1 - Power System Fault Analysis - Intro and Symmetrical Faults

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE COLOMBIA
SEDE MANIZALES
1 - Fault Analysis:
Introduction and Symmetrical Faults
JORGE FERNANDO GUTIRREZ GMEZ

Anlisis De Sistemas De Potencia
Presentation Outine
Introduction to Fault Analysis
RL Circuit Analysis
Generator Modeling During Faults
Balanced Three-Phase Short Circuits
Systematic Fault Analysis Using Zbus
2
Anlisis De Sistemas de Potencia
Presentation Outine
RL Circuit Analysis
3
Introduction
Power System Fault Analysis:

The cause of electric power system faults is insulation
breakdown or compromise.
l This breakdown can be due to a variety of different

factors:
l Lightning ionizing air,
l Wires blowing together in the wind,
l Animals or plants coming in contact with the wires,
l Salt spray or pollution on insulators.
4
Introduction
Why to study faults?

Because fault currents could result in equipment
damage due to both thermal and mechanical
processes.
Goal of fault analysis is to determine the magnitudes
of the currents present during the fault:
There is a need to determine the maximum current
to ensure devices can survive the fault,

There is a need to determine the maximum current
the circuit breakers (CBs) need to interrupt to
correctly size the CBs.
5
Introduction
How this task will be accomplished?

By developing models to understand what happens
when a fault occurs:
We will focus on math but will not loose the
physical perspective.
First analyzing small power systems (few buses),
then, many buses.
6
Introduction
There are two main types of faults:
Symmetrical faults: system remains balanced; these
faults are relatively rare, but are the easiest to analyze so
well consider them first.
Three-phase balanced fault information is used to
select and set phase relays.

Unsymmetrical faults: system is no longer balanced; very
common, but more difficult to analyze.
The most common unsymmetrical faults are:
Single line-to-ground (SLG) which is used to select

ground relays.
Line-to-line faults (LL)
Double line-to-ground (DLG)
7
Introduction
In a typical power system the frequencies of fault
occurrence are:
Single line-to-ground (SLG), 70%
Line-to-line faults (LL) 15%,
Double line-to-ground (DLG) faults 10%,
Balanced three phase faults 5%.
8
Introduction
Lightning Strike Event Sequence:

1) Lighting hits line, setting up an ionized path to
ground a single typical stroke might have 30 kA, with
a rise time of 10 s, dissipated in 200 s.
Multiple strokes can occur in a single flash, causing
the lightning to appear to flicker, with the total

event lasting up to a second.
2) Conduction path is maintained by ionized air after
lightning stroke energy has dissipated, resulting in
high fault currents (often > 30 kA)
3) Within one to two cycles (16 ms) relays at both
ends of line detect high currents, signaling circuit
breakers to open the line:
Nearby locations see decreased voltages.
9
Introduction
Lightning Strike Event Sequence (cont.):

4) Circuit breakers open to de-energize line in an
additional one to two cycles:
Breaking tens of thousands of amps of fault current
is no small task!
5) With line removed voltages usually return to near
normal.
6) Circuit breakers may reclose after several seconds,
trying to restore faulted line to service.
10
Presentation Outine
RL Circuit Analysis
11
RL Circuit Analysis
To understand fault analysis we need to review the behavior of
an RL circuit:
E = VR + VL
di (t )
E = i (t ) R + L
dt
Two components response:

i (t ) = iN (t ) + iF (t ) natural response (in)
and forced response (if)
12
RL Circuit Analysis
RL circuit response:
The natural response: The natural response of a circuit refers
to the behavior (in terms of voltages and currents) of the
circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation
R
t
iN (t ) = K e L
t

iN (t ) = K e
The forced response or steady-state response: is the behavior

of the circuit a long time after an external excitation is applied.
E
if =
R
13
RL Circuit Analysis
The total response is:
t
E
i(t) = K e +
R
Constant K value can be obtained by replacing initial

condition values, in this case i(0)= 0
E t E
i(t) = e +
R R
14
RL Circuit Analysis
Transient duration depends on the time constant value .
If the circuit parameters are:

