may become equally accepted, or even
become more popularin general, a particular advantage of offshore renewables is
regarded to be their potential for greater public acceptability, because of lower visual
impact38.
The acceptability of wave and tidal energy does however depend on e.g. the degree of
environmental impacts, the strategies chosen regarding public information and
involvement, and the ability of the wave energy community to get good press coverage.
a
Tourists are of course very important to the local public, due to the potential income, or loss of income if
the tourists stay away.
310
One important lesson to learn from the field of wind energy is that one as an advocate
must avoid a polarisation of the dialogue with the public. In such cases a debate results in
which one must defend and rather than engage in useful dialogue in which you can
discuss and explain.
Although the experiences from offshore wind do not give any certain conclusions, the
following general hypotheses, which are also broadly valid for wave power, can be
derived
public acceptance in general is high but falls when it comes to our own living
surroundings,
coastal areas are more sensitive to change because of great recreational values,
local acceptance seems to increase after the installation, provided that no
disturbances are experienceda,50,
public acceptance increases with the level of information and economic
involvement.
In the following sections specific examples of different strategies for public involvement
in wind energy projects are presentedb,51. The purpose is to give wave energy developers
and relevant authorities some ideas on how to secure public acceptance, regardless of the
choice of management strategy/public participation strategy.
E 1.3.1 Experience from Denmark
In Denmark many people are involved in wind energy projects, approximately 150,000
families, either with environmental concerns and/or the possibility of receiving some
financial benefits from them.
a
This is clearly illustrated in the experience from the Danish Tun Knob offshore wind farm that was the
focus of massive protests before and during the installation in 1995, but now, after it has been proved that
the turbines do not disturb birds, fish, seals or humans, is broadly accepted.
b
The Danish and Swedish experiences were first published in 51.
311
250
MW
200
150
100
50
0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
90
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
re
fo
be
Other/unknown Private/industry Coops Utility
Figure E-1 Development in ownership of wind farms in Denmark MW installed

power each year52
The cooperatives, where mainly local people share expenses and income from a wind
turbine, have played an important role, especially in delivering project acceptance at a
local level, where the possibility of resistance is otherwise high due to visual or noise
concerns. In general there is a broad acceptance of wind energy in Denmarkopinion
surveys result in at least 70 % being in favour of wind energy, whilst only about 5 % are
against35.
The Middelgrunden project
The project consists of twenty 2 MW Bonus turbines, half of them owned by the local
utility and the other half by Middelgrunden Wind Turbine Cooperative. Around
8,500 people, primarily in the local area, have joined the cooperative, which makes it the
worlds largest wind turbine cooperative. Each invests typically 2,850, corresponding to
the production of 5,000 kWh/year.
In 1996, the Copenhagen Environment and Energy Office (CEEO) took the initiative to
organise the project, after the location of Middelgrunden, 3 km from Copenhagen
harbour, had been identified as a potential site in the Danish Action Plan for Offshore
Wind53. Together with CEEO a group of local people formed the Middelgrunden Wind
Turbine Cooperative and cooperation with Copenhagen Energy was established. As the
Municipality of Copenhagen owns Copenhagen Energy, a close link to politicians was
thereby also established. The locally based commitment, along with cooperation between
the cooperative, the local utilities, and the municipality of Copenhagen, constituted a
significant precondition for the development of the project.
The original project dating back to 1997 consisted of 27 turbines placed in three rows.
After the public hearing in 1997, where this layout was criticised, the farm layout was
changed to a slightly curved line and the number of turbines had to be decreased to 20.
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The authorities raised a number of questions that were answered during the publicly
funded preliminary investigations. During the hearing in 1997, 24 positive and 8 critical
answers were received.
These figures mask the complexities of the issue, both in relation to relevant authorities
and NGOs and in relation to the many future shareholders in the cooperative. For
instance, local people were worried about potential noise impact from the farm, but after
a demonstration tour to a modern on-shore wind turbine, the locals were convinced that
there would be no noise impact from the Middelgrunden turbines.
Information to the potential shareholders was initially undertaken to secure a sufficient

number of pre-subscriptions. This turned out to be a success, and the interest of more than
10,000 local people was proof of a strong local support, which could be useful in the
approval phase.
A part of the shareholders got involved in the democratic hearing process, which was
intended to create the foundation for authorities approvals.
As an example the Danish Society for the Conservation of Nature at first decided to reject
the proposed location, but through involvement of and information directed to the local
committees of the society, this decision was later changed.
At the final hearing a large number of local groups and committees, not mentioning the
several thousand shareholders, recommended and supported the projectonly a
relatively small group of yachtsmen, fishermen, individuals and politicians remained in
opposition.
During and after the construction there has been surprisingly little resistance to the
project, considering the visual dominance of the turbines, located just 3 km away from,
for instance, a very popular recreational areaa beachnear Copenhagen. The reason
for this lack of protest is believed to be the strong public involvement, both financially
and in the planning phase.
Lessons learned
During the approval process, authorities raised a number of questions that were answered
through the carefully planned preliminary investigations.
Through dialogue with many kinds of interest groups, CEEO and the Middelgrunden
Cooperative, with its 8,500 members, generated a widespread understanding for and
social acceptance of the chosen location and layout of the farm.
Locally based commitment and cooperation between the cooperative, the local utility and
the municipality of Copenhagen have been significant preconditions for the successful
development of the project.
This cooperation provided credibility to the project in relation to politicians, press and
public.
Conclusions from Denmark of relevance for wave energy
In Denmark most wind turbines are owned by locally established cooperatives and
private persons and this appears to improve the social acceptance, as it is, generally
313
speaking, the same people who experience the impacts also receive a share of the
financial benefits.
Most of the coming offshore wind power projects will be owned by the utilities, but it is
still a political priority to encourage the formation of cooperatively owned offshore wind
power farms as well. This also applies for wave power, where public involvement was
specifically mentioned in the Danish wave energy work programme.
This Danish model is, however, rather unique, and for most other countries the offshore
wind farms are either owned by utilities or private consortia, thus enabling only indirect
financial benefits and influence to the local citizens. This is also likely to be the case for
wave power in Europe to a significant extent, as the sheer scale of current renewable
energy projects calls for an amount of funding, which can be very difficult for a
cooperative to raise.
E 1.3.2 Experience from Sweden
A broad-based participation in the implementation and decision process was used in a

Swedish offshore project in Kalmarsund conducted by Vattenfall, the largest utility in
Sweden. This is a form of conflict management, which extends the group of actors
involved in the decision-making process, increases transparency and promotes
negotiations and discussions.
Special focus for this project is to investigate, which parties should be involved in the
decision process and how these different parties can participate and represent their
interests in the planning process.
The result of this approach is that so far the project has conducted a management of
dissent instead of putting trust in a fictitious consent. The importance of this type of
conflict management seems to correlate with the amount of realised and planned projects
in a demarcated and clearly defined geographical area suitable for offshore wind power.
This experience supports the view that one cannot assume that the local public opposition
can be overcome by rational decisions made by experts, and that people will eventually
get used to change, and more importantly that there are other more inclusive methods to
use. Indeed it is feared that an exclusive attitude may prove fatal to the project. The
strategy of the Karlskrona Offshore project has instead been to directly involve the local
public early in the planning phase, and incorporate the recommendations into the project
planning and decision-making. The purpose of this strategy is to give the local population
a motivation to accept change by for example giving them a say in the planning of the
project.
Another lesson learned is that the presentation of a wind power plan requires a sense of
timing. In some cases, depending on the size of the project, it might be worthwhile to
allow a certain period of adjustment. A large wind farm can be developed sequentially
which makes adjustments easier if people express misgivings. Such adjustments manifest
the flexibility and reversible quality of wind power developments. Just because a wind
farm can be erected quickly, does not mean it should be.
314
Public dialogueuse of information communication technology

In the Karlskrona offshore project different ways of promoting a dynamic dialogue has
been developed. In this context information communication technology (ICT) plays an
important role. The use of a website for communication on project updates has been the
main tool52. An important task has been to make sure that this site is updated regularly
and maintains a high standard of information in order to promote confidence in the
developer. Regular information has also been sent out to complement and draw attention
to the website.
Phone calls and e-mails have also been important tools for a direct personal response to
concerned people. It has been of a high priority in the project to answer all questions as
expediently as possible. It has also been important to direct questions from the public
directly to the project management. This communication strategy has emanated in a
thorough report on information, communication and reactions from the public in the EIS.
On top of this the Karlskrona Offshore project has distributed two inquiries along the
coast in order to identify in which geographical area the public feel concerned, and what
they are concerned about. The replies to these enquiries, and subsequent interviews, have
been very useful for guidance concerning what topics are of central importance to
emphasise in the EIA and how to mitigate in order to arrive at an acceptable EIS. Also,
enquiries and interviews have made it possible to prepare and address the issues of
central importance to the public at public meetings. This has been a very effective way to
create confidence in the project and the developer, Vattenfall.
E 1.3.3 Conclusions
An open public dialogue from the very beginning of a planning phase is important for
achieving social acceptanceand the social acceptance on the other hand may influence
political decisions.
Direct public involvement, e.g. the cooperative ownership model, is an important means
for social and political acceptance, but may influence strongly decisions taken during the
planning phase, which must be accounted for in the pre-planning phase as even minor
deviations in the work at sea have a disproportionately large effect on the time schedule.
According to experiences from the offshore wind farms already established it can be said
that
the degree of involvement of the local population in the planning phase influences
public acceptance.
the procedures for public involvement, hearings etc., vary considerably between
countries and may even vary among regions within the same country.
there is as yet no clear overview on the results of different strategies for public
involvement and conflict management.
The issue of public acceptance deserves to be studied in more detail, e.g. through a
monitoring programme focussing on public acceptance before and after the installation of
a farm consisting of e.g. wave energy converters in relation to the degree of public
involvement and active conflict management.
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E 1.4 Wave energy

The experience with public acceptability in relation to wave and tidal energy is so far
very limited. Legitimacy is strongly connected to usefulness, and usefulness is an
essential quality for rational technology. However, techniques have to be known in order
to be useful. Techniques with a high degree of utility are seen as rational. A technique
must produce the wanted effects in ways that are acceptable to the users. These facts are
important to know in order to successfully introduce and promote wave energy
technologies.
The test devices that have already been deployed, or will be deployed within the
foreseeable future, seem generally to have had the same information strategy: To keep the
public well-informed, e.g. through websites and newsletters, but there has been no direct
involvement of the public in the projects. As the demonstration projects do not have to
carry out an EIA, it has not been necessary to consult the public or inform the local public
directly.
Only in relation to the planning and construction of the Orkney Test Centre public
meetings have been held concerning the whole centre, and not concerning one specific
device/project.
The projects have been discussed in the local press, and in some cases objections
especially concerning visual and noise impact have been expressed, but there has been no
organised dialogue with the public.
In order to promote public acceptability of wave energy, it is therefore essential that

the public knowledge about wave energy is increased, e.g. through information
campaigns directed at press, public and politicians each time new devices are
successfully deployed
each project developer aims at the highest positive level of openness and
information, and considers the benefits of direct public involvement, for instance
when the development of specific projects have resulted in a production price that
makes public financial participation relevant.
legislation/politicians encourages dialogue with and involvement of the local
public
E 1.5 General conclusions

E 1.5.1 Identification of problem areas
The biggest challenge, currently, is the low public knowledge in most EU countries
concerning wave energy. Before it becomes relevant to discuss and practice specific
strategies for public involvement on a larger scale, it is necessary that the energy becomes
known to the public as a huge, important and reliable source of energy.
E 1.5.2 General recommendations
Developers and authorities should remember to promote openness and local involvement,
also at this early stage of developmentif mistakes are made at this point, before large-
scale deployment takes place, it may prove very difficult to make wave energy acceptable
to a the majority of the population.
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E 1.5.3 Recommendations for RTD programmes
Evaluation of experience of the effects of different ownership models and local

ownership of wave power plants in relation to social acceptance.
Evaluation of experienced effects after deployment in relation to perceived effects in the

planning phase.
317
E2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF WAVE ENERGY
Prepared by: Richard Boud and Tom Thorpe, Future Energy Solutions, AEA
Technology
E 2.1 Introduction
Detailed evaluation of the socio-economic benefits of renewables is a difficult,
technology- and country-specific task. In order to present an outline of the likely benefits,
a study has been carried out on the likely implications of one renewable (wave energy)
for one country (Scotland).
E 2.2 Background
It is relatively straightforward to calculate the number of direct jobs created by the
manufacturing of on particular item of equipment. These depend on the technology, the
processes and so on. Associated with these jobs are those created by the demand for
components and in turn sub-components. Each job created is then serviced by a range of
other jobs from other sectors. For example, the manufacturing employee buys bread from
the baker and keeps that baker employed and so on.
Each employee at each stage creates earnings that are passed on to other sectors of
industry by the so-called multiplying effect. The same one Euro earned in the
manufacture of an item is spent several times over. The limits to this multiplying effect
depend on each individual in the chains propensity to save. Typical multipliers are
around 1.5-2.
The true effects of manufacturing an item can be assessed using a range of techniques
such as input-output analyses. Each component and process in the manufacture, transport
and installation can be identified and the value in terms of money and jobs evaluated.
Since some components will be manufactured in-house and some brought from further
afield or abroad it is important to decide where the boundary should be drawn.
In a very large industry with plenty of capabilities in all areas there is no input or output.
All the components are manufactured within the boundary. Europe could be considered to
be such an industry. In terms of wave energy Europe has all of the skills, expertise and
facilities to manufacture any of the systems currently being investigated around the
world.
Input-output analyses are more suited to local areas such as regions or countries. Below is
an example looking at Scotland. There remain some further difficulties. There are many
different wave energy concepts being considered. Each is of a different size, design and
each works in a different way. It is difficult to give a meaningful breakdown of the jobs
created with each aspect of the device manufacture, deployment and operation since these
vary so widely.
An input-output analysis also requires estimates of the amount of skills and components
that must be brought in from outside the boundary. Without a clear understanding of
318
which components are required and from where these are likely to be sourced a reliable
analysis is difficult.
Given these difficulties in demonstrating a believable estimate of job creation we will

consider an example areaScotland.
E 2.3 Background to the opportunities in Scotland

Whilst Scotland currently enjoys overcapacity in electricity generation (exporting its
surplus to England), it will loose about 50 % of its generating capacity within the next 20
years. This capacity will have to be replaced. There are many benefits (other than
environmental) from replacing at least part of this capacity with offshore renewables.
Many of the components of wave energy devices could be sourced in Scotland and all of
the construction could be undertaken in Scotland. Indeed, this calls upon the same types
of skill and resources currently employed in shipbuilding and offshore oilrig fabrication.
It could also account for similar levels of employment. For example, 15 years ago there
was no commercial wind energy; now it is a 2,200,000,000 per year industry, employing
about 40,000 people world-wide with growth rates of 10 % per annum. Denmark, whose
Government sought to establish its country as an early world leader in wind, now
employs over 12,000 people in wind energy54. In comparison, the Scottish offshore
industry employs about 30,000. In many ways, constructing offshore renewable energy
schemes could be seen as the natural area for fabrication yards to move into as orders for
North Sea oil and gas rigs gradually decreaseIn the 21st Century, offshore renewables
could be to Scotland what shipyards were in the 19th Century and offshore oil rigs in the
20th55.
E 2.4 Job opportunities in Scotlands home market

This section analyses the job creation potential for marine energy in Scotland. The
method used makes only a limited number of assumptions on the job creation potential. It
assumes that over the period to 2015 wave power will be deployed steadily to achieve a
proportion of Scotlands energy demand. This section does not discuss the likelihood of
this development happening but does give an indication of the likely job potential of
wave energy.
E 2.4.1 Methodology
The number of concepts being considered and the huge range of different ideas proposed
makes it difficult to assess which of the concepts will be successful. Additionally it is
difficult to determine which of the development groups have the strongest commercial
skills and which will bring their concepts to market first. This analysis therefore uses a
simplification that the number of jobs created is related to the capacity of the plant
installed. The manufacture of certain types of devices may employ more people than
others, and so the estimates here are purely indicative.
The potential job market is estimated assuming

All outstanding R&D is completed and is successful
The devices can be made economically
319
The market for the devices is sufficient to allow for reasonably rapid increase in
production
Job creation
An estimate of the number of jobs per megawatt installed capacity can be made. This is
based on 4-4.5 fulltime jobs per megawatt for offshore wind (CA-OWEE, 2001). Whilst
there is no robust direct comparison with marine energy this figure is considered
reasonable since there are many common activities associated with installing an offshore
wave energy device or marine current device such as laying cables, installing foundations
or anchors, etc. In addition, if wave energy is to compete with wind energy (and other
energy technologies) then it is unlikely to be significantly more labour-intensive. Further,
given the complexity of the technology in comparison to wind energy it is unlikely to be
less labour-intensive. The up-front costs of wave energy, given the zero fuel costs, form a
significant proportion of the costs.
It is possible that during the early development of wave energy, more effort will be
required and there will be more jobs per MW. To account for this during the period 2002-
2015 the full-time jobs reduce from 10 jobs/MW to 4.6 jobs/MW.
The product of the number of devices built, their installed capacity and the number of
jobs per unit installed capacity gives an estimate of the number of full-time jobs
associated with that production schedule.
Development profile
This method considers the effect of introducing a market mechanism that encourages a
certain proportion of electricity supply in Scotland from indigenous marine energy
devices. This method is designed to place the estimates of jobs into context. It does not
look at the export market, which could be significant and (as in the case of Denmarks
wind industry) could be several times larger than the home market.
This approach expresses the market size as a share of the current Scottish electricity
consumption (which was 32,027 GWh in 1999/2000 according to the Scottish Executive).
Scottish consumption comprises approximately 9 % of the UK consumption (which was
338,500 GWh in 2000 according to the DTI UK Energy in Brief). This analysis assumes
that there is no change in the demand for electricity in Scotland or the UK during the
period 2000-2015.
It is important to assume a reasonable development profile for the technology, since the
rate of installation of the devices will drive the jobs created. It is assumed that the
proportion of energy supplied by marine energy in Scotland increases from zero in 2007
to the target value in 2015 according to a parabolic profile. This results in a linear rate of
installation. Figure E-2 shows the assumed development profile. This shows how the
proportion of Scottish electricity supplied by marine energy is essentially zero until 2008
after which it increases to the target by 2015. The profile is assumed to have the same
shape regardless of the end target.
320
Target
proportion
Proportion of Scottish supply

2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Figure E-2 Assumed profile of contribution to Scottish electricity supply from
marine energy
The assumption that no installations take place before 2008 is a somewhat pessimistic
view of the market. However, such a view gives an optimistic estimate of the number of
jobs in 2015.
The energy consumption was converted to an installed capacity figure based on an

average load factor of 25 %. This approximation is not completely reliable but does give
a rough indication. It is not known what the load factor of a wave energy plant will be or
how they would be sized (quoting installed capacity may be misleading for example).
Estimates of jobs for each target market size and by year are then calculated.
This analysis assumes that this development is reasonable and possible. It does not
consider how much the development of the market would cost and assumes that
achieving the target would be technically and commercially possible.
E 2.4.2 Analysis
Figure E-3 shows the results of the analysis. For simplicity it is assumed that essentially
no jobs are created until 2008. The figures can be interpreted as follows
Considering only one casethat 10 % of Scotlands electricity demand is supplied by

Scottish-manufactured marine energy by 2015there would be around 1,600 people
employed full-time in manufacturing and installing the devices in 2015 to deliver this. If
Scotland were also to supply the market then the associated jobs would be very much
higher.
Ten percent of Scotlands electricity consumption would represent around 1 % of UK

energy supply. This would be a challenging target to achieve and given marine energys
current status of development perhaps a costly onelarge quantities of untried
321
technology would need to be installed rapidly with sufficiently high market value for the
electricity to justify the risks.
1,800
1,600 10.0% (0.95%)
9.0% (0.85%)
1,400
8.0% (0.76%)
Estimated jobs 1,200
7.0% (0.66%)
1,000 6.0% (0.57%)
800 5.0% (0.47%)
600 4.0% (0.38%)
3.0% (0.28%)
400
2.0% (0.19%)
200
1.0% (0.09%)
-
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Figure E-3 Estimated jobs created for a given proportion of electricity demand in
Scotland supplied from marine energy (figures in parenthesis show proportion of
UK electricity demand)
During the period to 2008 the profile would be somewhat erratic because prototypes are
likely to be deployed sporadically and tested for periods of 12 years before any further
prototypes or indeed commercial systems are deployed. Also, during this period the
sustainability of the jobs is highly questionable and it is possible that whilst new
companies may appear rapidly others may fold completely or refocus the energies
elsewhere. To put this into context the two Scottish Companies, Ocean Power Delivery
and Wavegen employ around 20 people and to meet their expected growth targets will
need to increase this number substantially in these early yearspossibly through
subcontracts as well as permanent staff.
Whilst in principle there is little reason why all of these jobs cannot appear in Scotland
there is no certainty that this will happen. There are many barriers to such job creation.
These include
Lack of a strong market pull for the technology
Limited public finance
High perceived risks in the new technology and market leading to low availability
of private funds
High employments costs, particularly in activities such as shipbuilding, compared
to elsewhere in Europe and the rest of the world
Of primary importance is the need for a strong market for the technology but another
significant barrier is the cost of employment. Whilst the companies may base themselves
in Scotland to make use of the skills and specialist equipment manufacture some of the
more labour intensive activities may be undertaken abroad where the cost of labour is
lower. For example the Dutch-designed Archimedes Wave Swing wave device was
manufactured in a Romanian shipyard where the costs were low and deployed in Portugal
where the market for wave energy and the planning regime favourable.
322
Additionally, many of the jobs are associated with deployment. If the devices are not
deployed in Scotland then it is possible that these jobs will accrue in the country of
deployment for example. The wind industry has seen much of the civil construction
undertaken by local contractors, whilst the turbine erection and commissioning is
completed by specialists from the manufacturing country. It is likely that a similar
situation might occur in Scotland. This does not affect the estimates for supplying
Scotlands home market but it demonstrates that the benefits in terms of jobs of supplying
a foreign market are slightly reduced in comparison.
There may be some challenges to attracting investment in wave energy devices to

Scotland. These challenges include
Over-investment in this technology within a single manufacturing base and region
may well carry unacceptable investment risks. Investment is more likely to be
spread among a number of countries.
Device teams and concepts are born in many different countries. The native
country of each is more likely to be its home for development. Although Scotland
might attract developers from the rest of Europe, it is unlikely that Scotland could
attract all developers from all countries.
The market for deployment of the technology may be stronger in other countries
thereby making them more attractive as manufacturing bases.
Competing incentive mechanisms in other countries may attract wave energy
developers there drawing them away from Scotland.
E 2.4.3 Operation and maintenance
Another real opportunity is in providing operation and maintenance services to the

installed devices. Whilst the effort required in the manufacture goes with the rate of
installation, the jobs associated with operations and maintenance goes with the total
installed capacity in a region.
An estimate of the amount of effort required to service this can be taken from the
offshore wind industry (CAOWE, 2001). It is predicted that 0.06 full-time jobs per MW
would be created to service the offshore wind industry. It is assumed that marine energy
is likely to require a similar amount 0.03-0.1 jobs/MW.
If ten percent of Scotlands electricity were supplied by marine energy in 2015 then
around 1,500 MW of installed capacity would need to be serviced that year. This would
support around 40-150 jobs in Scotland.
E 2.5 Employment multipliers

All of the jobs discussed in the above sections are direct jobs. They are based on the
numbers of people in full-time employment in manufacturing and deployment of the
technology. The economic effects of such jobs can be estimated by considering
employment multipliers.
The employment multipliers estimate the number of jobs associated with support to the
direct jobs. For, example, the numbers of bakers making bread to feed the manufacturers.
A rigorous approach to this analysis is a full input-output analysis. However, to give an
idea of the scope we can consider some published multipliers. The Scottish Executive
publishes employment multipliers in two forms (Scottish Executive (1998)), these are
323
summarised in Table E-1. The first method considers only indirect jobs, those that are
required to support the main workers. The second method estimates the induced jobs.
New jobs can bring increased economic prosperity and the new employees increase their
consumption of other services, such as in entertainment. These jobs are termed induced
jobs.
Type I Type II
Direct +
Direct + Indirect +
Sector Indirect Induced
Agricultural Machinery 1.617 1.823
Articles of Concrete etc 1.601 1.822
Construction 1.844 2.087
Cutlery and Tools 1.376 1.561
Electric Motors and Generators 1.322 1.476
Electrical Equipment nes 1.301 1.441
Electronic Components 1.520 1.799
General Purpose Machinery 1.594 1.828
Insulated Wire and Cable 1.268 1.400
Iron and Steel 1.703 1.983
Machine Tools 1.430 1.655
Mech Power Transmission Equipment 1.557 1.796
Metal Castings 1.275 1.433
Metal Containers, etc 1.519 1.785
Metal Forging, Pressing, etc 1.286 1.453
Metal Goods nes 1.304 1.491
Non-ferrous Metals 1.904 2.190
Shipbuilding and Repair 1.687 1.971
Special Purpose Machinery 1.537 1.774
Structural Metal Products 1.540 1.814
Table E-1 Employment multipliers for wave energy comparable industries in

Scotland (Scottish Executive, 1998)
Table E-1 shows some comparable industries. The most appropriate multipliers to use
would depend on the mix of technologies used in wave energy devices in the future.
Given the uncertainty in the types of design that are likely to be seen in the market it
would be misleading to make too precise judgements about the effects of an expanding
wave energy market on employment.
It is clear however that the number of jobs created for each direct job in wave energy is in
the range 1.3-1.9 when considering only indirect jobs and 1.4-2.2 when considering other
jobs resulting from increasing economic prosperity. Hence, the total number of jobs in
Scotland related to supplying the marine energy could be more than double the figures
estimated in Section E 2.4.
E 2.6 Comparison with wind energy

It is instructive to compare the predictions of marine energy development against the
historic development of wind energy. Figure E-4 shows the historic worldwide wind
energy development trends. The estimates of jobs created are based on a figure of 10 jobs
per MW in 1983, which linearly reduces to 4.5 jobs per MW (it is noted that this method
is not rigorous).
324
During 1983-1987 there was a boom in wind turbine deployment. This was fuelled by tax
incentives in the USA. These incentives encouraged the deployment of very large
numbers of wind turbines on single sites. This situation was short-lived and the boom
collapsed after the incentives were removed. Accounting for the boom, it can be seen that
broadly the development has been exponential with relatively low levels of deployment
to 1993.
By 1993 the number of jobs in wind energy worldwide was around 3,200, which is
equivalent to the number estimated in this analysis by 2015. This would put wave energy
approximately 15-years behind wind energy, if the deployment profile was assumed to be
similar.
35,000
Actual World wind

30,000
25,000 Actual World wind

without USA boom
(estimated)
Estimated jobs
20,000 Estimated World

marine energy by
2015
15,000
10,000
USA boom
5,000
-
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
Figure E-4 Estimated jobs in wind energy 1983-2001 based on 10 jobs per MW in
1983 reducing linearly to 4.5 jobs per MW by 2001
By comparison prior to 1983 the number of wind turbines in commercial production was
very small and large-scale production did not occur until around the time of the USA
boom in 1984. Wave energy has no concepts in commercial production now, but by 2004
reasonable quantities could be in production by some early players. This implies that in
two to three years time wave energy could be in a position to benefit from a wave energy
boom as wind did in the USA in 19831987.
E 2.7 Technology competitiveness

Scotlands long association with wave energy and the potential synergy between the
expertise required for development of offshore oil and offshore renewables gives
Scotland an edge in developing these renewables56,57.
325
E 2.8 Diversification of rural economies

Much of the offshore resource is situated in rural parts, which have traditionally been
dependent on a few industries (e.g. fishing and tourism). Operation of offshore renewable
energy schemes will entail long-term employment, with much of the economic benefit
being retained within the local community.
E 2.9 Conclusions
The situation in Scotland could be repeated elsewhere in Europe, but until wave energy
becomes established and the industrial demands for building the designs in the quantities
required are known any estimate of job creation would be very uncertain. It is fair to
conclude however that when wave energy moves on from the prototype to volume or
mass production that jobs will be created and primary and secondary economies will
grow too.
326
E3 CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
(EMU)
E 3.1 Introduction
According to the work program of the Wave Energy Network, the purpose of this work
package is to collate information on barriers to large-scale development of wave energy
basically arising from competing uses of the resources, such as areas required for
shipping, military exercises, existing subsea pipelines and cables, fishing grounds, etc.
As the presence of such barriers is heavily dependent on the specific location, it is only
possible to give a general overview presentation of the subject in this report. Potential
barriers for specific sites will be discovered during the SEAa and EIAb process of
individual, larger wave energy projects, and detailed information about these barriers will
then be available in the SEA Statement and the EISc,60,61. For further details concerning
EIA and EIS, refer to Section E 5.2 on Environmental impact.
The information on barriers basically arising from competing uses of the resources has
been collated through interactions with device teams (e.g. through responses to
questionnaires, see Appendix 1) and studies of selected references. As can be seen from
the list of references useful information has been found from studies of offshore wind
energy, and the information in this draft report is in many cases based on a similar study
from the EU Concerted Action on Wind Energy in Europe58.
The information obtained from the relatively few device teams in the responses to the
questionnaires show that barriers resulting from conflicts of interest, as defined here,
are not at present expected to constitute major barriers for the large-scale development of
wave energy.
E 3.2 Barriers arising from competing uses

As an initial step in the planning process, the mapping of areas reserved for other uses
must be carried out, and an alternative location of deployment will have to be analysed
before deployment.
Areas with competing uses generally fall into two categoriesareas with restricted or
prohibited access and areas with conflicting uses.
a
Strategic Impact Assessment, EC Directive to be transposed into national laws by 2004 (European
Directive 2001/42/EC). SEA process to be carried out by authorities.
b
Environmental Impact Assessment. (Council Directive 85/337/EEC, amended by Council Directive
97/11/EC (1997)). EIA process usually carried out by developer.
c
Environmental Impact Study, the final document of the EIA process
327
Areas with restricted or prohibited access include

Major shipping routes
Military exercise grounds
Areas near other major coastal or offshore structures (bridges, harbours, oilrigs,
wind turbines, etc.)
Areas near sub-sea cables or pipelines
Natural reserves
Areas with conflicting uses are typically
Fishing grounds
Resource extraction areas (aggregate extraction, etc.)
Recreational areas
Areas of archaeological interest
As most European countries have procedures for hearing the views of interest groups,
potential conflicts of interest are mostly well known, and should be identified during the
SEA and EIA process 59,60,61. Apart from various lobbying organisations, primary
conflicts of interest concern ship traffic, defence and fishing interests.
Some areas may be excluded from consideration for use for wave energy projects even at
the pre-feasibility assessment phase. These are major ship lanes, oil and gas pipelines,
cable routes, raw material deposits, military restricted areas and areas of importance in
relation to flora and especially fauna, e.g. Special Areas of Conservation. However, most
other suitable sites will be subject to potential conflicts of interests with other uses and
users of the locations.
In order to present an idea of the number and types of users and uses, a list of consultees
who should be involved in the EIA process regarding Orkney Marine Energy Test
Centre62 has been attached at Appendix 2.
E 3.3 Areas with restricted or prohibited access

Regarding the restricted areas these are plotted in naval maps, and updates are frequently
published in notices for fisheries and notices for mariners.
This type of barrier was in general considered to be of medium importance by the

network members, although restricted areas exclude significant potential locations for
wave energy production, but such restrictions are generally of local nature and do not
concern major sea areas.
E 3.3.1 Ships
According to international shipping conventions all ships have the right of innocent
passage through territorial waters, and beyond this 12 nautical-mile limit shipping enjoys
freedom of navigation. Where required for safety reasons sea-lanes and traffic separation
schemes are designated or prescribed for the regulation and passage of ships.
International shipping activities are regulated within the IMO (International Maritime
Organisation), a specialised organisation of the United Nations63.
According to international law countries have the right to construct renewable offshore
projects within a 200-mile renewable energy production zone. It is possible to establish
328
safety zones up to a distance of 500 m around such installations, however offshore

renewable installations and safety zones are not permissible if they interfere with
recognised sea-lanes64.
Shipping is likely to be an important source of conflicts of interest. The reasons for this
seem to be the following
ship lanes represent a siting limitation factor, as certain areas will be prohibited
for use for wave power where established shipping lanes demand it. Furthermore,
locations where ships may lay anchor to enter harbours, must be avoided.
even where careful planning is carried out, and the farm is not placed near major
navigation routes, or routes have been altered in order to minimise collision risk,
there will still exist a risk of significant environmental damage in case of ship
collisions with wave energy converters, e.g. an oil carrier collision. In Danish EIA
risk analyses applied for the Middelgrunden and Nysted/Rdsand offshore wind
farms, a calculated risk in the order of 1 collision every 10 years has been
accepted by the authorities, as the risk frequency was not higher than at baseline
conditions65. For wave energy converters deployed in deep waters, the frequency
of collision is likely to be lower, but nevertheless likely to be higher than the
baseline conditions.
wave energy farms must be marked properly and effectively in accordance with
national or international guidelines (IALA 1984, IALA 200066), even though
painting and illumination/signal lights may have a negative visual impact, which
could lead to increased public resistance.
there is a need for proven reliability of anchor/mooring systems of wave energy
converters to avoid hazard of drifting converters in e.g. shipping lanes.
As collision risk analyses for all offshore construction projects will be a mandatory part
of the EIA, valuable information will be available from these studies, as can be seen in
offshore wind energy EIAs, see for instance background reports to the offshore wind
farms at Horns Rev and Nysted/Rdsand 67,68.
Due to the significant environmental risks associated with ship collisions, this issue may
pose a significant barrier for some wave energy technologies. Methods for assessing ship
collision risks are available from other industries and must be applied. However, at the
current state of development it is unclear which collision frequency might be acceptable.
The risk assessment will have to assess the additional risk associated with the wave
power plant compared to baseline conditions before deployment.
In order to minimise the risk of collision with naval traffic, the wave energy converters
must be painted and lit according to the requirements of the safety authorities. The
lighting requirements may be expected to vary according to the classification of the
different device types. Furthermore, lighting requirements will probably also depend on
the conclusions from the ship collision risk assessment, which might introduce additional
marking requirements.
E 3.3.2 Military exercise grounds
Military area restrictions disqualify a number of feasible sites from being developed. In
many countries coastal areas owned by the military cover a significant part of the sea
potentially usable for wave power. Practical solutions for co-existence between military
and wave power are called for, but a solution must come through the political system.
329
In the UK, the Ministry of Defence have raised objections concerning the siting of several
offshore wind farms, as theseaccording to the MODare supposed to disturb vital
radar systems and constitute a risk for low-flying aircraftsa,69. As long as wave energy
schemes do not reach the height of todays offshore wind turbines or consist of moving
blades like the wind turbines70, barriers due to disturbance of radar or radio links or
collision risks with low-flying aircrafts are not to be expected.
E 3.3.3 Areas near other major coastal or offshore structures
Areas near other coastal or offshore structures constitute a limitation regarding potential
locations of wind energy schemes.
For some regions, the shallow water locations may already be reserved for offshore wind
power. This might develop into a barrier for some device types, which are only applicable
for water depths of less than 15 m, but if the reliability of anchoring/mooring systems of
wave energy converters has been proven, a fruitful co-existence between e.g. offshore
wind and wave energy could be possible.
When the mooring problem has been solved, and different wave energy technologies
have proven to be reliable and safe, the limitations due to neighbouring coastal or
offshore structures should be minimised, thereby for instance lowering cable costs if
wave energy converters can be located near existing offshore wind farms.
E 3.3.4 Sub-sea cables, pipelines and raw material deposits
Corridors around electricity and telecommunications cables, oil and gas pipelines and oil
and gas production sites prohibit renewables developments in these areas and thereby
constitute a site-limiting factor70.
This is however not seen as major barriers for the development of wave energy, as these
sites and corridors are already well known and should therefore not lead to any
significant conflict of interests.
Moreover, there is no reason why the oil and gas industry and offshore renewables should
not be able to work closely with each other in the futureindeed, there are plans to
generate electricity from a combination of gas and e.g. offshore wind power, and a close
cooperation would further enable the potential sharing of facilities, thereby minimising
the costs and impact from the establishment of offshore renewables project70.
E 3.3.5 Natural reserves
Protected areas such as Special Protection Areas and Special Areas of Conservation
(Appendix 3) limit the number of potential locations for wave energy. In cases where
these areas are well known, conflicts should be easily avoidable, as long as the
deployment site is not within a restricted area. In many countries (e.g. the UK) such areas
a
See for instance The Guardian, May 31, 2001. An ongoing and continuing dialogue between the MOD
and the British Wind Energy Association has however been established and common interim guidelines
published, in: ETSU (DTI, MOD and BWEA) 2002: Wind Energy and Aviation Interest.
330
have until now however only been defined within the territorial waters (the 12 nautical-
mile zone).
It should be noted that even though future wave energy devices are not located within the
borders of a restricted area, it is not unlikely that the sub-sea cables from the wave energy
converters to shore must be placed in a restricted area. This cabling problem is actually
seen as a serious barrier for the development of large-scale offshore wind projects in the
German part of the North Sea, as the authorities, due to environmental concerns, until
now have been reluctant to accept that cables are laid in protected areas near-shore. A
(political) solution is called for, and one possible solution could be the approval of cable-
laying under very strict rules, in order to minimise impact on environment during
construction; one minimum requirement would be only to allow cable laying work at
times that are not important or sensible for the surrounding wildlife, which would often
result in work at winter time.
Furthermore, areas that at a first glance do not seem to be protected areas (on official
maps) must in some cases be regarded as protected areas, because in the EU different
unclassified sites that deserve EU classification should be treated as classified sites.
For exampleImportant Bird Areas (a BirdLife term) that have not been officially
declared as a Special Protection Area (SPA, the official EU term covering areas that
deserve protection due to their importance for birds), must be treated as an SPA until a
decision has been made71.
The choice of location for the Danish Energy Authoritys wave energy test centre in
Limfjorden (Nissum Bredning), in the middle of an SPA, can be seen as an indication that
wave energy is not expected to have negative impact on birds, and that natural reserves
restrictions may not constitute a serious limitation of wave energy, if it proves that wave
energy does not imply negative impacts on the surrounding nature.
For the Wave Dragon project, where a model will be tested at the Danish Wave Energy
Test Centre from Spring 2003, and later on a few kilometres away, still within the borders
of the SPA, an analysis has been carried out leading to the conclusions, that disturbance
of the birds would only be temporary, during deployment and maintenance work.
When/if wave and tidal energy devices are equipped with wind turbines there will be a
new situation, but research from offshore wind farm monitoring studies may then have
lead to solutions concerning this subject.
Ornithological associations are a very strong lobby in most European countries, and
negotiations are often carried out to define whether or not an area can be used for wind
power. Due to the low height of wave energy converters, this conflict should however be
less severe than is the case for offshore wind energy projects.
E 3.4 Areas with conflicting uses