E= 10 V
R= 0,125
L= 10 mH
15
RL Circuit Analysis
Circuit time responses are shown in the following
plot:
Transient
magnitude
16
RL Circuit Analysis
The total response of the circuit is shown in the figure:
17
RL Circuit Analysis
If the circuit is excited by an a.c. source:
v(t ) = Vmax cos(t + )
18
RL Circuit Analysis
RL circuit a.c. response:
As in the previous case the response has two
components (natural (d.c. response) and forced (a.c.
response))
Natural response is the same as in the previous case
Forced response can be obtained easily by phasors
Vmax cos(t + )
iF (t ) =
R 2 + ( L ) 2
L
Where = arctan( )
R
19
RL Circuit Analysis
A.C. response RL circuit:
Total response is:
t
Vmax cos(t + )
i (t ) = K e +
R 2 + ( L ) 2
Again, K value must be found using initial

conditions:
t
Vmax cos( ) Vmax cos(t + )
i (t ) = e +
2 2
R + ( L ) R 2 + ( L ) 2
20
RL Circuit Analysis
If circuit parameters are:

Vmax= 220*2 V
= 30
R= 0,125
L= 10 mH
Industrial frequency is 60 Hz
21
RL Circuit Analysis
Natural and forced response
A.C.
component
Transient
D.C.
Magnitude component
when =30
22
RL Circuit Analysis
Total response:
23
RL Circuit Analysis
RL Circuit:
24
RL Circuit Analysis
Hence i (t) is a sinusoidal superimposed on a decaying dc
current.
The magnitude of i dc(0) depends on when the switch is closed.
For fault analysis we're just concerned with the worst case.
Highest DC current occurs for:
= ,
i (t ) = iac (t ) + idc (t )
2V 2 V t
i (t ) = cos(t ) + e
Z Z
2V t
= (cos(t ) + e )
Z
25
Anlisis De Sistemas de Potencia 25
RL Circuit Analysis
The interrupting capability of a circuit breaker is specified in

terms of the RMS current it can interrupt.
But the function i(t) is not a periodic one so we can't formally
define an RMS value:
2V t
i (t ) = (cos(t ) + e )
Z
However, if >> t then we can approximate the current as a
sinusoid plus a time-invarying dc offset.
26
RL Circuit Analysis
The RMS value of such a current is equal to the square root of
the sum of the squares of the individual RMS values of the two
current components.
2 2
I RMS = I ac + I dc ,
V 2 V t t
where I ac = , I dc = e = 2I ace ,
Z Z
2t
2 2
= I ac + 2 I ac e
This function has a maximum value of 3 Iac . Therefore

the worst case effect of the dc component is included
simply by multiplying the a.c. fault currents by 3
27
RL Circuit Analysis
In the last slides it could be seen that the longer the , the
more critical the condition because the overcurrent last
longer. = L/R.
Time constant depends on system x/R ratio; @60Hz:

For 735 kV: 18,9 < (x/R) < 20,4
For 500 kV: 13,6 < (x/R) < 16,5
For 115 kV: 3,0 < (x/R) < 10,0
For distribution systems can be consider that:
2 < (x/R) <4
28
Presentation Outine
RL Circuit Analysis
29
l During a fault the only devices that can contribute fault
current are those with energy storage.
l Thus the models of generators (and other rotating
machines) are very important since they contribute the
bulk of the fault current.
l Generators can be approximated as a constant voltage
behind a time-varying reactance:
'
Ea
Overbye T. & Baldick R.- 2012
30
Saadat H.- 2010
31
The path of the armature flux in:
(a) the subtransient state (screening effect of the
damper winding and the field winding);
(b) the transient state (screening effect of the field
winding only);
(c) the steady state.
Machowski J.- 2008
32
Salient pole synchronous machine direct axis and

quadrature axis steady state inductances/reactances:
33
Salient pole synchronous machine direct axis and

quadrature axis transient inductances/reactances:
34
Salient-pole synchronous machine direct axis and

quadrature axis subtransient inductances/reactances:
35
The ac fault current in a synchronous machine can be

modeled by the series RL circuit if a time-varying
inductance L(t) or reactance X(t) is employed.
In standard machine theory texts, the following

reactances are defined:
Xd : direct axis subtransient reactance
Xd : direct axis transient reactance
Xd : direct axis synchronous reactance
Where Xd <Xd < Xd
36
Bergen A. - 1999
37
38
Xd
Xd
Xd
Glover and alt. - 2011
39
Using the above direct axis reactances, the instantaneous a.c.