E 3.4.1 Fishing
Restrictions to fishing rights from wave power are bound to be an area of conflicting
interests as the fishermen will lose trawling ground and in some cases also areas for pot
fisheries.
331
Experiences from offshore wind indicates that up to now this conflict has not excluded
any projects from being carried through, but often financial compensation must be given
to the fishermen even without much evidence that fishing is actually reduced.
This conflict appears to be especially problematic for France where the fishing lobby is
very strong and does not hesitate to block harbours if they feel their interests are
threatened, but such problems may also occur elsewhere since the fishermen are generally
well organised all over Europe.
In the UK, the DTI has established a liaison group to encourage open dialogue between
the fishing industry and the offshore renewables sector, and best practice guidelines on
consultation between developers and fishing interests are being prepared72.
Some of the device developers responding to the questionnaire stated that their device
would probably be beneficial for fish populations, but there is no reason to believe that
this will mean that financial compensation to fishermen need not be paid.
In order to minimise impacts on fish, and thereby reduce the risk of conflicts with
fishermen, it is recommended to
avoid construction of wave energy farms in sensitive spawning areas, areas with
species of commercial or conservation importance and areas with a very high
value for fisheries
avoid construction during important breeding, nursery or feeding periods
carry out site-specific and species-specific monitoring studies in order to
investigate the (positive and negative) effects of the wave energy farm on fish,
including the consequences on fish population/fishing possibilities when fishing is
restricted within and in the vicinity of the wave energy devices.
E 3.4.2 Resource extraction areas (aggregate extraction, etc.)
Resource extraction areas generally concern small and localised areas, and as most wave
energy converter types can be applied for quite a wide span of locations, the significance
of this will not be major.
E 3.4.3 Recreational areas
The coast and the sea is a primary holiday and leisure location and is a significant asset in
a nations recreational resource73. Recreational areas and values are often a significant
barrier to major on- or near-shore construction projects, and for instance in the UK over a
third of its coastline is designated for its scenic or natural beauty74.
Apart from natural reserves, the conflict basically concerns the visual intrusion of the
technology into the landscape/seascape. In general, conflicts and opposition lessen when
the plant is deployed out of sight. In 73 it is suggested that a distance of 15 km may be
the maximum limit of visual significance regarding offshore wind turbines along the
coast. In many cases wave power converters should be out of sight at much shorter
distances.
Compared to wind power, where significant local opposition to large-scale farms is found
in several countries, the conflict is likely to be less severe for wave energy. First of all,
wave energy converters do not extend far above sea level, making them hardly visible
332
from a distance. Even the shore-based devices like the LIMPET are barely visible from a
distance. For near-shore and offshore devices, this might be a problem in itself, as naval
standards will require visibility from quite some distance, which means installation of
buoys, lanterns or radar reflectors. This might be a subject of public concern for really
large farms, but cannot be expected to pose a serious barrier for wave energy in the short
and medium term.
E 3.4.4 Marine archaeology
Areas of archaeological interest are not often identifiable solely from mapsas an
example there are thousands of historic shipwrecks along the British coast, however only
fifty-two of them have so far been selected for protection under the UK Protections of
Wrecks Act74. Seismic site surveys and historical records investigation during the
planning phase prior to the decision of the exact siting should however avoid possible
conflicts of interest.
Specific areas of archaeological interest should be avoided. However, if for instance a

wreck is found during installation, this may lead to a partial or total relocation to avoid
serious delay to the whole project. In some cases the public approval may be granted on
the condition that the contractor funds archaeological investigations of the specific site.
All solutionsrelocations, delay and fundingmay incur considerable costs
In general, areas of archaeological interest are found near-shore. The issue is not to be
considered as a barrier to large-scale exploitation of wave energy, but as a risk factor to
be considered in the planning process, and measures can easily be taken to avoid such
incidents by carrying out the investigations necessary in the SEA and EIA.
E 3.4.5 Others
For some countries the coastal region is covered by very strict rules of land (and sea) use,
effectively hindering the deployment of near shore devices. In Denmark construction
works are generally prohibited in the coastal region up to 8 km from the shore, unless
located near to an industrial area, and in Ireland the same applies for areas within 5 km
distance from shore.
It should be repeated that in many countries the rules governing renewable energy
devices deployed outside the territorial borders are not currently defined. To what extent
this will pose a significant barrier to offshore wave energy is hard to assess. In any case,
it seems likely that this issue will be handled by offshore wind power, before it is relevant
for offshore wave energya,64.
E 3.5 Conflicts of interestgeneral conclusions

The general conclusion is that most conflicts of interest are restricted to areas already
identified in the planning phase, thus severe conflicts of interest which could stop a
project can theoretically be avoided through careful, open planning.
a
As an example the UK government has stated that new legislation is needed to allow development of
offshore renewables outside territorial waters and has subsequently proposed a legislative basis for such
developments in the Future Offshore consultation report.
333
Conflicts with fishermen are almost bound to occur, but within other marine construction
works such conflicts have been solved to date through agreed financial compensation.
Some commentators note that conflict with fishermen is likely to occur regardless of the
expected positive and negative effects on fish stocks.
Ship collision risks are to be carefully assessed in the project-planning phase. Whereas
deployment of wave and tidal energy schemes in shallow water may in some cases
decrease ship collision risks, due to markings lights and thereby improved visibility of
reefs and bank. The acceptable level of risk associated with offshore wave power is
currently undefined, but relevant experiences may become available from the developing
offshore wind industry.
It will be very important to collect information from different studies in order to cover the
whole area, as different narrow site-specific studies are carried out at the different
projects. Baseline and impact studies from individual projects are to be disseminated and
jointly appraised. Conclusions from local projects should be translated and all relevant
existing material placed on a publicly accessible web-site.
E 3.6 General references

Border Wind (1998): Offshore Wind Energy. Building a New Industry for Britain. A Report for
Greenpeace by Border Wind.
Braasch,W. & Freese, T. (2000): Kollisionsrisiko Schiffahrt. [Navigation collision risk] In: kologische
Auswirkungen durch Offshore Windenergie-AnlagenWorkshop, Ministerium fr Umwelt, Natur
und Forsten des Landes Schleswig-Holstein: Oral Presentation at Workshop, Kiel, 12.December
2000.
CAA (Civil Aviation Authority for the UK), www.caa.co.uk
Council of the European Communities (1985). Council Directive 85/337/EEC of 27 June 1985 on the
assessment of the effects of certain public and private projects on the environment
Official Journal L 175, 05/07/1985
Council of the European Communities (1997). Council Directive 97/11/EEC of 3 march 1997 amending
Directive 85/337/EEC. Official Journal L 073, 14/03/199
http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/eia/full-legal-text/9711.htm
Council of the European Communities (2001): European Directive 2001/42/EC regarding the effects of
certain plans and programmes on the environment.
DEFRA (2002): Safeguarding Our Seas. A Strategy for the Conservation and Sustainable Development of
our Marine Environment
DEFRA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2002)): Seas of Change. The
Governments consultation paper to help deliver our vision for the marine environment.
Department of the Marine and Natural Resources, Dublin (2001): Offshore Electricity Generating
StationsNote for Intending Developers
Dirksen, S. (2000): Considerations on Environmental Issues in the Planning of Offshore Wind Farms in
The Netherlands. In: Offshore-Windenergienutzung: Technik, Naturschutz, Planung. Deutsches
Windenergie-Institut (Editor):Workshop Proceedings. Wilhelmshaven: DEWI, 2000, p. 40-48
DTI (2000): An assessment of the environmental effects of offshore wind farms. ETSU W/35/00543/REP.
Contractor Metoc PLC, Published 2000.
DTI (2002): Future Offshore. A Strategic Framework for the Offshore Wind Industry.
ECOFYS (2001): Inventory of Policy, Regulations, Administrative Aspects and Current Projects for
Offshore Wind Energy in Northern Europe. Novem Report 224.233-0007
334
Elsam & Eltra (2000): Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm. Environmental Impact Assessment. Summary of
EIA Report. Prepared by Elsamprojekt A/S (Tech-wise).
www.hornsrev.dk
Background reports available from DEA website: www.ens.dk
Energistyrelsen (1998): Retningslinier for udarbejdelse af miljredegrelser for havmller [Guidelines for
environmental impact assessments for offshore wind farms] RambllCopenhagen (In Danish)
Erp, F. (1997): Siting processes for wind energy projects in Germany, Eindhoven University of Technology
ETSU (DTI, MOD and BWEA) 2002: Wind Energy and Aviation Interest. Interim Guidelines.
EU Commission (1997): Wind EnergyThe Facts. Volume 4 The Environment,. European Commission
Directorate-General for Energy, 1997
Frsvarsmakten (2000): Vindkraftsprojektet (Frsvaret och vindkraften): En allmn beskrivning. [Swedish
Armed Forces (2000): The wind power project (The Defence and the wind power): A general
presentation]
Hammarlund, K. (2002) Wind Power in View: Energy Landscapes in a Crowded World. University Press,
U.S.A.
Highland and Islands Enterprise (2001): Environmental scoping for a proposed Marine Energy Test Centre,
Stromness, Orkney.
IALA (International Association of Lighthouse Authorities) (1984): Recommendations for the marking of
offshore structures & IALA (2000): Recommendations for the marking of offshore wind farms.
www.iala-aism.org
ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organisation), www.icao.int.
Institut fr Tourismus- und Bderforschung in Nordeuropa (N.I.T.) GmbH (2000): Touristische Effekte von
On-und Offshore- Windkraftanlagen in Schleswig-Holstein.
Integration der Ergebnisse, Kiel, September 2000. [Effects on tourism from on- and offshore wind turbines
in Schleswig-Holstein]
Marine Institute (2000): Assessment of Impacts of Offshore Wind Energy Structures on the Marine
Environment. Ireland.
Maritime Ireland/Wales (2001): Guide to Best Practice in Seascape Assessment
Merck, Th. (2000): Mgliche Konflikte zwischen der Offshorewindenergienutzung und dem Naturschutz.
[Possible conflicts between offshore wind energy and nature protection] In: Offshore-
Windenergienutzung: Technik, Naturschutz, Planung.Deutsches Windenergie-Institut
(Editor):Workshop Proceedings. Wilhelmshaven: DEWI, 2000, p. 49-58.
Nielsen, B. et al. (1996): Wind Turbines & the Landscape, Birk Nielsens TegnestueAarhus
SEAS (2000a): Skibskollisioner ved Rdsand. Havmllepark ved Rdsand. VVM redegrelse.
Baggrundsrapport nr 21. Juli 2000. Rambll. [Ship Collisions at Rdsand Offshore Wind Farm. EIA
background report nr. 21, made by Rambll.] www.nystedhavmoellepark.dk
SEAS (2000b) Rdsand Offshore Wind Farm. Environmental Impact Assessment. EIA Summary Report.
Summary reports and background reports available from: www.nystedhavmoellepark.dk
Shaw, S., Cremers, M.J, Palmers, G. (2002): Enabling Offshore Wind Developments. Report produced by
3E in association with EWEA. [so-called Sealegal document]
Srensen, H.C. et al.: Offshore WindReady to Power a Sustainable Europe. EU Concerted Action on
Offshore Wind Energy in Europe. Delft 2001. www.offshorewindenergy.org.
Sker, H. et al. (2000): North Sea Offshore WindA Powerhouse for Europe. Technical Possibilities and
Ecological Considerations. A Study for Greenpeace. Hamburg, Germany: Greenpeace, 2000
Watson, S. (1999): EPSRC Offshore Wind Energy Network. Research Requirements Workshop. Final
Report.
Wolsink, M. (1990): The siting problem, Windpower as a social dilemma, University of Amsterdam
335
E4 PLANNING
E 4.1 Introduction
The objectives of this work package are to assess national and international rules and
regulations concerning wave and tidal energy, highlight key-problem areas such as
planning and legal barriers and create recommendations regarding methods for
overcoming such problems. Furthermore, lessons learned in relevant industries should be
included.
This report covers these objectives based on studies of selected references and on
responses from network members and international colleagues.
The responses to the questionnaires have been attached to this report at Appendix 8, and
they do not only present national examples of planning issues, but also present some of
the different wave energy pilot projects that are currently being developed.
As can be seen from the list of references much information and many recommendations
have been be found from studies of offshore wind energy, and the information in this
draft report is in many cases based on a similar study from the EU Concerted Action on
Wind Energy in Europe75, dealing with planning issues and national and international
policies.
Furthermore, the study of Ecofys on policies and regulations concerning offshore wind76
and especially the so-called Sealegal document77, that contains comprehensive
information regarding offshore wind planning issues in selected European countries, have
contributed with much valuable information.
The reasons for using information from wind energy is the fact that planning rules
concerning wave energy generally have not been prepared yet, and it may be expected
that rules and regulations regarding offshore wind energy will in many cases also apply to
wave and tidal energy.
E 4.1.1 Policies
On the political and public levels, the profile of wave power appears to be relatively low,
with significant differences across Europe. Especially in the UK and Portugal there is a
high political awareness of the possibilities of wave power, because of its potential as a
renewable energy and because it is seen as a potential new market for the declining
offshore industry, which is of specific importance in the UK.
Some spin-off effects from the wind energy industry can be utilised by the wave and tidal
energy community, but it is not likely that wave power will receive a generally high level
of public and political awareness before it has been established as a viable renewable
energy technology through deployment of a significant number of commercial plants. In
popular terms: as long as wave power does not appear in energy statistics, it is unlikely
to receive a high public and political profile.
336
What is called for is therefore the successful demonstration of several devices, followed
by large-scale commercial penetration. Furthermore, information campaigns directed at
politicians, press and public will also be necessary.
As the successful offshore demonstration on a larger scale has yet to be achieved, wave
energy is generally not specifically included in national renewable energy policies, rules
and regulations, with the exceptions of United Kingdom and Portugala.
E 4.1.2 Planning rules
During the planning and pre-planning process of wave (and tidal) energy projects,
developers are confronted with a number of specific rules and regulations, but may in
some cases also experience that the legal planning framework has not been fully
developed yet, forcing the authorities to create such a legal framework during the
development of the project, which may lead to a delay of the specific project.
In general, planning rules and regulation concerning offshore renewable energy projects
within and beyond the 12-mile-zone (see below) do not exist in all countries, but can be
foreseen in the coming years, especially for offshore wind energy. It may be expected
that rules and regulations laid out for offshore wind energy schemes may in many cases
also apply to wave energy projects.
Not only are the legal frameworks still under construction and unclear in many countries,
which may become a major limiting factor to the development of wave energy, but
national planning rules may vary significantly within the EU, and even on the national
level, different and confusing legal frameworks exist within individual countries.
For example, different regulations regarding the same subject exist in some countries,
depending on whether a proposed project is located inside the 12 nautical-mile zone
(often referred to as territorial sea) or outside (exclusive economic zone, EEZ,
extending from the 12 nM zone seawards to a maximum of 200 nM from the shoreline).
In a recently published British report on Future Offshore78 it is concluded that current

UK legislation fails to provide a firm basis for development beyond territorial waters, and
that new legislation is therefore urgently needed.
Below an overview of the most relevant international and national policies and legal
frameworks is presented. For a more detailed analysis of policies and regulations
concerning offshore renewable energy, in particular wind, in Northern Europe, please
refer to the so-called Sealegal document77. This report contains comprehensive
information regarding international, EU and national frameworks of relevance for
offshore wind (and wave) energy in Europe, with national analyses from: Belgium,
Denmark, Germany, France, Ireland, The Netherlands, Sweden and UK. The sections
below are in many cases based on information from this document.
a
The Danish programme for wave energy has not been continued after 2002.
337
E 4.2 International and EU policies, rules and regulations

E 4.2.1 Delineation of the sea
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, UNCLOSa,79, sets out the rights
of a coastal state over its territorial sea and over the seas beyond this limit.
The maritime zones, of relevance for wave energy, defined by this Convention, are77
The territorial sea (up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles)
The contiguous zone (the zone adjacent to the territorial sea up to 24 nM)
The continental shelf (the sea-bed and subsoil of the submarine areas that extend
beyond the territorial sea of a coastal state throughout the natural prolongation of
its land territory to the outer edge of the continental margin, or to a distance of
200 nM from the baselines)
The EEZ (the Exclusive Economic Zone is an area beyond and adjacent to the
territorial sea, extending up to, but not beyond 200 nM, and includes, besides the
sea-bed and subsoil, the waters superjacent to the seabed)
The high seas (All parts of the sea that are not included in the EEZ or in the
territorial sea).
Whilst a coastal state has full sovereignty over its territorial sea, its rights beyond the
12 nM-boundary are more limited.
A coastal state has sovereign rights for the purpose of exploiting the natural resources
resources of the seabed and subsoil, such as oil and gasof its continental shelf. But the
production of energy from water, currents and wind will only be possible according to
international legislation if the state has established an EEZ around its territory, or a
special renewable energy production zone, which the individual coastal state has the right
to do, according to the UNCLOS.
In order to protect offshore installations, and to ensure safe navigation, a state may
establish safety zones around such installations and structure for a distance of up to
500 m, but still the state must not interfere with international laws, such as the right of
freedom of navigation (see Section E 3 on
a
UNCLOS came into force in 1994 and contains a legal framework covering navigation, maritime
boundaries, fisheries, the marine environment and marine scientific research. To date 138 states are
members.
338
Conflicts of interest).
The UK is an example of a state that has not declared an EEZ yet (2002). So far, only an
Exclusive Fisheries Zone and a pollution zone have been established, but the government
is planning to declare a Renewable Energy Production Zone that will extend up to
200 nM from the baseline of the territorial sea, in accordance with UNCLOS. Before the
UK can exercise EEZ rights conferred by UNCLOS, there has to be legislation at a
national level which defines e.g. the limits of the Renewable Energy Production Zone80.
E 4.2.2 Environmental issues

Kyoto agreement, EC renewables objectives
In general, all EU states have adopted national legislation and established targets for
reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting the use of renewable energies, in order
to meet the objectives of
the Kyoto Protocol (1997) regarding reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
the EC White Paper (199781) on doubling the share of renewables in gross
domestic energy consumption in the EU from 6 % in 1995 to 12 % in 2010, and
the EC Directive on the promotion of electricity produced from renewables
energy sources (200182) with the aim of increasing the share of electricity
produced from renewables in total gross electricity consumption in the EU from
13,9 % in 1997 to 22,1 % in 2010.
In most cases, as stated above, wave energy is not even mentioned in the national plans
and policy programmes that aim at fulfilling these targets, whereas the potentials of wind
energy is proposed as a partial solution.
EIA and SEA directives
Regarding the EC Environmental Impact Assessment Directive (1985, amended 199783)
and Strategic Environmental Assessment Directive (200184) detailed information can be
found in Section E 5 on
339
Environmental impact.
For future larger-scale wave and tidal energy projects an EIA must be carried out (usually
by the project developer) and in many cases an SEA is expected to be carried out by the
authorities prior to the EIA. The SEA Directive must be transposed into national laws by
July 2004.
Protected species and habitats
The following conventions and directives are relevant regarding the development of wave
and tidal energy
the Ramsar Convention (on wetlands and waterfowl habitat of international
importance85)
the Bern Convention (on the conservation of European wildlife and natural
habitats86)
the Bonn Convention (on the conservation of migratory species87)
the EC Birds Directive (on the conservation of wild birds88), and
the EC Habitats Directive (on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild
fauna and flora89)
Designated areas, according to the conventions and directives mentioned above, often
overlap partially or wholly. If a specific project is expected to have an impact on such
areas, an assessment must be carried out either as part of the EIA or as an individual
assessment. Possibilities for derogation depend on the proposed projects, its specific size,
location and assessed impacts, and the specific statements in the conventions and/or
directives in question.
For a more detailed presentation of these conventions and directives, please refer to the
Section E 3 on
340
Conflicts of interest and the Sealegal report77.

International conventions and declarations
ESPOO Convention (on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary
Context90). The objective of the convention is to promote international
cooperation on EIA, especially in a cross-border (transboundary) context:
Countries are obliged to assess, at an early stage of planning, the environmental
impacts of certain projects with possible cross-border impacts, and to notify and
consult each other on all major projects under consideration that are likely to have
a significant adverse environmental impact on a cross-border level. The EC SEA
Directive will in many cases ensure that the information and consultation
requirements of the ESPOO Convention are fulfilled.
OSPAR Convention (on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-
East Atlantic91). The convention stipulates that contracting parties must take
necessary measures to protect the maritime area against the adverse effects of
human activities in order to safeguard human health and conserve marine
ecosystems.
Barcelona Convention (on the protection of the marine environment and the
coastal region of the Mediterranean92). Within this framework an Action Plan,
covering e.g. coastal zone management, protection of ecosystems and
preservation of bio-diversity, is serving as the basis for sustainable development
in the area.
Helsinki Convention (on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic
Sea Area93). The convention applies to the marine environment of the Baltic Sea
and internal waters, comprising the water-body and the seabed, including their
living resources and other forms of marine life. Each year the Helsinki
Commission meets, and unanimous decisions taken by this commission are to be
incorporated into the national legislation of the member countries.
Bergen Declaration (Fifth North Sea Declaration, March 2002, on the Protection
of the North Sea94). The participating ministers made a number of commitments,
e.g. regarding the development of renewable energy technology, inter alia,
offshore wind energy, agreeing upon the necessity of and benefits from taking
action in order to exploit the potential of offshore wind energy fully and safely
(while applying the precautionary principle), for instance by encouraging
authorities to develop guidance on areas suitable for the development of offshore
wind and to exchange information and experience.
The ministers invited OPSAR, in co-operation with the EU, to
develop a comprehensive set of criteria regarding the decision-making on
applications for the development of offshore wind energy installations,
and
develop best-practice guides regarding location, construction, operation
and removal of offshore wind farms in order to facilitate their
development and to protect the marine environment.
The results of this process may prove to be highly relevant also to the development of
wave and tidal energy.
E 4.3 National rules and regulations

During the project lifetime of a wave or tidal energy project, the following issues must be
considered in accordance with national rules and regulations
341
Location of project
Environmental Impact Assessment (see Section E 5 on Environmental Impact
and Section E 3 on Conflicts of Interest)
Consultation (see Section E 3 on Conflicts of Interest, and Section E 1 Public
Acceptability)
Grid connection, sea cables and power production
Marking requirements (see Section E 5 on Environmental Impact and Section E
3 on Conflicts of Interest)
Insurance
Sea lease
Decommissioning (see Section E 5 on Environmental Impact)
Table E-2 presents national planning rules and regulations relevant to wave and tidal
energy. It has been based partly on responses from members of the Concerted Action on
Offshore Wind Energy in Europe and the Sealegal study 77, as the response form Wave
Net members was very limited, possibly due to the fact that wave energy has generally
not been adopted in national planning rules and regulations.
Table E-2 is by no means thought of as an exhaustive presentation of all relevant aspects

concerning national planning rules and regulations for development of wave and tidal
energy projects. Firstly, such a presentation is currently not possible, because of the lack
of national legal frameworks regarding wave energy, and secondly it has not been within
the scope of this Network to make such an analysis.
The Table E-2 should merely be seen as an introduction to national legislation issues,
serving as background information for the recommendations in Section E 4.4.
As no firm legal frameworks covering wave and tidal energy exist, and as the existing
general legal frameworks regarding development of onshore, near-shore and offshore
renewable energy projects (especially wind) in many countries are under consideration,
developers must seek relevant detailed information themselves for each individual
project.
For detailed information (2002) from Denmark, France, Ireland, The Netherlands,
Sweden and UK regarding (offshore wind) policies, rules and regulations, please refer
to77. This Sealegal study also contains information from Germany and Belgium. An
overview of relevant national policies and planning issues concerning offshore wind,
taken from the Sealegal document, can be found in Table E-2. For specific cases from
Portugal, UK and Denmark, see Appendix 9.
342
Table E-2 National Planning Rules and Regulations

DK Onshore/Near-shore
The coastal zone in Denmark has very strict and rather complicated legal
rules with a number of different regulations, depending on the actual site
(e.g. distance to recreational areas, proximity to industrial area) and the
general distance to shore95
Offshore
Permit regarding grid connection required from local utility
Permit regarding sea cables and power production required from Danish
Energy Authority
Permit regarding localisation (of test site) required from The Danish Coastal
Authority, including permissions from local, regional and archaeological etc.
authorities.
It is expected that an insurance covering damage on third person is required,
as is the case with ships.
Marking requirements are set by The Royal Danish Administration of
Navigation and Hydrography.
EIA is currently not required for test devices because of limited size and
temporal deployment.
In line with its tradition the Danish authorities put a lot of attention on the
consultation of the public.
FR No specific rules.
In France, the question of a specific legislation regarding offshore
renewables is very new and there is no specific legislation for instance
concerning offshore wind exploitation and no lease procedure.
Onshore/Near-shore
Implementations of projects within the territorial sea generally follows the
same process as for general building works, with additional requirements
related to the use of the marine public domain and the generation of
electricity.
Offshore
Outside the territorial waters there is as yet no fixed regulation for offshore
renewables development77.
GR Legislation for renewable energy sources applies also to large-scale offshore
wind energy
Law governing energy production-distribution incl. RES
Greek legislation for environment
Environmental legislation for shoreline
Catalogue of natural protected areas in Greece
IR Onshore/Near-shore
343

The development of National Coastal Management Planning has shown little
recognition of the potential wave power resource and is dominated by
fisheries, tourism, heritage and landscape/seascape considerations. In a draft
policy plan for coastal zone management in Ireland (1997) the consultants
make only a passing mention of the wave resource96. The recognition and
incorporation of such documents into the county development planning
process adds to the potential difficulties of shoreline or near shore wave
power developments.
Offshore
The Irish republic has issued a coherent set of rules97. It has for example
been made clear that offshore wind parks are eligible everywhere in Irish
waters unless it is forbidden in specific locations. Licenses are approved in
two phases. Phase 1, the Site Investigation License, allows consortia to
investigate whether the targeted site is suitable and economically viable. The
licensing authority is the Department of Marine and Natural Resources.
Under Phase 2 a full license can be granted in case all approvals have been
obtained. Environmental and safety prescriptions are in place although it is
still allowed that the Minister may include additional requirements. The Irish
government urges the developers to obtain public acceptance before
inserting the application.
Offshore wind farms will not, as a general rule, be allowed within 5 km of
shore. Certain areas are identified as prohibited to ensure safety at sea,
protection of established shipping lanes, air navigation, telecommunication
needs and defence requirements.
Planning permission required from relevant local authority for onshore
infrastructure associated with offshore wind farms.
IT Wind energy
The Italian Navigation Code (INC) and the Application Guide of INC
(AGINC) are the reference legislation for offshore wind farms installation in
the Italian national waters; specifically art.36 and following of INC and art.5
and following of AGINC (for the type and format of application documents).
Special permits should be considered for offshore wind farms, because of the
long time limitation related to their presence for the activity of navigation,
fishing, marine sport, and others.
Many other Administrations are involved in processing the installation
permits: Ministry of Transport, of Defence, of Environment, of Industry, of
Civil Works, of Sea and Terrestrial Resources (General Direction of
Maritime Fishing) and others.
The Environmental Impact Evaluation should be considered necessary, even
though no clear policy is applied today.
At the end of the procedure the Permits are issued by the Compartment of
Maritime Transport and shown to public office of interested Municipality
and Province for public information and possible opposition.
344

The installation of Offshore Wind Farm and Permit applications is under the
control of the local Harbour Authorities by their presence in the Coastal
Guard.
Safety features for navigation and aviation are requested in the Permit.
Information on the offshore plants is due to Marigrafico office for its
inclusion on the nautical charts.
NL Onshore/Near-shore: Rules for Wind Energy Projects
Within the 12-mile-zone, apart from a near shore wind farm pilot project
(NSW), no wind farms will be allowed.
Offshore: Rules for Wind Energy Projects
There are practically no Dutch regulations and rules existing for large-scale
offshore wind energy outside the 12-mile-zone. This could be positive or
negative depending on political will. However, there are several laws and
regulations that have to be considered when licenses in the Dutch Exclusive
Economical Zone of the North Sea must be gained.
These regulations are
Sea Water Pollution Law (Wet Verontreiniging Zeewater)
Environmental Administration Law (Wet Milieubeheer)
Spatial Arrangement Law (Wet Ruimtelijke Ordening)
Environmental Protection Law (Natuurbeschermingswet)
Governmental Water Works Administration Law (Wet Beheer
Rijkswaterstaatswerken)
Wreckage Law (Wrakkenwet)
Monuments Law (Monumentenwet)
Excavation Works Law (Ontgrondingenwet)
North Sea Installations Law (Wet Installaties Noordzee)
(Sea) Bottom Protection Law (Wet Bodembescherming)
Mining Laws 1810, 1903 & EEZ (Mijnwetten 1810, 1903 & NCP buiten
12 mijlFrom recent studies, it seems that this law has no implications for
offshore wind farms)
Route Law (TracwetThis law is important for the seaways to be chosen)
PT National Incentives to promote Wave Energy
The comprehensive programme Programa E4 Eficiencia Energtica e
Energias Renovveis (Energy Efficiency and Endogenous Energies)
supporting the penetration of renewable energies in Portugal, namely Wave
Energy, was established since late 2001.
Main Legislation
Programa E4Resoluo do Conselho de Ministros, Number 154/2001,
345

October 19, Its objectives include the facilitation of access and the
development of production of electrical energy by cleaner technologies
namely wave energy, as well as the management of the grid connection
points for independent producers.
Decree-Law n 33-C/2001, December 29, establishes the tariff to be paid by
the national grid to the independent producers of electrical energy from
ocean waves. The tariff is around 0.225 Euro/kWh, up to 20 MW installed
capacity in national territory. The grid is obliged to purchase all the energy
produced
The Ministry of Economythrough Direco Geral de Energia (General
Direction for Energy) provides information at www.dge.pt.
As a consequence of this national legislation, Portuguese authorities show
much good-will and have in many cases been very flexible during planning
and construction of test devices.
SE There is no dedicated legal basis regarding offshore wind energy
generationand none at all regarding wave/tidal energyand the planning
procedures have not yet been carried out in all relevant municipalities.
In a study carried out by the Swedish Energy Agency98, and initiated by the
government with aims to make standards for the future offshore wind power,
it is proposed that 3,300 MW of offshore wind power is to be developed
within the next 10 to 15 years. Seven offshore areas have been suggested as
locations of special interest, first of all in the Southern part of Sweden. There
are no specific plans for wave energy.
In current rules and regulations (2001) the administrative procedures and
competent authorities depend on project size (below 1 MW, 1-10 MW,
above 10 MW) and location (distance to shore)
Onshore/Near-shore (territorial sea)
Building Permit required from local authorities (municipality) building and
planning committee, according to the Planning and Building Act.
Permit required from local County Administrative Board concerning
environmental issues (according to the Environmental Code). For projects
larger than 10 MW, permits are issued by the Environmental Court
concerned.
Application for water operation permits shall be considered by the
Environmental Court
The government shall assess the permissibility of wind farms inside
territorial waters if they are consisting of clusters of three or more wind
turbines with a total output of not less than 10 MW.
Offshore (outside territorial waters)
Construction of wind farms outside territorial waters requires permission
from the government.
The Swedish Energy Agency issues permits regarding cabling
346

For further information, see 77
UK The legislation regarding offshore wind energy developments is diverse.
As for other countries developers have to obtain approvals from various
governmental authorities, although the Department of Trade and Industry
(DTI) provide one-stop consenting assistance. The Offshore Renewable
Consents Unit does not, however, affect the statutory roles of other
departments, agencies and authorities involved in the consent process.
Onshore/near-shore (territorial sea)
There are two main legislative consent routes for onshore projects and
projects located in territorial waters, and it is up to the developer to choose
which is the most appropriate
Section 36 of the Electricity Act 1989 and Section 34 of the Coastal
Protection Act 1949, or
an order under the Transport and Works Act 1992 (not available in Scotland)
Regardless of consent route, applications must be in accordance with e.g. the
following planning rules and regulations
Procedure for obtaining offshore wind energy site lease from Crown Estates
(who is the landowner of most areas within the 12 nautical mile limit).
Environmental Impact Assessment and consultation leading to EIS
Food and Environmental Protection Act 1985, Section 5
Town and Country Planning Act 1990, Section 57 or 90
Offshore (beyond 12nm-zone)
No firm legal basis for development beyond territorial waters. The UK
Government is therefore preparing new legislation to allow developments
outside territorial waters.
In general, the UK Government is aware of the fact that the consent
procedure regarding offshore renewable projects needs to be streamlined and
it is currently (2002/2003) undertaking a regulatory review with the
objective of reducing the complexity of the regime governing development
in coastal and marine waters. Additionally, DTI will work with other
Departments to streamline further the administration of offshore consents
process and explore the feasibility of having one main point of contact for
applicants and consultees.
For further information, see 79 and, especially, 80.
Wave Energy
The planned streamlining of consent procedures focuses in particular on
offshore wind, but the UK Government wishes equally to provide an
appropriate planning framework for other offshore technologies, such as
wave and tidal energy. As part of the Future Offshore Consultation
Process, views have been invited on whether separate provision will be
needed for offshore technologies other than wind, and if so on what
347

timescale, 80. Deadline: 18 February 2003.
348
Procedures DK FR GER IR NL SE UK
Fixed under review not clear yes yes under review yes yes
procedure
One-stop probable no no no uncertain yes

shopping
Pre-selected
sites
yes (by
previous
no Provisions for
specially
no (but uncertain no no
Govt.- but suited areas certain

under review
by new
for establish-
ing offshore
areas
Govt.) wind install- prohibite
ations d)
Economics: under to be
costs transition reviewed
after con-
clusion of
current
tendering
scheme
Lease fee under review fixed by Tax no commercial under review annual fee of commercial
authority (no rents (3800 app. 150 rents (2 %
known rule) /MW/yr or /year and gross
2.5 % gross per wind revenue)
revenue, turbine
whichever
higher)
Priority grid under review yes yes predeter- grid con- guaranteed no
access mined nection not access for
capacity guaranteed <1.5 MW
Grid Developer new users-no Developer integrated paid by paid by paid by

connection pays up to grid pays grid into bid price developer developer developer
costs onshore connection connection & for tender
junction pt. cost for transmission,
(for sites in electricity but grid
ex-govts producer operator
plan, all costs obliged to
paid by grid reinforce
operator) grid, if
required, at
his own cost
Decom- uncertain possible possible yes (case by yes yes yes (fund or
missioning prerequisite prerequisite casebond (developer to conditions & bondcase
fund agreed as provide funds related by case
part of lease security for to decom- basis
negotiations (non- missioning established
reviewed negotiable) agreed (case as a
every 5 yrs) sum, deter- by case) at condition to
mined by granting granting
authorities) environ- Lease)
mental permit
(no advance
payment
required)
Table E-3, Overview of basic characteristics of offshore wind policies in selected

countries (August 2002, source 77)
349
E 4.4 Conclusions and recommendations

Regarding national planning rules and regulations it can be concluded that the legal
framework has not been fully clarified yet, which may become a barrier for future
development of large-scale wave energy.
The recommendations below, found in 76 and 77, will all be highly relevant for politicians
and authorities to bear in mind when policies, planning rules and regulations for wave
and tidal energy are being developed
one-desk policy/one-stop-shop procedure for all necessary licenses
definition of exclusion areas
selection of preferable areas for which SEAs are carried outthis should not
exclude other potential areas than the ones already having been excluded
preparation of the infrastructure such as grid connections in the area(s) selected
burden sharing for grid connectionthe grid connections to major offshore
renewable sites can be considered as an enhancement of the overall supply system
and should therefore be financed partially or completely by the grid operator
transparency in financial burden for the project developer, such as royalties, lease
fees, administrative handling costs, cost charged for research required by
authorities, cost related to increased availability of emergency teams
anti-speculation clauseslegislation should prevent early wave and tidal energy
developments being hindered by speculative concessions
risk-hedging schemesmost project developers will confront significant barriers
with respect to obtaining full insurances, e.g. due to a lack of references. The
public sector could play an important role by initiating risk-hedging schemes in
association with insurance companies.
350
E5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Contributions: Tom Thorpe, Pat McCullen
E 5.1 Introduction
E 5.1.1 Environmental impacts
The objectives of this work package have been to identify the environmental impact from
the expanded development of wave and tidal energy schemes and to create
recommendations for their development. Furthermore, the objectives have been to collate
information regarding the potential impact that the environment could have on wave
energy devices (e.g. growth of mussels, corrosion). Finally, environmental benefits in
terms of reduced emissions of pollutants should be determined.
The current draft report covers these objectives based on responses from network
members and studies of selected references.
As can be seen from the list of references much information has been be found from
studies of offshore wind energy, and the information in this draft report is in many cases
based on a similar study from the EU Concerted Action on Wave Energy in Europe,
dealing with Environmental Impacts99.
In addition, Tom Thorpes work on Environmental economics in Section D 2.6 and on

this work package have been very useful and many passages have been included, and Pat
McCullen (ESB International) has improved the report with his comments that have been
included in this final edition.
Finally, results from the environmental scoping study for the Marine Energy Test Centre
on Orkney have been included as Appendix 9, presenting a valuable overview of
potential impacts during construction and operation of the test centre.
E 5.1.2 Background
In November 2000, a questionnaire was distributed to the network members, but only
four members responded. These responses are attached to this report in Appendix 4.
As to why the response was so limited, some features of wave energy might give a partial
explanation.
Firstly, it is not really meaningful to speak of wave energy in singular, as wave energy is
currently pursuing a vast number of widely different technology trails, which means that
the assessment of environmental impact, apart from being location dependent, to a large
degree can be expected to be technology dependent as well. This can be seen from the
responses received and is also illustrated in the Environmental Scoping for the Orkney
Marine Energy Test Centre, where it is emphasised that the full EIA required to support
licence applications for the establishment of the test facilities will not necessarily be able
351
to predict all the specific impacts relating to each separate device that may be tested. It is
therefore recommended that an environmental approval procedure be developed, which
will ensure that prior to deployment of each device, an assessment of device specific
environmental impacts be undertaken and management or mitigation measures
implemented where necessary100.
Secondly, there are only very limited practical deployment experiences available. Even
within offshore wind power, a similar study99 concluded that the available knowledge on
a number of environmental impacts was sparse. For wave power it appears to be almost
non-existent, and estimations of the environmental and social perceptions will largely
have to be based on experiences from comparable industries.
Given this background this report utilises the experiences from offshore wind power.
Obviously the environmental impacts may in some cases be quite different for wave
power compared to wind power, and therefore inputs from other network members have
been included with reference to specific device types. Nevertheless, this report may shed
some light on the issues involved, and also prove as a good recommendation for the
potential environmental barriers facing wave and tidal energy in the future.
Wave energy is here defined as multi-unit applications of a size rendering the projects
within the scope of the EC Council Directive 85/337/EEC101 amended in Directive
97/11/EC102, which state the minimum requirements for Environmental Impact
Assessment for large construction projects. In the near future wave power appears to be
bound to single-unit plants, which are likely to be too small for EIA requirements to
apply. Nevertheless, excepting island applications, the future of wave power must be in
projects of a size comparable to offshore wind if large-scale commercial penetration is to
be achieved, and for these projects an EIA will be required.
Finally, this study is limited in the sense that only direct potential impacts from wave
energy schemes offshore, near-shore and onshore have been included in this report. This
means that additional expected impacts from e.g. necessary reinforcement of the grid
onshore, like overhead power lines, are not presented.
E 5.2 Environmental impact

E 5.2.1 Environmental Impact Assessment
In theory, the siting of wave energy schemes can potentially avoid many of the perceived
environmental impacts that have arisen with the rapid expansion of some on- and
offshore technologies. However, with only a few schemes having been built to date, there
is little evidence to substantiate this view, and offshore developments do generate
additional impacts associated with the marine environment. If wave energy is to fulfil its
potential as part of an integrated energy system, then a full and accurate assessment of its
environmental benefits and burdens needs to be undertaken.
Within the EU, an Environmental Impact Assessmenta (EIA) must be carried out before
public approval for larger projects can be granted. The minimum requirements of the EIA
a
The term Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) covers the procedure that fulfils the assessment
requirements of Directive 97/11/EC. In many countries, e.g. in the UK, the environmental information
352
are specified in the EC Council Directive 85/337/EEC101 amended in Directive

97/11/EC102.
The directives require that private and public projects, which are likely to have significant
effects on the environment, must be subject to an assessment of their potential effects on
the environment before they can be allowed to proceed.
An EIA shall identify, describe and assess the direct and indirect effects of a project on
the following factors
human beings, fauna and flora
soil, water, air, climate and the landscape
material assets and the cultural heritage
the interaction between these factors mentioned
The directives lay down rules for the EIA procedure, which includes a requirement for
public participationthe results are to be made public, and the views of the public taken
into consideration in the consenting procedure (for more information regarding this
subject see Section E 1 Public acceptability).
As is the case for wind energy, the individual member states shall determine, either
through a case-by-case examination or through thresholds or criteria set by the member
state, whether wave power projects shall be made subject to an assessment. In this way,
member states may exempt a specific project from the provisions in the directives.
E 5.2.2 Strategic Environmental Assessment
The SEA Directive (2001/42/EC 1103), which must be transposed to national laws by July
2004, and which has already been used by the UK government regarding three strategic
offshore wind development sites104, supplements the environmental impact assessment
system on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the
environment.
As this Directive is quite new and as the SEA report and statement will assist developers
to prepare cost-effective EIAs for individual offshore renewable projects, it is presented
in detail below
The objective of the Directive is to help integrate the environment into the preparation
and adoption of plans and programmes liable to have significant effects on the
environment, by subjecting them to a prior environmental assessment at the planning
stage.
The Directive applies to plans and programmes prepared and adopted by a competent
authority or prepared by a competent authority; it also applies to amendments to such
plans and programmes. Other plans and programmes which set the framework for future
development consent of projects will be subject to environmental assessment if an
examination shows that they are liable to have significant effects on the environment.
provided by the developer is presented in the form of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), which
may then be described as the final product of an EIA. In this report only the term EIA will be used.
353
Before the adoption of a plan or programme or its submission to the legislative process,
the competent authority of the relevant Member State is required to carry out an
environmental assessment and, after consulting the competent environmental authorities,
to prepare an environmental report setting out
the contents of the plan or programme and its main objectives,
the environmental characteristics of any area likely to be significantly affected by
the plan or programme,
any existing environmental problems which are relevant to the plan or
programme,
the national, Community or international environmental protection objectives
which are relevant to the plan or programme in question,
the likely environmental effects of implementing the plan or programme,
the measures envisaged to prevent, reduce and offset any significant adverse
effects on the environment,
the envisaged monitoring measures.
The report must also include a non-technical summary of this information.
The draft plan or programme and the environmental report must then be made available
to the authorities responsible for the environment and to the public, who should be able to
express their views before the plan or programme is adopted or submitted to the
legislative process. Furthermore, neighbour countries must be informed and consulted if
it is considered that the plan or programme is liable to have cross-border environmental
effects.
The environmental report, the opinions expressed by the relevant authorities and the
public and the results of any cross-border consultations must be taken into account by the
competent authority during the preparation of the plan or programme and before it is
adopted.
When a plan or programme is adopted, the Member State responsible will inform all of
the parties concerned regarding the plan or programme as adopted including a statement
summarising how environmental considerations have been integrated, the environmental
report, the opinions and the results of consultations, the reasons for choosing the plan or
programme as adopted and the planned monitoring measures105 (for more information
regarding the adoption of the SEA Directive in UK, see 104)
General conclusions
Developers of wave power farms must carry out an EIA on the specific project, with the
purpose of providing information about the possible impacts on the environment from the
time of installation until the dismantling of the farm.
The EIAs from individual wave energy projects will contain much valuable information
regarding the effects from wave energy on the environment, but due to the fact that the
experiences with wave power are currently very small, the literature on environmental
impacts is lacking. However, the experiences from offshore wind can be expected to
produce relevant references for a number of the potentially significant impacts, which
also apply to some of the wave power plants.
354
The SEA directive, requiring strategic environmental assessments and consultations at an

early stage of certain plans and programmes, may assist ocean energy developers in
carrying out the EIA.
E 5.2.3 Biological impacts
Responses from a questionnaire distributed in the Network indicate that visual and noise
impacts from shore-based devices are likely to be the most likely potential environmental
impact. A number of other potential impacts were identified, but in general, they were
concluded to be technically solvable, simply adding to the costs of the projects. Whether
or not the above conclusion is the result of the main operational experiences with shore-
bound devices is hard to judge, but it appears to be a fact that a precise evaluation of the
environmental impacts associated with different types of wave energy converters cannot
be performed with the current low level of operational experiences available. However,
the lessons from offshore wind power clearly indicate that the documentation of
environmental impacts will be an important issue for wave power as well, when the
technologies reach large-scale commercial development.
In The Concerted Action on Offshore Wind Energy in Europe99 the following biological
issues were indicated as being potentially problematic
Collision of birds with turbines
Ousting off birds from their traditional feeding/roosting grounds
Unknown effect of low frequency noise emissions on fish life and sea mammals
Impacts on fish larvae
Disturbances of seabed and fauna during construction and operation.
While bird life impacts are undoubtedly considered the most important for wind power,
fish, sea mammals, and potential pollution associated with ship collisions are probably
the impacts that will attract the most interest for wave power.
Only a few case studies of the impact on fish, birds, sea mammals and flora have been
carried out in connection with the offshore wind farms already established, either as part
of the Environmental Impact Assessments or as individual studies. This knowledge has
not yet been compiled in a systematic manner, which results in the fact that the biological
impacts and mechanisms involved are still associated with significant uncertainties.
The experience from studies on environmental aspects of offshore wind farms in

Denmark and UK are collated on a national level
in Denmark the monitoring studies are being closely followed by an international
expert group, and reports in English from these studies can be found on the
internet, e.g. www.hornsrev.dk and www.nystedhavmoellepark.dk
the British studies are administered by a steering group known as COWRIE
(Collaborative Offshore Wind Research into the Environment), including
members from the industry, authorities and NGOs. The group is chained by the
Crown Estate and reports will be available from: www.offshorewind farms.co.uk.
Sea mammals
The effect from wave energy converters on sea mammals is considered relevant but not
prohibitive by the WaveNet respondents.
355
An assessment of the local mammal population, e.g. seals, whales and dolphins, is
however needed in the EIA, and if the specific site is situated in the vicinity of colonies
(e.g. grey-seal) this question may become crucial in relation to the approval of the
project. This was the case for the Swedish Bockstigen offshore wind power project,
where a Before-After-Impact-Study was carried out before construction, during
construction and two years after the start of operation, showing that wind turbines did not
affect the seals in any respect106.
At the moment a Danish project is underway by SEAS, where the movements of radio-
tagged seals are followed as part of a larger seal surveillance program in relation to the
construction of the Nysted/Rdsand wind farm where the population of seals is
significant. One of the preliminary conclusions from this study is that seals are very
mobile, and move over great distances in their ordinary lives107. This means that
disturbances during the construction phase can be expected to be only temporary, as seals
will move back when their habitat is restored to normal conditions.
An issue which was deemed important for offshore wind power, and is likely to be so for
wave energy as well, is low frequency underwater sound or electromagnetic field effects
on cetaceans and seals.
Expected impacts
loss of habitat due to disturbance through noise emission from wave energy
devices and from construction and maintenance vessels (or helicopters). The
disturbance during the construction phase is expected to be only temporary,
whereas disturbance from wave energy devices and maintenance vessels might
have long-term effects. Although some disturbance of feeding patterns and social
behaviour is possible, overall, these effects are likely to be insignificant; evidence
from drilling activity for a geological survey at a offshore wind farm site in
Sweden did not appear to disturb seal colonies 2 km away108.
For the Nysted/Rdsand Offshore Wind Farm it has been estimated, based on
measurements from the Vindeby and Bockstigen offshore farms, that the
submarine noise will at most be audible to marine mammals at a distance of up to
20 metres from the foundations109.
The noise impact can be expected to vary considerably between different wave
energy device types.
vibrations in the infra sound area that could affect the animals sonar system,
making it more difficult to retrieve food. (On the other hand, when fisherywith
trawling equipmentis restricted in the vicinity of the wave power plants,
feeding possibilities might improve.)
potential influence from low-frequency sound emission and electromagnetic fields
in cables. (However, calculations of magnetic fields from submarine cables dug
down one metre under the seabed show that the magnetic field on the seabed
above the cable will be smaller than the geomagnetic fielda. Therefore, no impacts
are expected if the cables are buried properly.)
Finally, there may be some risks to marine mammals arising from impacts from
the operation of some schemes (e.g. hitting the blades of a turbine). However,
a
The geomagnetic field is the constant magnetic field surrounding the earth.
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most mammals do avoid dangerous moving underwater objects (e.g. ship hulls
and propellers).
General conclusions
More studies are needed to evaluate the effect from noise and magnetic fields, and
the visual impact on mammals.
Before-After-Impact-Studies, including seismic surveys and monitoring of
underwater noise levels, and studies on noise reception of sea mammals must be
carried out where large projects are contemplated.
When planning commercial wave energy projects, specific protection areas for sea
mammals must be avoideda, and duration and quantity of noise must be
minimised during construction (especially at sensitive time periods) and
operation. Submarine cables must be properly buried or shielded.
Fish
Only a few studies deal with the subject of the impact from offshore wind farms on fish,
as the existing wind farms are erected in areas with no or very few fish. No studies have,
to our knowledge, yet been performed in relation to wave power.
A Swedish study of the first offshore wind power project in the world outside Nogersund,
Blekinge (Sweden), showed that there was no negative impact on fish from the 220 kW
turbinethe fish population within 400 m from the turbine increased, however the
fishermen caught less fish when the turbine was in operation, leading to a conflict of
interest110.
Expected impacts
Some positive effects on fish stocks can be expected to the extent that wave
energy farms prohibit fishing with trawling equipment while improving habitat as
breeding and resting grounds for fishery species. The exclusion of fishing will in
some cases lead to conflicts, expectedly short term, with the fishing industry, see
Section E 3 on
a
For further information, please see Section E 3 on
Conflicts of interest.
357
Foundations tend to serve as artificial reefs within the local ecosystem. Evidence
indicates that this reefing effect does not produce a significant increase in fish
production but serves to aggregate fish more densely111. This is backed up by
operational experiencestudies at the Tun Knob wind-farm have shown codfish
numbers have increased around foundations112.
Potentially negative effects are
effects of noise emission and vibrations on fish life both in the construction phase
and after installation, which may lead to loss of habitat. Maintenance vessels may
also have a negative impact, but compared to the usual impact from fishing
boats and other ships this can be considered as a minor impact.
Changes in sedimentation and turbiditya of water may impact on fish and fish
larvae. This is predominantly a temporary effect during construction. Evidence
from fish surveys before and after construction for Danish offshore wind farms
have not shown any reduction in fish species112. However, these effects may be
more important in fish breeding areas or shallow areas, which juvenile fish tend to
inhabit and some care may be needed in these areas, such as avoiding breeding
seasons. For cables, some guide to the potential level of impact can be taken from
the laying of natural gas pipelines. Laying of such pipelines causes a disturbance
corridor of around 5 metres113, with effects from suspended sediment levels
affecting organisms of to 50 metres away. However, this is regarded as a
temporary impact as the area rapidly re-colonises following completion. (It should
be borne in mind that at some locations the effect of naturally occurring storm
events may routinely outweigh these temporary impacts).
electric and magnetic fields around the cables may influence fish and fish
breeding, but no research results have yet been found published on these issues,
although seabed cables have existed during the last 80 years. This may be seen as
an indication of the fact that sea cables have only little or no impact on marine
life, but information on the impacts, if measurable, from the many existing seabed
cables can be gained from monitoring studies. The cables connecting wave energy
converters, substations and the grid will tend to be buried to avoid potential
damage, for example from anchors or fishing activity.
General conclusions
As the effect of noise, vibrations and magnetic fields on fish is relatively unknown,
studies and surveys may be needed before, during and after construction. Projects should
seek to minimise the effect of structures and cabling on existing stocks, their food sources
and spawning activity, e.g. by shielding and burying cables appropriately in order to
minimise electro-magnetic impacts on fish.
Seabed and benthos
In general the disturbance of seabed, and thereby of benthic communitiesb, will primarily
take place during the construction (and dismantling) phase, but for most types of wave
and tidal energy converters this will be limited in scope and period, e.g. deployment of
a
Turbidity is the degree of cloudiness or opacity of the seawater due to disturbed sediment.
b
benthic communities: communities living on the sea bed, also known as Benthos. (Benthos originally
means seabed in Greek)
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mooring systems, sinking or submersion of bottom-mounted plant if used, cable laying

etc. This means that for most devices the potential impacts seem likely to be significantly
less than for an offshore wind power farm of similar size.
All offshore construction activity will affect the transparency of water and the local
bottom sediment. Drilling, trenching, pile-driving or dredging operations during
foundation placement and cable-laying will lead to increased loading of suspended solids,
which can affect benthic organisms. Similarly, the reinstatement of the trench around the
cable or foundation base results in burial of existing habitats for a few metres either side
of the structure. Benthic organisms are particularly vulnerable, though impacts are small.
Expected impacts
loss of habitat and individuals due to construction activities. However, the
disturbance of the seabed from sedimentation during the construction phase only
seems to be temporary.
footprint of cables, maintenance vessels, electromagnetic radiation and noise may
reduce abundance and diversity of seabed life somewhat.
bottom-mounted structures tend to act as natural reefs and introduce fauna,
however these artificial hard substrates may cause some changes to the biotope
structure with consequences regarding benthos and subsequent food chain that are
as yet unclear.
the absence of fishing and shipping (except for maintenance vessels) will have a
positive local effect on fauna and seabed
General conclusions
The quality and quantity of possible impacts on seabed and benthos are not well known,
calling for monitoring of specific project sites, both as part of the EIA and as generic
studies. When designing large wave power projects, maintaining or improving habitat for
local species of importance should be considered.
In general, the subject of cables needs to be further investigated in relation to impacts due
to physical size and electromagnetism, and the area around the cables may be included in
the fishery exclusion zone. Existing seabed cables in position for some years between
mainland and islands may serve as useful models.
Hydrography and coastal processes
Wave energy converters may have a variety of effects on the wave climate, patterns of
vertical mixing, tidal propagation and residual drift currents. The most pronounced effect
is likely to be on the wave regime. A decrease in incident wave energy could influence
the nature of the shore and shallow sub-tidal area and the communities of plants and
animals they support.
Impacts on sea currents and hydrography may occur for large wave energy projects,
where a significant portion of the wave energy is captured or reflected. Obviously, this
impact is largely dependent of the area covered and draught of the wave energy
converters and distance to shore. Fixed structures such as the OSPREY are more likely to
alter the wave climate than floating devices.
Impacts may be positive as well as negative, depending on project lay-out and location.
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Positive impacts may occur in the form of reduced coastal erosion levels from wave
energy capture and reflections from large-scale wave energy schemes. Such impacts are
however expected to be localised.
Expected impacts
permanent changes in sediment structure may rise from changed water flow
behind the wave energy converter, as it captures or reflects significant amounts of
the wave energy
changes to the wave regime along the shoreline could change the composition of
the shoreline. Detailed modelling may be necessary depending on size of project,
proximity to shore, shallowness of water and general sensitivity of local
hydrography or sea currents.
General conclusions
For some wave energy schemes potentially significant impacts on sea currents can be
expected. Hydrological modelling and before-after studies are therefore likely to be
included in the EIA for large projects.
Birds
Whereas birds are one of the most significant issues within wind power this is less likely
to be so for wave power. As wave energy converters generally do not elevate much above
sea level, and have no rotors moving in the air, actual and publicly perceived impacts are
expected to be rather low. It is advisable to avoid placing large wave energy projects in
the vicinity of important bird areasa. As important bird areas are often located in shallow
water with low wave heights, many of these areas will not be of interest for the
development of wave energy.
Potential impacts
ousting birds from their traditional feeding/roosting grounds due to physical
changes of habitat
The possible impacts will depend on the following parameters
construction work: the impacts on birds during the construction phase are only
expected to be temporary and limited. However, the choice and timing of
construction method may be of importance as high noise levels can potentially
disturb both breeding and staging birds.
feeding conditions: as the sub-surface part of the wave energy converter may
prove to be a good living environment for small fish, mussels etc, this tends to
attract bird colonies, feeding from this new fauna. If fishing, as expected, is to be
forbidden within the wave power farms, the farm area may serve as feeding
ground for birds, thereby improving feeding conditions and minimizing the
ousting of birds from their traditional feeding/roosting grounds. It is for the same
reason important that the wave energy device is designed in a way where no
physical damage to animals will occur. It is also likely that birds may use
converters for roosting and preening if the structural configuration allows this.
a
See Section E 3 on
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noise/movements during operation: Noise may influence the impact on birds

through ousting from the vicinity of the converter.
E 5.2.4 Effects from accidents
The effects on the environment due to accidents are to be taken seriously, as for instance
a collision with an oil tanker may in worst-case cause severe damage regarding fauna and
flora, water quality, coastline etc. It should however also be noted that it some cases wave
and tidal energy farms may prevent accidents from happening, if the offshore renewable
energy converters are located in waters where the collision risk is already high, e.g. due
to reefs. Properly marked wave energy converters will then more clearly warn ships
against the risk of collision than was the case before the devices were installed.
Collision risk analyses will be carried out as part of the EIA, but so far it seems to be
quite difficult to develop reliable risk modelsas can be expected, taking the lack of
experience with collisions of this kind into considerationa. Moreover, the effects of
potential oil pollution for example birds have not been estimated in the Danish EIAs for
offshore wind farms.
Expected impacts
Accidental impacts on the environment may originate from collisions between ships (e.g.
maintenance vessel) or, theoretically, a low-flying aircraft (e.g. maintenance helicopter)
and structure or substation, or from damage to submarine cable caused by anchoring,
colliding or sinking ship, by trawling equipment or during constructionb.
The effect of such accidents may be a pollution of the environment caused by substances
from the offshore installation (converter/cable) or substances from the colliding ship or
aircraft. The exact consequences of a collision are dependent on many parameters, such
as type of ship/helicopter, collision angle, speed of colliding vehicle and the type of wave
energy converter.
If larger ships, such as oil tankers, collide with a wave energy converter (WEC), in many
cases it is to be expected that only the WEC will be seriously damaged. In other words, a
ship collision does not necessarily mean leakage of huge amounts of harmful substances.
Moreover, if a leakage of polluting substance is actually the result of the collision, the
degree of impact on the environment will vary in relation to weather (temperature, wind
speed) and of course the nature of the polluting substances.
The most likely polluting substance in these cases is thought to be oil

oil spillage deriving from the WEC is not an issue of major concern, as the WECs
will often contain only small amounts of oil, if any.
a
For instance, the risk analyses regarding the Nysted/Rdsand and Horns Rev offshore wind projects were
not immediately accepted by the developers, as the figures were based on the assumption that a ship
entering the farm area would unavoidably cause a collision. A revised risk analysis has therefore been
carried out for the two projects.
b
During the construction of the Middelgrunden Offshore Wind Farm, the submarine cables were damaged
three times, however without environmental impacts as the cables did not contain oil as an insulating
medium.
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the diesel oil inside a potential substation is neither regarded as being a major
source of risk, as the oil amount is limited and the diesel oil will relatively easily
evaporate. However, to minimise risks of leakage, substations should be
constructed with double walls.
damage to submarine cables may cause a release of mineral oil isolating the cable,
if this type of cable is chosen. In a worst-case-scenario at Horns Rev114, the
maximum oil leakage amount would be 4,200 l. Although this is a relatively small
amount, and although the risk of such accidents has been calculated to be very
low (one every 32,000 years), mitigation measures such as protection of the cable
(by trenching if possible) and prohibition against fishing within the area of the
farm and around the cable are therefore highly recommended. Moreover, the
pressure inside the cable is to be monitored continuously in order to take
immediate action in case of leakage.
the most critical impact on environment regarding oil pollution would be caused
by oil from ships. Diesel oil from fishing boats and maintenance vessels is not
regarded as serious as oil from larger ships, because diesel oil will evaporate to a
relatively high degree compared to bunker oil. According to 114 the most critical
event would be the pollution resulting from a collision with an oil tanker, as this
collision could result in the leakage of considerable amounts of light oil or bunker
oil. The bunker oil is the more destructive due to its low evaporation rate. The
consequences of such a collision call for development of special emergency
procedures with a short reaction time for each large offshore farm.
General conclusions
As the consequences of collisions may be very serious, mitigating measures are called for
in order to minimise collision risks, such as: proper marking of farm/WECs, protection of
cables and development of special emergency procedures. However, it should be noted
that the collision frequency is relatively low and that a collision would not necessarily
result in severe environmental damagea.
E 5.2.5 Visual effect
The visual impact will depend on, among other things

the distance offshore
the height of the device above sea level
the weather conditions, and
the height above sea level of the viewpoint
Wave energy converters are not expected to have a visual impact comparable to wind
turbines due to their limited height. Nevertheless, coastal areas are often considered
important for recreational purposes, making visual intrusion a potentially high-profile
political issue, especially for on-shore and near-shore wave energy schemes.
In the UK, for example, over a third of the coastline is designated for its scenic or natural
beauty, and as one in three people in the UK lives within a distance of 10 km from the
coastline115, and as public opposition and concerns are generally related to visual
effects116, the visual aspects are of very high importance.
a
For Horns Rev, the revised calculations resulted in a ship collision risk of 1 collision every 641 years.
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In a UK/Irish Guide to Best Practice in Seascape Assessment117 a distance of 15 km is

suggested as the maximum limit of visual significance along the coast in relation to
offshore wind turbines.
Given the limited number of wave energy converters currently deployed, it is hard to
quantify the magnitude of visual impacts from wave and tidal energy devices, but it is
expected to be very location dependent and only becoming an issue of increasing
importance when devices are deployed in larger numbers.
The visibility from shore will also depend on the requirements regarding marking lights
and paintingmarking lights will be mandatory in order to avoid ship collision.
Therefore marking requirements (such as those of IALA118) and their effects regarding
visual impacts should be known as early as possible in the planning phase. For shore-
based devices the siting and design is of utmost importance. A good example of how this
can be done is given by the LIMPET project, which is practically invisible until one is
relatively close to the device.
As the visual impact is a matter of the viewers taste, it must be expected that there will
always be some public resistance, especially for near-coast projects, but even the visual
impact from offshore projects invisible from the shore may experience resistance when
intrusively visible from ships, boats and ferry lines. An open and careful planning process
with detailed visualisations and intensive dialogue with the local public may result in less
public resistance.
Experience from wind power visualizations
In the case of wind power, Swedish investigations indicate that visualizations can cause
problems with acceptance because pictures do not present the true visual impact of wind
turbines on a landscape116. Neither do they present their functional contribution. People
construe the depicted wind turbines not as a source of renewable energy but as a new
element in the landscape that will diminish its scenic value. On the other hand,
visualizations undeniably have some value in accelerating social adjustment by providing
an idea of what planned developments will look like. Inevitably, however, these pictures
never truly depict the experience of an active wind turbine, although they are a great aid.
The benefits of using visualizations are connected to a persons professional training and
their previous experience with wind turbines. If people can understand the rationale
behind certain designs or if they can recognize some benefits in relation to other wave
power locations, visualisations can work well to create a positive dialogue. In this
context, it is important to understand that a picture can both suppress the benefits of
wave energy devices and camouflage some of the visual effects. Hence, visualizations
must always be accompanied by detailed explanations. Furthermore, wave energy
converters are not only experienced by seeing them, but also through hearing and feeling
their presence, and the use of virtual reality should be useful in this regard.
General conclusions
The general conclusion is that visual impact of energy plants has a very high profile in
the public awareness, and that this high awareness might apply for wave energy projects
as wellespecially shore-based and near-shore plants. At the current level of commercial
impact from wave energy, visual impacts do not appear to possess a significant barrier,
but the issue might pose a barrier for specific locations, especially when large-scale
future wave power farms are envisaged. The experience with offshore wind power clearly
363
indicates that there is strong public concern over this issue, even concerning offshore
wind power farms, which are barely visible to the naked eye from the shore.
Experience from existing offshore wind farms indicates that the following
recommendations of relevance for wave power can lead to reduced public resistance
The devices should in general be placed as far away from the coast as possible,
and in particular proximity to recreational areas and/or areas of great scenic value
should be avoided
the planning process must be very open and careful, and if the farm is visible from
land, the effect on the environment and economy (e.g. tourism) of the coastal area
must be assessed
farm formation, number and size of wave energy converters and cumulative
effects should be thoroughly and openly analysed and discussed before a decision
is taken
early local involvement in the planning phase is essential and community
involvement in ownership of the wave farm will be beneficial when the
technology has been proven.
E 5.2.6 Noise and vibration effects
Noise from wave energy converters arises from e.g. the movement of mechanical parts
(aerodynamic noise), and the transmission of power and momentum in the conversion
system (mechanical noise from gearboxes). Furthermore, mechanical noise may arise
from some control equipment.
The degree of noise effects is primarily dependent upon the level and character of the
noise emitted, the distance from the plants to potential sensitive receivers, wind directions
and background noise levels. For wave energy converters the noise emission levels can in
general be expected to increase in parallel with the background noise level (breaking
waves). Nevertheless, noise may be a significant issue, especially for shore-based
devices.
Airborne noise
It is expected that airborne noise could have the following impacts
ousting of birds
loss of habitat for marine mammals
decrease in public acceptance if noise from the wave energy converter is audible
to humans from the shore
Concerning noise it appears that wind power has received a reputation for being noisy,
which, together with the fact that noise propagates much easier over the sea than over
land, is reflected in the public attitude towards wind power, including offshore wind. This
reputation is somewhat unjustified, as current wind turbines are not very noisy. The
reputation therefore seems to be a public perception based on experiences with early
turbines, which could be noisy. The lesson to be learned for wave power therefore
appears to be that noise effects are to be handled carefully for early prototypes as the
public perception of the noise impact may not change significantly when mature
technologies with lowered noise emissions are available.
During construction, airborne noise from construction work (vessels, blasting etc.) is
expected to affect birds and marine mammals (ousting), but as the effects are of limited
364
duration, the impacts are expected only to be temporary. However, sensitive time periods
like breeding or nursery periods should be avoided if the construction site is placed near
important biological areasthis may be in conflict with the intentions of the developers
to establish wave power plants when stormy weather is least probable.
Underwater noise and vibrations
During construction, underwater noise may have a detrimental effect on marine
mammals, fish and benthos. However, the effect is temporary, but sensitive time periods
should be avoidedin the case of fish larvae, construction work at sensitive periods may
result in a very high fish mortality rate.
During operation, noise from wave energy converters can be transmitted into the water in
two ways: the noise either enters the water via the air as airborne sound, or the noise is
transmitted into the water as structural noise. The frequency and level of underwater
noise is thereby determined to a certain degree by the way the wave energy converter is
constructed.
Underwater noise from wave energy converters must of course exceed the level of
underwater background noise (ambient noise, especially from ships) in order to have any
impacts on marine fauna.
The effects on marine life from vibrations of the turbines are rather unknown. Noise
frequencies and magnitudes are likely to show considerable variations among different
technologies, but noise measurement data on wave energy converters are currently not
publicly available.
Only measurements and post construction impact studies will reveal if underwater noise
will really affect marine mammals.
General conclusions
The general conclusion is that for wind turbines airborne noise impact has a high profile
where public awareness is concerned, but that this is derived from previous generations
of wind turbines and not to the technical realities of today. This perception may however
become associated with wave energy converters also, especially if the early generation
plants have significant noise impacts. Demonstrating that noise from wave energy
converters is insignificant is therefore important for the future of wave power. It must be
remembered that noise may travel large distances over open water surfaces.
Regarding underwater noise and vibrations, the effects on marine animals, fish and
benthos need assessment in generic studies and in a site-specific manner, because the
extent of these effects is relatively unknown. The experience gained from small pilot
projects will be important in this regard.
E 5.2.7 Decommissioning
The issue of decommissioning is a potentially great problem for offshore developments.
National (see for instance 104) and international laws of the sea require total removal of
offshore structures (installed after February 1999) when they reach the end of their
operating lifetimes. Partial removal will not be allowed for such installations.
365
Not only will the requirements regarding decommissioning increase costs, the removal of
offshore installations will also cause marine disturbance, and consequently
decommissioning work should not take place during sensitive periods in order to
minimize impacts on environment due to e.g. noise, vibrations, and sediment disturbance.
However, the effects are expected to be temporary, as the environment will return to its
pre-development status with time.
E 5.2.8 Emissions
Unlike conventional fossil fuel technologies, wave energy produces no greenhouse gases
or other atmospheric pollutants whilst generating electricity. However, emissions do arise
from other stages in its life cycle (i.e. during the chain of processes required to
manufacture, transport, construct and install the wave energy plant and transmission
equipment).
For wave energy technologies, the typical stages of the life cycle are
Resource extraction
Resource transportation
Materials processing
Component manufacture
Component transportation
Plant construction
Plant operation
Decommissioning
Product disposal
Ideally, each of the life cycle stages listed above should be considered, in order to
evaluate the total emissions from the life cycle of the technology. However, an exact
analysis of every stage is neither possible nor necessary. The emissions of most of the
major air pollutants (particularly carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and
particulates) are expected to be broadly proportional to energy use. Therefore, the most
important life cycle stages for atmospheric emissions are those with the highest energy
use. Detailed studies of the main renewable energy technologies have been carried out
using this approach within the ExternE study (e.g. 119) and elsewhere in the literature.
This has shown that, for most renewables
The emissions released during the manufacture of the materials are the most
important;
Energy use in all of the transportation stages is likely to be negligible; energy use
in freight transport is typically only 1 mJ/t/km for rail120 and in road transport is
typically 3 mJ/t/km;
Energy use in the extraction of the primary materials used in construction (e.g.
limestone and aggregates) or in components (e.g. iron ore and copper ore) is
typically an order of magnitude lower than energy use in their primary processing;
Energy use in the construction, decommissioning and disposal processes is also
likely to be at least an order of magnitude lower than for material manufacturing.
In assessing the energy use and emissions for technologies, data relating to realistic sites
and technologies should be used, in recognition of the fact that these factors are important
in determining the magnitude of some emissions. Emissions associated with the
366
manufacture of materials and components are dependent (to some extent) on industrial
practices, the generation mix and pollution control regime in the country of manufacture.
The above evaluation has been carried out for a range of technologies121, 122, and the
results for some renewables and wave energy are shown in Table E-4, where the resulting
emissions from typical examples of offshore renewable energy technologies are
compared with the emissions arising from the average mix of generating technologies in
the UK123.
It is evident that wave energy (and the other renewables) can offer significant reductions
in the omissions of gaseous pollutants when compared to fossil-fuel baseda.
Although power produced in the UK 2002 involves less greenhouse emissions, especially
because there has been a major shift from coal to gas powered generation since the early
1990 s124, the result, that wave energy produced power emissions are negligible compared
to the UK mix, will still be valid.
Pollutant Tidal Current Wave Wind Average UK Mix