fault current can be written as:
1 1 t t
' 1 d' 1 1 d"
iac (t ) = 2Ea + ' e + " ' e sin(t + )
X d X d X d X d X d
where:
d" = direct-axis subtransient time constant ( 0,035 s)
d' = direct-axis transient time constant ( 1 s)
40
The phasor of fault current can be written as:
1 1 t t "
1 d' 1 1
I ac = Ea' + ' e + " ' e d

X d X d X d X d X d
The maximum d.c. offset current is:
2 Ea' t A
I DC (t ) = "
e
Xd
Where: A is the armature time constant (A 0,2 s)
41
Exercise
l A 500 MVA, 20 kV, 3 generator is operated with an
internal voltage of 1,05 pu. A solid 3 fault occurs on the
generator's terminal and the circuit breaker operates after
three cycles. Determine the fault current.
l Assume that generator parameters are the following:
X d" = 0,15; X d' = 0,24; X d = 1,1 (all per unit)

d" = 0,035 s; d' = 2,0 s
A = 0,2 s
42
Presentation Outine
RL Circuit Analysis
43
To simplify analysis of fault currents in networks we'll

make several simplifications:
Transmission lines are represented by their series
reactance.
Transformers are represented by their leakage
reactances.
Synchronous machines are modeled as a constant
voltage behind direct-axis subtransient reactance
Induction motors are ignored or treated as
synchronous machines.
Other (non-spinning) loads are ignored.
44
Circuit models used during the fault allow the network to

be represented as a linear circuit
There are two main methods for solving for fault currents:
Direct method: Use pre-fault conditions to solve for
the internal machine voltages; then apply fault and
solve directly.
Superposition: fault is represented by two opposing
voltage sources; solve system by superposition:
first voltage just represents the pre-fault operating
point
second system only has a single voltage source.
45
Example I
In the following network assume a fault on the terminal of
the generator; all data is per unit except for the
transmission line reactance. The generator has 1,05
terminal voltage and supplies 100 MVA with 0,95 lagging
power factor. Consider that a three-phase short circuit
occurs at bus 1 and determine the subtransient fault
current.
46
Example I
Solution using superposition method:
47
Example I
Fault is represented by two equal

and opposite voltage sources,
each with a magnitude equal to
the pre-fault voltage
48
Example I
49
Example I
50
3 terminal arrangements commonly used in power

systems:
Wye or T connection Delta or connection
51
To transform a Delta connection into a Wye connection:
1=/++
2=/++
3=/++
52
To transform a Wye connection into a Delta connection:
=12+13+23/2
=12+13+23/3
=12+13+23/1
53
Exercise
The one-line diagram of a simple three bus power system
is shown. All impedances are expressed in pu on a
common 100 MVA base., and resistances are neglected.
The following assumptions are made:
Shunt capacitances are neglected and the system is
considered on no-load.
All generators are running at their rated voltage and
rated frequency with their fems in phase.
Determine the fault current, bus voltages, and line
currents during the fault when a balanced three-phase
fault with a fault impedance Zf = 0,16 pu occurs on:
Bus 3
Bus 2
Bus 1 Saadat H. - 2011
54
Exercise
The impedance inductance diagram:
Saadat H. - 2011
55
Presentation Outine
RL Circuit Analysis
56
The power system is assumed balanced:
Transmission lines represented by their equivalent model.
Each machine is represented by a constant voltage source

behind proper reactances.
A balanced three-fault is to be applied at bus k through a fault
impedance Zf.
The prefault voltages are obtained from a power flow solution.
Saadat H. - 2011
57
Thevenins circuit of a power system with a balanced fault
at k bus:
Note that current at faulted bus is leaving the bus.
Saadat H. - 2011
58
Systematic Fault Analysis Using Zbus - Exercise
The bus impedance matrix of a faulted system (using