(g/kWh) (g/kWh) (g/kWh) (g/kWh) (1993)
CO2 12 14 - 22 12 654
SO2 0.08 0.12 0.19 0.09 7.8
NOx 0.03 .05 - .08 0.03 2.2
Table E-4 Life-Cycle Emissions from Offshore Renewables

General conclusions
The general conclusion is therefore that although emissions arise from different stages of
a wave energy devices life cycle, this amount is negligible and more than outweighed by
the saved emissions from power production, stressing the fact that wave energy is an
environment friendly energy (see Section E 5.4 below).
E 5.3 Impacts from environment on wave energy converters

The potential impact from environment on wave energy schemes will be highly
dependent on the type of WEC and its locationonshore, near-shore or offshore.
Below the most important expected potential impacts are presented, based on responses
from Network members to a questionnaire that was sent out concerning this topic (see
Appendix 4).
Sensitivity to sea currents
For offshore systems currents should not be a problem, providing the survivability is
good, which of course is an essential precondition. Shoreline devices may be sensitive to
orthogonal currents which break up wave patterns.
a
T.W Thorpe is the true author of this whole section on Emissions.
367
Sensitivity to wind
This subject should not become a barrier, as aerodynamic behaviour of floating structures
can be considered during design. However the subject of wind needs consideration at all
stages where site investigation, construction operation, maintenance, human access and
risk analysis is concerned.
Sensitivity to marine growth
The subject of marine growth is an important area for research, both regarding marine
growth inside the turbines and regarding marine growth in general. The systems will have
to be treated and maintained in order to avoid the expected reduced efficiency over time.
Evasion technologies, which are available e.g. within the ship industry, must be neutral to
environment (marine fauna and flora, quality of water) according to the International
Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems, developed by IMOs
(International Maritime Organizations) Marine Environment Committee125.
As offshore oil and gas installations provide attachment surfaces for a variety of algae
and invertebrates, so wave energy converters would be colonised by fouling organisms.
The species recruited to these sites would depend on the species communities within the
vicinity of the device, distance offshore, water depth and clarity, prevailing weather
conditions and position relative to coastal currents and the speed of those currents126.
There would be a seasonal factor involved in the build up of this community with the
main build up of fouling extending from about April to November.
It is inevitable that anti-fouling measures would be necessary where, for instance,

attached organisms cause changes in corrosion and fatigue behaviour, hinder inspection
and maintenance, etc. Fouling prevention measures specific to wave energy converters
have yet to be developed, but could include the use of anti-fouling paints or direct
injection of biocides. Fouling of seawater conduits at coastal power stations has been
controlled by injection or electrolytic generation of chlorine. Due to the effects of
dilution, it is not clear if the use of this measure at a more open sea location might be
environmentally harmful. Certainly chronic impacts may result if the chlorine was
allowed to react to form chlorinated organics which tend to bio accumulate and persist in
the environment, although this would appear to be unlikely in open waters. There are
numerous options for the removal of marine fouling, each of which has its relative merits.
None of these pose any significant environmental problem although some (e.g. high-
pressure jets) could be hazardous to the user.
Sensitivity to material deposits (soil, debris)
As intrusion of material deposits between moving parts, into turbines (air- or water), flow
channels etc. might cause malfunction/destruction of a device, the sensitivity of a WEC to
material deposits is an important issue.
For instance, shoreline devices could be vulnerable to floating seaweed, jellyfish, trash
and may be partly blocked by storm movement of deposits. Offshore and near shore
devices are expected to be less affected, however this is to a high degree depending on
the individual design.
For example concerning the floating offshore WEC, Wave Dragon, the device may be
expected to collect considerable amounts of garbage in the reservoir with its wide gap
between two wave reflectors. Although cleaning technologies are available from hydro
368
power plants, special precautions need to be taken in order to avoid reduced efficiency
e.g. if access to turbines is blocked by debris (or, in theory: marine mammals) in the grid
trash rack serving as protection in front of the turbines.
Risk of corrosion problems
By using standard offshore technology, risks and effects can be calculated, and if the
devices are built according to offshore norms corrosion problems can be avoided.
Corrosion problems are not regarded as a technical barrier as problems can be solved
prevention measures will simply add to costs.
General conclusions
It is not expected that impact from environment on wave energy devices will constitute a
barrier for the large-scale development of wave energy, providing survivability aspects
have been solved. However, as the experience is limited, information regarding this
subject gained from studies of individual demonstration projects in the near future should
be collated and made available for the wave energy community. It must however be
remember that this type of experience will to a very high degree be both location and
device specific.
E 5.4 Environmental benefits of wave energy

The most important environmental benefits of wave energy are similar to other
renewables
the avoidance of pollutant gasses, and
the preservations of raw materials like gas and coal
Secondary benefits of wave energy such as lowered risk of pollution due to accidents
with e.g. oil tankersbecause less oil needs to be transportedhave not been included
and will not be important before the use of wave energy in particular (and renewable
energy sources in general) has reached higher levels than todaya,127.
Environmental benefits should be clearly stated in the Environmental Impact Assessment

and the emphasizing of these positive environmental impacts is crucial in relation to the
public and political acceptance of wave energy.
E 5.4.1 Avoided emissions
The benefits to the environment from using wave power are mainly by reducing
atmospheric pollution. As well as a significant reduction in CO2, other pollutants are also
reduced; SO2, NOX, CO, Methane and Particulates.
In Denmark it is estimated that for each produced kWh wind power, the following
emissions are avoided from an ordinary coal fired power plant
CO2 810 g/kWh
a
The share total EU energy consumption provided by renewables was around 6% in 1999, and the
renewable share of EU electricity consumption 13%. The EU indicative targets for 2010 are 12%
respectively 22.1%
369
SO2 1.5 g/kWh
NOX 1.4 g/kWh
Table E-5 Avoided emissions from wind power plant
The actual saving in emissions depends to a large extent on the mix of types of power
generation for an individual country or region and the type of plant replaced. It is
apparent that any calculations on emissions savings must look realistically at the type of
power generation likely to be replaced, and not just assume that the most polluting will be
shut down99.
For the UK, evaluations regarding avoided emissions have been carried out for a range of
technologies121,122 and the results for some renewables and wave energy are shown in
Figure E-5-Figure E-7 below.
In order to compare with the range of possible fossil fuel stations, three different fossil
fuel technologies were chosen
Combined cycle gas turbines (CCGT).
Modern coal plant (i.e. pulverised fuel with flue gas desulphurisation
PF+FGD).
The UK generating mix 1993122.
Small-Scale Hydro
Wind
PV
Nearshore wave
CCGT
Average UK Mix
(1993)
Modern Coal
Plant*
1 10 100 1000
Life Cycle Emissions
Figure E-5 Comparison of Life Cycle Emissions of CO2

Key. * = coal plant with flue gas desulphurisation and low NOx burners.
370
Small-Scale Hydro
Wind
PV
Nearshore wave
CCGT
Average UK Mix
(1993)
Modern Coal
Plant*
0 2 4 6 8 10
Figure E-6 Comparison of Life Cycle Emissions of SO2

Small-Scale Hydro
Wind
PV
Nearshore wave
CCGT
Average UK Mix
(1993)
Modern Coal
Plant*
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Figure E-7 Comparison of Life Cycle Emissions of NOX

It can clearly be seen that wave energy (and other renewables) can offer significant
reductions in the omissions of gaseous pollutants when compared to fossil-fuel based
generation. The only exception to this is for CCGT, whose emissions of SO2 are
effectively zero.
371
General conclusions
As Wave Energy is a renewable energy that produces no greenhouse gases or other
atmospheric pollutants while generating electricity, environmental benefits will arise
from the avoidance of pollutant gasses and the preservations of raw materials like gas and
coal.
The actual saving in emissions and preservations of raw materials will of course depend
on the ability of wave energy to penetrate the energy market, and on the type of energy
that is replaced by wave energy.
E 5.5 General conclusions

In summary, the environmental burdens of offshore energy schemes are likely to be low,
provided developers show sensitivities with appropriate site selection and planning
authorities control deployment in sensitive locations. Although the potential impact
appears to be low, the lack of operational schemes means that further research into likely
practicable impacts and mitigation strategies might be required.
The following conclusions and recommendations concerning future RTD-activities in

most cases imply the construction of large-scale wave energy projects, as monitoring
programs and Before-After-Impact-Studies carried out at specific sites often represent the
only possible way to achieve exact knowledge or at least an improved understanding of
the impacts from wave power, particularly on the environment.
However, the lessons learned within offshore wind power in the coming years will
probably yield significant new insights, especially concerning the impacts on marine
environment, social acceptance management and conflicts of interest, which can provide
more guidance for the wave energy environment.
As the assessment of environmental impacts associated with wave power is made

extremely difficult due to the lack of reference cases and impact studies, it is important
that relevant information is systematically collected and disseminated early in the market
penetration phase, in order to allow the non-important factors to be ruled out. It is
therefore strongly recommended that a European working group is established securing
effective transfer of practical experiences gained, when a representative number of
devices have been installed.
E 5.5.1 Identification of problem areas
Potentially negative environmental impacts

Mammals
loss of habitat due to
noise emissions
accidents
food chain changes
electromagnetic fields and vibrations, e.g. affecting the sonar system
Fish
impacts on fish and fish larvae from sedimentation/turbidity, underwater noise,
vibrations and electromagnetic fields
effects from unnatural reef (if any)
372
Fauna and seabed

changes in sediment structure
direct loss from foundation and cable footprints
impact on biotope from foundations/hard substrates and electromagnetic fields
Coastline
impact on coastline due to current/sediment changes arising impacts on local
currents/waves
Visual impact
man-made intrusions in an otherwise structureless seascape, orfor onshore
convertersin the coastal landscape.
Noise impact
noise impacts from shore-based and near shore devices
impact on birds, sea mammals and fish from underwater noise
Leakages
Primarily associated with risk of ship collisions
E 5.5.2 Recommendations for RTD programmes
In general, it will be very important to collect information from different studies in order
to cover the whole area, as different narrow site specific studies are carried out at the
different projects: Baseline and impact studies from individual projects are to be
disseminated and jointly appraised. Conclusions from local projects should be translated
and all relevant existing material placed on a publicly accessible web-site
Environmental impacts
Mammals
More studies are needed to evaluate the effect from noise and magnetic fields, and
the visual impact on mammals. Before-After-Impact-Studies, including seismic
surveys and monitoring of underwater noise levels, and generic studies on noise
reception of sea mammals are called for.
Fish
As the effect of noise, vibrations and magnetic fields on fish is relatively
unknown, studies and surveys must be carried out before, during and after
construction: Site-specific and species-specific monitoring studies are necessary
in order to investigate the effect on fish, e.g. investigate if marine structures may
indeed serve as natural reefs, as indicated from previous studies of offshore wind
power, the consequences thereof, and investigate the consequences on fish
population/fishing possibilities when fishing (with net) is restricted within and in
the vicinity of the wave energy converter(s).
Seabed
The quality and quantity of possible impacts on seabed and benthos is not well
known, calling for surveys of specific project sites, both as part of the EIA and as
generic studies. How will the hard substrates and cable footprints/electromagnetic
fields influence the base-line biotope? Investigations should seek to enhance
habitat, e.g. by use of appropriate foundation design where seabed mounted
devices are concerned.
Visual impact
Research of computer simulation possibilities to test different farm layouts seen
from different angles, levels and at different weather conditions in order to make
373
visualisations comparable to real-life conditions, is recommended for large-scale

shore based and near-shore projects. Buoys and lanterns might be expected to be
the most significant visual impact.
Clear definitions of marking requirements
E 5.5.3 General recommendations
It is very important that mitigation strategies are developed for each wave energy project
in order to avoid/minimise negative impacts on environment.
Fish, birds and mammals
Identification and avoidance of sensitive areas
Avoidance of site works during sensitive time periods
Minimisation of noise levels during construction, operation and
dismantling
Minimise effect of structures and cabling on fish stocks
Seabed, benthos
Minimize artificially induced sedimentations and turbidity
Hydrography, currents and coastal processes
Analysis of local impacts on currents and wave climate. Potentially positive and
negative effects on coastal erosion rates, if any, should also be carefully modelled
in the pre-planning phase
Water quality
Avoid use of pollutant chemicals when wave energy devices are protected against
marine environment
Noise
Secure low noise levels
E 5.6 General references

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Tagungsband. BFN-Skripten 29. Bundesamt fr Naturschutz 2000.
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Dirksen, S. et al. (1998): Studies on Nocturnal Flight Paths and Altitudes of Waterbirds in Relation to Wind
Turbines: A Review of Current Research in The Netherlands., Proceedings of National Avian
Wind Power Planning Meeting III, San Diego, California, May 1998
Dirksen, S. et Spaans, A.L. (1998): Nocturnal collision risk of birds with wind turbines in tidal and semi-
offshore areas. In Wind Energy and Landscapes (eds. Ratto & Solari). Balkerna. Rotterdam.
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Naturschutz (Editor):Workshop Proceedings. Schneverdingen: NNA, 2000.
Elkraft Power Co./SEAS A.m.b.a. (1997): Offshore Wind Farm at Vindeby, Lolland, Final Report to the
EU-Commission, 2nd Ed.
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Elsamprojekt A/S (Tech-wise). Summary of EIA Report and background reports available from
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Erp, F. (1997): Siting processes for wind energy projects in Germany, Eindhoven University of Technology
ETSU, Full Fuel Cycle Atmospheric Emissions and Global Warming Impacts from UK Electricity
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Directorate-General for Energy, 1997
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pp 1-21, European Commission, DGXII, Science, Research and Development, JOULE, Report No.
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Garte, St. (2000): Mglicher Einflu der Offshorewindenergienutzung auf die Avifauna. [Possible impacts
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Naturschutz, Planung. Deutsches Windenergie-Institut (Editor):Workshop Proceedings.
Wilhelmshaven: DEWI, 2000, p. 71-76.
Guillemette M., Larsen J.K., and Clausager I. (1998): Impact Assessment of an offshore wind park on sea
ducks. National Environmental Research Institute, Denmark. Technical Report no. 227
Guillemette M., Larsen J.K., and Clausager I. (1999) Assessing the impact of the Tuno Knob wind park on
sea-ducks: the influence of food resources. National Environmental Research Institute, Denmark.
Technical Report no. 263
Hammarlund, K. (1998): Vindkraft i harmoni, ET 19:1998, Energimyndigheten [Wind power in harmony]
Hammarlund, K.(1999): Rapporter och notiser 156, Lunds Universitet
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Heuers; J. (2000): Mgliche Auswirkungen von Offshore-Windkraftanlagen auf die Lebens-

gemeinschaften am Meeresboden [Possible impacts from offshore wind energy on seabed life]. In:
Fachtagung Offshore-Winds 30.05.2000. NNA Alfred Toepfer Akademie fr Naturschutz (Editor):
Workshop Proceedings. Schneverdingen: NNA, 2000.
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J.E. Berry, M.R. Holland, P.R. Watkiss, R. Boyd and W. Stephenson (1998): Power Generation and the
Environmenta UK Perspective. AEAT 3776, AEA Technology Environment. UK report for the
ExternE project (1998)
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offshore wind park at Rdsand: Technical report on birds. NERI report 2000, commissioned by
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377
F Cooperation with the power industryWaveNet
F Cooperation with the power industry
F1 DRAFT STANDARD FOR POWER QUALITY OF GRID

CONNECTION
Prepared by: P. Mc Cullen
Reviewed by: K. Neilson, T. Pontes, H.C. Srensen
F 1.1 Summary
This draft standard addresses power quality issues that face wave power development in
relation to existing grid parameters. Grid and distribution networks themselves are
subject to codes and standards that ultimately meet the requirements of regulatory
authorities under broad headings of power quality, reliability, commercial fairness and
safety.
NOTE: The draft standards published here are indicative but have no official status.
Developers pursuing these draft standards, which are presented for discussion purposes,
should be aware that in so doing they might not comply with the relevant enforceable
standards for the appropriate country.
The extent to which official standards developed for wave energy will ultimately
incorporate all or part of these draft standards cannot be guaranteed.
It is recognised that as with wind power the initial development of wave power will result
in installations connected at the medium-voltage distribution network level rather than at
the higher voltage transmission grid level and the draft standard reflects this.
Wave power development is in a state of evolution and will be for a number of years to
come. Numerous challenges have to be met and different systems are being developed to
meet the goals of providing reliable power at commercially viable rates.
The central feature is that each of these systems must be geared to meeting established
criteria for network connection and the extent of these criteria at first sight may be
surprising.
The criteria may however be grouped under the broad headings of Planning, Connection
Conditions, Operations and Data Registration. Appendices detail typical technical
information to be provided by the wave power developer, the test regime for connections
and definition of many of the technical terms arising.
It is clear that, while much can be appreciated by the technically informed reader the
reality is that in practise this area is the province of the professional electrical engineer.
378
WaveNet F Cooperation with the power industry
F 1.1.1 Planning
It is a requirement that the planning and the development of the distribution system to
facilitate the needs of users and their own subsystems imposes a mutual procedural
discipline to ensure that the process is an orderly one. This starts at the design stage
where the following network standard can be taken to apply to design of both the
distribution system and user connections
CENELEC 50160:1995 Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public

distribution system128. This sets out characteristics of the voltage, frequency, dips,
interruptions, unbalance and harmonics under normal operating conditions.
EarthingThe treatment of the neutral is different for the various supply voltages and
the present position is given.
Security of SupplyThe security standard is referenced and every reasonable endeavour

is taken by the Distribution System Operator (SO) to maintain supply reconnection times
are given for fault and planned outages, supply curtailments and load shedding in extreme
situations.
DisconnectionThe particular circumstances under which the SO may disconnect users

are detailed.
Transfer of Planning DataTimely data exchange between the developer and the SO is
a prerequisite for the necessary planning studies for connections and is introduced under
this section with reference to the later much more detailed Section F 1.5 and Appendix 9.
Much of the technical data to be provided by the developer will in fact originate with his
equipment suppliers. Costs and time scales arise for work to be done by SO at the request
of developer.
F 1.1.2 Connection conditions
The connection conditions define the minimum standard for the method of connection to
the system and the applicable technical, design and operational standards including
technical arrangements at the ownership boundary and the types of signals and indicators
that are required between the user and the SO.
As the wave power developer will be both a user and a generator of electricity, both cases
are included.
The following subheadings are dealt with

Connection arrangements
Connection voltage and future voltage changes
Information provided by SO
Ownership boundaries
Connection technical requirements
Connection standards
Certification of equipment
Protection requirements including minimum protection
Distribution protections
Relay tests
379
Earthing
Circulating currents
Voltage regulation and control
Short circuit levels
Capacitate and inductive effects
Voltage disturbances including flicker, harmonic distortion unbalance.
Metering/Telemetry
Voltage, current, frequency, active and reactive power signal pulses
Telecontrol outstation and control interface
Metering principles
Specific arrangements
Substation and switch room layout
Embedded generator requirements
Specific rules for developers of wave power generation (which is considered to be
embedded in the distribution system), additional to the foregoing, governing
exchange of information, generating plant performance requirements, islanding,
black start capability, commissioning tests and stand by generators.
F 1.1.3 Operations
For the SO to operate the distribution system efficiently and with maximum security and
stability, it must be provided with loading and generation forecast information by relevant
developers (with plant greater than 2 MW in capacity) and users for purposes of
Operations planning
Demand control
Operational communications and liaison
Event reporting
System tests
Monitoring, testing and investigation
Safety coordination
F 1.1.4 Data registration
Where users are required to submit data to the SO, this section provides a series of
schedules under which data of a particular type is to be provided together with procedures
and timing for supply of the data and monitoring changes in data. These are
Table F-10 Schedule 1(a) Generating unit data (for all embedded generators)
generators with Parallel operation)
generators greater than 2 MW in capacity)
Table F-13 Schedule 2 Demand Forecasts(Generating Units >2 MW not subject
to central dispatch)
Table F-14 Schedule 3 Operational Planning Scheduled Outages
Table F-15 Schedule 4 System Design Information-Embedded Generators
Table F-16 Schedule 5 Load Characteristics for Embedded Generators
The information requirements are at first sight formidable but much of the technical data
will be available from the generator supplier and once assembled for Appendix 9 and
verified by testing can be reused in these schedules.
380
F 1.1.5 Recommendations
The recommended approach to the issue of achieving adequate power quality for grid
connection given in the introduction to the draft standard can be restated to conclude this
executive summary
At the present stage of development of wave conversion systems, it is likely that
most connections will be made to the distribution network rather than at national
transmission grid level.
It is likely that this situation will prevail until converters are sufficiently proven at
this level to warrant interest in larger-scale developments that would justify the
substantially higher cost of connection at 110 kV level or above
Wave power should meet the same quality standards as would apply to other non-
fully-dispatchable renewable energy conversion systems when connected to the
distribution network
The attainment of a level of power quality should be viewed in the context of the
mutual duties and obligations of the Distribution System Operator and wave
power developer in addition to the particular technologies that will permit them to
maintain power quality.
The foundations of power quality should be set in the criteria established for
connection to the distribution system in the first place, followed by a regime of
monitoring, maintenance and testing as set out in this draft document.
It should be accepted that the mechanisms by which developers utilise the
characteristics of wave energy and the features of their particular converters to
meet the obligations of the draft standard may of course vary in each case.
Much of the information that will be required from the developer (Section F 1.5
and Appendix 9) will relate to the characteristics of his electrical generator. It
will originate with the generator supplier and to a lesser extent with the prime
mover supplier. Integration of these systems to meet the requirements of the
System Operator (SO) or utility (if different) and the Electricity Regulator will
require the involvement of competent electrical engineering personnel on the
developers team.
F 1.1.6 Transmission and distribution codes
As it will be necessary for virtually all electrical energy derived from waves to traverse
national networks through to the final customers, this draft standard sets out in general
terms the codes of regulation that are likely to apply where connections to these onshore
networks are being sought by wave farm developers.
It will be recognised that there are usually two types of network involved. These are
distinguished by the voltage levels used and derive from the conventional practise of
transporting large energy flows from their points of generation via a high-voltage main
transmission system or grid to the locations where the voltage can be reduced for local
utilisation via the network which matches the equipment and systems used by the
customers.
Distribution voltages are usually below 110-130 kV and are often well below this,
examples being 38 kV, 33 kV, 20 kV and 10 kV in different countries.
On islands and isolated coastal areas, the voltages are often at the lower end of this scale
and are still lower where connection to domestic customers is concerned.
381
The Transmission Grid Code is the governing code above 110-130 kV and the
Distribution Code may be considered as being nested within it
Depending on the amount of spare capacity available in a 110 kV-network link, it may be
able to accept upwards of 100 MW of power. Thus it will be appreciated that at the
present level of wave power development, the distribution network and its regulatory
code will be of more relevance to small and medium-scale projects in the 1-10 MW size
range than will the Grid code. For some time to come it can be taken that in most
circumstances if a wave energy conversion system can comply with the Distribution code
it will also have met the requirements of the Grid code and that the quality of the wave
power produced will be satisfactory.
Wave power generators will in general be both consumers and producers of electricity.
Power will be consumed in providing excitation for generators and also to service data
logging, control, communication, safety and auxiliary systems even when the generators
may be shut down. Thus, the installation will usually be an electricity customer as well as
a producer. This is recognised in the following pages and gives a comprehensive
appreciation of the implications of grid connection for wave power developers at
distribution voltage levels.
The Distribution Systems Operator (SO) holds his licence from the Regulator subject to
legal conditions and compliance with a variety of standards in terms of quality of supply
and relations with other users of the system. He is also subject to the Grid Code and
Distribution Code and is obliged to apply them to other users in a fair and even manner.
Within the European Union the process of opening up the electricity market has
progressed more rapidly in some member states than in others but, in general, sets of
regulations similar to those discussed here will be administered by some authority with
whom the wave power developer will deal if his operation is to be of significance.
The main sections of the draft standard relate to

Planning
Connection conditions
Operations
Data registration
Appendix 9 and Appendix 10 relate to detailed technical information and physical
testing required for connection while Appendix 11 provides definition of technical terms
used in the draft standard.
F 1.1.7 Recommended approach
This draft standard has been developed with simplifications from the Irish Distribution
Code and associated documentation as being representative of a network of intermediate
strength. Each national code will have its own particular characteristics, so that this
document should be regarded as indicative only.
382
Transmission-connected
customers
TSO Generators
>110 kV
Transmission Generators (subject to

TSO control central dispatch and Grid code applies
center scheduling
Suppliers (not subject to

central dispatch)
Transmission
DSO
system
Distribution Embedded generation

system (subject to central dispatch
and scheduling)
Information
only
Embedded generation (not
subject to central dispatch)
Local DSO Distribution code
control center applies
DSO
Customers
<110kV
Suppliers
Figure F-1 Grid code and distribution code boundaries
F 1.2 Planning
F 1.2.1 Introduction
This section details the technical and design criteria and the procedures to be complied
with by the SO in the planning and development of the distribution system. It also applies
to users in the planning and development of their installations insofar as they affect the
distribution system.
User requirements may necessitate the reinforcement of or extension to the distribution

system or the relevant Transmission/Distribution interface capacity, such work being
identified by the SO or TSO as appropriate.
The time required for the planning and development of the distribution system and of the
additional work, for obtaining Planning Permission from Local Authorities and
383
wayleaves, including any associated hearings, and the degree of complexity in

undertaking the new work while maintaining satisfactory security and quality of supply
on the existing system shall be recognised by potential users of the system.
Where the SO is obliged to supply information or advice to users, it shall be provided as

soon as practicable following a request by the user (whether during the application for
connection process or otherwise).
F 1.2.2 Objectives
The objectives of this section are to

ensure that the distribution system continues to be planned, designed and
constructed to operate economically, securely and safely.
facilitate the use of the distribution system by others and to specify a standard of
supply to be provided.
provide sufficient information for a user to assess opportunities for connection
and to plan and develop his or her installation so as to be compatible with the
formalise system planning data requirements.
F 1.2.3 Scope
System Operator
The distribution licence imposes a duty on the SO to implement and enforce the
distribution code. Thus the SO may need services and facilities from users, access across
boundaries or to instruct users to isolate or disconnect plant in particular circumstances.
Users
The users to whom the standard applies are those who use or intend to use the distribution
system and comprise the following
all embedded generators
all customers connected to the system
all third party suppliers
Communications between SO and users
Unless otherwise specified in the standard the methods of operational
communication/data transfer shall be as agreed in advance between the SO and users.
Unforeseen circumstances
Where such circumstances arise, the SO shall consult promptly with affected users as to
the measures to be taken. If agreement cannot be reached in the time available the SO
will determine the action to be followed having regard to users views and what is
possible and reasonable.
Users shall then comply with instructions issued by the SO provided that they are
consistent with the technical parameters of their respective systems as registered under
the standard. The SO shall promptly refer these circumstances and determination to the
standard Review Panel established for the purpose of
Reviewing the working of the standard
Recommending amendments
384
Issuing guidance and interpretation at request of any user

F 1.2.4 Design standards
Frequency
The frequency of supply is outside the control of the SO operator, however where the
incoming transmission system frequency is nominally 50 Hz; the expected standard
frequency range is as follows
Normal operating range: 49.8 to 50.2 Hz.
During system disturbances: 48.0 to 52.0 Hz.
Voltage
The distribution system includes networks operating at the following nominal
voltages
Low Voltage (LV) 230 Voltsphase to neutral
400 Voltsphase to phase
Medium Voltage (MV) 10 kV
20 kV
High Voltage (HV) 38 kV
110 kV
Table F-1 Nominal distribution voltages

The SO shall operate the distribution system so as ensure that the voltage at the
supply terminals, as defined in reference 128, complies with that standard. From
2003 the low voltage range tolerance shall be 230 V 10 %. The resulting voltage
at different points on the system depends on several factors, but can be expected
to be in accordance with Table F-2 under steady state and normal operating
conditions.
Nominal voltage Highest voltage Lowest voltage
230 V 244 V 207 V
400 V 424 V 360 V
10 kV 10,750 V Variable according to

operating conditions.
20 kV 21,500 V Information at particular
location available on
38 kV 41,350 V request by user concerned
110 kV 120,00 V
Table F-2 Operating voltage range
385
The distribution system and any user connections to that system shall be designed to
enable normal operating frequency and voltages supplied to customers to comply with
reference 128. Characteristics of the voltage, frequency, dips, interruptions, unbalance and
harmonics are set out in this CENELEC approved standard. It should be noted that the
standard describes the main characteristics of the voltage that may be expected at the
supply terminals under normal operating conditions.
Earthing requirements
The treatment of the neutral is different for the various supply voltages.
The present treatments are described below but these could change in the future.
The electrical installations of all new consumers connected at low voltage shall be
protected by protective multiple earthing, (TN-C-S unless otherwise advised) in
line with the electrical installation requirements129. This requires that the
individual appliance earth conductors be wired back to central bonding position
adjacent to the incoming supply termination. No local earthing of plant or
appliances is permitted within the installation.
The central bonding terminal block shall be incorporated in a sealable enclosure
which facilitates the connection of a neutralising link onto the incoming utility
neutral conductor. An earthing conductor of appropriate size should be taken from
the central terminal block to the consumers earth electrode.
For voltages above LV the following applies
Voltage Neutral Treatment
10 kV Isolated neutral throughout the country

except in parts of urban areas.
20 kV Earthed through a 20 ohm resistor which

limits earth fault current to 500 amps.
38 kV Earthed through an arc suppression coil

(series inductance) at source 110 kV
substations.
110 kV Effectively Earthed.
Table F-3 Earthing
With the exception of LV networks where protective multiple earthing is permitted,

multiple zero phase sequence paths are currently prohibited in the design of the
Security of supply
The security standard for the Distribution System is as set out in 130 (or equivalent).
The SO shall use reasonable endeavours to maintain a supply from the system. This
cannot be ensured at all times since faults, planned maintenance and new works outages
and other circumstances outside SOs control can cause interruptions. On such occasions,
the SO shall use reasonable endeavours to restore the supply or connection as soon as
386
practicable but shall be under no liability for any direct or indirect damage or associated
loss incurred by the user.
Restoration times are cited in 131. Guidelines for different outage types are as follows
Fault OutagesThe SO shall endeavour to restore access to the system within
twenty-four hours. In major storm conditions the outage duration may be longer
and, in such circumstances, the SO shall endeavour to keep the user advised of
progress.
Planned OutagesThe SO shall endeavour to give three days notice of planned
supply interruptions. In some situationsto facilitate emergency repairs or local
outages affecting a small number of customersshorter notice may be given.
Supply CurtailmentsIn some circumstances, it may be necessary to request
customers to reduce load or to use standby supplies where appropriate. In these
situations, the SO shall endeavour to maintain access to the System. In extreme
cases where this may not be possible the SO shall endeavour to provide two days
notice to the user.
Load SheddingIn extreme situations there may be generation shortages and
load shedding may be required. In these circumstances, the SO shall notify
customers if possible but as this is an emergency, this may not be possible.
Disconnection
The SO may disconnect users under certain circumstances including
Where the customers installation or use of electricity is such as to interfere with
the satisfactory operation of the distribution or transmission system or to cause
disturbance to other customers.
Where the SO considers that the customers installation is in a dangerous
condition.
Where alterations, repairs, renewal or maintenance of the distribution system or
SO assets or means of connection require the de-energisation of the connection
point.
Where a customer extends supply for use by another party whom the SO
considers to be a separate customer.
In any other circumstances in which discretion is necessary or appropriate to
enable the SO to comply with the Distribution Code and/or to operate the
distribution system in accordance with good industry practice or required by any
law, direction, rule or regulation having the force of law.
F 1.2.5 Transfer of planning data
Planning information to be provided by users
Users shall provide sufficient planning data/information as can reasonably be expected to
be made available, when requested by the SO from time to time to it to comply with the
requirements under its Distribution Licence.
Users shall provide planning data for specific future periods updated annually as
necessary and including projected demand requirements, anticipated changes in
maximum demand, or generating capacity, as appropriate. The data and timescales over
which the data is required are given in Section F 1.5 and Appendix 9.
387
In addition, users shall give adequate notice of any significant change to their systems or
operating regime to enable the SO to prepare its development plans and implement any
necessary system modifications. In the event of unplanned changes in a users system or
operating regime he shall notify the SO as soon as is practically possible to ensure any
necessary measures can be implemented.
Users shall also provide details of reactive compensation plant directly or indirectly
connected to the System other than at low voltage, including its rating and operational
control.
Users may be required to provide the SO with detailed data relating to the interface
between their systems and that of the distribution system covering circuit parameters,
switchgear and protection arrangements of equipment directly connected to or affecting
the distribution system so as to enable the SO to assess any implications associated with
these points of connection.
Information to be exchanged
The SO shall provide such information, as may be reasonably required by a user, on the
design and other characteristics of the distribution system.
Where the SO proposes to make certain modifications to its system or where it has
received information from a user (above), which may impact on other user installations,
then SO will notify users of the proposal, subject to any constraint of confidentiality or
timing.
The SO shall provide information on request to users regarding the local network
conditions to enable them to determine their protection requirements.
Where the users installation is connected to the busbars of the distribution system
sufficient details may need to be exchanged with respect to user/SO ownership boundary
to enable an assessment to be made of transient over-voltage effects. The request for
information may be initiated by either party.
Information may be exchanged between the SO and the user on fault infeed levels at the
feeding busbar or point of connection to the distribution system as appropriate, in the
form of
three phase and single phase earth short circuit infeed.
The X/R ratio under three phase fault conditions.
Information shall be exchanged between the SO and user on Demand Transfer Capability
where the same demand can be supplied from alternate user points of supply. This shall
include the proportion of demand normally fed from each point of supply and the
arrangements (manual or automatic) for transfer under planned/fault outage conditions.
Planning studies
The SO shall prepare on request a study showing the implications of a connection at a
particular point on the system.
Under the terms of the Distribution Licence a reasonable charge may be levied by the SO
for the planning study. Details of these charges are set out in reference 132.
388
Users or potential users shall provide to the SO information regarding the proposed
facility including load details, interface arrangements, proposed connection point and
import/export requirements.
The studies shall normally be prepared within 28 days after the date of receipt of the
information or the agreement of the person making the request to pay the cost of the
study, whichever is the longer. In the case of generators and major customers seeking
connection, depending on the nature and complexity of the request, this period may
extend up to 100 days or a further 28 days from the receipt of planning information from
the SO whichever is the greater.
Details of the procedures for application for connection to the distribution system are
contained in reference 132.
Rules applied by the SO in determining the connection requirements are outlined in

reference 130.
Where such information is available, the SO shall provide on request, a statement of

present and future circuit capacities, forecast power flows and loadings on part or parts of
the distribution system specified in the request and shall include fault levels at each
system node covered by the request. The SO may levy a charge for the provision of this
statement as approved by the Commission for Electricity Regulation (CER ) on account
of the reasonable costs incurred by the SO in preparing this statement.
The statement shall be prepared within 28 days after the date of receipt of the information
or the agreement of the person making the request to pay the cost of the statement,
whichever is the longer. In the case of generators seeking connection this period may
extend up to 110 days depending on the nature and complexity of the request.
The dates given in the above section are target dates only and do not constitute a legal
commitment. The SO shall however use reasonable endeavours to abide by them.
F 1.3 Connection conditions

The connection conditions apply to the SO and to all users planning a connection to the
distribution system in order to maintain stable and secure operation of the system for the
benefit of all users. They define the minimum standard for the method of connection to
the system and the applicable technical, design and operational standards. They specify
the technical arrangements required at the ownership boundary between the distribution
system and the users installation and also the types of signals and indicators that each
user is required to make available to the SO.
F 1.3.1 Information for connection
For connections at medium and high voltages, the information detailed in Registration
Schedule 5 and Appendix 9 shall be provided in all cases, to deal with normal loads,
disturbing loads and fluctuating loads.
Disturbing loads are those non-linear loads, power converter/regulator or widely

fluctuating demand loads that have the potential to introduce harmonics, flicker or
unbalance on the system and could adversely affect the supply quality to other customers.
389
Fluctuating loads are those where cyclic variation may also impact on supply to others.
Users shall contact the SO in advance if they propose to make any significant change to
the connection, electric lines or electric equipment, install or operate generating
equipment or do anything else that could affect the system or require alterations to
equipment and shall provide any information reasonably required by the SO about the
nature or use of electrical equipment on user property.
F 1.3.2 Connection arrangements

Connection voltage
The SO shall, in consultation with the user, specify the connection voltage level in
accordance with normal practice for the type of load and network characteristics. It will
be the minimum nominal voltage in standard use having regard to
Satisfactory operation of the installation
Isolation of disturbance from other customers
Lifecycle costs
Connection costs.
Future voltage changes
The SO shall advise prospective customers of any firm plans to change the operating
voltage at a future date in the course of system improvement and in such cases customers
shall make provision for the changeover. The SO may on occasion specify a different
connection voltage from normal or may agree alternative methods to minimise the effects
of disturbances arising from the users equipment on other users.
Information provided by SO
Based on the information provided by the applicant for connection, the SO shall provide a
statement detailing relevant elements from the following list for the proposed
installation
Nominal connection voltage
Method of connection, extension and reinforcement
Normal impedance to source at point of connection
Method of earthing
Maximum import capacity
Individual customer limits in respect of
Harmonic Distortion
Voltage Flicker
Unbalance
Expected lead time for connection
Cost of connection.
Ownership boundaries
The point of connection between the distribution system and the users installation shall
be agreed between the SO and the user. All equipment at the ownership boundary shall
meet the design principles contained in Section F 1.2 Planning and Section F 1.3
Connection conditions. Connections shall incorporate a means of disconnection from the
users installation by the SO. The respective ownership of plant or equipment shall be
recorded by SO and user via written agreement or diagram as appropriate. In the absence
of an agreement to the contrary, responsibility for construction, control, operation, and
maintenance follows ownership.
390
F 1.3.3 Connections: technical requirements

Connection standards
All equipment in an installation connected to the distribution system shall be designed,
manufactured, tested and installed in accordance with all applicable statutory obligations
and shall conform to the relevant CENELEC, IEC (or National) standards current at the
time of connection. Where none of the above standards apply then such other relevant
standard in common use within EU and current at the date of users connection
agreement shall apply. Where considered necessary by the SO, supplemental standards
shall be notified to users and shall be complied with.
Certification of equipment
All equipment in an installation connected to the distribution system shall be suitable for
the operating frequency of the system and at the voltage and short circuit rating of the
system as shown in Table F-4 at the connection point. The SO may require certification
that the equipment has been designed and installed in a satisfactory manner and has been
tested for compliance with the standards. Before entering a connection agreement it shall
be necessary for the SO to be reasonably satisfied that the users system will comply with
the appropriate requirements of the standard and the Distribution Code.
Protection requirements
Users shall ensure that faults in their plant do not unreasonably cause disturbances to the
distribution system or to other users and shall, prior to connection, install the protection
equipment specified below.
As faults on the distribution system can result in loss of phase, over-voltage or under-
voltage and damage users plant the user shall ensure that protection installed is
compatible with that used by SO and shall take account of established practices on the
particular network to which a connection is made. The user is responsible for the
adequacy of his installed equipment.
The users protection arrangements at the ownership boundary, including equipment and
settings shall be compatible with existing system conditions and protection practice as
specified by the SO at time of application. In particular
Maximum clearance times (fault current inception to arc extinction) shall be
within limits established by the SO in accordance with protection and equipment
short circuit rating policy adopted for the system.
In connecting to the distribution system the users should be aware that fast and
slow speed automatic reclosing is a feature of operation and is characterised by
sudden de/re-energisation of the power supply. Dead times are typically 0.3 s, 1 s,
10 s at Medium Voltage levels and 3 s and 60 s on 38 kV systems.
Users should also be aware that disconnection of one or two phases only of a
three-phase system may be caused by distribution protection arrangements for
certain types of faults.
Minimum protection
The minimum protection required for a user installation will vary according to size, type,
method of connection and earthing of the users systems and a new connection may
require some or all of the following protection systems
Three phase over-current protection
391
Earth fault protection

Distance protection
Inter-tripping protection
Other
Circuit breaker relays at interface
Where interface circuit breakers are used they shall be fitted with relays of a type
acceptable to the SO. They shall have three phase over-current elements and one earth
fault element and shall have time-current characteristics complying with standard types
A, B and C of IEC 255. Maximum permissible relay settings at the ownership boundary,
necessary to provide selectivity with distribution equipment, will be provided by the SO
and may be reviewed at any future time by the SO.
Distribution protection
Distribution protection aims to minimise the impact of faults including voltage dip
duration and must not be adversely affected by user protection limitations.
To ensure satisfactory operation of the distribution system, protection systems,
operating times, discrimination and sensitivity levels at the ownership boundary
shall be agreed (subject to periodic review by SO) between the SO and the user
during the connection application process.
To cover a circuit breaker or equipment having similar function, if it should fail to
operate correctly to interrupt fault current on the system, back-up protection by
other circuit breakers or similar equipment shall normally be provided.
Unless the SO advises otherwise it shall not be acceptable for users to limit the
fault current infeed to the distribution system by the use of protection and
associated equipment if the failure of that equipment to operate as intended in the
event of a fault, could cause SO owned equipment to exceed its short circuit
rating.
Relay tests
Protection relays shall be commissioned on site by the user who shall ensure that the
settings are below the maximum permitted levels. The SO may wish to witness these tests
and the user shall ensure that sufficient notice is given to SO in such cases. Users shall
carry out such subsequent testing of the relays as is necessary to ensure that the protection
settings remain below the maximum permitted levels.
Earthing
Earthing of the part of the users installation that is connected to the distribution system
shall comply with the requirements of Section F 1.2.4 Earthing requirements.
The arrangements for connecting the users installation to earth shall be designed
to comply with relevant international (and national) standards. For low voltage
users reference 133 applies. For Medium Voltage users reference 134 applies and for
High Voltage Users reference 135 applies.
The method of earthing the distribution system (solid connection or through an
impedance) shall be advised by the SO. The specification of the associated
equipment shall meet the voltages that will be imposed as a result of the method
of earthing.
392
Circulating currents
Users shall take precautions to limit the occurrence and effects of circulating currents in
respect of neutral points connected with earth where there is more than one source of
energy.
Voltage regulation and control
Extensions and connections to the distribution system shall be designed such that they do
not prevent the necessary control of voltage on the system. Information on the voltage
regulation and control arrangements will be made available by the SO on request.
Short-circuit levels
The short circuit rating of users equipment at the connection point shall not be less than
the design fault level of the distribution system as shown in Table F-4. The choice of
equipment for connection at low voltage may take into account attenuation in the service
lines. The SO shall take into account the contribution to fault level of the users
connected system in the design of its system.
Connection Voltage Short Circuit Level Short Circuit Level
(RMS Symmetrical) (RMS symmetrical)

Certain Designed Areas.
Normally
LV (Domestic) 9.0 kA
LV (Ind/Comm) 37.0 kA
10 kV 12.5 kA 20 kA
20 kV 12.5 kA 20 kA
38 kV 12.5 kA 20 kA
110 kV 26.0 kA
Table F-4 Short circuit ratings
The users incoming supply shall be controlled by a main circuit breaker which shall be
in accordance with a recognised international standard acceptable to the SO.
Insulation levels
The design of an operators equipment connected to the distribution system shall be such
as to enable it to withstand, under test, the AC and impulse (1.2/50 ms) voltages indicated
in Table F-5 below.
393
Voltage of Equipment AC Withstand Level Impulse Level
LV 3 kV
10 kV 50 kV 125 kV
20 kV 50 kV 125 kV
38 kV 10 kV 250 kV
110 kV 230 kV 550 kV
Table F-5 Insulation levels

Capacitive and inductive effects
The user shall, when applying to make a connection, provide the SO with information as
detailed in Section F 1.2.5. Details shall be required of any capacitor banks and reactors
connected at high voltage, which could affect the distribution system and which it is
proposed to connect if agreed with the SO. When requested by the SO, details shall also
be provided of distributed circuit capacitance and inductance.
Sufficient detail is required to

verify that controlling equipment of the distribution system is suitably rated;
show that the performance of the distribution system will not be impaired; and
ensure that arc suppression coils on the distribution system neutral are correctly
installed and operated.
Voltage disturbances
Users of the distribution system should not generate voltage disturbances at a level that
would affect other users. Users, in their own interests, should select equipment that is
capable of functioning satisfactorily in the presence of disturbances at the levels
permitted by EN50160 (reference 128).
It is a condition of connection that equipment connected directly or indirectly to the

distribution system shall conform to the requirements of EU Directive 89/336/EEC (the
EMC Directive) as amended.
Loads and installations shall comply with the following emission limits. Special
conditions for generators are outlined in Section F 1.3.6.
Voltage flicker
Frequency of occurrence: 0.22 per min600 per min
Voltage Level Pst PLt
38kV, MV, LV 0.7 0.5
Table F-6 Voltage flicker limits
Pst: Short Term Flicker Severityan index of visual severity evaluated over a 10-minute
period.
394
Plt: Long Term Flicker Severityan index of visual severity evaluated over a 2-hour
period.
Frequency of occurrence: 0.02 per min0.22 per min
Magnitude of up to 3 % is permitted.
Frequency of occurrence: 0.02 per min
Magnitude of up to 5 % is permitted.
Harmonic distortion
Individual Harmonic Orders % Harmonic Voltage Distortion (rms voltage as
a % of rms value of the fundamental component)
Harmonic Order LV MV 38 kV
2 0.70 0.50 0.25
3 0.75 0.50 0.25
4 0.70 0.50 0.25
5 2.00 1.00 0.50
6 0.50 0.50 0.30
7 2.00 1.00 0.50
8 0.50 0.50 0.30
9 0.50 0.50 0.25
10 0.50 0.75 0.25
11 1.50 1.50 0.75
12 0.50 0.50 0.30
13 1.50 1.50 0.75
14 0.50 0.50 0.50
15 0.50 0.75 0.25
16 0.75 0.75 0.25
17 0.75 0.75 0.50
18 0.50 0.50 0.25
19 1.00 0.50 0.25
Table F-7 Harmonic voltage distortion %
Total Harmonic Distortion
395
Voltage Level % Harmonic

Voltage Distortion
LV 2.5
MV 2.0
38 kV 1.5
Table F-8 Total harmonic distortion %
Unbalance
The unbalance caused by the connection of an individual installation shall not exceed
1.3 % at the point of common coupling
Under fault and circuit switching conditions the rated frequency component of voltage
may fall or rise transiently. The rise of fall in voltage will be affected by the method of
earthing of the neutral point of the distribution system and voltage may fall transiently to
zero at the point of fault. Sections 2 and 3 of EN 50160128, as amended from time to time,
contains additional details of the variations and disturbances to the voltage which shall be
taken into account in selecting equipment from an appropriate specifications for
installation on or connected to the distribution system.
F 1.3.4 Metering and telemetry
The user may be required to provide such voltage, current, frequency, active power and
reactive power pulses as are considered necessary by the SO and specified in the users
connection agreement to ensure adequate system monitoring.
Centrally dispatched generating units, shall provide signals to the TSO as required by the
Grid Code.
Where, by agreement the SO controls the switchgear on the users system, SO shall
install the necessary telecontrol outstation. It shall however be the responsibility of the
user to provide the necessary control interface for the switchgear that is to be controlled.
Metering principles applying to certain users connected to the distribution system are
specified in the Metering Code.
Specific metering arrangements depend on the load type size and nature of the
installations being connected in line with reference 133.
Personnel carrying out design or installation work for the customer/operator interface
with the SO should familiarise themselves with and work to this standard. Unusual
situations may arise that not are covered by the standard. They should be referred to SO.
F 1.3.5 Specific arrangements
The specific arrangements for connection, including substation layout requirements, user
equipment and tariffs and metering are set out clearly in documents available from the
396
SO. Users must comply with the provisions of the documents relevant to their
installations. Examples are
Conditions Governing Electricity Supply at Medium Voltage.134
Conditions Governing Electricity Supply at 38kV135.
General Specification for MV Substation and Metering for Switchroom
Buildings136.
Drawings for MV Switchroom136.
Drawings for MV Substations137.
Renewable Supplies at 110 kV are relatively uncommon and the general arrangements
are variable due to the requirements of the user and the location on the 110 kV-
distribution system. For grid-connected 110 kV customers the Grid Code applies.
Users connected to the distribution 110 kV system are bound by the Distribution Code.
For these users an agreed interface document is normally drawn up following discussions
between the user and the SO.
F 1.3.6 Embedded generator requirements
Section F 1.3.6 is applicable to all existing or prospective generators, including,

customers with auto-production and developers using renewable sources of energy who
are connected to the distribution system. Customers with stand-by generators who are
connected to the distribution system must comply with the subsection on Standby
generators.
In addition to meeting the requirements of Section F 1.3.6, Developers of embedded

generation shall also comply with the requirements of the General Conditions, the
Planning Code, the Connection Conditions and other relevant sections of the Distribution
Code. (Embedded generators that are subject to central dispatch shall additionally have to
comply with certain sections of the Grid Code).
If existing generating plant does not comply with the standards set down herein or cannot
comply (for technical or economic or other reasons) with the requirements of this section,
the owner shall seek a derogation from the provision from the Commission.
The developer shall initiate discussions at a sufficiently early stage in design to allow the
SO to examine the impact of the generating unit(s) on the distribution system.
The SO may refuse permission for the connection of a generating unit at a point on the
distribution system or require revision to design or technical parameters of the generation
unit, or impose certain restrictions in order to ensure that security and quality of supply
standards as specified in F 1.2.4 are maintained. In such cases, the SO shall provide
sufficient supporting information to justify the refusal or the required revisions.
Specific rules for embedded generators
The integrity of the distribution system and the security and quality of supply to existing
users shall not fall below standard as a result of generators operating in parallel
(synchronised) with the distribution system. Conditions for operation shall guarantee the
safety of
Members of general public
Personnel
397
Distribution Equipment
Supply quality to other customers shall not fall below standard as a result of the presence
or operation of generating units.
Generating units connecting to the distribution system and operating in parallel with, or
which are capable of being operated in parallel with the distribution system shall comply
with this document.
Protection conditions and requirements set down in reference 138 are to protect the
distribution system. The Developer is responsible for protection of his personnel and
equipment and the efficient operation of his generating unit.
Where a generating unit is to be installed the SO shall be informed. The SO shall have the
right to inspect generating installations to ensure that the requirements are met. The SO
may require a demonstration by operation of the unit by agreement with the user.
Provision of information
Information required from Developers of embedded generation
Developers shall provide to the SO information on (a) the generating plant and (b) the
proposed interface arrangements between the generating plant and the distribution
system. This information (which is registered) is required by the SO before entering into
an agreement to connect any generating plant to the distribution system is detailed in
Appendix 9.
(All data may not be required for small installations)
Generating plant Data

As scheduled in Appendix 9.
Other plant and equipment details

A comprehensive schedule of installed new equipment including details of disturbing
loads as per connection condition F 1.3.1 is required.
Interface arrangements
The means of synchronisation between the SO and user;
Details of arrangements for connecting with earth that part of the generating plant
directly connected to the distribution system;
The means of connection and disconnection which are to be employed; and
Precautions to be taken to ensure the continuance of safe conditions if any earthed
neutral point of the generators system operated at high voltage become
disconnected from earth.
The details of information required will vary depending on the type and size of the
generating unit or the point at which connection is to be made to the distribution system.
This information shall be provided by the generator at the reasonable request of the SO.
The SO will use the information provided to model the generator unit to determine a
technically acceptable method of connection. If the SO reasonably concludes that the
nature of the proposed connection or changes to an existing connection requires more
398
detailed analysis then further information than that specified in the connection
requirement may be required.
Additional information may be required from embedded generators larger than 2 MW or

connected at a voltage level above 20 kV. This may include
Technical data
Generating Plant information (impedance per unit on rating)
Type of prime mover
Rated MVA
MW
Type of excitation system
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
A block diagram for the model of the AVR system including the data on
the gains, forward and feedback gains, time constraints and voltage control
limits.
Speed Governor and Prime Mover Data
A block diagram for the model of the generating plant governor detailing
the governor mechanism, if applicable, and system control and turbine
rating.
Generator Excitation System
Capacity and standby Requirements
Registered Capacity and minimum generation of each generating unit and power
station in MW.
Generating unit and power station auxiliary demand (active and reactive power)
in MW and MVAr, at registered capacity conditions.
Generating unit and power station auxiliary demand (active and reactive power)
in MW and MVAr, under minimum generation conditions.
In normal circumstances, the information specified above will enable the SO to assess the
connection requirements. Occasionally additional information may be required. In such
circumstances, the information shall be made available by the Developer, at the
reasonable request of the SO.
Information provided by the SO
The SO shall prepare a statement as per connection requirement 3.3.3 for Developers
applying for connection to the Distribution System.
Where generator paralleling or power export is intended additional information shall be

provided including
Interface protection settings
Equipment, cabling, switchgear, metering requirements
Substation site and building requirements (dimensions, access, planning
permission, earthing, lighting and heating)
Technical requirements
Generating Plant Performance Requirements
All centrally dispatched generators shall comply with the relevant sections of the
Grid Code.
399
For embedded generators not subject to central dispatch the electrical parameters
to be achieved at the generating unit terminals shall be specified by the SO with
the offer for connection.
Protection associated with embedded generating plant shall be required to co-
ordinate with the distribution system protection regarding
clearance times for fault currents
co-ordination with auto recloser requirements
protection settings of the controlling circuit breaker
Protection settings shall not be changed without agreement from the SO.
(These protection requirements are additional to normal interface protection requirements

of the user.)
The emission limit for voltage fluctuations and flicker at the point of common coupling
caused by switching or continuous operation of wave/tidal turbine installations is
Pst = 0.35 and Plt = 0.35 where

Pst: Short Term Flicker Severityan index of visual severity evaluated over a
10 minute period.
Plt: Long Term Flicker Severityan index of visual severity evaluated over a 2
hour period.
(These values are consistent with IEC 1000-3-7.)
For generators the Total Harmonic Voltage Distortion (THVD) limit is given in the table
below
Voltage Level Total Harmonic

Voltage Distortion
( %)
LV 2.5
MV 2.0
38kV 1.5
Table F-9 THVD limits
A schedule of individual harmonic distortion limits shall be provided by the SO where

appropriate.
Islanding
It is conceivable that a part of the distribution system, to which embedded generators are
connected can, during emergency conditions, become detached from the rest of the
system forming an island. The SO may decide, dependent on local network conditions,
if it is desirable for the embedded generators to continue to generate onto the islanded
400
If no facilities exist for the subsequent resynchronisation with the rest of the distribution
system then the embedded generator shall under SO instruction ensure that the generating
plant is disconnected for resynchronisation.
Under emergency conditions, there is an expectation that some generation will continue
to operate outside the statutory frequency limits. However, for embedded generators
connected to the distribution system it is likely that this could mean connection within an
automatic low frequency load disconnection zone.
Consequently, embedded generator owners shall ensure that all protection on their
generating plant has settings to co-ordinate with those on the low frequency load
disconnection equipment, which will be detailed by the SO on request.
Black start capability
Developers of embedded generation shall notify the SO if their generating plant has a
restart capability without connection to an external power supply, unless the embedded
generator has previously notified the TSO accordingly under the Grid Code.
Generating plant commissioning tests
Where the generating plant requires connection to the distribution system in advance of
the commissioning date, for the purposes of testing, the generator shall comply with the
requirements of the Connection Agreement. The generator shall provide the SO with a
commissioning programme, approved by the SO if reasonable in the circumstances, to
allow commissioning tests to be coordinated.
Standby generators
Parallel operation with the distribution system is not permitted for standby generators
without specific agreement of the SO.
Customers with standby generation shall ensure that any parts of the installation supplied
by the generating plant have first been disconnected from the distribution system and
remain disconnected while the generating plant is connected to the installation. Methods
of changeover and interlocking shall meet these requirements. (See Part 3.7 of reference
139
).
Low voltage generating units must comply with reference 129 and 133. Medium and High
voltage standby generating units are rare and requirements will be provided by the SO.
F 1.4 Operations
F 1.4.1 Demand forecasting
Grid demand forecasting
The Grid Code specifies TSO requirements for demand forecasting for generation units
subject to central dispatch and in turn imposes obligations of the so to aggregate forecast
information provided by users not subject to central dispatch and supply forecasts to TSO
where demand or change in demand exceeds 10 MW at any connection point.
Distribution demand forecasting
For the SO to operate the distribution system efficiently and with maximum security and
system stability it must be provided with loading and generation output information by
401
relevant users. Demand data (MW and, where required MVAr, at the connection point)
shall be provided in non-transitory written or electronic form to allow retention by SO.
F 1.4.2 Operational planning

Scope
The relevant users are major customers and developers of embedded generation having
plant in excess of 2 MW in capacity. They shall provide projected output and planned
shutdown information as in Section F 1.5 Table F-13 (Schedule 2) of this standard
annually or as requested by SO.
Timescales
The timescales for information shall be determined by the SO and user, having due regard
to voltage levels and capacities of plant when assessing requirements.
Outages
Information from embedded generating plant greater than 2 MW and not subject to
central dispatch shall include planned outages for maintenance or other reasons together
with projected time of return to service.
Synchronisation
The developer generator shall not synchronise without first obtaining permission from the
SO unless prior arrangements have been made with SO.
Impact on users
SO shall advise major customers or developers who may be significantly affected by
particular outages of distribution plant of the likely dates and durations of outages. Where
user objections arise these shall be considered by SO and alternative arrangements
proposed if possible.
F 1.4.3 Demand control

Demand control objective
The establishment of procedures that enable the SO, following a TSO instruction or
otherwise, to reduce demand so that operating problems on the transmission or
distribution systems can be avoided or relieved in a fair and equitable way where
suppliers and their customers are concerned.
Demand control procedures
Demand control procedures ensure that hardship to users and customers is minimised and
that, to the degree possible, all parties are treated equitably in the event of insufficient
supply being available to meet demand or avoid disconnection of customers. This can
arise as a consequence of breakdown or operating problems in respect of system
frequency, voltage levels or thermal overload.
Applicable procedures
Demand control procedures include
Automatic low frequency or voltage demand disconnection.
Customer demand reduction (including voltage disconnection/reduction).
Customer demand management initiated by others.
Customer demand reduction on TSO or SO instruction.
402
Emergency manual demand disconnection.

Implementation of demand control
Implementation of demand control by SO may affect all customers of suppliers connected
to the system and contractual arrangements between suppliers and their customers should
reflect this.
Demand control information
Where demand control is exercised by SO whether to safeguard the distribution system or
comply with an instruction from TSO, then SO shall inform and liaise with users, to the
extent practicable. (Procedures for load shedding including exemption policies, shedding
rotas and customer communications are contained in the load shedding plan approved by
CER).
F 1.4.4 Operational communications and liaison

Objective of operational communications
The objective is the establishment of procedures governing the exchange of information
relating to operations or events on the distribution system or any user connected that may
have an operational effect on the system or on the installation of another user, so that the
implications can be assessed and action taken to maintain the integrity of both total
system and user installation.
Scope
Embedded generating plant with capacity >2 MW; major customers and auto-production
customers where the SO considers it appropriate.
Communications procedure
Users and SO shall nominate contact persons and channels for effective
information exchange.
Where SCADA equipment will be required at users site this will be stated in the
relevant connection agreement.
Information exchange shall take place on a request basis and/or voluntarily in line
with good industry practice.
Where operations on the distribution or transmission systems may, in the opinion
of SO, have an operational effect on a user installation the SO shall notify the user
as far in advance as possible. Similarly, a user shall notify the SO when operation
on his installation may have an operational effect on the distribution system.
Such notification (by a named person), shall describe the operation in sufficient
detail for the recipient to assess the risks arising or seek further clarification.
Significant incidents
An event shall be deemed significant by the SO when it may have had a significant effect
on the users installation or on the distribution system. Significant incidents include those
which cause or have the potential to cause any of the following
Voltage outside statutory limits
System frequency outside statutory limits
System stability failure
403
F 1.4.5 Event reporting

Objective
Detailed reporting and joint investigation (by agreement) of significant incidents are
intended to be facilitated by the following procedures.
Nominated personnel
SO and users shall nominate officers and establish communication channels to ensure
effectiveness of this section (they may be those already nominated).
Direct communication
Communication shall, to the extent possible, be direct between user and SO.
Significant incidents
Where the SO determines that a reported event constitutes a significant incident, a written
or electronic report shall be prepared, as soon as reasonably practicable after the original
notification, by the body that reported the event.
Report format
The report shall confirm the original notification, provide such further details as have
become available and at least the following
Date and time of Significant Incident
Location
Equipment involved
Brief description of Significant Incident
Details of any Demand Control undertaken
Conclusions and Recommendations
Matters applicable to SO include following effects on users
Duration of incident
Estimated date and time of return of normal service.
Matters applicable to generator include following effects on generation.
Generation interrupted
Frequency response achieved
MVAR performance achieved
Estimated date and return to normal service.
Joint investigations
Where a significant incident report has been submitted either party may request in writing
that a joint investigation be carried out via an agreed investigation panel. Such joint
investigation shall only take place where all affected parties agree to it and to its form,
rules and procedures.
F 1.4.6 System tests

Objective
System tests involve either simulated or controlled application of irregular, unusual or
extreme conditions on part or all of the system, excluding commissioning,
recommissioning or minor tests. The objective of the procedures is to ensure that as far as
is practicable these tests do not threaten safety of personnel or public and cause minimum
404
threat to security of supplies, plant and equipment integrity and are not detrimental to SO
or users.
Procedures
If the test may have an effect on the transmission system then the provisions of
grid code or this section shall apply.
System tests where the effects are minimal (where variations in voltage,
frequency, waveform distortion do not exceed the values given in Section F 1.2,
Planning) will not be subject to this procedure.
A proposal for a system test that may have a significant effect on the system of
others shall be submitted, normally with twelve months notice, to SO and to users
who may be affected by such tests. It shall detail the nature and purpose of the test
and indicate the extent and situation of the plant or equipment involved. Where
the information provided is considered to be insufficient by the recipient they
shall contact the test proposer with a written request for further information which
shall be supplied as soon as reasonably practicable. The SO shall not be required
to act until it is satisfied with the information provided.
The SO shall have overall co-ordination of the system test and shall identify users
other than the Test Proposer, who may be affected. The SO shall evaluate the test
impact and discuss with affected users. Within one month of receipt of proposal,
SO shall issue a report to test proposer detailing
Proposals for conducting and monitoring the system test.
Allocation of costs between parties.
Test schedule.
When approved by all recipients the test can proceed.
At least one month prior to the date of proposed system test, the SO shall submit
to all recipients of the proposal, a final test programme stating the switching
sequence, proposed timings, list of staff involved in test (including site safety) and
other appropriate matters. The final test programme shall bind all recipients to the
programme test provisions. The test procedures shall comply with all applicable
legislation.
Upon test conclusion the Proposer shall prepare a final written test report for
submission to SO, detailing plant and equipment tested, the test itself, results
conclusions and recommendations. The test results shall be communicated to
relevant parties having regard to confidentiality.
F 1.4.7 Monitoring, testing and investigation
Objective
To properly discharge its responsibilities in respect of safe, secure and economic
operation of the distribution system and in accordance with its licence conditions the SO
shall organise and conduct monitoring, testing and investigation of the effect of users
electrical installations on the distribution system, so as to ensure that users are not
operating outside the technical parameters required by the Distribution Code (Pt. 14).
Testing quality of supply
The SO shall determine the need to test the quality of supply at various points on the
system. This requirement may be initiated in response to specific complaints. Where
testing is required at a user connection point, the SO shall advise that user and furnish
him with the relevant test results.
405
Operation outside limits

Where a user is found to be operating outside the specified technical limits in the draft
Standard, that user shall rectify the situation or disconnect the apparatus causing the
problem within such time as is agreed with the SO.
Disconnection
Continued failure to rectify the situation shall result in the user being disconnected in
accordance with the Connection Agreement.
Ongoing monitoring
The SO shall, from time to time, monitor the effects of the user on the distribution
system, normally in respect of the amount of active and reactive power, flicker or
harmonics being transferred across the connection point. Where the power flows exceed
those defined in the Connection Agreement or cause disturbances, the SO shall so inform
the user, who shall restrict the power transfer to within the specified parameters.
Monitoring of protection standards
The SO may check periodically that users are in compliance with agreed protection
requirements.
F 1.4.8 Safety coordination

Objective
Distribution Code specifies the safety management system criteria to be applied by SO in
meeting statutory requirements and licence obligations. To ensure safety of persons
working on the distribution system and adjacent to operational and ownership boundaries,
similar criteria and standards of safety management systems shall be provided by other
users of the system when carrying out work or tests at the operational interface with the
SO. The criteria apply to SO, users and their agents.
Safety procedures
The Safety Management System for ensuring health and safety of relevant
personnel shall be specified by the SO and users for work on their respective
systems and connected plant and equipment. At locations where an operational
boundary exists there shall be joint agreement by the SO and users on which
safety management system is to be used and proper documentation of the safety
precautions to be taken shall be maintained.
There shall be written authorisation of personnel who carry out the work of
control, operation or testing of equipment within or attached to the distribution
system.
The joint agreement between the SO and users specifying responsibility for
system or control equipment shall ensure that only one party is responsible for any
item of plant or equipment at any one time. The SO and each user shall at all
times have nominated a person or persons responsible for co-ordination of safety
on the respective systems.
The SO and each user shall maintain a suitable documentary system which
records all relevant operational events that have taken place on the distribution
system or connected systems and co-ordination of relevant safety precautions for
work. System diagrams showing sufficient information for control personnel to
carry out their duties safely shall be exchanged between the SO and user.
Safety at the SO/User Interface
406
The following specific procedures detail the basic safety requirements at the SO/user
interfaces. These procedures are necessary to ensure the safety of all who may have to
work on or at either side of the interface boundary.
Written rules for safe working and communicating procedures shall be available
and used by all persons who may have to work at or use the facilities provided at
the interface.
Electrical equipment connected to either side of the interface and interface
equipment shall be under the control of a named person at either side.
Each item of equipment shall be controlled by only one identifiable person at any
one time.
Adequate means of isolation shall be provided at the interface to allow work to be
carried out safely at either side of the interface.
Where necessary to prevent danger adequate facilities for earthing shall be
provided at either side of the interface to allow work to be carried out safely at the
interface or at either side of the interface.
Adequate working space, adequate means of access and egress and, where
necessary, adequate lighting shall be provided at all electrical equipment on or
near which work is being done in circumstances which may cause danger.
All electrical equipment shall be suitably identified where necessary to prevent
danger.
Electrical installations and equipment shall comply with the relevant Statutory
Requirements as set down in reference 140, (Part VIII, Regs. 33-53)
Operation and maintenance of users equipment shall only be carried out by
authorised personnel. Operating procedures shall be agreed with the SO before
first commissioning the plant.
Instructions for operating and or earthing the users electrical equipment shall be
clearly displayed in the users Medium and High voltage switchroom.
The safety procedures to be observed for all personnel working on or in close proximity
to distribution system plant or equipment are detailed in reference 141.
F 1.5 Data registration

Where users are required to submit data to the SO, this section provides a series of
schedules under which data of a particular type shall be provided together with
procedures and timing for the supply of that data. Data changes shall be reviewed
annually to ensure continued accuracy and relevance. The SO shall initiate this review in
writing and the user shall respond in writing using standard forms unless otherwise
agreed. Where the user wishes to change any data item the implications shall first be
discussed with SO and, if agreed, confirmed in writing. Where changes occur in SO data
requirements, relevant users shall be so advised and given a reasonable timescale within
which to reply.
407
Data Description Units Suggested

Source
1. Contact Name Text D
2. Site Details Text D
3. Generator Make Text G/D
4. Type of Generating Text G/DE

Unit
5. Type of Prime Mover

Text T/DM
6. Projected Operating
Regime Text D
7. Terminal Volts
8. Rated KVA kV GDE
9. Rated KW kVA G/DE
10. Max active power kW G/DE
11. Reactive Power kW G/DE

Required
kVAr G/DE
12. Fault Level
Contribution
13. Method of Voltage MVA G/DE

Control
14. Generator Transformer

Details Text G/DE
Text G/DE
Abbreviations: D: Developer; DE : Developers

Electrical Engineer. DM: Developers Mechanical
Engineer; G: Generator Supplier
T: Turbine (Prime Mover) Supplier
Above data also listed in Appendix 9
Table F-10 Schedule 1(a) Generating unit data (for all embedded generators)
408
Data Description Units Suggested

Source
(1) Relevant voltage levels Text/Diagram DE
(2) Generator size and windings Text/Diagram G/DE
(3) Transformer size, ratio, windings Text/Diagram G/DE
(4) Circuit breaker location Text/Diagram G/DE
(5) Max. three phase short circuit level Amps G/DE
(6) Location of alternative electricity supply Text/Map DE
(7) CT/VT ratios and locations Text Diag. DE
(8) Synchronising and interlocking Text G/DE

arrangements
(9) Power factor correction location

Diag. G/DE
(10) Inertia constant (whole machine)
Mwsecs.MVA G/DE
(11) Stator Resistance
Ohm G/DE
(12) Direct axis Reactances
Ohm G/DE
a) Subtransient
b) Transient
c) Synchronous
(13) Time Constant: Direct Axis

G/DE
(a) Substransient
(b) Transient
(14) Zero Sequence

Ohm G/DE
(a) Resistance
(b) Reactance
(15) Negative Sequence

Ohm G/DE
(a) Resistance
(b) Reactance
(16) Generator Transformer
409
(a) Resistance G/DE
(b) Reactance Ohm
(c) MVA Rating
(d) Tap Arrangement MVA
(e) Vector Group
(f) Earthing
(17) Impulse levels (BIL) and power with

standard at each voltage level
kW G/DE
(18) Fault current due to metallic three-phase
short circuit at main incoming circuit
breaker.
Amp G/DE
(19) Interface Arrangements
(calculations)
(20) Protection circuit supervision
(21) Details of projected relays including

range, settings and setting calculations Text G/DE
(22) Details of Power Factor Correction Text/Diagrams G/DE
Text/calcs. G/DE
Text G/DE
generators with Parallel operation) (See also Appendix 9)
410
Date Description Units/Format Suggested

Source
(1) Type of Prime Mover Text DM
(2) Generator Rating MVA G/DE

MVA
(3) Generator Excitation

System Text G/DE
(4) Automatic Voltage

Regulator
Text/Diagram G/DE
(Block diagram with
data on gains forward,
feedback time
constants, voltage
control limits)
(5) Speed Governer and

prime mover data
(Block diagram
detailing governor
system control, turbine
rating and maximum
power) Text/Diagram G/DM
(6) Capacity and stand by

requirements
(Registered capacity
and maximum
generation of each unit
and total power
station)
(7) Generating unit and

power station auxiliary
demand (active and
reactive power ) at MW G/DE
registered capacity
conditions .
(8) Generating unit and

power station auxiliary
demand (active and
reactive power)
minimum generation
conditions.
411
MW/MVAr G/DE/DM
MW/MVAr G/DE/DM
generators greater than 2 MW in capacity) (See also Appendix 9)
Date Description Year 0 1 2 3 4 5
(1) Electrical Output (annual

30 minutes maximum active
power)(MW)
(2) Forecast Electrical Generation

(MWh)
(3) Planned Shutdown Period

(start date)
(4) Planned Shutdown Period

(end date)
(year 0 is current year) (Source DE/DM)
Table F-13 Schedule 2 Demand Forecasts(Generating Units >2 MW not subject to

central dispatch)
412
Data Description Units Time Periods Data Type
1. Embedded Generators: MW Weeks 0-52 Committed Programme

Individual unit number and
capacity
(a) Preferred earliest start of

outage
Years 2-3 Provisional Programme
(b) Preferred latest finish of
outage
Years 4-7 Indicative Programme
2. Plant and Equipment Dates Weeks 0-52 Committed Programme
Details of proposed outages that Years 1-2 Provisional Programme

may affect Distribution System
performance, trip testing, trips
risks, and other information
where known.
(Source DE)
Table F-14 Schedule 3 Operational Planning Scheduled Outages
413
Data Description Units/Format Suggested Source
1. Reactive Compensation
(a) Reactance of any capacitor banks X DE

and any series reactors
(b) Rating of individual shunt

reactors (not associated with MVAr
cables)
DE
(c) Rating of individual capacitor
banks
(d) Details of any automatic control MVAr

logic such that operating
characteristics can be determined. DE
Text/Diagrams
2. Point of Connection to the DE
system
(a) Lumped Network
susceptance: Details of the equivalent

lumped network susceptance of the
user installation referred back to the
connection with the Distribution
System (including shunt reactors that
are an integral part of a cable system
and are not normally in or out of
service independent of the cable but
excluding indepently switched
reactive compensation connected to
the user installation and any
susceptance of any user installation
inherent in the active and reactive
demand).
3. Fault Infeeds
(a) Maximum and minimum short

circuit infeeds to the system
(b) X/R ratio under maximun and

minimum short circuit conditions
(contribution from rotating plant)
4. Equivalent network information at

requested of SO
(a) Interconnection Impedance
(b) Positive Sequence Resistance
(c) Zero Sequence Resistance
414
(d) Positive Sequence Reactance
(e) Zero Sequence Reactance MVAr DE
(f) Susceptance
5. Circuit Parameters R+jX DE
5. Switchgear
6. Protection Arrangements and

settings
7. Transient over voltage effects
% DE
% DE
% DE
% DE
Text/Diagrams DE
Text/Diagrams DE
Text/Diagrams DE
Text/Diagrams DE
Table F-15 Schedule 4 System Design Information-Embedded Generators
415
Data Description Units Suggested Source
1. Demand Type
(a) Maximum Active kW DE

Power Demand
(b) Max. and Min.