subsynchronous reactances) is shown:
j[0,4&0,1&0,3@0,1&0,8&0,5@0,3&0,5&1,2]
Compute the subsynchronous current when a balanced

three-phase fault occurs at bus 2 and the system voltages
(pre-fault voltages are 1,0 pu)
59
Systematic Fault Analysis Using Zbus - Example
A three-phase fault with a fault impedance Zf= j0,10 pu
occurs at bus 3 in the network shown. Using the bus
impedance matrix method, compute the fault current, the
bus voltages, and the line currents during the fault.
Saadat H. - 2011
60
References
[1] Glover J., Sarma M. and Overbye T., Power System Analysis and Design. Fifth
Edition. Cengage. 2011.
[2] Gmez A., Sistemas Elctricos de Potencia: Problemas y Ejercicios Resueltos.
Prentice Hall 2003.
[3] Gmez-Exposito A. et al., Electric Energy Systems: Analysis And Operation.
Taylor & Francis Group, 2009.
[4] Bergen A. and Vittal V., Power Systems Analysis. Second Edition. Prentice
Hall. 2000.
[5] Saadat H., Power System Analysis. Third Edition, PSA Publishing 2010.
[6] Overbye T. and Baldick R. EE 369 Power System Analysis: Lecture 18 Fault
Analysis, 2012. Available at: http://users.ece.utexas.edu/~baldick/classes/369/
Lecture_18.ppt
[7] Conejo A. J., Anlisis de Sistemas Elctricos de Potencia Universidad de
Castilla La Mancha Course slides available at:
http://www.uclm.es/area/gsee/Archivos%20Pag-web/docencia/aelect/
03_BalancedFaultAnalysis_R3.pdf
[8] Machowski J., Power System Dynamics Stability and Control. Second
Edition, Jhon Wyley, 2008.
61
62
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE COLOMBIA

JORGE FERNANDO GUTIRREZ GMEZ

Introduction to Fault Analysis

Generator Modeling During Faults

Balanced Three-Phase Short Circuits

Systematic Fault Analysis Using Zbus

Introduction to Fault Analysis

Generator Modeling During Faults

Balanced Three-Phase Short Circuits

Systematic Fault Analysis Using Zbus

Power System Fault Analysis:

l This breakdown can be due to a variety of different

l Wires blowing together in the wind,

l Animals or plants coming in contact with the wires,

l Salt spray or pollution on insulators.

Why to study faults?

to ensure devices can survive the fault,

How this task will be accomplished?

then, many buses.

select and set phase relays.

Single line-to-ground (SLG) which is used to select

Line-to-line faults (LL) 15%,

Double line-to-ground (DLG) faults 10%,

Balanced three phase faults 5%.

Lightning Strike Event Sequence:

the lightning to appear to flicker, with the total

Lightning Strike Event Sequence (cont.):

Introduction to Fault Analysis

Generator Modeling During Faults

Balanced Three-Phase Short Circuits

Systematic Fault Analysis Using Zbus

Two components response:

The forced response or steady-state response: is the behavior

Constant K value can be obtained by replacing initial

Transient duration depends on the time constant value .

If the circuit parameters are:

v(t ) = Vmax cos(t + )

Forced response can be obtained easily by phasors

Again, K value must be found using initial

If circuit parameters are:

Natural and forced response

The interrupting capability of a circuit breaker is specified in

This function has a maximum value of 3 Iac . Therefore

Time constant depends on system x/R ratio; @60Hz:

For 500 kV: 13,6 < (x/R) < 16,5

For 115 kV: 3,0 < (x/R) < 10,0

For distribution systems can be consider that:

2 < (x/R) <4

Introduction to Fault Analysis

Generator Modeling During Faults

Balanced Three-Phase Short Circuits

Systematic Fault Analysis Using Zbus

Saadat H.- 2010

Machowski J.- 2008

Salient pole synchronous machine direct axis and

Salient pole synchronous machine direct axis and

Salient-pole synchronous machine direct axis and

The ac fault current in a synchronous machine can be

In standard machine theory texts, the following

Xd : direct axis transient reactance

Xd : direct axis synchronous reactance

Where Xd <Xd < Xd

Glover and alt. - 2011