Reactive Power kVAr DE
Required
2. Load Type and

Control
Arrangements
(a) Starter type
(b) Controlled Rectifiers
(c) Large Motor Drives

Text, Diagram DE
(d) Max. load per phase at
time of max demand Text, Diagram DE
(e) Max phase unbalance Text, Diagram DE
(f) Max harmonic content Amps/Phase DE
3. Fluctuating Loads
(a) Rate of change of Amps/Phase DE

active/reactive power
%of Harmonic No. DE
(both
increasing/decreasing)
KW/sec DE
(b) shortest repetitive time
interval between KVAr/sec DE
fluctuation in active
and reactive power
(c) largest step changes in sec. DE

active/reactive power
(both
increasing/decreasing)
(d) disturbing loads (if

any)
kW DE
kVAr DE
416
Text DE
Table F-16 Schedule 5 Load Characteristics for Embedded Generators
417
F2 DEVELOPMENT OF A SAFETY STANDARD FOR WAVE

POWER CONVERSION SYSTEMS
Prepared by: Lars Bergdahl, Pat McCullen
Reviewed by: Kim Nielsen, Teresa Pontes
F 2.1 Introduction
F 2.1.1 Scope of work
The scope of this work package is to promote the establishment of a safety standard for
wave energy conversion systems to form the basis for a European Wave-Energy Safety
Standard (EWESS). This section addresses issues that may be of use at any of the
following stages of a project
Design
Construction/fabrication
Installation
Commissioning
Operation
Decommissioning
NOTE: The draft standards published here are indicative but have no official status.
Developers pursuing these draft standards, which are presented for discussion purposes,
should be aware that in so doing they might not comply with the relevant enforceable
standards for the appropriate country.
The extent to which official standards developed for wave energy will ultimately
incorporate all or part of these draft standards cannot be guaranteed.
The safety of wave-energy conversion systems is addressed for

The plants themselves
Other marine users
Personnel working on the wave-energy plants and integrated systems
Personnel working in general utilities connected to the wave-energy systems
Wave power plants can for safety purposes be classified into three main groups
Founded onshore or on sea bottom near to shore
Off shore, bottom standing
Off shore, floating
The plants can consist of single units or multiple units.
Integrated safety involves safe design and functioning of---

Structure and choice of materials
Foundation and mooring
418
Mechanical systems
Electrical installations and electrical systems
Control and protection systems
And safe procedures for---
Fabrication
Construction, deployment, assembly and installation
Commissioning, operation and maintenance
Dismantling and demolition
The safety requirements include not only the structure and the electrical system as well as
access but also connection to the grids of local electricity utilities The general outline of
the text below follows the format of Ref. (1) to which acknowledgement is made.
The level of structural and marine design safety should for small unmanned wave-power
units conform with rules for floating fish farms or offshore wind-power plants, while for
larger units rules similar to those for unmanned fixed or floating offshore platforms may
be more applicable.
The electrical safety should conform with rules for hydropower, wind-power and other
electrical machinerya.
It will be appreciated that wave power conversion system safety is a subset of the
environmental impact of wave power development e.g. impact on humans and property
and that many of the measures developed to ensure safety become mitigating measures in
environmental impact terms.
Within the EU the certification process needs to be a uniform one so as to produce wave-
power units for the whole union without making design changes other than those
motivated by wave climate or economy. A union-wide or worldwide certification for
plants like that used in the ship industry would be desirable. As of today the rules vary
from country to country which in fact is a competitive obstacle and contravenes the
mobility principle.
It is assumed that, where specific permits are required under environmental regulations to
allow management and control of gases, washings and wastes incidental to securing an
acceptable safety standard, such permits will have been obtained from the competent
authorities and that the safety standard can focus primarily on safety issues.
These notes on safety systems apply equally well to R&D plant as to commercial plant.
These sections could therefore be useful to R&D organisations and funding agencies for
conditions on R&D investments, grants, etc.
F 2.1.2 Normative references
In general most recent European Health and Safety legislation has developed by reference
to the 1989 EU Framework Directive Safety and Health of Workers at Work
a
(1) BabingtonSmith Hugh, Health and Safety in the Wind Energy IndustryBritish Wind Energy
Association
419
(89/391/EEC). Other normative references are listed below142. For dated references,
subsequent amendments to or revisions of any of these publications apply to this
proposed European standard only when incorporated in it by amendment or revision. For
undated references the latest edition of the publication referred to applies.
EN 292 Safety of machineryBasic concepts, general principles for design.
EN 418 Safety of machineryEmergency stop equipment, functional aspects.
Principles for design.
EN 547-1 Safety of machineryHuman body dimensions, Part 1: Principles for
determining the dimensions required for openings for whole body access into
machinery.
EN 547-3 Part 3Anthropometric data for whole body access into machinery and
access openings.
EN 795 Personal protective equipment against falls from a height, Anchorage
devicesRequirements and testing.
EN 982 Safety requirements for hydraulic and pneumatic systems and parts.
Hydraulics.
EN 983 Safety requirements for hydraulic and pneumatic systems and parts.
Pneumatics.
ENV 1070 Safety of machinery.
Terminology.
prEN 12437-1Safety of machinery. (June 1996)
Part 1: Permanent means of access to machines and industrial plants. Choice of a
fixed means of access between two levels.
prEN 12437-2Part 2: Working platforms and gangways.
prEN 12437-3Part 3: Stairways, stepladders and guard-rails.
prEN 12437-4Part 4: Fixed ladders.
EN 50160128Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public
distribution systems.
F 2.2 General safety and risk assessment

F 2.2.1 General safety
The following stages and regulations would apply in connection with the design,
construction deployment, commissioning, operation and maintenance phases of the
development of an electricity producing wave energy converter connected to regional
networks143
Appointment of competent design safety engineer by owner/developer
A competent Design Safety Engineer should be appointed by Owner/Developer to
establish and maintain a formal staged Safety File and ensure an integrated approach by
each contributing party during design and construction
Design
Identification of loading and other conditions likely to be encountered during
construction and operation. Identification of likely construction methodology and
associated hazards, risk analysis and identification of methods to mitigate risk.
Production of a pre tender Safety and Health Plan incorporating above for transmittal to
420
constructor/fabricator at pricing stage including sections dealing with mechanical and

electrical plant requirements.
Construction/Fabrication
Based on designers work, assess changes likely to be made during construction as
envisaged by Constructor, develop risk mitigation measures applicable to construction
site, fabrication works or yard. Carry out fabrication operations in accordance with
planned safety procedure including acceptance tests and verifications necessary prior to
removal from fabrication facility. Include compliance with identified relevant sections of
distribution and grid codes of the receiving general utilities.
Deployment and installation
Identification of hazards and mitigation of risks dependent on locations, distances and
methodologies involved. Compliance with rules of national boards of navigation,
insurance (class) requirements and pre-commissioning, requirements for network
connection via grid code of the receiving electrical utilities.
Commissioning
Identification of manufacturers and electrical utility code requirements for
commissioning tests and procedures. Identification of hazards and risks and adherence to
corresponding safety plan developed with reference to relevant sections of mechanical
and electrical safety rules for use in generating stations and also safety rules for manned
craft and barges where relevant.
Operation and maintenance
It is assumed that wave energy converters will normally operate in an unmanned
condition. Where manning occurs the appropriate sections of utilitys mechanical and
electrical safety rules for use in generating stations and such rules for manned craft as
may be prescribed by national health and safety authority and national boards of
navigation will apply. Where diving operations are required the diving regulations will
apply.
Where wave energy converters are removed for maintenance at a shore based facility the
appropriate sections of above will apply.
F 2.2.2 Risk assessment
In most countries Risk Assessment is a legal requirement under legislation. The best way
to decide what actions are needed to manage health and safety in the workplace is by the
practical application of Risk Assessment. In most cases all that is required is that
balanced judgement is made based on previous knowledge and experience. Only in very
few cases it will be necessary to resort to specialist techniques such as Quantified Risk
Analysis.
It is however essential to adopt a systematic approach and decide who has the required
experience to carry out a risk assessment. The following scheme may assist in the
process
Assessment of risk; basic information
Company name and address
Assessment being undertaken and location
Name of person making the assessment
421
Date
Hazards identified
List the hazards that could result in significant harm to workers
A set of guidewords might help in identifying hazards e.g. electricity; working at
height; falls; working close to or above water; moving parts of machinery
Who might be harmed and how?
List the workers who might be at risk from the hazards identified e.g. maintenance
personnel; operators; members of the public
Are some workers more vulnerable than others? For example, visitors; lone
workers; young people, inexperienced persons.
Decide how persons might be hurt e.g. contact with electricity; falling objects
Are there any existing control measures?
List the existing controls e.g. maintenance procedures; training; information,
safe-pass system
Clearly establish where information can be found e.g. maintenance manuals; site
rules
Do the precautions adequately mitigate the risks? For example, do they represent
good industry standards and best practice?
Are further control measures needed?
Ensure that legal requirements are being met
List the risks that are not adequately controlled
Decide what further action should be taken to achieve generally accepted industry
standards e.g. better control of the work; provide extra guarding; issue personal
protective equipment; specialised training.
Record
Record the assessment for future reference e.g. written or electronic records
Review
Decide when to review the assessment to check that it remains valid e.g. routinely from
time to time or if new or modified equipment is installeda
F 2.3 Site development and planning

This section highlights the considerations that should be given to Health and Safety by
those involved in initial development when appraising the feasibility of proceeding with a
wave-energy project. This phase also deals with the period covering the preparation and
application for planning consent and includes information that might be required on
Health and Safety for inclusion in any Environmental Statement.
The appointed Design Safety Engineer should have the overall responsibility for co-
ordinating the health and safety aspects of the design and planning phase and for the early
stages of the health and safety plan and health and safety file.
a
For more advice readers are referred to Health and Safety Executive (UK) free leaflet: 5 STEPS TO
RISK ASSESSMENT. Although not specifically aimed at the wave energy sector this leaflet offers step-
by-step guidance on how to perform a risk assessment and contains a pro-format that can be used to record
information.
422
F 2.3.1 Legislative requirements
In every country there is an expanding body of legislative requirements to consider at this

stage. In the UK they include those listed under Section F 2.3.3 below
In addition to workers directly involved, legislation also contain directives concerning the
general public
e.g. Ref. (3.3.1) stipulates that

An employer must conduct his undertaking in such a way that anyone not in his
employment is not exposed to risks to their health or safety (e.g. contractors,
general public)(Section 3)
Those in control of premises must ensure that they are safe, have safe access and
egress, and that any plant or substance does not endanger health (e.g. visitors,
customers)(Section 4)
Those in control of premises must exercise best practicable means to prevent
noxious or offensive emissions into the atmosphere
(e.g. affecting neighbours)(Section 5)
F 2.3.2 Wave plant layout
When selecting the position of wave-energy units consider the

proximity of other units,
marine installations
sea routes
fishing grounds
electrical cables or pipelines
boundaries of land and water ownership and rights of way
location of existing sites for grid connection
Consideration should be given to the following site-specific climate
waves, currents, drifting and wind in relation to the survival, fatigue and
serviceability the plant
temperature and the likely incidence of icing above and below the water line
susceptibility to lightning strike
any requirements for continued collection of metocean data
sea spray involving salt burdens
Site-specific information on bottom and beach conditions may be required to assess
erosion/accretion potential
strength requirements of foundations, piles and anchors
stability of excavations
requirements for access roads, hardstandings and support pads for crane
outriggers
hazards from previous use (e.g. mining, disposal of waste, military range)
requirements to maintain present use (e.g. boating, angling, swimming,
commercial fishing, transportation).
environmental preservation (e.g. botanical and zoological sanctuaries)
Requirements for the site electrical system will include
423
consultation with local electricity utilities

reference to national and European Standards on equipment supply
details of potential gradient and pH of soil -capability to isolate, earth and lock off
installed equipment as appropriate
establishment of short circuit levels
voltage regulation
satisfactory protection systems (e.g. fault clearance times, discrimination)
Satisfactory arrangements will be needed for plant access by road for onshore units and
by boat for near shore and offshore units
check vehicle weights, size and ground clearance tolerances.
check supply ship capacity; necessary draft and harbour facilities
liaise with Local Authority, Police and notify local inhabitants
maintain public access requirements (e.g. parking, passing places, public
highway)
establish sustainable site ground pressures (e.g. requirements for specialist
vehicles)
ensure vehicle stability on steep slopes and possible collapse of old mine
workings
establish requirements for temporary signs and notices
maintain public rights of way (e.g. footpaths and bridleways)
prevent interference between vehicles and underground/overhead services
take account of poor weather conditions
provide adequate means for traffic control, passing places and parking
Take account of local habitation in respect of
excessive vehicle or boat movements and routes
nuisance during construction (e.g. noise and dust levels)
noise emission levels from air turbines
Consult with landowners and water rights owner regarding
existing and likely future land usage
crops and livestock
recreational shooting
fishing
location and marking of buried services
Make provision for members of the public by
establishing a procedure to control visitors
establishing whether the land and foreshore has any citizens rights
taking security measures against unauthorised access and vandalism
F 2.3.3 References
Selected UK Legislation
Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
Electricity Supply Regulations 1988
Noise at Work Regulations 1989
424
Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994
F 2.4 Design, assembly, manufacture and specification

F 2.4.1 General aspects
those involved with the design phase of a wave-energy plant. For the purposes of this
guidance the term Design also includes the manufacture, assembly, specification and
procurement of components which when put together during the construction phase
constitute an operational wave-energy plant.
It is the responsibility of wave-energy plant designers to ensure, within their capabilities,

that the equipment is designed to avoid risks to health and safety, whilst they are being
assembled, constructed, installed, operated and maintained.
Legislative requirements
In every country there are legislative requirements to consider at this stage. In the UK for
example the most important legislative requirements covering the design phase is the
Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, Section 6 of which provides that
Persons designing, manufacturing, importing or supplying articles or substances for use at

work must
ensure that they are safe and without risk to health when properly used (e.g. as
advised)
carry out such tests or examinations as may be necessary to ensure that they are
safe and without risks to health when properly used
provide any information necessary to ensure that they are safe and without risk to
health when properly used
when erecting or installing articles for use at work ensure that they are safe and
without risk to health when properly used
The importance of clearly stated assumptions and operating guidelines to ensure proper in
service utilisation will be appreciated.
Other important legislative requirements are found in the referenced material (4.4.1.)
Examples of partially applicable guidelines from the offshore industry are given in (4.4.2)
Site data
Information that will almost certainly be required by the designer includes
detailed analysis of wave climate (including survival sea states)
other relevant weather/climatic information (e-g. wind conditions, incidence of ice
sheets and icing)
geotechnical conditions
risk of lightning
soil conditions (e.g. resistivity, pH)
Continuing needs for information about site conditions may require the installation of
metocean instruments and logging systems for an appropriate time.
425
Air turbine and associated hardware design

Consultation with local electricity utility will be required in respect of
the Distribution and/or Grid Code
any technical or engineering recommendations issued by the local electricity
utility
the local electricity utility Safety Rules
substation layout and design
short circuit fault levels
electrical protection (e.g. fault clearance times, discrimination)
voltage/frequency regulation
Reference to European standards will be required
to ensure compliance with current best practice
to make a comparative assessment of other standards for suitability of use in the
current state
Specific design considerations will be required in respect of
earthing and protection
generator over speed control
manufacturers turbine certification
the need for fire detection/protection
provision of safe working access (e.g. safety harness anchor points, rest platforms,
lighting)
means of escape
isolation of equipment for maintenance (e.g. locking off devices, spragging of
rotating parts)
remote control/operation
guarding of dangerous parts of machinery
controls (e.g. for starting or changing operating conditions, stopping, emergency
stop)
provision of clear and unambiguous markings and warnings
insulation of electrical equipment and cables
The design should take account of health and safety during
erection and construction (e.g. sequence of erection or stability of partially built
structures)
commissioning
normal operation and maintenance
dismantling and demolition
Provision will be required against unauthorised damage/interference/operation
by either humans or animals
to cables (overhead, on sea bottom and buried), insulators, substation and and
machinery
by specifying adequate safety clearance from exposed electrical conductors
by provision of devices such as anti-access fencing.
The design should include the provision of information and instructions
to cover all aspects of normal operation and maintenance
to cover any actions in the case of foreseeable abnormal situations
to take account of any relevant design risk assessments
426
F 2.4.2 Certification of structure, materials, foundation and mooring
Authorities and classification societies have created many rules and guidelines for the
design, analysis and maintenance of fixed and floating marine units. The most rigorous
rules apply to fixed and floating units for the production of oil, which can cause large
damage to the environment or great losses of human lives. However, the level of
structural and marine design safety shouldfor small unmanned wave-power units
rather conform with rules for floating fish farms or offshore wind-power plants, while for
larger units rules similar to those for unmanned fixed or floating offshore platforms may
be more applicable.
Rules and guidelines for smaller marine units
Examples of relevant rules for wave-energy plants are listed in (4.4.3)
Rules and guidelines for larger marine units
Examples of rules relevant for larger wave-energy plants and rules to which the less
complete rules above often refer are listed in 4.4.4.
Load and resistance factor Design (LRFD)
Most modern standards or rules use the Load and Resistance Factor Design method
sometimes also denoted the method of partial coefficients. Below, the application to
moorings of floating fish farms is given as an example. First some definitions must be
provided.
Limit states
ULS Ultimate Limit State
FLS Fatigue Limit State
ALS Progressive or Accidental Limit State
SLS Serviceability Limit State
Load categories
P Permanent loads
L Variable loads (payload, ballast etc.)
D Deformation loads (incl. pretension,

mooring and temperature)
E Environmental loads (wind, waves,

current, tides, wind, storm flood, ice
and snow)
A Accidental loads (fire, collision by

boat, break of mooring line, flooding
of buoyant member, storm flood)
427
Load effects
Motion
Acceleration
Stress
Deformation
The load coefficients and their combinations in the Ultimate Limit State, ULS are given
in Table F-17.
The most unfavourable load Load categories

combination of a) and b)
below should be used
P L D E
Combination of a) 1.3 1.3 1.0 0.7
design loads b) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.3*
* For unmanned floaters, this coefficient can be set

to 1.15.
For permanent loads the coefficient should be set

to 1.0 if this is less favourable. The coefficient
should be the same for the whole structure
Table F-17 Load coefficients and their combinations in the Ultimate Limit State,
ULS, according to DnVs tentative rules for fish farms
In the Accidental Limit State, ALS, all load coefficients are set to 1.0.
Characteristic loads
Environmental loads for ULS and ALS should have a yearly occurrence probability of
0.01 or less.
The example of mooring system design
Loads in mooring lines shall be calculated and documented. The calculations should be
founded on the various load categories and extreme loads as well as the motion
characteristics of the floater. Dynamic analysis is preferred but also quasi-static analysis
can be accepted. Global dynamic effects on the mooring lines should be evaluated.
Ultimate limit state

In Ultimate Limit State the following two inequalities shall be fulfilled
. So + S( f E) < R k / m
10
Equation 9
428
f So + S(0.7E ) < R k / m
Equation 10
where
So pretension in the mooring cable
S(fE) tension in the mooring line due to fE
S(0.7E) tension in the mooring line due to 0.7E
E extreme (characteristic) environmental load
Rk breaking strength of the mooring cable
m 1.5 for chain, 1.3 for steel rope and 3.0 for new synthetic rope
f is set to 1.3 for manned floaters and 1.15 for unmanned and
temporarily manned floaters.
If synthetic ropes are tested with respect to ageing, abrasion, thermal effects and creep,
and the breaking strength is satisfactorily documented on basis of such tests, the material
coefficient can be set to 1.5 for the synthetic ropes.
Fatigue limit state

The FLS shall be evaluated if fatigue failure will have great consequences for the safety
of the device and if dynamic effects due to eddy formation (strumming) are expected.
Accidental limit state

ALS is checked as above but with the following material coefficients
m 1.3 for chain and 1.15 for steel rope and
m 2.5 for new synthetic rope
For unmanned and temporarily manned floaters the check of the ALS can be avoided if
the material coefficient m in ULS is multiplied by 1.5.
Floating platform response analysis

The response of a floating platform in stationary short-term environmental conditions
may be split into three components
9 Mean displacement due to mean environmental loads
10 Low-frequency displacements in the frequency range of the natural periods of the

moored platform
11 Wave-frequency displacements
429
Analysis of tension in mooring cables

Quasi-static analysis is usually appropriate for line response to mean and low-frequency
platform displacements. In such a quasi-static analysis the mooring cable is assumed to
be in static equilibrium at each time instant of the platform motion.
Dynamic analysis must be used for the cable response to wave-frequency platform
motion. The dynamic analysis may be linearised around the offset caused by mean and
low-frequency platform displacements.
The characteristic values of line tension are subsequently produced by adding mean,
slow-frequency and wave-frequency characteristic values according to empirical rules.
Alternatively complete dynamic simulations of platform motion in selected 3 hours

seastates can be performed. For small platforms in high sea-states this may even be
recommendable.
Wave theories
The offshore and fish-farm rules presupposes that the water environment is deep
compared to the wave length and wave height, which is not the case for near-shore or
onshore wave power plants. Methods for calculation of shallow-water waves and loads
from these are, however, addressed in the Danish Energy Agencys recommendations for
technical approval of offshore wind turbines. In Germanischer Lloyds equivalent
regulations it is only pointed out that deep-water and intermediate-depth water theories
are not valid in shallow conditions.
F 2.4.3 Design of mechanical, electrical, instrumentation and telecommunication

systems
The design of mechanical, electrical and instrumentation systems should follow best
practise as well as ISO and CEN standards, when applicable. In addition special
guidelines for marine usage should be followed as listed in F 2.4.4 Guidelines for marine
mechanical electrical, instrumentation and telecommunication systems.
F 2.4.4 Indicative reference guidelines for design, specification manufacture and

assembly phases
General requirements (UK)
Supply of Machinery (Safety) Regulations 1992
Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1992
Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992
Potentially applicable guidelines from offshore industry
Det Norske Veritas: Safety Principles and Arrangement, Offshore Standard,
DNV-OS-A101
Det Norske Veritas: Fire Protection, Offshore Standard, DNV-OS-D301
Det Norske Veritas: Helicopter decks, Offshore Standard, DNV-OS-E401
Det Norske Veritas: Rules for Planning and Execution of Marine Operations
430
Rules and guidelines for smaller marine units

Danish Energy Agency: Recommendations for technical approval of offshore
wind turbines, The Danish Energy Agencys Approval Scheme for Wind
Turbines, Dec. 2001, http://www.vindmoellegodkendelse.dk/UK/News.htm
Germanischer Lloyd: Regulations for the Certification of Offshore Wind Energy
Conversion Systems. Germanischer Lloyd, Hamburg, 1995.
Det Norske Veritas tentative regler for sertifisering av flytende
fiskeoppdrettsanlegg 1988. (Tentative Rules of Det Norske Veritas for Certi-
fication of Floating Fish Farms), December 1988
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures
Rules and guidelines for larger marine units
Det Norske Veritas: Design of Offshore Steel Structures, General (LRFD
method), Offshore Standard DNV-OS-C101, October 2000
Det Norske Veritas: Structural Design of Column Stabilised Units (LRFD
method), Offshore Standard DNV-OS-C103, October 2000
Det Norske Veritas: Position Mooring, Offshore Standard DNV-OS-E301, June
2001
Det Norske Veritas: Metallic Materials, Offshore Standard DNV-OS-B101
Det Norske Veritas: Fabrication and Testing of Offshore Structures, Offshore
Standard, DNV-OS-C401
Det Norske Veritas: Certification of Offshore Mooring Steel Wire Ropes,
Standard for Cerification 2.5
Det Norske Veritas: Certification of Offshore Mooring Chain, Standard for
Cerification 2.6
Det Norske Veritas: Certification of Offshore Mooring Fiber Ropes, Standard for
Certification 2.13
Det Norske Veritas: Classification Note 30.4, Foundations, March 1991
Det Norske Veritas: Classification Note 30.5, Environmental Conditions and
Environmental Loads, March 1991
American Petroleum Institute: Planning, Designing and Construction of Fixed
Offshore PlatformsLoad and Resistant Factor Design, API Recommended
Practice 2A-LFRD, (API RP 2A-LFRD)
American Petroleum Institute: Recommended Practise for Design, Analysis, and
Maintenance of Moorings for Floating Production Systems, API Recommended
Practice 2FP1 (API RP 2FP1 ), First Edition, Feb, 1993.
Sjfartsdirektoratet (Norwegian Maritime Directorate): Forskrift av 10. januar
1994 for flyttbare innretninger med produktionstekniske installasjoner om bord.
(Regulations of 10 January 1994 for Mobile Units with Technical Installations for
Production on board)
Norwegian Maritime Directorate: NMD Guidelines on Positioning Systems for
Mobile Offshore Units, Proposal, 21 August 1986. (Interpretation of Regulations
of 13 January 1986, revised 4 September 1987)
International Maritime Organisation: Guidelines on Standard Calculation
Methods, Safety Factors, etc., for Anchoring Arrangements for Mobile Offshore
Drilling Units According to the MODU Code 1989, IMO, Subcommittee on Ship
Design and Equipment33rd session, Agenda item 17, 26 January 1990.
Health and Safety Executive (UK): Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design,
Construction and Certification
431
Bureau Veritas: Detail Design of Offshore Unit Steel Structures, Recommended

Practice, 1993
Bureau Veritas: Evaluation of Loads on Offshore Units and Installations,
Recommended Practice, 1993
Guidelines for marine mechanical electrical, instrumentation and
telecommunication systems
Det Norske Veritas: Marine and Machinery Systems and Equipment, Offshore
Standard, DNV-OS-D301
Det Norske Veritas: Electrical Installations, Offshore Standard, DNV-OS-D201
Det Norske Veritas: Instrumentation and Telecommunication Systems, Offshore
Standard, DNV-OS-D202
F 2.4.5 Construction, commissioning, dismantling and demolition
those involved with the construction phase of a wave plant. The term Construction
includes commissioning, dismantling and demolition and the term Contractor includes
those persons/organisations undertaking such work.
One way in which those with responsibilities on site can be sure that work is proceeding
safely is to appoint a competent suitably trained person with specific responsibility for
Health and Safety on site who can monitor progress and provide regular updates. Any
such person should hold a position with sufficient seniority to be able to exert influence
over the project when necessary.
In general the preparation of a safety statement for the site, setting out safety policy,
safety organisation chart, responsibilities of management and staff, safety consultation
process and risk assessment for the various activities is a prerequisite for an orderly
approach to this phase of the work.
In the UK the statutory requirements listed in F 2.4.5 References, with equivalents in
other countries, will apply to most construction works
Ensure that
the role of client, designer, planning supervisor and principal contractor are
defined
a safety plan is prepared
any notification is given to the HSE or equivalent authority
a health and safety file is established
adequate resources have been made for Health and Safety
Communication links will be required
between client, designer, planning supervisor, principal contractor and contractors
with Statutory Bodies (in the UK e.g. HSE, Environmental Agency)
with Emergency Services (e.g. Police, Fire Brigade, Ambulance, Coast Guard)
to ensure relevant information is provided to sub-contractors and the self
employed
which take account of foreign organisations and workers
432
In general the preparation of a safety statement for the site, setting out safety policy,
safety organisation chart responsibilities of management and staff, safety consultation
process and risk assessments for the various activities is a prerequisite for an orderly
approach to this phase of the work
Rules to be fulfilled for classification insurance of marine activities are given by e.g. Det
Norske Veritas: Rules for Planning and Execution of Marine Operations, Part 2:
Operation Specific Requirements
Method statements and risk assessment
Significant site specific hazards should be identified so that
Appropriate risk assessments can be carried out
workers can be made aware of the risks
control measures can be put in place
training can be provided
Method Statements should be prepared for all activities in sufficient detail so that
a safe system of work can be established
the principal contractor can develop the health and safety plan
high risk activities can be properly monitored and controlled
Emergency arrangements (e.g. fire precautions)
Procedures should be established for
all reasonably foreseeable emergency situations relevant to the site (to include
escape/evacuation)
safe transportation and storage of hazardous (e.g. Flammable) materials
hazardous activities such as Hot Work
monitoring work areas for good standards of housekeeping
abnormal weather conditions (e.g. extreme cold, floods, lightning, storms .)
Working areas should be provided with
suitable means of escape
portable fire fighting equipment
means to dispose of scrap and waste materials
Ensure that persons working on site
are familiar with emergency arrangements
are trained and know what to do
know who will take charge in emergency situations
Temporary facilities
Provision should be made for
location of temporary structures or floating platforms (e.g. on firm ground,
secured/anchored against high winds, sufficient stability)
safe access to working areas which might include site transport
first aid facilities and trained first aiders
communication links on and off site (e.g. temporary land lines, mobile phones,
radios, aural or visual signals)
safe unloading, storage and laydown of materials
433
preventing unauthorised access to quarrying or borrow pits

adequate and safe installation of temporary services (e.g. electricity, LPG
supplies)
required illumination standards
required screening standards for noise, welding, x-ray, test areas.
Temporary facilities should be
regularly maintained
securely fenced and contained against vandalism or leaks to environment (e.g.
fuel oil)
Welfare arrangements for workers should include
protection against extremes of climate
toilets and washing facilities -messing facilities
storage for personal protective equipment and clothing
changing/drying rooms
Site access
Temporary access roads should be established which
allow safe transition of vehicles from the public highway
are subject to a speed limit
should be marked with warning signs and notices
be constructed to support anticipated loads (e.g. mark soft verges)
identify specific hazards such as steep inclines
provide properly designed and constructed crossings (e.g. at watercourses)
avoid or warn against the presence of overhead/underground services (e.g.
electricity cables)
take account of the risks to pedestrians and boaters from site vehicles
Areas of hard standing should be established
allowing vehicles to be parked off the public highway
which are reinforced and marked
to support crane outriggers without settlement
as laydown or storage areas
Transport on site should be
assessed for suitability to deal with site conditions (e.g. rough terrain, sheltered
harbours)
subject to proper maintenance
driven or operated by suitably trained persons
Temporary fences and barriers may be required to
segregate vehicles from pedestrians and boaters
restrict or control access to members of the public
restrict access to areas containing crops or livestock
indicate rights of way or landowners boundaries
Weather conditions
Procedures should be established to cover
434
stated criteria for halting and securing work under conditions of bad weather,
limiting wave height
effects of high waves and winds (e.g. specify permissible wave heights and wind
speeds governing lifting, deployment and towing operations)
effects on workers of inclement weather (e.g. when working at height or above or
below water)
lack of visibility (e.g .darkness, snow, fog and low cloud)
work on metal structures when there is a risk of lightning
dry weather increasing the risk of heath/moorland fires
Communication
When persons are at work it should be ensured that
contact can be maintained with key personnel (e.g. mobile phones or radios)
procedures are established for persons working alone or in small groups
workers from foreign companies can understand instructions and information
Excavation and cable laying
Before any excavation or cable laying is carried out
a proper assessment is made of local ground conditions
it must be clearly established that no services exist in the locality
As excavations are carried out
the sides should be supported or battered back -they should be kept free of water
they should not be allowed to deteriorate as a result of bad weather
their location should be recorded for as constructed mapping
Existing services/previous land or water usage
Before starting work on site the following actions should be taken
contact all relevant public utilities
identify existing services and mark on drawings
ensure the availability of suitable detection equipment (e.g. cable locators)
ensure the land .is not contaminated from previous dumping or tipping
check that no old mine workings exist
check for previous military use (e.g. unexploded ordnance)
Before and during construction the following practices should be observed
check for buried services before excavation takes place
treat all services as live
expose buried services by appropriate means (e.g. hand dig)
place goalposts to warn of overhead services
Chemicals and substances
A suitable COSHH assessment should be made for
all chemicals and other substances used on site
processes causing dust or fume (e.g. welding)
management of x ray testing sources
Lifting and handling
Before carrying out any manual handling operation ensure
435
compliance with the Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992 or equivalent

a risk assessment is carried out where appropriate
persons are trained and adopt correct manual lifting practices
Before any lifting devices, including cranes, are used on site ensure
valid test certificates exist (including those for slings, lifting chains etc.)
only trained and competent personnel are involved -proper assessments are made
for the work
account is taken of ground conditions and uneven terrain
precautions are taken to avoid contact with site services (e.g. overhead electrical
lines or buried cables)
any restrictions on operations in poor weather conditions are clearly identified
proper care during use of elevated access platforms or man riding platforms
all lifting operations-are properly planned and lifting devices are of adequate
capacity
Information and training
It should be ensured that
persons appointed to work on site possess the necessary level of skills and
competence
site induction training is provided
statutory notices and posters are displayed
employees are able to express their views about heahh and safety
employees are provided with information about health and safety (e.g. tool box
talks)
information is displayed on site specific hazards (e.g. warning notices)
Before and during work on site
endeavour to make a check that persons are competent
make an assessment following any training provided on site
provide any specialist or refresher training considered necessary
ensure details of training are recorded
employers should provide and exchange health and safety information
feed back lessons learned from near miss incidents.
Notification/Records/Registers
The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations require
notification to the HSE
that a health and safety plan is prepared and maintained
that a health and safety file is drawn up
During site work ensure that
all statutory and non-statutory records are maintained
establish who is responsible and where the records will be kept
a daily record is established of all persons at work
Safe systems of work
Permit systems should be considered
for high risk activities (e.g. Excavation, Hot Work, diving)
436
for working on installed equipment when it becomes energised

Procedures should be established
for high risk activities (e.g. working at height)
for equipment to behanded over or energised
to keep all contractors (and their employees) informed of equipment status
to ensure that the work of one contractor does not adversely affect others
for connection of equipment to live services
to control access to equipment that is automatically or remotely controlled
Personal protective equipment
Persons working on site should be provided with personal protective equipment (PPE) to
protect against risks that cannot be controlled by other means
When assessing the requirements for PPE take account of

remoteness of the site and climatic conditions
the need to work on or above water
the need to work outside (e.g. exposure to Ultra Violet light)
Security
Before construction work is allowed to proceed
make provision to prevent unauthorised access to any part of the site
ensure materials are stored without risk to Health and Safety
ensure construction plant is secure against unauthorised operation
establish procedures for control of visitors
Reporting of accidents and dangerous occurrences
To comply with statutory requirements
details of all accidents must be recorded in an accident book
reports under RIDDOR144 or equivalent must be made to the enforcement
authority
Completion of works
Before leaving site
remove all unused materials, plant and equipment
restore all temporary workings to a safe condition
carry out a thorough site inspection
References
UK Statutory requirements
Construction (Head Protection) Regulations 1989
Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1966
Construction (Lifting Operations) Regulations 1961
Other relevant legislation includes
Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (COSHH) 1994
437
Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations

(RIDDOR) 1985
F 2.4.6 Operation and maintenance
those involved in the Operation and Maintenance of wave or tide farms. The Operation
and Maintenance phase covers all aspects of normal routine operation, planned and
breakdown maintenance, inspections and testing.
Persons with responsibilities will include the owner of the farm, the operator (if
different), operation/maintenance crews and contractors.
In the UK the most important legislative requirements, with equivalents in other
countries, for consideration are referenced in F 2.4.6 References
Rules to be fulfilled for insurance classification of marine activities are given by e.g. Det
Norske Veritas: Rules for Planning and Execution of Marine Operations, Part 2:
Operation Specific Requirements
Some basic points to consider in complying with the law are

Is a written Health and Safety policy statement required? If so, is it available?
Who is responsible for Health and Safety on site?
Safe systems of work
In order to establish a Safe System of Work consider
the need to establish permit to work procedures
the need to establish safe working methods and written procedures
any requirements for isolation, locking off or tagging
cross boundary/interface safety (e.g. with Regional Electricity Companies)
how persons are set to work and supervised -access to the workplace (e.g.
scaffolds, installed ladders, lighting)
monitoring and reviewing of requirements
Special controls may be required when
people are working at heights
excavation work takes place
Hot Worka is required
people are working in confined spaces
people are working alone
equipment can be operated remotely
working (including testing) on live electrical equipment
Some general site rules should be established covering aspects such as
speed limits for craft and vehicles
a
Hot Work means: The application of heat (including welding, burning or grinding) on plant containing
flammable materials
438
the wearing of Personal Protective Equipment (e.g. hard hats, boots, lifejackets)
control of access to work areas
working in inclement weather
Method statements and risk assessment
Site specific hazards should be identifieda so that
written assessments can be completed for significant risks
workers can be made aware of risks
control measures can be put in place
needs can be identified
Consider the need for any specialist risk assessment techniques
to cover plant failure (e.g. power unit coming adrift)
where non-workers could be affected (e.g. mariners, landowners, public)
Method Statements covering work on site must be prepared so that
high risk activities can be identified, assessed, controlled and monitored
safe systems of work can be devised
contractors can demonstrate adequate controls and compliance with their legal
responsibilities
Consider special conditions associated with remoteness and climate
the risk of lightning
extremes of waves, currents and winds
extremes of temperature (e.g. ice, snow, risk of exposure)
exposure to Ultra Violet radiation
Emergency arrangements (e.g. Fire Precautions)
Ensure that procedures are established for
all foreseeable emergency situations (to include evacuation and escape)
accident/incident reporting
Working areas should be provided with
suitable means of escape (e.g. motor boats, emergency descent devices)
portable fire fighting equipment
reasonable access to basic first aid equipment
The Emergency Services should be made aware of
the location and access points to site
what they might encounter on arrival
who to contact
Ensure that persons working on site
are familiar with emergency arrangements
are trained and know what to do
a
Refer to the Health and Safety file if the project has been subject to the Construction (Design and
Management) Regulations
439
know who will take charge and who to contact

Make sure that fire risks are minimised by
control of smoking and Hot Work
provision of appropriate fire detection
establishing high standards of housekeeping
control of storage of flammable substances
taking account of dry conditions with increased risks of heath/moorland fires
Site access
Unauthorised access from sea or land should be prevented. Authorised site access roads,
hardstanding areas, quays and wharves should be
adequately maintained
provided with means of restricting access (e.g. gates and fences)
properly identified (e.g. signs, notices, drawings and plans)
Transport on site should be
assessed for suitability to deal with site conditions (e.g. rough terrain)
subject to proper maintenance
driven or operated by suitably trained persons
Special care must be taken
to control access of specialist vehicles to site (e.g. craft, cranes, excavators, access
platforms)
in poor weather conditions
with free roaming animals
when visitors and members of the public are encountered
Adequate provision must be made
to prevent unauthorised access to installed equipment (e.g. transformers,
substations, floating units)
to prevent theft and vandalism
to control or restrict public access
to safeguard landowners
to check the integrity of security measures
Communication
When persons are at work ensure that
they know exactly what they are permitted to do
installed equipment cannot be remotely started
designated persons know when work is taking place on site
procedures are established for Lone Workers
proper levels of supervision are established
workers can be contacted in an emergency
Site services
Due account must be taken of
overhead power lines and suitable safety clearances
440
underground services or services on the sea floor (e.g. gas, electricity, telephone,
water)
the need to inform landowners
the location and depth of underground services and accuracy of installation
drawings
the need to provide detection equipment (e.g. cable location devices)
the owners of the services
Lifting and handling
Before carrying out any manual handling operations ensure that
they are really necessary
they comply with the appropriate regulations (such as UK Manual Handling
Operations Regulations 1992 or equivalent)
they have been properly assessed
any available mechanical aids to lifting and handling are provided
persons are trained and adopt correct manual lifting practices
the work can be safely carried out in the space available
Before any lifting devices, including cranes, are used on site ensure that
valid test certificates exist (including those for slings, lifting chains etc.)
only trained and competent people are involved -proper assessments are made of
the work -account is taken of ground conditions, uneven terrain and wave induced
motion
precautions are taken to avoid contact with site services (e.g. overhead electrical
cables)
any restrictions on operating in poor weather conditions are clearly identified
safe practices are adopted during the use of elevated access platforms or man
riding platforms
all lifting operations are properly planned and lifting devices are of adequate
capacity
Information and training
It should be ensured that
statutory notices and posters are displayed
signs, notices and labels are fixed on items of equipment
induction training is provided appropriate to the site and the activity
workers know and understand any site rules and procedures
workers have an opportunity to discuss health and safety issues
Before and during work on site
establish that workers have the necessary skills and experience
ensure that any specialist or refresher training is provided
make an assessment following any training
record details of information and training
proper maintenance procedures/instructions are issued to workers
workers know of requirements to report accidents
ensure that basic first aid can be provided
Establish procedures for non-workers such as
441
providing information to landowners, fishermen and others (e.g. location of buried

or sea bed cables)
providing information for members of the public (e.g. designated rights of way)
ensure statutory warning notices are in place
Record keeping
Ensure that
a Health and Safety policy statement is written, if required
all relevant statutory records are maintained
the health and safety file is amended (including drawings) following any
modification
written schemes of examination are available for relevant pressure systems
any health records are properly maintained
an accident book is available to workers
Establish appropriate records such as
maintenance/inspection of PPE (e.g. survival suit, safety harnesses)
-testing of fire alarms and drills
-maintenance/inspection of fixed and portable fire fighting equipment
-written risk assessments (e.g. COSHH, Manual Handling)
-training -auditing, monitoring, checks or inspections carried out
-tests on any installed safety feature (e.g. over-speed devices, emergency lighting)
-portable electrical appliance testing
-significant events such as high voltage switching
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Persons working on site should be provided with
PPE to protect against risks that can not be controlled by other means
training in the correct use and any maintenance requirements for PPE
When assessing the needs for PPE take account of
the work process (e.g. Hot Work, work on or above water, work at height,
confined spaces)
COSHH assessments
remoteness of the site and climatic conditions
the need to work outside (e.g. exposure to Ultra Violet light)
Chemicals and substances
A suitable COSHH assessment should be made for
all chemicals and other substances used on site
processes causing dust and fumes (e.g. epoxy based materials, welding, grinding)
Ensure that proper arrangements are made for
correct handling of chemicals/substances
correct storage of chemicals/substances
correct transport arrangements
provision of suitable first aid
containment of spillages
Reporting of accidents/dangerous occurrences
To comply with statutory requirements
442
details of all accidents must be recorded in the accident book

reports under RIDDOR must be made to the enforcement authority (UK)
ensure that reports under Electricity Supply Regulations are made
Ensure that local procedures exist for accident/incident reporting for all workers,
including contractors
Occupational health
Establish procedures which define
any requirements for a pre-employment medical
any legal requirements for health checks
any local minimum standards (e.g. fitness, eyesight, hearing)
proper arrangements for health records (e.g. confidentiality)
Safety equipment
Assess the requirements for safety equipment such as
cable detectors
high voltage measuring devices
portable earthing devices
temporary barriers, screens and notices
isolation devices for installed equipment (e.g. locks, chains, mechanical clamps)
In addition to providing this equipment ensure that
it is recorded on a register
persons are trained and competent in its use
it is properly stored, regularly maintained and tested
Maintenance programmes
Periodic maintenance/inspection/testing procedures should be established for
installed safety devices (e.g. over-speed devices, electrical protection)
safety features (e.g. attachment points for safety harnesses)
installed lighting and emergency back up
electrical earthing and lightning conductors
equipment installed with high integrity (e.g. air turbine blade fixings)
References
Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992
Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1985
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1994
Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1992
Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992
Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992
443
F 2.4.7 Labour safety

Code of safe practice
This code of safe practice is based on utility practise 145 and aims at impressing upon the
staff the dangers involved in work in generating stations and to lay down definite
regulations which if adhered to will minimise danger to human life arising through
accidents.
The regulations contained in this code apply only to work in wave-power plants. They
comply with requirements of the Safety Rules (Electrical) in respect of work in
generating stations, except that where isolation for work or reconnection after work has to
be carried out at a point outside the station, or is requested in connection with work
outside the station such isolation and reconnection must be carried out, as heretofore, in
accordance with the procedure laid down in the Safety Rules (Electrical).(
The owner of the wave-power plant shall regard the safety of personnel as a matter taking
precedence over every other consideration in the execution of work, and confidently
expects the co-operation of those to whom this code has been issued in securing the
application of these regulations, and generally in developing in themselves, and in the
staff in their charge, such a concern for safety as will result in the elimination of accidents
and consequently of the distress and loss resulting from accidents.
Definitions
Generating facility
Actual floating conversion plant and the whole of the area within the boundary fence of
any property or within marking buoyage where generating plant is permanently or
temporarily situated, including H.T. rooms and compounds and excluding only such areas
(if any) as may be expressly defined not to form part of the generating plant
Engineer in charge of the facility

The Plant Manager or other Engineer, or their deputies appointed in charge of the facility.
This person may also be referred to simply as the engineer in charge.
Issue work
To select the persons who are to carry out the work and to give them final instructions
about the work to be done.
Competent person
A person who in the opinion of the person appointing him has sufficient technical
knowledge or experience to carry out safely the duties assigned to him.
Isolate an apparatus
To separate an apparatus from its source or sources of supply at all points through which
it can receive a supply, in such a way that the supply cannot be restored to the apparatus
through these points except by deliberate action.
Source of supply
Any of the sources of supply
444
Low Voltage (LV)

A voltage not normally exceeding 600 V AC between phase and earth or 1000 V between
phases.
A voltage not normally exceeding 900 V DC pole to earth or 1500 V DC between poles.
High Voltage (HV)

A voltage normally exceeding 600 V AC between phase and earth or 1000 V AC between
phases.
A voltage normally exceeding 900 V DC pole to earth or 1500 V DC between poles.
Live
Electrically energised or liable to be energised to a voltage above 50 V AC or 75 V DC
by being joined to or liable to be joined to a system, or by induction from a system.
Discharged
Free from all electrical charge at potential above or below earth in the immediate vicinity.
Earthed
Connected to earth by an adequate size of conductor, the contact resistance of which with
the general mass of earth is sufficiently low for safety.
Contractor
Any firm, corporation, company, organisation or other person or persons contracting to
perform work for the Facility Owner.
Organisation of work
ControllerThe operation of each apparatus forming part of the system must at
any time be under the control of one person, who shall be responsible for knowing
all conditions on the system. The person shall be known as the Controller.
Person in Charge of OperationThe Person in Charge of Operation is the person
who shall be responsible for knowing all the conditions within a generating
facility and for issuing all instructions from whatever source concerning the
operation of apparatus lying wholly within a generating facility, These include
instructions given to him by the Controller.
Except where it may be necessary to take emergency action to prevent danger, no
one may perform any operation with regard to this apparatus or carry out any
work on it without the prior approval of the Person in Charge of Operation.
When a cable or- overhead line lies partly inside and partly outside a generating
facility boundary, the parts within the facility boundary may in some cases be
defined as not forming part of the generating facility. In all cases, however, the
authority of the Person in Charge of Operation must be obtained prior to carrying
out work on parts that are within the generating facility boundary.
For the purpose of these Rules the term Person in Charge of Operation will be
understood to refer also to his appointed deputy of assistant or to any other person
to whom, for the time being, he delegates his authority.
445
Special work which is permitted on isolated apparatus

High-voltage electrical apparatus
Work such as insulator testing, use of voltage detectors, the operation of certain
H.V. apparatus such as disconnecting switches and fuses, may be carried out on
live H.V. apparatus provided insulated equipment specifically supplied for the
purpose is used. Any such insulated equipment which is rated or has been
supplied for a particular voltage must not be used on a higher voltage. The type of
all such equipment must have the prior approval of the Director of Operations
With the exception of above no person shall carry out or attempt to carry out work
on live H.V. apparatus and such H.V. apparatus must be isolated and earthed
before work is commenced.
Work may be carried out in close proximity to live H.V. apparatus provided a
firmly fixed screen or guard (earthed if not of insulating material) is placed
between the persons doing the work and the live part or parts. If the work of
placing the screen necessitates working in close proximity to the live apparatus,
then the live apparatus must be isolated and earthed in accordance with the
provisions of Sections 2.2 and 2.3 until the work of placing the screen is
completed. Such a screen must not be placed nearer to H.V. apparatus which will
be live when the screen is in position than the permanent screening for apparatus
at that voltage in the facility.
Low-voltage electrical apparatus
Work may be carried out on or in close proximity to live L.V. apparatus (excepting live
L.V. overhead lines or underground cables) where the circumstances render it
unreasonable to isolate the apparatus and provided that the person doing the work is a
qualified electrician and has been specifically authorised by the engineer in charge.
Operation of air turbines
Operating InstructionsThere must be displayed, adjacent to each air turbine or
each group of similar air turbines, an instruction sheet drawing attention to any air
safety precautions which must be observed in starting, running and shutting down
the turbine and showing in particular
The normal and minimum permissible time to reach full speed.
The normal and maximum permissible rate of rise of loading.
The maximum continuous and peak rating.
The normal and maximum permissible bearing temperature.
Testing of Safety DevicesThe instructions mentioned in (a) above must also
specify.
The method and frequency of test of the emergency quick closing valve.
The method and frequency of test of the over-speed governor.
The method and frequency of test of the normal speed governor.
The method and frequency of test of lubricating oil level, pressure and
temperature alarms.
The method and frequency of test for water or other impurities in the
lubricating oil.
The method and frequency of test of any other safety devices installed on
the turbine.
446
The steps to be taken in case any of the above devices fail to operate
correctly.
Air receivers
Every high-pressure air receiver must, unless specially exempted, be thoroughly
cleaned and examined at least once in every period of twenty-six months and a
report of the result of this examination entered in or attached to the statutory
register.
Every air receiver must bear an identification number and have marked on it the
safe working pressure.
The safety valve and pressure gauge fitted to every air receiver (or group of air
receivers supplied through a single pipe) must be tested and, if necessary, adjusted
at least once a year
Chlorine installations
An instruction sheet must displayed in the compartment housing chlorination
plant giving
The precautions to be taken in transporting and handling chlorine
containers.
The maximum safe ambient temperature at which the containers may be
stored and the danger of overheating.
The correct procedure for putting containers into service and taking them
out of service including the routine for ensuring that leaks do not develop
during this process.
The steps to be taken in case of a serious leak of chlorine.
A chlorine container, which has a defective valve or a valve that cannot be opened
by hand or by means of a short key must not be put into service but must be
returned to the suppliers for attention.
At least two persons must be present before any work (including opening or
closing gas valves) other than routine inspection of the installation is undertaken.
At least two Saver Sets CN suitable for use with chlorine must be permanently
located convenient to but not in the chlorine compartment, and a notice giving the
location of the sets must be prominently displayed in or immediately outside the
chlorine compartment.
Work involving the use of chlorine Saver Sets must be carried out only under the
immediate supervision of the person who is in charge of facility.
Confined Spaces
Definition and general instructions
Confined spaces are apparatus classed as dangerous and the general instructions in
the Code must apply in respect of isolation, the placing of hold-off tags and the
precautions in regard to discharging, earthing. additional instructions. The manner
in which the specific instructions of this part are carried out must be in accordance
with these general instructions.
For the purpose of this code a confined space means a space where there is any
difficulty of access or egress and where any agent which is liable to cause danger
can accumulate to such an extent as to involve risk to persons inside.
This includes any chamber, tank, vessel, pipe, , duct, penstock, spiral casing,
draught tube.
447
Isolation (person in charge of operation)

Where any air and water pressurised vessel has to be entered, all sources of water must be
isolated as follows
All valves except drain valves must be closed and locked. If the valves are found
to be passing or are otherwise suspect, isolation must be effected by blanking off
or disconnection.
Drains must be opened and the vessel checked that it is depressurised or empty
and that the isolation is effective.
If, for any reason, air or water can reach the vessel through drain piping, the
valves on this piping must be closed and locked. If no valves are provided or: they
are defective or suspect, isolation must be by disconnection or blanking off.
In the case of a vessel which has a blowdown pipe in common with one or more
other vessels and which discharges into a common blowdown tank, the blowdown
valve must be locked in the closed position unless it is so constructed that it can
only be opened by a key which cannot be removed until the valve is closed and is
the only key in use.. Where such a blowdown pipe is used to drain the vessel, the
drainage must be carried out before isolation is completed and hold-off tags
placed at that point.
All pumps which supply the vessel must be taken out of service and isolated, or,
alternatively, isolation must be provided in the form of two closed and locked
valves in series between the pump and. the vessel.
In the case of pressure tests on pressure vessels, all persons should be kept clear
of the associated confined spaces, while pressurising pumps are running.
Water ducts or passages
Where a water culvert or water passage has to be entered,. the valves or gates
closed to prevent admission of water must be locked in that position or their
opening mechanism disconnected. In the case of motorised valves which cannot
be operated manually, removal of fuses on the supply to the motor may be used as
an alternative.
Where dam beams, removable gates, butterfly valves etc. are used for the
purposes of isolation they must be of an approved type and design.
Spaces where dangerous gases may be present
Where a source of gas such as hydrogen, propane, chlorine, methane or carbon dioxide is
connected to a confined space which is to be entered, isolation of the space must include
physical disconnection of the supply pipe, or the insertion of blank flanges, or an equally
effective alternative, in order to prevent a dangerous build up of gas in the space due to
leakage.
Precautions (person in charge of work)
General precautions
Before allowing persons to enter any confined space the isolation already carried out
must be checked to ensure that there is no dangerous leakage into this space. The space
must be drained of water or any other liquid or the level reduced to a safe depth, and the
space must be ventilated, if necessary by forced ventilation, to ensure a sufficient air
supply.
448
Poisonous gases or fumes

Where the space has been occupied by a gas (other than air) or by any substance giving
rise to fumes, the gas or fumes must be removed by ventilation and the atmosphere in the
space tested to verify that it is free from toxic or flammable vapours. The person in
charge of work must be given a gas free certificate signed by a competent person who
must be authorised in writing by the Facility Manager to issue such a certificate.
If there is a possibility of the presence of dangerous fumes during the work the
atmosphere must be continuously monitored by a device which automatically alarms
placed in the confined space and a gas-free certificate issued daily.
Before allowing work to commence which involves the opening up of any vessel, pipe or
other apparatus containing an explosive or poisonous gas, the surrounding space must be
thoroughly ventilated (if necessary- by forced ventilation) and the apparatus vented into
the ventilated space or preferably into the open air for as long as is necessary to remove
all the gas from the apparatus and the surrounding space.
Where a considerable volume of gas has to be disposed of, special instructions must be
issued by the engineer in charge of the facility to suit the particular circumstances.
Corrosive liquid
Where the space has been occupied by a corrosive liquid, the space must be flooded with
water and drained. The space must be gas freed and certified before allowing persons to
enter.
Hazards and work in confined spaces

The main elements of risk from gases or vapours in confined spaces are toxicity, oxygen
deficiency and flammability. If the hazard limit of any one of these is exceeded then the
hazard limits of the other two may also be approached or exceeded. For example a person
wearing breathing apparatus may be protected from the risk of being poisoned or
asphyxiated but he may be exposed to the risk of the atmosphere igniting explosively
The application of paint by spray (or if it is solvent based, by brush or spray)
within a confined space must be controlled by adequate ventilation or by use of
personal protection so that the persons present are not exposed to vapour or
particulate levels in excess of the threshold limit value or 10 % of the lower
explosive limit.
Paints (or cleaning compounds) which are known to be flammable or toxic must
not be used inside a confined space except the special precautions approved by the
Plant Manager are taken to safeguard persons present.
Where welding is carried out adequate ventilation must be provided.
Gas cylinders must not be brought into confined spaces.
Particular care must be taken to route welding hose into confined spaces to ensure
that it is not liable to mechanical damage from any source.
Gas welding torches and hose must be removed from the space when not in actual
use.
Electric welding sets must not be brought into a confined space. Special care
should be taken to ensure the welding equipment is in sound condition. In
particular the return current should be checked for continuity, sound insulation
and good contact at the welding clamp.
449
Work must not be permitted in a confined space until it is sufficiently cool to

allow persons to enter it in safety.
Certain jobs, such as cleaning decaying mussels or seaweed from passages, may
involve exposure to dangerous gases or fumes. Such exposure must be controlled
by conforming to directives issued by Operation Management
The provision of temporary access hoists, scaffolding and lifting gear in confined
spaces must be subject to careful control. Scaffolding and lifting gear must be
examined by a competent person each day it is in use.
Safety helmets must always be worn where any job in a confined space involves
work at different levels which could create risks from falling materials.
Portable or transportable electric tools operating at a voltage exceeding 125 volts
AC or 250 volts DC may not be used in confined spaces unless the rated input
exceeds two kilowatts.
If a tool exceeding two kilowatts in power and 125 V AC is to be used in a confined
space then the following conditions apply
The flexible cable shall have a metallic screen throughout its length. This
screening shall be securely attached to the earth connections.
The circuit shall be protected by earth leakage protection (residual current device,
RCD)
F 2.4.8 Protection of personnel working on and over water
The following text is founded on the standard the Electricity Supply Board of Ireland for
provisions regarding safety precautions, equipment standards146 and training to minimise
the risk of a person failing into water and drowning.
Introduction
A risk exists of persons falling into water and being drowned or injured in workplaces
associated with wave-energy plants. Sites include wave converters, supply boats, floating
or elevated working platforms, jetties, wharves and embankments.
The Standard is applicable to all such locations where personnel operate near the waters
edge or on board boats. The Code of Safe Practice (Chapter 7.1) lays down procedures
that must be adopted when working on or over water. This document compliments the
Code by defining a standard for locations, plant, protective equipment and personnel
training connected with such work.
Protection of the waters edge
Hand railing
Where access requirements and working conditions permit, the edges of wave-energy
units, jetties and wharves shall be protected by a permanent guardrail. Where new
guardrails are being installed, this shall consist of an upper rail at a height of 1 m and an
intermediate rail at 0.5 m. Where access is required, a removable chain should be used
where possible.
Ladders and handholds

Where the design permits, the unguarded edges of wave-energy units, jetties and wharves
shall be provided with access ladders or equivalent at intervals of at least 50 m.
Handholds to provide a means of support in the water shall be located at intermediate
450
positions, so that either a ladder or handhold shall be available at least every 10 m.

Mooring dolphins with unguarded edges shall be provided with access ladders or stairs.
Ladders shall extend to 1 m below the lowest water line and should enable a person who
reaches it to climb from the water to the upper level. Ideally ladders should be located in
a recess. Where this is not possible, they shall be protected from external damage. The
ladder width shall be at least 0.5 m. The ladder top shall not present a tripping hazard.
Handholds (means of support in the water) shall consist of lengths of suitable chain hung
from just below the working surface level and extending down to at least 1 m below the
minimum water level.
Positioning of lifebuoys and lifesaving equipment

Lifebuoys with throwing lines shall be provided on each wave-energy unit and at
intervals of no greater than 100 m along both guarded and unguarded edges of jetties,
wharves and larger units. Lifebuoys shall be fitted with water-activated lights where local
conditions demand.
Equipment suitable for recovering a person from the water shall be provided in quantities
and positions appropriate to the work location.
Warning notices/Markings
A hazard area extending 3 m back from an unguarded edge of a jetty, wharf or larger
wave-energy unit shall be indicated by means of painted yellow cross hatching.
Notices requiring the wearing of lifejackets in these areas shall be erected in suitable
prominent positions.
Lighting
All areas in the vicinity of jetties, wharves and wave-energy units, which are used for
night time operations, shall be suitably and adequately lit.
Illumination shall be as follows

Work areas 20 lux.
Access ways 5 lux.
Lighting of all unguarded edges of jetties, wharves and dams shall be from a secure
supply.
Lighting should be reasonably constant and uniform, minimising sharp contrasts and
should enable colours to be distinguished.
Floating plant
Definition
Floating plant shall be defined as tugs, workboats, launches, barges, safety boats
inflatable craft, rowboats and pontoons.
Suitability for use

All floating plant shall be of sound and suitable construction, and be properly equipped
and maintained for the intended duty.
451
Certification
Following the annual inspection and the completion of any required maintenance, all
floating plant shall be certified by a competent person.
The following particulars shall be listed on the certificate

Description and identification of the vessel/plant.
Numbers of persons that the vessel/plant is fit and suitably equipped to carry,
and/or the duty.
Waters, including restrictions on which the vessel/plant may operate.
Confirmation that the vessel/plant is equipped with adequate life-saving
appliances, and what these comprise.
Date of examination.
Date of certification.
Date of expiry of the certificate.
Name, signature and position/qualification of person carrying out the
examination.
The certificate shall be kept by a responsible person nominated by the Facility Manager.
For vessels over 6 m in length a copy of the certificate shall be posted aboard.
Lifesaving equipment
Lifesaving Equipment shall be in accordance with given Specification. Where required,
the equipment shall be provided with water-activated lights.
Ordinary hazard lifejacket

Suitable for use in work locations where the risk of incapacitation or unconsciousness in
the water is low.
Extra hazard lifejacket

Suitable for use in work locations where the risk of incapacitation or unconsciousness in
the water is significant, or where work practices or safety demand a lifejacket which
places minimum restrictions on the wearer.
Lifebuoys with throwing lines

To be used as first-aid lifesaving equipment to retrieve and support a victim in the water.
Survival suits
To be used for hazardous work in very exposed situations at high waves.
Emergency Personal Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB)
An EPIRB is a walkie-talkie sized device designed to transmit a distress signal to enable
the location of a victims to be determined by an air-sea rescue helicopter.
Activation is achieved by breaking a seal and removing a pin. Once activated, the signal
is picked up by a satellite, relayed to a tracking station and from there to a Marine Rescue
Co-ordination Centre. The signal allows the position of a victim to be pinpointed and also
acts as a homing beacon for the rescue helicopter.
452
Its use should be considered where a significant risk exists of a person falling into the
sea/estuary and of being swept from the scene before rescue can be achieved. Every
precaution shall be taken to avoid accidental activation during training or otherwise.
Rescue facilities
Rescue boats
At exposed locations dependence should be placed on professional rescue agencies
(covered by adequate call-out procedures), and where a particular risk demands, the
provision of a suitably equipped on-site standby contract rescue boat.
Provisions for Rescue at jetties

Generating Facilities that include operating jetties shall install a Regional Radio Scheme
link in their control room to enable direct contact to be made with National Marine
Rescue Co-ordination Centres which are likewise equipped. Notices shall be installed at
every telephone on the jetty and at the Regional Radio Scheme telephone in the control
room.
Courses
Boat handling Course
The following is the course requirement for the training of competent boat operators.
Rowing and basic watermanship.
Use of outboard motor craft.
Use of inboard motor craft.
Loading and unloading of craft
Manoeuvring of craft.
Berthing a craft at piers, floating platforms and at beaches with various depths and
bottom conditions.
Line handling.
Skipper/crew co-ordination
Engine management.
Man-overboard recovery drill.
Safety, emergency procedures and lifesaving equipment.
Immersion course
Immersion courses shall be based on basic survival at sea courses and shall be given only
by approved instructors. The following are the course requirements
Hazard
Hazards specific to the work location (e.g. jetty, , boats, converters).
Lifejackets
Correct wearing of lifejackets.
Care and maintenance of lifejackets.
Correct method of entering water while wearing a lifejacket
Action to be taken by person in water wearing a lifejacket.
Rescuing a person wearing a lifejacket.
Lifebuoys and throwing lines
Correct throwing of a lifebuoy and throwing line, and retrieval of victim.
Action of person in water upon contact with lifebuoy or throwing line.
EPIRBs
453
Correct use.
Consequences of abuse.
Man overboard
Initial action.
How to report incident.
Treatment of victims
Hypothermia.
Resuscitation and first aid.
Handling and treating a victim.
Exercises (swimming pool)
Course participants shall be required to enter the water fully clothed under
instruction and supervision wearing the lifejacket appropriate to the work
location.
A demonstration shall be given of the retrieval of a victim using a
lifebuoy.
The course duration shall be one day.
454
F3 POWER TRANSMISSION FROM WAVE POWER PLANTS
Prepared by: P. Mc Cullen, ESBI
Reviewed by: K. Neilson, G. Lemonis, T. Pontes
F 3.1 Summary
This guideline report addresses the procedures and facilities that typically influence the
transmission of electrical power from offshore and nearshore power plants.
The report commences with a brief technical resume tracing the evolution of high voltage
submarine cable installations over the past half-century. It also discusses some of the
salient features to be borne in mind in relation to cable selection and emphasises that
successful cable installations are necessarily relatively expensive and require careful
attention to detail design. It is not simply a case of laying insulated wire on the seabed!
It is expected that before major wave power installations will be developed, much useful
experience will have been gained from connections to offshore wind farms.
The integrated nature of wave power development is emphasised by the breadth of the
requirements alluded to in the section dealing with permissions and safety issues. Some
of these topics are more fully dealt with under Sections F 1 and F 2.
While the number of standards specifically intended for submarine cable installations
appears limited at present, the key standards and guidelines evolved over many years by
IEC and CIGRE are identified and these are cross-referenced to relevant national
standards.
As an aid to identifying what were perceived to be the key transmission related issues by
the WAVENET members a questionnaire, developed from a similar document utilised by
the offshore wind energy community, was circulated and the results tabulated. It is felt
that its value would be increased it more well informed experts were to respond in the
immediate future.
The cable link to the shore cannot be considered in isolation from the converter system at
one end and the utility network or grid at the other. The standards identified form a basis
for going forward but much input will be required from experienced transmission
engineers and cable manufacturers to effect the most cost effective solutions.
Every acknowledgement is made to the authors and organisations responsible for the
publications listed in the references.
F 3.2 Procedures and facilities for power transmission

F 3.2.1 Introduction
It has to be appreciated that a submarine cable is not simply an overground line that is
insulated and laid under water. Its electrical characteristics differ significantly and there
are many different types of cable. A brief technical introduction is therefore desirable to
455
assist readers who may not be familiar with the issues involved. The discussion focusses
mostly on cables that would be used at transmission voltage levels such as would be
expected to occur at large wave power farms in the longer term. By then experience will
have been gained in the design and operation of cable linked offshore wind farms and
smaller sized installations.
F 3.2.2 Electrical characteristics of cables
In considering briefly the flow of current along a cable, it is perhaps easiest to begin with
the direct current (DC) case. Here the resistance R (measured in ohms) for a length l of
solid cable having a cross sectional area A is given by R = l A . The heating effect
( IR2 ) of the flowing current increases the resistance so temperature correction factors
have to be taken into account. The current that can flow is I = V R I where V is the
voltage available. Clearly as the Ohmic resistance increases the amount of current that
can flow reduces as does the power ( I )( V ). This is reasonably straightforward.
Conditions are much more complex where alternating current (AC) is concerned. Here, in
addition to the ohmic resistance R, there are four other factors brought about by the
continual variation of the magnetic field that occurs as the current alternates in direction.
The current does not spread itself uniformly across the cable cross-section but
concentrates near the skin of the cable thereby adding to the localised heating and
resistance. This is further increased by the proximity of other current carrying cables in
the vicinity. Thus we have
The inductance ( L ), which is a function of the number of strands in the
conductors, its radius and the distance between conductors.
The reactance X , a function of current frequency and cable length
( )0.5
The impedance Z = R + X 2 , which combines resistance and reactance.
The capacitance, which is a function of cable and inter cable geometry and length.
Of these, the losses caused by the capacitance of the cable system are by far the most
important and increase with cable length; a point can be reached where all the current fed
into a cable is absorbed in charging up its capacitance. This is a major reason why the
industry considers high voltage DC cable as the appropriate option when transmission
distances become large despite the high capital cost of the rectifier stations necessary at
each end of the cable.
F 3.2.3 Requirements for long cable lengths laid in deep water
Any cable to be laid on the sea bed should have the characteristics given below, with the
relevant importance of each particular characteristic being dependent on the depth of
water and length of cable route.
The cable must have a high electrical factor of safety as repair operations are
generally expensive and the loss of service before repairs can be completed is
often a serious embarrassment to the project concerned.
The cable should be designed to reduce transmission losses to a minimum, as
submarine cable routes are generally long and the operating power losses are
therefore significant in the overall economics of the system.
The cable should preferably be supplied in the continuous length necessary to
permit a continuous laying operation without the need to insert joints while at sea.
456
Proven designs of flexible joints are available to permit drum lengths of cable to
be jointed together, either during manufacture or prior to loading the continuous
cable length onto the laying vessel.
The cable must withstand, without deterioration, the severe bending under
tension, twisting and coiling, that may occur during the manufacture and
installation programmes.
The cable must also withstand, without deformation, the external water pressure at
the deepest part of the route.
The cable, and where appropriate the terminal equipment, must be designed to
ensure that only a limited length of cable is affected by water ingress if the metal
sheath is damaged when in service.
The armour must be sufficiently robust to resist impact damage and severance of
the cable if fouled by a ships anchor or fishing gear.
For deep-water installations, the cable must be reasonably torque balanced to
avoid uncontrolled twisting as it is lowered to the seabed.
The weight of the cable in water must be sufficient to inhibit movement on the sea
bed under the influence of tidal currents or wave action. Movement would result
in abrasion and fatigue damage to the cable.
The cable must be adequately protected from all corrosion hazards.
All cable components must have adequate flexural fatigue life.
All paper insulated and some polymeric insulated cables are required to be
watertight along their complete lengths. Water ingress impairs the electric
strength of these cables.
F 3.2.4 Evolution of major submarine cables
Table 2.3.1 (Ref. 3) shows the evolution of major submarine cable installations over the
past half-century. The capacity to design, manufacture and install these cables was based
on experience with smaller lower powered installations and with developments on shore
and in other industries.
457
Date Location Voltage Current Type Max Largest

kV Depth
(m) Length
km
1956 Mainland 138 a.c gasfilled 183 25.3

Vancouver I.
1965 UK- France 100 d.c solid 58 24
1965 Sardinia 200 d.c solid 450 104

Corsica
1965 Cook Strait 250 d.c gasfilled 245 40

(NZ)
1969 Mainland 300 d.c solid 170 26

Vancouver I.
1973 Denmark 420 a.c olfilled 37 7.3

Sweden
1976 Denmark 250 d.c solid 550 127

Norway
1976 Mainland 300 d.c oilfilled 170 36

Vancouver I.
1977 Venezuela 115 a.c oilfilled 30 25

Margarita I.
1978 Tsugaru 250 d.c oilfilled 300 45

Strait (Japan)
1981 Lamma 275 a.c oilfilled 45 3.2

(Hong Kong)
1983 Sweden 150 d.c solid 160 90

Gotland
1984 Mainland 525 ac oilfilled 400 30

Vancouver I.
1985 U.KFrance 270 d.c solid 60 45
1985 Jersey 90 a.c 3core OF 25 27.5

France
1985 Marcote- 150 a.c xlpe/cond 68 2.3

Brusino uit
1986 Lamma 275 a.c oilfilled 45 2

(Hong Kong)
458
1986 Pulau 132 a.c oilfilled 20 26

Langkawi
1986 Sweden 400 a.c solid 117 200

Finland
1989 Hawaii- 300 d.c oilfilled 2000 61

Maui
1999 Gotland 80 d.c - - 70
2000 Queensland 80 d.c - - 59
2002 Conn. 150 d.c - - 45
L. Island
2002 Australia 150 - - 100
2000 Scotland 250 d.c concentric 165 55

Ireland
Table F-18 Evolution of Major Submarine Cables (1) (11)
F 3.2.5 Suspended cables
A major constraint is the voltage limitation on submarine flexible cables. This is of the
order of 20 kV(9) using rubber or polymer insulation. The conventional oil impregnated
cables are extremely inflexible. Thus the logic of conventional seabed submarine cable
leading to a junction point from which the lighter flexible riser cable leads to the
individual converters arises.
As the power level of the individual converters is likely to remain within the carrying
capacity of available flexible cables this is a less significant constraint than that of
ensuring that the fatigue limits of the cables are not threatened at the point of connection
to the wave power converter. The offshore oil and gas industry has not operated to date at
voltages above 13.8 kV.
F 3.2.6 Non cable power transmission
Options, other than electrical transmission, that received early consideration (Ref. 9) for
transfer of wave power to shore include
Hydraulic pipeline using water or oil as the working medium
Compressed air pipeline
Hydrogen pipeline
Compressed fluids are only suitable for small-scale demonstration projects.
Based on consideration of the usual formula (h=flv2/2gd) for loss of head in a pipe, it is
seen that energy losses are proportional to the length of pipe, the square of the flow
velocity and inversely proportional to the diameter and would increase with pipe fouling,
if this occurred. Thus the system is inefficient for significant power movement and is
459
only viable when carrying an added value product such as desalinated water(as in the Mc
Cabe Wave pump and similar systems) for limited lengths.
A compressed air pipeline suffers from the heat loss caused by the compression process
and the cooling effect of the water surrounding the pipe and consequent condensation of
water in the pipe.
Hydrogen generation from seawater has been discussed at length for the past 30years
without much demonstrated success.
It also involves significant losses in efficiency at the generation, clean up, transportation
and reconversion stages and it has been suggested that it would be more cost effective (9)
to transmit the electricity ashore and produce hydrogen there rather than generate on the
wave converter and pipe ashore. The longer-term merits of these hydrogen based systems
may centre around energy storage and output smoothing but at high capital cost.
F 3.3 Existing standards for underwater cabling

It appears that no single comprehensive internationally accepted standard for the design,
manufacture, installation and testing of submarine cables exists at present. There are
however numerous specialised documents produced under the auspices of CIGRE (in
particular Refs. (5) (6) and IEC that address specific aspects of this broad field and these
form the basis for technical standards common to manufacturers, utilities, developers and
accepted by Regulators.
F 3.3.1 IEC standards
The most universal standardising authority for cables is the International

Electromechanical Commission (IEC) 10. These standards reflect a broad consensus and
served as a basis for production of national standards in the past. Within each standard
may be many parts dealing with specific sub headings. A tabulation of the main headings
is given below, some of which may be applicable to onshore or submarine elements of
the wave power converter link respectively. Equivalent national standards where known
are given in Appendix 13.
460
IEC Ref. Description
60027 Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology
60038 IEC Standard Voltages
60055 Paper insulated metal sheathed cables (voltages up to 18/30 kV) (Pts 1-
2)
60060 High voltage test techniques (Pts 1-4)
60092 Electrical installations in ships (Pts 1-2, Sub parts 56)
60071 Insulation co-ordination (Pts 1-3)
60141 Tests on oil filled and gas pressure cable and their accessories
60173 Colours of the cores of flexible cables and cores
60183 Guide to selection of high voltage cables (Pts 1-3, Subparts 10)
60227 PVC insulated cables of rated voltages up to and including 450/700V

(Pts1-7)
60228A Conductors of insulted cables: Dimensional limits: circular
60229 Tests on cable oversheaths which have a special protective function

and are applied by extrusion
60230 Impulse tests on cables and their accessories
60245 Rubber insulated cables of rated voltages up to including

450/700V(Pts1-8)
60270 H.V. Test Techniques Partial discharge measurements
60287 Calculation of continuous current rating of cables (Pts. 1-3)
60304 Standard colours for PVC insulation for low frequency cables + wires
60331 Fire resisting characteristics of electric cables
60391 Markings of insulated conductors
60446 Identification of insulated and bare conductors by colour
60502 Extruded solid dielectric insulated power cables for rated voltages
1 kV-30 kV
(Pts 1-4)
60538 Electric cables wires and cords: Methods of test for polyethylene
insulation and sheath
461
insulation and sheath
60540 Test methods for insulation and sheaths of electric cables and cords
60702 Mineral insulated cables and terminations rated voltage <750v (Pts 1-3)
60740 Short Circuit temperature limits of electric cables with a rated voltage
not exceeding 06/1.0 kV
60754 Tests on gases evolving during combustion of electric cables (Pts. 1-2)
60811 Common test methods for insulating and sheathing materials of electric
cables
60815 Selection of Insulators for Polluted conditions
60840 Tests for power cables with extruded insulation for rated voltages
above 30 kV up to 150 kV
Table F-19 Relevant IEC Standards
F 3.3.2 Cable elements
Some of the issues that require attention in the cable selection and design process are
considered in the following section.
Cables are usually classified as follows
Voltage kV Classification
Up to 1 Low Tension (LT)
1-11 High Tension (HT)
22-33 Supertension (ST)
33-66 Extra High Tension (EHT)
133+ Extra Super Tension (EST)
Table F-20 Cable classifications
Under electrical loading, the materials used in cable systems interact with each other in
several ways. In general, the type of cable to be used will depend on the working voltage
and service conditions to be used will depend on the working voltage and service
conditions to be encountered and may be expected to meet the following requirements.
The conductor size must enable the cable to carry the desired load current without
overheating and maintain voltage drop within desired limits
The conductor itself should preferably be tinned stranded copper (or possibly
aluminium) of high conductivity. Stranding assists cable flexibility and carriage of
462
current as the latter distributes itself more uniformly across the cable cross-section
than with a solid conductor.
The cable requires a proper thickness of insulation to meet its design voltage with
the necessary degree of safety and reliability
The insulation must be lead sheathed to prevent the ingress of water and the
sheathing in turn must be protected by mechanical armouring to withstand rough
treatment particularly during laying.
These materials must be such that there is complete chemical and physical
stability throughout during and between operational periods.
Each of these elements is further discussed below
F 3.3.3 Conductors
The basic form of insulated three core stranded conductor is used to carry three phase
A.C in the voltage range up to 150 kV. Above this range the cable becomes too unwieldy
and three separate single core cables, set a particular distance apart, become necessary.
Copper is generally preferred to aluminium for submarine cables as it permits use of a

higher current density and a corresponding reduction in overall diameter. It is also more
resistant to corrosion in the event of cable damage.
With a.c circuits the use of twin 3 core cables up to and including voltage levels of
150 kV is preferred to single core cables, if the required rating can be met. For higher
voltages the installation of four well-spaced single core cables provides one cable as
reserve against damage but at corresponding higher cost. This wide spacing adds further
to the cost as non-magnetic (stainless steel) armour, together with an outer concentric
conductor may be required to reduce sheath losses to tolerable levels. The use of reserve
cables reflects utility practice and public service obligations. This level of redundancy
may not be affordable in wave power installations, particularly where early small projects
are concerned.
At the other end of the scale where bulk transfer of large quantities of power over long
distances is concerned the use of DC systems becomes attractive despite the high capital
cost of the necessary converter stations at both ends of the DC link. Where single core
cables are used it is possible to consider a single pole cable with sea return or, more
commonly, two cables each carrying half the circuit power (The single pole cable creates
a magnetic field that causes compass errors for adjacent shipping and may be
unacceptable to marine authorities). The loss of a single cable through damage would
shut down a wavefarm served by a single DC cable while a twin cable installation would
be able to maintain half power output. If a scheme justifies the use of high voltage DC
transmission at all it is likely to be of a scale where three single core cables provides full
capacity even if one cable is lost through damage.
F 3.3.4 Insulation (oil, gas filled, polymeric)
The success of a cable depends significantly on the performance of the insulation and the
following properties are necessary
High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current
High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of cable
High mechanical strength to withstand handling stresses.
463
Non water absorbing to maintain integrity in event of sheath damage

Relatively low cost
Alkali and acid resistant
The most common forms of insulation are vulcanised rubber, impregnated paper and
polyvinyl chloride, each of which meets the above criteria at acceptable levels providing
certain precautions are taken (e.g. vulcanised rubber requires use of tinned copper,
impregnated paper must be sheathed and the number of joints minimised, PVC may be
less satisfactory than vulcanised rubber under conditions of mechanical fatigue).
Three types of cable may be commonly used for 3-phase service.

Belted Cables (up to 11 kV) (solid)
Screened Cables (22 kV-66 kV) (solid)
Pressure Cables (766 kV) (non solid)
F 3.3.5 Belted cables
These have each of their three (120) wedge-shaped multi-strand cores insulated from
each other by impregnated paper layers. These are grouped to form a circular cross
section which is in turn wound with impregnated paper tape belting which is then covered
in sequence by the waterproof lead sheath, protective impregnated jute or polyethylene
layer, armouring, and external impregnated jute serving layer.
When the voltage levels rise above 22 kV, the tangential electrostatic stress acting along
the insulation layers becomes more important than the radial stress acting across these
layers. The tangential insulation resistance of the paper is quite small and leakage
currents are set up leading to local heating and potential insulation breakdown.
F 3.3.6 Screened cables
To counter this, perforated metallic mesh or foil is wrapped around the paper insulation
on each core. This in turn is in contact with an outer mesh conducting belt surrounding
the three insulated conductors but in contact with the lead sheath and earthed. This
eliminates the tangential electrostatic stress and forms the H type screened cable. A
variation is the SC (separate lead) type where the screen around each core has its own
smaller diameter lead sheath. These are wrapped in cotton tape, armouring and serving as
before and produce a more flexible but difficult to manufacture cable.
The voltage limit of 66 kV for solid cables as above occurs because of the operational
heating and cooling effects that may damage the lead sheath through expansion, form
voids in the insulation and draw moisture through pinholes in the sheath. The electrical
breakdown strength of the voids is less than that of the intact insulation and gradual
breakdown may occur.
F 3.3.7 Pressure cables
Two types of pressure cable (oil filled and gas) are used to pressurise the insulation
within the sheath and prevent the formation of voids. The oil channel may be a single
porous central duct upon which the conductor strands are wound, multiple channels in the
lead sheath or ducts between the conductors. All are fed under positive pressure from the
ends of the cable.
464
They have the benefits, at a price, of reducing void formation, providing cooling and
identifying if damage has been caused to the lead sheath.
External marine pressure has the potential to act in a positive way to reduce the potential
void formation in cable insulation but also predisposes toward water entry should a
pinhole occur in the sheathing.
For AC cables the insulation thickness is similar to that for land cables and is a function
of the lightning impulse test requirement.
Direct Current cables are expected to comply with the requirements of CIGRE
Recommendations for tests for power transmission DC cables for a rated voltage up to
600 kV.
Solid type paper insulated cables have been used for AC installations up to 34.5 kV AC
and 400 kV DC
Gas pressure cables evolved on the basis that radial pressure could (as in the case of oil
filled cables) counter the formation of voids. In addition the imposition of high pressure
reduces the potential for ionisation in gas filled voids in the insulation to occur at a given
voltage. Inert nitrogen at 12-15 bar is used to pressurise a steel pipe within which the
cable is laid in trefoil formation within a lead sheath of similar cross section which forms
the pressure boundary for the insulation and transfers radial compression into the
insulation layers. The gas also acts as a heat transfer medium and allows higher power
levels than otherwise to be reached. Overall cost is very high.
F 3.3.8 Anti corrosion sheathing
While lead alloy sheathing is the preferred means of protecting the cable insulation, it is
itself protected by an extruded polyethylene anti corrosion sheathing from damage during
laying or bed movement and from marine boring worms such as teredo which are present
in European waters of even moderate temperatures. Where the lead alloy sheathing is
protected by anti burst tapes they are also enclosed within the anti corrosion sheathing
F 3.3.9 Armour and torque balance
Submarine cables are armoured to withstand the highest tensile load likely to be met
during laying and also the residual tension left after laying, in addition to providing
protection against snagging by anchors or fishing gear.
While galvanised steel wire may meet the mechanical and corrosion resistance
requirements its use on single core cables may cause unacceptable loss of current rating
and a more expensive nonmagnetic stainless steel may be required.
Cheaper aluminium alloy armour wire may be acceptable in seas of low salinity or for
short term shallow water duties where the likely chemical and electrolytic corrosion rates
may be acceptable.
When the armoured cable is being laid, much of the tensile load arising in the cable is
taken by the helically wound armour wires. This tends to twist the cable so as to unravel
these wires. This torque is concentrated in the suspended length between the laying vessel
and the seabed and can lead to kinking and knotting of even large diameter cables. It can
465
be neutralised by applying metal antitwist tapes wound in the opposite direction to the
armouring to produce a counter torque beneath the armouring.
This provides torque balance and a general strengthening of single armoured cable
without the use of double armouring, which makes the cable more difficult to coil and
handle.
F 3.3.10 Joints
Most existing major submarine cables contain one or more flexible joints and cable
manufacturers have developed their own techniques for jointing all types of cable used in
submarine conditions.
Typically jointing involves exposing a length of conductor at each cable end to be joined.
The conductor screen is removed over most of the exposed conductor length and the
insulation is pared back like the point of a pencil where the pencil lead resembles the
conductor. The newly exposed conductors are jointed and new conductor screen is lapped
with the existing screen stubs to surround the conductor. Next hand wound paper tape
insulation is applied over the joined conductor screen and the cone shaped pencil ends
of existing insulation to rebuild the cylindrical shape of the cable insulation. A hand-
applied screen encases this and the new lead sheathing is soldered and burned in to mate
with the existing of the cable ends. The length of the jointed sheathing is over-sheathed
and the armouring is extended an appropriate length beyond the joint to ensure that it
bonds with the armouring of the parent cables.
The whole is then wound with protective serving. It will be appreciated that jointing is a
skilled and expensive task that must be carried out under controlled conditions if it is not
itself to be the source of future faults.
Joints are also expected to meet the mechanical test requirements of CIGRE Committee
21-06. (Ref. 6).
F 3.3.11 Flexible cables
The flexible or suspended cables connecting the individual wave power converter to the
junction point with the fixed seabed cable (whether located on the seabed or above it)
represent a special case. They can be subject to demanding tensile, bending, torsional and
fatigue loads. Depending on the relative masses of suspended cable and moored converter
and on the point and method of attachment, the cable inertia and damping effects may
need to be taken into account in considering the motions of the converter. Flexure and
abrasion of the cable must be minimised. This is achieved by subsurface midwater
buoyancy which is used to provide intermediate support for the cable and enable it to ride
out the converter motions.
A variety of potentially suitable industrial cables have been developed by manufacturers

and an example used for submerged work in the mining industry is the Protolan (ST)
range of medium voltage flexible cables (Pirelli). These are intended for continuous use
in water supplying dredgers, pumps and similar installations. Typical characteristics
quoted by the manufacturers (12) are given below.
466
Cable: Protolon (ST) Range (Pirelli)
Standards: DIN VDE 0250, Part 813.x, MSHA P-189-4
Application: Where high mechanical stresses are to be expected in fresh, salt or

brackish water at depths not exceeding 500 m
Rated Voltage Range (AC): Uo/U from 1.8/3kV to 18/30kV
Uo = rms voltage between one conductor and earth
U = rms voltage between two conductors
Current Capacity Range (AC) 131488 Amp
Power Range MW: 0.258.3
Conductor Cross Section Range 0.5300

(mm2)
Max. dia. single wires 0.210.41
Range (mm)
Conductor Type: DIN Vde 0295: Class F
Area < 10 mm2 Bunched, Area > 16 mm2 Stranded
Lay Type: Opposite lay where stranded
Lay Length: 10x diameter of conductor assembly
Conductor Material: Tinned copper
Insulating Compound: EPR (Ethylene Propylene Rubber)
Sheathing (inner): SR (Synthetic Rubber)
Sheathing (outer): CM (Chlorated Polyethylene)
Interstices: SR
Max. Permissible Tensile Range (kN) : 1.18.3

Load
Suspension Length: Not to exceed above tensile load.
Permitted Torsional Strain 100

(o/m length)
Minimum Bending Radii (R) Fixed 90o installation R = 6Xd
467
Fully flexible U R = 10xd
Entry at feedpoint R = 10xd
Forced guidance (sheaves) R = 15xd
Forced guidance (reel) R = 12xd
Drawing via roller stirrup R = 8xd
Wt.kg/km range: 248015780
Cable Diameter Range (mm): 42102
Table F-21 Typical Medium Voltage Flexible Industrial Cable Characteristics
Note: Reductions in ratings apply under various circumstances
F 3.3.12 Submarine cable installation
The installation process will have been preceded by the feasibility study and route
selection survey (including echo sounding, side scan sonar, sub bottom profiling and
geotechnical testing). As noted earlier data from these investigations will be usually be
summarised in the environmental impact statement justifying the route chosen and the
impacts and corresponding control measures that are planned to be associated with the
installation process.
Preliminary work will be based on the use of Admiralty charts and other documents,
initial cable design based on the operational requirements and the consequential duties
imposed on cable handling equipment and laying vessel or barge. The planning will
include for landfall site work, provision of moorings termination of cable at wave
converter end , testing, maintenance and repair techniques. A comprehensive record of
weather, tidal current and wave climate is compiled to identify safe and acceptable
operational windows. The bed along the chosen route can be inspected visually by ROV
(Remote Operating Vehicle). It is particularly necessary to decide on the method of
traversing rocky foreshore where the cables will be difficult to bury, but also subject to
fatigue or abrasion from currents, wave action and boulder movement.
The method selected for installation may some times involve a jack up barge where
winching out from land is involved over an initial shallow rocky length of the route but
otherwise may vary between a simple stern trawler modified to take cable drums for a
short installation to full scale specialised cable laying vessels (not usually those engaged
in lighter telecommunication cable laying).
In general the vessel should be as small as is compatible with meeting the diverse
requirements of
Storage capacity for coils, drums or turntable
Minimum operating draught
Deck space and power for cable handling equipment
Adequate low speed manoeuvrability and multiple anchor capacity
Adequate facilities for personnel
Full compliance with maritime safety and insurance criteria
468
Dynamic positioning capacity may be required.

Cable handling equipment includes storage system, cable transfer, tension measuring and
control and low or stern gear. For short lengths and single armoured cable drum storage
(as delivered from factory) is sufficient but for double armoured cable where the
armouring has been wound on in opposite directions, a turntable will be required. This in
turn demands a control and braking system to match the speed of rotation to speed of
vessel travel; the braking system governs the tension in the cable being laid, without
causing damage, so as to achieve an acceptable residual tension in the cable as laid.
Vessel position and water depth are traced and plotted simultaneously.
At the surf zone end the cable is laid in a prepared duct or trench. Where the rock cannot
be trenched, dredged or blasted the use of cast iron or concrete cable protectors must be
resorted to.
The cable-laying vessel commences operations from prepared moorings near the
shoreline and works to seaward at perhaps 2-4 knots. Prepared moorings also required at
the wave converter end. If the cable is to be laid in trenching as a safeguard against
damage by fishing vessels or ships anchors this may be cut by trenching or jetting where
the sediments are relatively soft, rock is more difficult although remote controlled
machines for seabed operation have been developed to trench ahead of the cable laying
vessel.
The general concept of cable connection at the wave farm end is that the main
transmission cable to shore should commence from a fixed point to which cables from
individual converters or groups are routed. The lighter cables from the individual moving
converters face the most challenging fatigue conditions and it is envisaged that they
should take the form of flotation saddle supported risers and catenaries as used on the
Kaimei and other installations.
Oil filled paper insulated cables are suitable for use up to the highest voltages and have
the advantage of requiring the smallest insulation thickness for a given voltage and may
permit the use of a 3 core cable where three single core cables would otherwise be
required.
F 3.4 Cost analysis

It will be appreciated that the cost implications of cabling are highly dependent on the
length and voltage requirements of the cable, the nature of the seabed and marine
conditions likely to be encountered during cable installation and subsequent lifetime, the
regulatory conditions imposed by the authorities, and perhaps the timing of the
installation. Again offshore wind farm development is perhaps likely to provide a better
guide than where utilities have laid cables as part of main network or grid development.
During the recent Opti-OWECS study (4) for offshore wind farm development,
relationships were developed for grid connection costs between the number and size of
turbines and distance from shore. (This study worked from the previously established
premise that for economy of scale an offshore wind farm should be sized in the range 60-
300 MW).
These costs were for AC technology and it was recognised that for distance greater than
50-70km this would be less economic that DC technology for the scale of project
469
considered. Variation of the spacing between machines in the farm was not considered to
have a significant influence on overall cost. The grid connection costs were estimated
using the simplifying assumption that the cable could be connected to the grid at the
nearest shore line without recognition of the onshore equipment cost in getting to the
nearest suitable point on the grid. Thus they understate the likely real costs but are a very
useful indicator for very large developments none the less. The graphs show costs of
Euro1.2x106 per km for the 150 MW farm and Euro1.67x106 per km for the 400 MW
farm in Northern Europe.
Table F-22 Cable costs as a function of distance to shore
F 3.5 Permissions and safety precautions required

Depending on the structure of the electrical industry in each member state it is likely that
each of the following will have some role in the primary permission process for cable
installation.
Electricity Regulator
Onshore Utility or Transmission System Operator.
Marine Licencing Authorities
Onshore Planning Authorities
and that all such permissions will be contingent upon compliance with specified safety
precautions governing design, installation and operation of the submarine cable system.
These are touched upon in Task 2.2. In some circumstances, particularly if the installation
lies in the multi megawatt range, the utility or transmission system operator may wish to
undertake a major role in the provision of the cable on the basis that if the link should
form a significant or vulnerable part of the organisations own infrastructure at some
future time it would wish to avoid the use of equipment or methods that were
incompatible with its own standard systems, particularly where service and repair might
be required. In other circumstances the reverse might be true. Some wind farm developers
have of course argued that such high cost infrastructural elements should be the
responsibility of the utilities and ultimately it comes down to EU and Government
competition policy in each member state.
In terms of permissions required by the onshore planning authorities and the marine
authorities the position varies somewhat from country to country. While there will be
liasion and information exchange during the licencing processes each authority will have
specific responsibilities. Common ground may often be found in the requirement for the
470
developer to submit an environmental impact statement in line with EU criteria

depending on the overall value of the project.
Where coastal zone management plans, heritage, habitat and other similar designations
exist in the area of landfall, the EIS will have to be framed with these in mind and a
number of alternatives may have to be considered to justify the nominated landfall site.
The section of underground or overground line on land (including the line/cable interface
station which may in some cases be the metering point with the utility) will have to
comply with the applicable onshore planning criteria.
In extreme cases this may result in pressure to place this facility underground with
resultant additional costs. It is expected that, by the time these considerations have to be
faced by wave power projects in a serious way, useful precedents will have been created
by offshore wind farm developments.
The incorporation of the results of seabed geophysical survey and other geotechnical tests
and oceanographic studies into the environmental impact study together with the details
of onshore existing and planned infrastructure and cost implications provide a justifiable
basis for the selection of the landfall point.
In terms of the seabed cable itself there may be circumstances where this will be regarded
as an integral part of the wave power production station and licenced accordingly while
in other cases particularly if the line is of significant length, it will be regarded as a
facility in its own right, requiring route selection studies and licenced with particular
regard for the established rights of others. Because of the potential extent of the work
involved (3) it is often advantageous to scope and schedule it to be carried out during the
EIS study for the production station itself. A separate Foreshore Exploration Licence may
be required defining the area within which the route selection studies may be carried out.
During construction additional special permits may be required for trenching

methodology, dredged material disposal, seasonality of work, use of explosive etc. Key
concerns frequently relate to interference with shellfish, spawning beds, bird habitats or
marine archaeology.
The Foreshore Licence, currently governing work within 19.5km distance of the coast (in
Ireland), will have provided for information exchange and agreed operations procedures
relating to
Local Authorities on shore
Fishery Interests
Marine Safety, Vessel Survey
Navigation (Lighthouses, beacons, commercial shipping)
Naval and Coastguard requirements
Heritage and Marine Archaeology
Other seabed users (Communications Power Cables and Pipelines)
Nearby Port Authorities
Notices to Mariners
Reporting of specified information to Regulatory Agencies
Leisure Users
Other on Governmental Organisations and Interest Groups
471
Most developers would wish to deal with the minimum number of official bodies
necessary to ensure an orderly and efficient process.
F 3.5.1 Conclusions(s)
Where the issues of Permissions and Safety Precautions are concerned it is concluded that
the position is reasonably clear and established. There may be some danger of regulatory
over kill in these areas where attempts are made to introduce regulations derived from
the offshore oil industry or other areas including some environmental aspects that are not
relevant to low profile unmanned wave power projects.
F 3.6 Ranking of key issues from questionnaire

In responding to the questionnaire (Appendix 12) the members faced the challenge of
dealing with two scenarios (1) the likely early stages of wave farm development where
experience and credibility has to be earned with systems that function at Distribution
power levels and (2) the longer term where Transmission level systems are envisaged
with relatively long distances and high power levels. Fortunately a bridge between the
two is provided by the development of offshore wind farms which are already reaching a
Transmission level scale and where the experience gained is of great value to potential
wave power development.
The response to the questionnaire came from a relatively small number of members and it
would be unfair to claim it as being fully representative. Nevertheless, some broad trends
can be gauged and it is for others to challenge these if they so wish at the review stage.
As noted in the questionnaire Grid and Distribution Codes exist which lay down the
conditions for connection to the utility networks. These are also discussed under Task
2.1. In general as they are rather legalistic and technical and as they have been developed
with conventional dispatchable thermal generating plant in mind, they are not necessarily
user friendly where wave power development is concerned.
F 3.6.1 Critical issues
Reviewing the ranking in the questionnaire the following were noted as critical matters
whose resolution was recognised as being
Important in the short term
Difficult to achieve with existing technology
Of significant impact on the large scale development of offshore wave energy
472
Ref. Item
1.3.1 Voltage level at the point of common coupling
2.1.1 General limitation on rapid voltage change at point of common coupling
2.1.2 Limit of voltage change of 10 items/hours
2.1.3 Limit of voltage change of 100 times/hour
2.2.3 10 min, average flicker emission level
2.2.4 2 hour average flicker emission level
2.4 Harmonic Distortion Limits as laid down
3.5.1 Technical requirements imposed by national grid codes for connection of

wave power plants.
3.5.4 Suitability of imposed requirements for non-predictable highly variable

energy source
4.1.1.1 Under Voltage relay setting
4.1.1.3 Over Voltage relay setting
4.2.1 Minimum Frequency relay setting
4.2.1.1 Under Frequency relay setting
4.2.1.2 Over Frequency relay setting
4.3.1 Time lag for Wave Power Plant contactor cut out
Table F-23 Issues noted as critical

Conclusion
Based on the above, the most critical areas for attention in the transmission of power
from wave plants relate to
Voltage level and fluctuation
Flicker emission levels
Harmonic Distortion limits
Technical requirements imposed by National Grid Codes for connection of
variable energy sources such as wave power plants.
Frequency limits
F 3.6.2 Important issues
Matters noted as important were
473
Ref. Item
1.1.1 Size limitations
1.1.2 Maximum Power Production
1.1.4 Inrush current factor
1.2.1 Participation in grid voltage control by active power
1.3.3 Special Wave Power Plant standards for voltage, data exchange
1.3.3.1 Special Wave Power Plant standards for voltage, data exchange onshore
plants
1.3.3.2 Special Wave Power Plant standards for voltage, data exchange near
shore plants
1.3.3.3 Special Wave Power Plant Standards for Voltage, data exchange offshore
plants
1.3.4 Rules for data exchange
2.6.1 Impact of power cable on power quality
3.1.1. Maximum feasible cable length to shore
3.1.2 Maximum active power level per single cable
3.1.4 Maturity of AC/DC technology
3.2.1 Reliability of state of the art electrical equipment offshore
3.2.2. Maintenance level required to guarantee reliability
3.2.3 Necessity or otherwise of redundant cables
3.2.4 Need for innovative new systems for grid connection
3.3.1 Minimal standards required for grid connection
3.3.2 Need for grid reinforcement
3.4.3 Role of wave power plants in secondary grid control
3.4.4 Role of wave power in unit commitment and spinning reserve
3.5.2 Non-technical requirements in grid codes
3.5.3 Grid codes as limiting factors in Wave Power development
Table F-24 Issues noted as important
474
Conclusion
Areas considered important in the transmission of power from wave plants are seen to
include
Power and size limits
Inrush current limits
Participation in grid voltage control
Data exchange
Feasibility Cage lengths and impact on power quality
AC/DC technology
Maintenance/reliability/cost levels of offshore electrical systems
Need for innovative grid connection systems
Roles for wave power in secondary grid control and operation
Grid codes (incl. their non-technical requirements) as limiting factors or as
vehicles of priority access for wave power
All remaining items were considered to be rather less important.
F 3.6.3 Recommendation
In view of the small size of the sample responding to the questionnaire, the authors must
express some doubt as to how representative it is can be considered and recommend that
this topic be reviewed by experts in this field .
F 3.7 General conclusions

It will be evident from the foregoing that cable systems require a standard of
engineering design equivalent to that applied to the converter, turbine, generator
or control system.
Within the scope of this task if has only been possible to provide an introduction
to the considerations that will apply to cable design for offshore wave power
installations.
Initial application experience is being gained in the offshore wind generation
sector and many of the developments there will be applicable to wave power.
The initial voltage levels will be at distribution rather that at transmission voltage
levels.
The main differences between offshore wind and wave applications relate to the
need to allow a suspended dynamic link between the floating wave converter and
the seabed whereas most early experience with offshore wind farms involves
static connections between tower bases and seabed cables.
To summarise, it is evident that as voltage and power levels rise the types of cable
required and their attendant support systems become more complex and
expensive.
A guideline list of standards produced by IEC and CIGRE that are relevant to
submarine cable systems associated with wave power generators has been
identified.
This has been correlated with equivalent national standard where these are known.
Special purpose industrial (e.g. for mining) flexible cables are produced by
individual makers and meet special tests and standards appropriate to the
particular industry or country of origin.
475
These have considerable promise for the flexible element of wave power
converter applications.
Further work is necessary to update cost relationships but this area in particular
should benefit from actual developments in the offshore wind farm industry.
The issues of permission requirements and safety precaution requirements are felt
to be reasonably clearly established but every effort should be made to minimise
the number of official and quasi official organisations involved and to avoid the
introduction of inappropriate regulations derived from areas that are
fundamentally dissimilar to wave power development.
The converter to shore link is an integral part of the overall conversion production
system design and must be deal with as such. Thus the transformers, rectifiers,
control and other systems that are physically outside the cable itself are critically
important to its performance.
F 3.8 General recommendations

Involve electrical engineering professionals with cabling expertise from the early
stages of wave power projects if setbacks and misunderstandings are to be
avoided.
Monitor ongoing developments and experience gained in the network connection
aspects of offshore wind farm developments insofar as they are relevant to wave
power.
Focus on the technology of medium voltage distribution type cabling initially in
preference to longer-term high voltage transmission type systems.
As offshore wind farm cabling systems are generally located fully on the seabed
the requirement for a flexible connection to the wave power converter is a
significant point of difference and attention can focus on special purpose
industrial cables as supplied by a number of manufacturers to meet this. Where
the distance to shore is relatively short this type of cable can be considered for the
whole distance.
As there is much to be learned about the most effective methods to be used for
cabling between converter and shoreline, comments are invited from other
network participants and interested persons in moving the process forward by
indicating shortcomings and potential solutions to issues raised here.
476
WaveNet G References
G References
G1 APPENDICES
A number of appendices containing additional supporting information have been

published in a separate document. These are listed below:
Appendix 1 3.2.1 Questionnaires on conflicts of interest
Appendix 2 3.2.2 Consultation
Appendix 3 3.2.3 Natural reserves and protected areas
Appendix 4 3.3.1 Questionnaire
Appendix 5 3.3.2 Information from Environmental Scoping Study, Orkney
Appendix 6 3.4.1 Conclusions made by ESBI concerning ways to improve the public
interest for wave power in Ireland
Appendix 7 3.4.2 Conclusions from an ETSU study regarding Cumulative Effects of

Wind TurbinesReport on Qualitative Public Attitude Research in Mid-
Wales
Appendix 8 3.5.1 Case studies representing specific wave power projects in Portugal,
UK and Denmark
Appendix 9 Connection of Generator to Distribution System-Technical Data to be

supplied by Applicant
Appendix 10 2.1.2 Requirements for connection of Generators to utility Distribution

Systems
Appendix 11 2.1.3 Definition of Terms used in the Draft Standard
Appendix 12 2.3.1 Power transmission questionnaire
Appendix 13 2.3.2 National Equivalents to I.E.C Standards listed
Appendix 14 Some examples of wave energy devices currently being developed
477
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Results from

It is particularly challenging to predict the output of wave energy devices in given

The environmental benefits discussed in the sections on environmental impact can be

The socio-economic benefits of ocean energy are discussed. The development of an

B 6.6 Power Take Off (PTO) modelling 125

C Research and development 129

C7 Research strategy and action plan 263

D Financing and economics 269

E Social, planning and environmental impact 305

E 4.3 National rules and regulations 341

F Cooperation with the power industry 378

Figure E-1 Development in ownership of wind farms in Denmark MW

Table F-5 Insulation levels ................................................................................394

Research and development of wave energy is underway in many EU countries,

A1 SOCIAL, PLANNING AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

The objectives were

A2 FINANCING AND ECONOMICS

There are a number of areas common to the development, for instance

Therefore, the main objectives are

A4 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

The objectives are

A5 COOPERATION WITH THE POWER INDUSTRY

The quantifiable objectives of the WaveNet is to produce

A6 PROMOTION OF WAVE ENERGY

More information about wave energy can be found at www.wave-energy.net.

Main Task Subtasks Related section

indicates main contact (Codes refer to table Table A-1)

Future Energy Solutions from Richard Boud

University College Cork, Tony Lewis

3 Rambll, Denmark Kim Neilsen A B, C

8 CRES, Greece George Lemonis F A, B

Ponte di Archimede nello

10 Edinburgh University, Scotland Stephen Salter D

13 ESB International, Ireland Pat McCullen A

Table A-2 WaveNet contributors

The objectives of Work Package 6 Generic Technologies, are to coordinate activities on

The five following areas were considered

B 1.1 Wave energy devices

A bottom-mounted near shore OWC with parabolic-shaped reflector to concentrate wave

Air turbine Valve

Figure B-1 Oscillating water column device

Figure B-2 Pendulor

B 1.1.2 Offshore devices

Figure B-3 Wave dragon

Figure B-4 Pelamis

Neutral Wave top Wave trough

Figure B-5 Archimedes Wave Swing

Production buoys with diameters from 3 to 4 m up to 10 to 12 m can be arranged in

B 1.1.3 Marine currents

Figure B-6 Seaflow

Figure B-7 ENERMAR

B2 WAVE ENERGY PLANT CONTROL AND POWER

Prepared by: Paulo Justino, INETI, Antnio Falco, IST

B 2.2 Plant control

The practical implementation of phase control is an important problem in wave energy

B 2.2.2 Optimisation of instantaneous plant performance

B 2.2.3 Equipment constraints

B 2.2.5 Start-up and close-down procedures

A series of routine procedures should be implemented in the PLC of the plant to

B 2.3 Review of wave power plant control and output prediction

B 2.3.2 Feedforward, feedback and feedback-feedforward algorithms

Other types of control algorithms can be regarded as feedback-feedforward strategies.

B 2.3.3 Optimisation of instantaneous plant performanceair valve control for

B 2.3.4 Rotational speed control